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Title: The Story of the Greeks
Author: Guerber, H. A. (Hélène Adeline), 1859-1929
Language: English
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*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Story of the Greeks" ***
Eclectic School Readings
THE STORY OF THE GREEKS
by
H. A. GUERBER
[Illustration]
New York ·:· Cincinnati ·:· Chicago
American Book Company
Copyright, 1896, by
American Book Company.
STORY OF THE GREEKS.
W.P. 15
[Illustration: Theseus and the Minotaur.
_Frontispiece_]
DEDICATED
TO
ARNOLD, HELEN, AND EDWARD
PREFACE.
This elementary history of Greece is intended for supplementary reading
or as a first history text-book for young pupils. It is therefore made
up principally of stories about persons; for, while history proper is
largely beyond the comprehension of children, they are able at an early
age to understand and enjoy anecdotes of people, especially of those in
the childhood of civilization. At the same time, these stories will give
a clear idea of the most important events that have taken place in the
ancient world, and, it is hoped, will arouse a desire to read further.
They also aim to enforce the lessons of perseverance, courage,
patriotism, and virtue that are taught by the noble lives described.
A knowledge of ancient history, however superficial, is of very great
value; and the classic legends are almost equally worth knowing, because
of the prominent part they play in the world's literature. These tales
make a deep impression on the minds of children, and the history thus
learned almost in play will cling to the memory far more tenaciously
than any lessons subsequently conned.
Many children leave school unacquainted with any history except that of
the United States; which, dealing with less simple and primitive times
than that of Greece, is apt to be so unattractive that the child never
afterwards reads any historical works. It has been my intention to write
a book which will give children pleasure to read, and will thus
counteract the impression that history is uninteresting.
A few suggestions to teachers may not be considered superfluous. In the
first place, I have found historical anecdotes an excellent aid in
teaching English. Pupils find it far from irksome to relate the stories
in their own words, and to reproduce them in compositions. Secondly,
whenever a city or country is mentioned, every pupil should point out
its location on the map. By such means only can any one properly
understand an historical narrative; and in the present case there is the
added reason that the practice will go far towards increasing the
child's interest in geography. Lastly, the teacher should take great
care that the proper names are correctly pronounced. The most common
errors are provided against in the text; for, on the first occurrence of
such a word, it is divided into syllables, with the accent marked. It
remains for the teacher to enforce the ordinary rules as to the proper
sounds of vowels and consonants.
H.A.G.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Map _between 10 and 11_
I. Early Inhabitants of Greece 11
II. The Deluge of Ogyges 13
III. The Founding of Many Important Cities 15
IV. Story of Deucalion 19
V. Story of Dædalus and Icarus 21
VI. The Adventures of Jason 24
VII. Theseus visits the Labyrinth 26
VIII. The Terrible Prophecy 29
IX. The Sphinx's Riddle 30
X. Blindness and Death of OEdipus 34
XI. The Brothers' Quarrel 37
XII. The Taking of Thebes 39
XIII. The Childhood of Paris 41
XIV. The Muster of the Troops 44
XV. The Sacrifice of Iphigenia 46
XVI. The Wrath of Achilles 48
XVII. Death of Hector and Achilles 50
XVIII. The Burning of Troy 52
XIX. Heroic Death of Codrus 55
XX. The Blind Poet 57
XXI. The Rise of Sparta 61
XXII. The Spartan Training 62
XXIII. The Brave Spartan Boy 64
XXIV. Public Tables in Sparta 67
XXV. Laws of Lycurgus 69
XXVI. The Messenian War 71
XXVII. The Music of Tyrtæus 73
XXVIII. Aristomenes' Escape 76
XXIX. The Olympic Games 77
XXX. Milo of Croton 81
XXXI. The Jealous Athlete 83
XXXII. The Girls' Games 84
XXXIII. The Bloody Laws of Draco 86
XXXIV. The Laws of Solon 89
XXXV. The First Plays 92
XXXVI. The Tyrant Pisistratus 95
XXXVII. The Tyrant's Insult 97
XXXVIII. Death of the Conspirators 99
XXXIX. Hippias driven out of Athens 100
XL. The Great King 104
XLI. Hippias visits Darius 105
XLII. Destruction of the Persian Host 108
XLIII. The Advance of the Second Host 110
XLIV. The Battle of Marathon 113
XLV. Miltiades' Disgrace 115
XLVI. Aristides the Just 117
XLVII. Two Noble Spartan Youths 119
XLVIII. The Great Army 121
XLIX. Preparations for Defense 124
L. Leonidas at Thermopylæ 127
LI. Death of Leonidas 128
LII. The Burning of Athens 131
LIII. The Battles of Salamis and Platæa 133
LIV. The Rebuilding of Athens 136
LV. Death of Pausanias 138
LVI. Cimon improves Athens 141
LVII. The Earthquake 143
LVIII. The Age of Pericles 146
LIX. The Teachings of Anaxagoras 151
LX. Beginning of the Peloponnesian War 152
LXI. Death of Pericles 155
LXII. The Philosopher Socrates 157
LXIII. Socrates' Favorite Pupil 159
LXIV. Youth of Alcibiades 163
LXV. Greek Colonies in Italy 165
LXVI. Alcibiades in Disgrace 167
LXVII. Death of Alcibiades 169
LXVIII. The Overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants 171
LXIX. Accusation of Socrates 173
LXX. Death of Socrates 175
LXXI. The Defeat of Cyrus 180
LXXII. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand 182
LXXIII. Agesilaus in Asia 185
LXXIV. A Strange Interview 186
LXXV. The Peace of Antalcidas 189
LXXVI. The Theban Friends 190
LXXVII. Thebes Free once more 192
LXXVIII. The Battle of Leuctra 195
LXXIX. Death of Pelopidas 197
LXXX. The Battle of Mantinea 199
XXXI. The Tyrant of Syracuse 201
XXXII. Story of Damon and Pythias 204
XXXIII. The Sword of Damocles 208
XXXIV. Dion and Dionysius 210
XXXV. Civil War in Syracuse 212
XXXVI. Death of Dion 214
XXXVII. Philip of Macedon 217
XXXVIII. Philip begins his Conquests 219
XXXIX. The Orator Demosthenes 221
XC. Philip masters Greece 224
XCI. Birth of Alexander 227
XCII. The Steed Bucephalus 229
XCIII. Alexander as King 232
XCIV. Alexander and Diogenes 234
XCV. Alexander's Brilliant Beginning 236
XCVI. The Gordian Knot 238
XCVII. Alexander's Royal Captives 241
CVIII. Alexander at Jerusalem 242
XCIX. The African Desert 244
C. Death of Darius 247
CI. Defeat of Porus 249
CII. The Return to Babylon 251
CIII. Death of Alexander the Great 252
CIV. The Division of the Realm 255
CV. Death of Demosthenes 257
CVI. The Last of the Athenians 260
CVII. The Colossus of Rhodes 262
CVIII. The Battle of Ipsus 265
CIX. Demetrius and the Athenians 266
CX. The Achæan League 268
CXI. Division in Sparta 270
CXII. Death of Agis 274
CXIII. The War of the Two Leagues 276
CXIV. The Last of the Greeks 278
CXV. Greece a Roman Province 280
INDEX 283
[Illustration]
THE STORY OF THE GREEKS.
I. EARLY INHABITANTS OF GREECE.
Although Greece (or Hel´las) is only half as large as the State of New
York, it holds a very important place in the history of the world. It is
situated in the southern part of Europe, cut off from the rest of the
continent by a chain of high mountains which form a great wall on the
north. It is surrounded on nearly all sides by the blue waters of the
Med-it-er-ra´ne-an Sea, which stretch so far inland that it is said no
part of the country is forty miles from the sea, or ten miles from the
hills. Thus shut in by sea and mountains, it forms a little territory by
itself, and it was the home of a noted people.
The history of Greece goes back to the time when people did not know how
to write, and kept no record of what was happening around them. For a
long while the stories told by parents to their children were the only
information which could be had about the country and its former
inhabitants; and these stories, slightly changed by every new teller,
grew more and more extraordinary as time passed. At last they were so
changed that no one could tell where the truth ended and fancy began.
The beginning of Greek history is therefore like a fairy tale; and while
much of it cannot, of course, be true, it is the only information we
have about the early Greeks. It is these strange fireside stories, which
used to amuse Greek children so many years ago, that you are first going
to hear.
About two thousand years before the birth of Christ, in the days when
Isaac wanted to go down into Egypt, Greece was inhabited by a savage
race of men called the Pe-las´gi-ans. They lived in the forests, or in
caves hollowed out of the mountain side, and hunted wild beasts with
great clubs and stone-tipped arrows and spears. They were so rude and
wild that they ate nothing but raw meat, berries, and the roots which
they dug up with sharp stones or even with their hands.
For clothing, the Pelasgians used the skins of the beasts they had
killed; and to protect themselves against other savages, they gathered
together in families or tribes, each having a chief who led in war and
in the chase.
There were other far more civilized nations in those days. Among these
were the E-gyp´tians, who lived in Africa. They had long known the use
of fire, had good tools, and were much further advanced than the
Pelasgians. They had learned not only to build houses, but to erect the
most wonderful monuments in the world,--the Pyr´a-mids, of which you
have no doubt heard.
In Egypt there were at that time a number of learned men. They were
acquainted with many of the arts and sciences, and recorded all they
knew in a peculiar writing of their own invention. Their neighbors, the
Phoe-ni´-cians, whose land also bordered on the Mediterranean Sea,
were quite civilized too; and as both of these nations had ships, they
soon began to sail all around that great inland sea.
As they had no compass, the Egyptian and Phoenician sailors did not
venture out of sight of land. They first sailed along the shore, and
then to the islands which they could see far out on the blue waters.
When they had come to one island, they could see another still farther
on; for, as you will see on any map, the Mediterranean Sea, between
Greece and Asia, is dotted with islands, which look like stepping-stones
going from one coast to the other.
Advancing thus carefully, the Egyptians and Phoenicians finally came
to Greece, where they made settlements, and began to teach the
Pelasgians many useful and important things.
II. THE DELUGE OF OGYGES.
The first Egyptian who thus settled in Greece was a prince called
In´a-chus. Landing in that country, which has a most delightful climate,
he taught the Pelasgians how to make fire and how to cook their meat. He
also showed them how to build comfortable homes by piling up stones one
on top of another, much in the same way as the farmer makes the stone
walls around his fields.
The Pelasgians were intelligent, although so uncivilized; and they soon
learned to build these walls higher, in order to keep the wild beasts
away from their homes. Then, when they had learned the use of bronze and
iron tools, they cut the stones into huge blocks of regular shape.
These stone blocks were piled one upon another so cleverly that some of
the walls are still standing, although no mortar was used to hold the
stones together. Such was the strength of the Pelasgians, that they
raised huge blocks to great heights, and made walls which their
descendants declared must have been built by giants.
As the Greeks called their giants Cy´clops, which means "round-eyed,"
they soon called these walls Cy-clo-pe´an; and, in pointing them out to
their children, they told strange tales of the great giants who had
built them, and always added that these huge builders had but one eye,
which was in the middle of the forehead.
Some time after Inachus the Egyptian had thus taught the Pelasgians the
art of building, and had founded a city called Ar´gos, there came a
terrible earthquake. The ground under the people's feet heaved and
cracked, the mountains shook, the waters flooded the dry land, and the
people fled in terror to the hills.
In spite of the speed with which they ran, the waters soon overtook
them. Many of the Pelasgians were thus drowned, while their terrified
companions ran faster and faster up the mountain, nor stopped to rest
until they were quite safe.
Looking down upon the plains where they had once lived, they saw them
all covered with water. They were now forced to build new homes; but
when the waters little by little sank into the ground, or flowed back
into the sea, they were very glad to find that some of their thickest
walls had resisted the earthquake and flood, and were still standing
firm.
The memory of the earthquake and flood was very clear, however. The poor
Pelasgians could not forget their terror and the sudden death of so many
friends, and they often talked about that horrible time. As this flood
occurred in the days when Og´y-ges was king, it has generally been
linked to his name, and called the Deluge (or flood) of Ogyges.
III. THE FOUNDING OF MANY IMPORTANT CITIES.
Some time after Inachus had built Argos, another Egyptian prince came to
settle in Greece. His name was Ce´crops, and, as he came to Greece after
the Deluge of Ogyges, he found very few inhabitants left. He landed, and
decided to build a city on a promontory northeast of Argos. Then he
invited all the Pelasgians who had not been drowned in the flood to join
him.
The Pelasgians, glad to find such a wise leader, gathered around him,
and they soon learned to plow the fields and to sow wheat. Under
Cecrops' orders they also planted olive trees and vines, and learned how
to press the oil from the olives and the wine from the grapes. Cecrops
taught them how to harness their oxen; and before long the women began
to spin the wool of their sheep, and to weave it into rough woolen
garments, which were used for clothing, instead of the skins of wild
beasts.
After building several small towns in At´ti-ca, Cecrops founded a larger
one, which was at first called Ce-cro´pi-a in honor of himself. This
name, however, was soon changed to Ath´ens to please A-the´ne (or
Mi-ner´va), a goddess whom the people worshiped, and who was said to
watch over the welfare of this her favorite city.
[Illustration: Athene.]
When Cecrops died, he was followed by other princes, who continued
teaching the people many useful things, such as the training and
harnessing of horses, the building of carts, and the proper way of
harvesting grain. One prince even showed them how to make beehives, and
how to use the honey as an article of food.
As the mountain sides in Greece are covered with a carpet of wild,
sweet-smelling herbs and flowers, the Greek honey is very good; and
people say that the best honey in the world is made by the bees on Mount
Hy-met´tus, near Athens, where they gather their golden store all summer
long.
Shortly after the building of Athens, a Phoenician colony, led by
Cad´mus, settled a neighboring part of the country, called Boe-o´tia,
where they founded the city which was later known as Thebes. Cadmus also
taught the people many useful things, among others the art of trade (or
commerce) and that of navigation (the building and using of ships); but,
best of all, he brought the alphabet to Greece, and showed the people
how to express their thoughts in writing.
Almost at the same time that Cadmus founded Thebes, an Egyptian called
Dan´a-us came to Greece, and settled a colony on the same spot where
that of Inachus had once been. The new Argos rose on the same place as
the old; and the country around it, called Ar´go-lis, was separated from
Boeotia and Attica only by a long narrow strip of land, which was
known as the Isthmus of Cor´-inth.
Danaus not only showed the Pelasgians all the useful arts which Cadmus
and Cecrops had taught, but also helped them to build ships like that in
which he had come to Greece. He also founded religious festivals or
games in honor of the harvest goddess, De-me´ter. The women were invited
to these games, and they only were allowed to bear torches in the public
processions, where they sang hymns in honor of the goddess.
The descendants of Danaus long ruled over the land; and one member of
his family, Per´seus, built the town of My-ce´næ on a spot where many
of the Pelasgian stone walls can still be seen.
The Pelasgians who joined this young hero helped him to build great
walls all around his town. These were provided with massive gateways and
tall towers, from which the soldiers could overlook the whole country,
and see the approach of an enemy from afar.
[Illustration: The Lion Gate, Mycenæ.]
This same people built tombs for some of the ancient kings, and many
treasure and store houses. These buildings, buried under earth and
rubbish, were uncovered a few years ago. In the tombs were found swords,
spears, and remains of ancient armor, gold ornaments, ancient pieces of
pottery, human bones, and, strangest of all, thin masks of pure gold,
which covered the faces of some of the dead.
Thus you see, the Pelasgians little by little joined the new colonies
which came to take possession of the land, and founded little states or
countries of their own, each governed by its own king, and obeying its
own laws.
IV. STORY OF DEUCALION.
The Greeks used to tell their children that Deu-ca´li-on, the leader of
the Thes-sa´li-ans, was a descendant of the gods, for each part of the
country claimed that its first great man was the son of a god. It was
under the reign of Deucalion that another flood took place. This was
even more terrible than that of Ogyges; and all the people of the
neighborhood fled in haste to the high mountains north of Thes´sa-ly,
where they were kindly received by Deucalion.
When all danger was over, and the waters began to recede, they followed
their leader down into the plains again. This soon gave rise to a
wonderful story, which you will often hear. It was said that Deucalion
and his wife Pyr´rha were the only people left alive after the flood.
When the waters had all gone, they went down the mountain, and found
that the temple at Del´phi, where they worshiped their gods, was still
standing unharmed. They entered, and, kneeling before the altar, prayed
for help.
A mysterious voice then bade them go down the mountain, throwing their
mother's bones behind them. They were very much troubled when they heard
this, until Deucalion said that a voice from heaven could not have
meant them to do any harm. In thinking over the real meaning of the
words he had heard, he told his wife, that, as the Earth is the mother
of all creatures, her bones must mean the stones.
Deucalion and Pyrrha, therefore, went slowly down the mountain, throwing
the stones behind them. The Greeks used to tell that a sturdy race of
men sprang up from the stones cast by Deucalion, while beautiful women
came from those cast by Pyrrha.
The country was soon peopled by the children of these men, who always
proudly declared that the story was true, and that they sprang from the
race which owed its birth to this great miracle. Deucalion reigned over
this people as long as he lived; and when he died, his two sons,
Am-phic´ty-on and Hel´len, became kings in his stead. The former staid
in Thessaly; and, hearing that some barbarians called Thra´cians were
about to come over the mountains and drive his people away, he called
the chiefs of all the different states to a council, to ask their advice
about the best means of defense. All the chiefs obeyed the summons, and
met at a place in Thessaly where the mountains approach the sea so
closely as to leave but a narrow pass between. In the pass are hot
springs, and so it was called Ther-mop´y-læ, or the Hot Gateway.
The chiefs thus gathered together called this assembly the
Am-phic-ty-on´ic Council, in honor of Amphictyon. After making plans to
drive back the Thracians, they decided to meet once a year, either at
Thermopylæ or at the temple at Delphi, to talk over all important
matters.
V. STORY OF DÆDALUS AND ICARUS.
Hellen, Deucalion's second son, finding Thessaly too small to give homes
to all the people, went southward with a band of hardy followers, and
settled in another part of the country which we call Greece, but which
was then, in honor of him, called Hellas, while his people were called
Hel-le´nes, or subjects of Hellen.
When Hellen died, he left his kingdom to his three sons, Do´rus,
Æ´o-lus, and Xu´thus. Instead of dividing their father's lands fairly,
the eldest two sons quarreled with the youngest, and finally drove him
away. Homeless and poor, Xuthus now went to Athens, where he was warmly
welcomed by the king, who not only treated him very kindly, but also
gave him his daughter in marriage, and promised that he should inherit
the throne.
This promise was duly kept, and Xuthus the exile ruled over Athens. When
he died, he left the crown to his sons, I´on and A-chæ´us.
As the A-the´ni-ans had gradually increased in number until their
territory was too small to afford a living to all the inhabitants, Ion
and Achæus, even in their father's lifetime, led some of their followers
along the Isthmus of Corinth, and down into the peninsula, where they
founded two flourishing states, called, after them, A-cha´ia and
I-o´ni-a. Thus, while northern Greece was pretty equally divided between
the Do´ri-ans and Æ-o´li-ans, descendants and subjects of Dorus and
Æolus, the peninsula was almost entirely in the hands of the I-o´ni-ans
and A-chæ´ans, who built towns, cultivated the soil, and became bold
navigators. They ventured farther and farther out at sea, until they
were familiar with all the neighboring bays and islands.
Sailing thus from place to place, the Hellenes came at last to Crete, a
large island south of Greece. This island was then governed by a very
wise king called Mi´nos. The laws of this monarch were so just that all
the Greeks admired them very much. When he died, they even declared that
the gods had called him away to judge the dead in Ha´des, and to decide
what punishments and rewards the spirits deserved.
Although Minos was very wise, he had a subject named Dæd´a-lus who was
even wiser than he. This man not only invented the saw and the potter's
wheel, but also taught the people how to rig sails for their vessels.
As nothing but oars and paddles had hitherto been used to propel ships,
this last invention seemed very wonderful; and, to compliment Dædalus,
the people declared that he had given their vessels wings, and had thus
enabled them to fly over the seas.
Many years after, when sails were so common that they ceased to excite
any wonder, the people, forgetting that these were the wings which
Dædalus had made, invented a wonderful story, which runs as follows.
Minos, King of Crete, once sent for Dædalus, and bade him build a maze,
or labyrinth, with so many rooms and winding halls, that no one, once in
it, could ever find his way out again.
Dædalus set to work and built a maze so intricate that neither he nor
his son Ic´a-rus, who was with him, could get out. Not willing to
remain there a prisoner, Dædalus soon contrived a means of escape.
[Illustration: Dædalus and Icarus.]
He and Icarus first gathered together a large quantity of feathers, out
of which Dædalus cleverly made two pairs of wings. When these were
fastened to their shoulders by means of wax, father and son rose up like
birds and flew away. In spite of his father's cautions, Icarus rose
higher and higher, until the heat of the sun melted the wax, so that his
wings dropped off, and he fell into the sea and was drowned. His father,
more prudent than he, flew low, and reached Greece in safety. There he
went on inventing useful things, often gazing out sadly over the waters
in which Icarus had perished, and which, in honor of the drowned youth,
were long known as the I-ca´ri-an Sea.
VI. THE ADVENTURES OF JASON.
The Hellenes had not long been masters of all Greece, when a Phryg´i-an
called Pe´lops became master of the peninsula, which from him received
the name of Pel-o-pon-ne´sus. He first taught the people to coin money;
and his descendants, the Pe-lop´i-dæ, took possession of all the land
around them, with the exception of Argolis, where the Da-na´i-des
continued to reign.
Some of the Ionians and Achæans, driven away from their homes by the
Pelopidæ, went on board their many vessels, and sailed away. They formed
Hel-len´ic colonies in the neighboring islands along the coast of Asia
Minor, and even in the southern part of Italy.
As some parts of Greece were very thinly settled, and as the people
clustered around the towns where their rulers dwelt, there were wide,
desolate tracts of land between them. Here were many wild beasts and
robbers, who lay in wait for travelers on their way from one settlement
to another. The robbers, who hid in the forests or mountains, were
generally feared and disliked, until at last some brave young warriors
made up their minds to fight against them and to kill them all. These
young men were so brave that they well deserved the name of heroes,
which has always been given them; and they met with many adventures
about which the people loved to hear. Long after they had gone, the
inhabitants, remembering their relief when the robbers were killed,
taught their children to honor these brave young men almost as much as
the gods, and they called the time when they lived the Heroic Age.
Not satisfied with freeing their own country from wild men and beasts,
the heroes wandered far away from home in search of further adventures.
These have also been told over and over again to children of all
countries and ages, until every one is expected to know something about
them. Fifty of these heroes, for instance, went on board of a small
vessel called the "Argo," sailed across the well-known waters, and
ventured boldly into unknown seas. They were in search of a Golden
Fleece, which they were told they would find in Col´chis, where it was
said to be guarded by a great dragon.
The leader of these fifty adventurers was Ja´son, an Æolian prince, who
brought them safely to Colchis, whence, as the old stories relate, they
brought back the Golden Fleece. They also brought home the king's
daughter, who married Jason, and ruled his kingdom with him. Of course,
as there was no such thing as a Golden Fleece, the Greeks merely used
this expression to tell about the wealth which they got in the East, and
carried home with them; for the voyage of the "Argo" was in reality the
first distant commercial journey undertaken by the Greeks.
VII. THESEUS VISITS THE LABYRINTH.
On coming back from the quest for the Golden Fleece, the heroes returned
to their own homes, where they continued their efforts to make their
people happy.
The´seus, one of the heroes, returned to Athens, and founded a yearly
festival in honor of the goddess Athene. This festival was called
Pan-ath-e-næ´a, which means "all the worshipers of Athene." It proved a
great success, and was a bond of union among the people, who thus
learned each other's customs and manners, and grew more friendly than if
they had always staid at home. Theseus is one of the best-known among
all the Greek heroes. Besides going with Jason in the "Argo," he rid his
country of many robbers, and sailed to Crete. There he visited Minos,
the king, who, having some time before conquered the Athenians, forced
them to send him every year a shipload of youths and maidens, to feed
to a monster which he kept in the Labyrinth.
To free his country from this tribute, Theseus, of his own free will,
went on board the ship. When he reached Crete, he went first into the
Labyrinth, and killed the monster with his sword. Then he found his way
out of the maze by means of a long thread which the king's daughter had
given him. One end of it he carried with him as he entered, while the
other end was fastened to the door.
His old father, Ægeus, who had allowed him to go only after much
persuasion, had told him to change the black sails of his vessel for
white if he were lucky enough to escape. Theseus promised to do so, but
he entirely forgot it in the joy of his return.
Ægeus, watching for the vessel day after day, saw it coming back at
last; and when the sunlight fell upon the black sails, he felt sure that
his son was dead.
His grief was so great at this loss, that he fell from the rock where he
was standing down into the sea, and was drowned. In memory of him, the
body of water near the rock is still known as the Æ-ge´an Sea.
When Theseus reached Athens, and heard of his father's grief and sudden
death, his heart was filled with sorrow and remorse, and he loudly
bewailed the carelessness which had cost his father's life.
Theseus now became King of Athens, and ruled his people very wisely for
many years. He took part in many adventures and battles, lost two wives
and a beloved son, and in his grief and old age became so cross and
harsh that his people ceased to love him.
They finally grew so tired of his cruelty, that they all rose up against
him, drove him out of the city, and forced him to take up his abode on
the Island of Scy´ros. Then, fearing that he might return unexpectedly,
they told the king of the island to watch him night and day, and to
seize the first good opportunity to get rid of him. In obedience to
these orders, the king escorted Theseus wherever he went; and one day,
when they were both walking along the edge of a tall cliff, he suddenly
pushed Theseus over it. Unable to defend or save himself, Theseus fell
on some sharp rocks far below, and was instantly killed.
The Athenians rejoiced greatly when they heard of his death; but they
soon forgot his harshness, remembered only his bravery and all the good
he had done them in his youth, and regretted their ingratitude. Long
after, as you will see, his body was carried to Athens, and buried not
far from the A-crop´o-lis, which was a fortified hill or citadel in the
midst of the city. Here the Athenians built a temple over his remains,
and worshiped him as a god.
While Theseus was thus first fighting for his subjects, and then
quarreling with them, one of his companions, the hero Her´cu-les (or
Her´a-cles) went back to the Peloponnesus, where he had been born. There
his descendants, the Her-a-cli´dæ, soon began fighting with the Pelopidæ
for the possession of the land.
After much warfare, the Heraclidæ were driven away, and banished to
Thessaly, where they were allowed to remain only upon condition that
they would not attempt to renew their quarrel with the Pelopidæ for a
hundred years.
VIII. THE TERRIBLE PROPHECY.
While Theseus was reigning over the Athenians, the neighboring throne of
Thebes, in Boeotia, was occupied by King La´ius and Queen Jo-cas´ta.
In those days the people thought they could learn about the future by
consulting the oracles, or priests who dwelt in the temples, and
pretended to give mortals messages from the gods.
Hoping to learn what would become of himself and of his family, Laius
sent rich gifts to the temple at Delphi, asking what would befall him in
the coming years. The messenger soon returned, but, instead of bringing
cheerful news, he tremblingly repeated the oracle's words: "King Laius,
you will have a son who will murder his father, marry his mother, and
bring destruction upon his native city!"
This news filled the king's heart with horror; and when, a few months
later, a son was born to him, he made up his mind to kill him rather
than let him live to commit such fearful crimes. But Laius was too
gentle to harm a babe, and so ordered a servant to carry the child out
of the town and put him to death.
The man obeyed the first part of the king's orders; but when he had come
to a lonely spot on the mountain, he could not make up his mind to kill
the poor little babe. Thinking that the child would soon die if left on
this lonely spot, the servant tied him to a tree, and, going back to the
city, reported that he had gotten rid of him.
No further questions were asked, and all thought that the child was
dead. It was not so, however. His cries had attracted the attention of a
passing shepherd, who carried him home, and, being too poor to keep him,
took him to the King of Corinth. As the king had no children, he gladly
adopted the little boy.
When the queen saw that the child's ankles were swollen by the cord by
which he had been hung to the tree, she tenderly cared for him, and
called him OEd´i-pus, which means "the swollen-footed." This nickname
clung to the boy, who grew up thinking that the King and Queen of
Corinth were his real parents.
IX. THE SPHINX'S RIDDLE.
When OEdipus was grown up, he once went to a festival, where his proud
manners so provoked one of his companions, that he taunted him with
being only a foundling. OEdipus, seeing the frightened faces around
him, now for the first time began to think that perhaps he had not been
told the truth about his parentage. So he consulted an oracle.
Instead of giving him a plain answer,--a thing which the oracles were
seldom known to do,--the voice said, "OEdipus, beware! You are doomed
to kill your father, marry your mother, and bring destruction upon your
native city!"
Horrified at this prophecy, and feeling sure that the King and Queen of
Corinth were his parents, and that the oracle's predictions threatened
misfortunes to them, OEdipus made up his mind to leave home forever.
He did not even dare to return to bid his family good-by, and he started
out alone and on foot to seek his fortunes elsewhere.
As he walked, he thought of his misfortunes, and grew very bitter
against the cruel goddess of fate, whom he had been taught to fear. He
fancied that this goddess could rule things as she pleased, and that it
was she who had said he would commit the dreadful crimes which he was
trying to avoid.
After several days' aimless wandering, OEdipus came at last to some
crossroads. There he met an old man riding in a chariot, and preceded by
a herald, who haughtily bade OEdipus make way for his master.
As OEdipus had been brought up as a prince, he was in the habit of
seeing everybody make way for him. He therefore proudly refused to stir;
and when the herald raised his staff to strike, OEdipus drew his sword
and killed him.
The old man, indignant at this deed of violence, stepped out of his
chariot and attacked OEdipus. Now, the young man did not know that it
was his father Laius whom he thus met for the first time, so he fell
upon and killed him also. The servants too were all slain when they in
turn attacked him; and then OEdipus calmly continued his journey,
little suspecting that the first part of the oracle's prediction had
been fulfilled.
Soon after this fight, OEdipus came to the city of Thebes. The streets
were filled with excited people, all talking at once; and the young
prince, in listening to what they said, soon learned the cause of their
excitement.
[Illustration: After a few moments' deep thought, OEdipus answered.]
It seems that a terrible monster called the Sphinx had taken up its
station on one of the principal roads leading to the town, and would
allow no one to pass who could not answer a riddle which it asked. This
creature had the head of a woman, the body of a lion, and the wings of
an eagle; and, as it ate up all those who could not guess its riddle,
the people were very much frightened.
Many persons had already been slain; for, although the bravest men had
gone out to kill it, they had lost their lives in the attempt, as no one
could harm it unless he guessed the mysterious riddle.
Laius, the king, hoping to learn from the oracle at Delphi the answer to
the riddle, had ridden off in his chariot; but the people grew more
excited still, when a messenger came running into the town, and said
that the king and all his servants had been killed by robbers, and that
their dead bodies had been found in the middle of the road.
OEdipus paid no attention to this news; for he little suspected that
the old man whom he had killed was the king, whom everybody loved, and
for whom they now mourned with noisy grief.
He was, however, deeply interested in the story of the Sphinx; and he
was so sure that he could guess the riddle, that he immediately set out
to find the monster. He walked boldly along the road until stopped by
the Sphinx, which told him to answer this riddle if he wished to live:
"What creature walks upon four feet in the morning, upon two at noon,
and upon three at night?"
After a few moments' deep thought, OEdipus answered that the creature
was _man_. "For," said he, "in the morning of life, or in babyhood, man
creeps on hands and knees; at noon, or in manhood, he walks erect; and
at evening, or in old age, he supports his tottering steps with a
staff."
The Sphinx's riddle was guessed; and the monster, knowing that its power
was now at an end, tried to get away. But OEdipus would not allow it
to do so; and, drawing his sword, he forced it back until it fell over a
precipice, on the sharp stones below, and was dashed to pieces.
X. BLINDNESS AND DEATH OF OEDIPUS.
Boeotia was now rid of the Sphinx; and when the The´bans heard the
joyful news of its death, they welcomed OEdipus with much joy. In
reward for his bravery, they gave him not only the throne, but also the
hand of Jocasta, the widowed queen. It was thus that OEdipus, although
he did not know it, fulfilled the second part of the prophecy, and
married his own mother.
Several years now passed by, during which OEdipus ruled the Thebans so
wisely, that they all loved him dearly, and went to him for advice in
all their troubles. Finally the good times came to an end; and the
people were again terrified, because a plague, or great sickness, broke
out in the city, and many of the inhabitants died.
All kinds of medicines were tried, but without effect; and all the gods
were asked to lend their aid. In despair, OEdipus sent a messenger to
Delphi to ask the oracle how the disease could be stopped. The oracle
for once gave a plain answer, and said that the plague would cease only
when the murderer of Laius had been found and punished.
Investigations were now made for the first time, and it was found that
OEdipus was the one who had slain the king. At the same time, the
servant confessed that he had not killed the royal child; and the
shepherd told how he had found the babe and carried him to Corinth,
where he had been adopted by the king.
When OEdipus heard all this, he was driven almost mad with despair;
for now he knew not only that he had murdered his father and married his
mother, but that it was on his account that the plague had caused the
death of so many people in Thebes.
In her horror and grief at this discovery, Queen Jocasta killed herself.
When OEdipus learned that she was dead, he ran into the room where she
lay, and took one of the buckles which fastened her dress and put out
his eyes with it, saying, that, since they had beheld such a sorrowful
sight, they should never again see the light of day.
To rid the city of his accursed presence, and thus, if possible, save it
from the threatened destruction, OEdipus banished himself, and
wandered away, old, blind, and poor, for he would take none of his
riches with him.
He departed sorrowfully, leaving his kingdom to his two sons,
E-te´o-cles and Pol-y-ni´ces, and telling them to care for their
sisters, An-tig´o-ne and Is-me´ne.
Ismene wept bitterly when she said good-by to her father; but Antigone
placed her father's hand upon her shoulder, said that she would never
forsake him, and left the city, tenderly supporting and guiding him.
Father and daughter wandered thus from place to place, finding no rest;
for all the people shrank from even looking upon OEdipus, who, they
said, was evidently accursed by the gods, since he had committed such
frightful crimes.
After many days' wandering and much fatigue, the exiles arrived at last
on the border of a dark forest held sacred to the Furies,--the goddesses
whose duty it was to punish all criminals by tormenting them as long as
they lived, and even after they had died.
When Antigone described to her poor blind father the place they had
reached, he bade her remain by the roadside, and, groping his way, soon
vanished into the forest. He had scarcely gone, when a terrible
thunderstorm arose. The air grew dark, the lightning flashed, the
thunder rolled, the trees bent and twisted in the wind; and, although
Antigone called her father again and again, she heard no answering cry.
When morning came, she went to look for him, but found no trace of him.
The people in the neighborhood then told her that the Furies had dragged
her father away to punish him for his crimes, and Antigone sadly went
back to Thebes.
As soon as she arrived in the city, Antigone hastened to the palace to
tell her brothers and sister about their father's sad death; but when
she entered her former happy home, she learned that there are sadder
things than death, for her brothers were no longer friends, and had
begun a terrible quarrel.
XI. THE BROTHERS' QUARREL.
The misfortunes of Thebes had not come to an end with the banishment of
OEdipus, and fate was still against the unhappy city. The plague, it
is true, had stopped; but the two young princes were quarreling about
the possession of the throne.
Both wanted to reign, and neither wished to share the throne with his
brother. After much dispute, they agreed at last that each should reign
a year in turn.
Eteocles, the elder, was of course allowed to rule during the first
year; while Polynices went to pay a visit to A-dras´tus, King of Argos.
Here he was warmly welcomed and hospitably entertained; but when the
year was ended, he hurried back to Thebes to reign in his turn.
When he came to the city, however, Eteocles refused to give up the
scepter, and, calling out his guards, made use of his power to drive
Polynices out of the town. This was very wrong, for a promise should
always be kept; and it made Polynices so angry, that he said he would
return with an army, and force his brother to act fairly.
Polynices therefore hurried back to Argos, and soon persuaded Adrastus,
with five other kings and noted warriors, to go with him to Thebes, and
help him take the throne by force.
When Eteocles heard that seven kings were coming with a large army to
make him give up the throne of Thebes, he made up his mind to fight hard
to keep it. After strengthening the city walls, laying in a great stock
of provisions, and securing the help of seven brave allies, Eteocles
closed the gates of Thebes, and calmly awaited the arrival of the enemy.
Meanwhile the seven chiefs were marching from Argos to Thebes. They came
at last to the forest of Ne´me-a, where Hercules, the chief hero of
Argos, had once slain a terrible lion. This monster had long lived in
the forest, filling the hearts of all the people with dread; and when
Hercules came out of the forest, wearing the skin of the lion, they had
greatly rejoiced.
[Illustration: Hercules and the Nemean Lion.]
In honor of Hercules' victory over the Ne´me-an lion, the seven chiefs
stopped in this spot to celebrate games, which they said should be held
in that neighborhood every three years. This festival was ever after
celebrated thus; and when the people gathered together there to see the
racing and boxing, they loved to recall the memory of the brave lion
slayer, and of the seven kings who had first celebrated the Nemean
games.
When Polynices and his allies came at last to Thebes, they found all the
gates closed; and although they fought bravely, and tried hard to enter
the city, they were kept at bay for seven long years. At the end of that
time the people inside the city, and those without, were equally tired
of this long siege: so it was finally agreed that the two armies should
meet on a neighboring plain and fight it out.
The armies were led by the two brothers, who now hated each other so
bitterly, that, instead of waiting for the signal for battle, they
rushed upon each other, and both fell before any one could interfere.
This terrible end of their quarrel filled the hearts of both armies with
fear, and they agreed to make a truce in order to bury their chiefs. As
it was customary at that time to burn the bodies of the dead, both
corpses were laid upon the funeral pyre side by side. When the wood was
all burned, the ashes were put into separate urns, for the Greeks used
to tell their children that these brothers hated each other so much that
even their ashes would not mingle.
This story of OEdipus and his family is only a myth, but it is a very
celebrated one. The Greeks wrote stories, poems, and plays about it, and
it is on that account that it should be known by every one who wishes to
study the history of Greece.
XII. THE TAKING OF THEBES.
The terrible death of the two brothers Eteocles and Polynices did not,
as you might suppose, end the siege of Thebes. No sooner were their
funerals over, than both armies began to fight again; and they continued
the contest until all the chiefs had been killed except Adrastus only.
Most of the soldiers had also been slain: so Adrastus made up his mind
to go home, and wait until the sons of these fallen heroes were old
enough to fight, before he went on with the war. As they thought it
their duty to avenge all injuries, and especially the death of a
relative, Adrastus had no trouble in getting these youths to march
against Thebes. So they began a second siege, which was known as the War
of the E-pig´o-ni, or descendants, because the young warriors took up
their fathers' quarrel.
Such was the bravery of these young men, that they succeeded where their
fathers had failed, and after a long struggle took the city of Thebes.
As Polynices was dead, and could not claim the scepter he had so longed
to possess, they put his son Ther-san´der upon the throne.
This young man ruled for a while in peace; but because his sons were
insane, the Thebans thought that the gods still hated the race of
OEdipus: so they drove these princes away, and chose another and less
unlucky family to rule over them instead.
Even the daughters of OEdipus were very unhappy; for Antigone, having
taken the part of her brother Polynices, was put to death, while her
sister Ismene died of grief.
Such was the end of the race of OEdipus,--a king who has been
considered the most unhappy man that ever lived, because, although he
meant to be good, he was forced by fate to commit the most horrible
crimes.
XIII. THE CHILDHOOD OF PARIS.
In those days, Pri´am and Hec´u-ba were King and Queen of Troy (or
Il´i-um),--a beautiful city near the coast of Asia Minor, almost
opposite Athens. They were the parents of a large family of sons and
daughters; and among the sons were Hec´tor and Par´is, young men of
remarkable strength and beauty.
Paris had had a very adventurous life. When he was but a little babe,
his mother dreamed that she saw a flaming brand in the cradle, in the
place where the child lay. This brand seemed to set fire to the cradle
and all the palace; and the queen, awaking with a start, was overjoyed
to find that it was nothing but a dream.
Men in those days believed that dreams were sent by the gods to warn
them of coming events, and so Hecuba was very anxious to know what the
burning brand meant. She told her husband all about it, and they finally
decided to ask an oracle to explain the dream.
A few days later the messenger they had sent to the oracle came home,
and Hecuba shed many tears when he brought word that the child Paris was
destined to bring destruction upon his native city.
To escape this calamity, Priam ordered that Paris should be carried out
of the city, and that he should be left in a forest, where the wild
beasts would eat him up, or where he would be sure to die from hunger
and cold.
Poor little Paris was therefore lifted out of his comfortable cradle,
and left alone in the woods, where he cried so hard that a passing
hunter heard him. This man was so sorry for the poor child, that he
carried him home to his wife, who brought the little stranger up with
her own children.
As he lived with hunters, Paris soon learned their ways; and he became
so active that when he was quite grown up he went to Troy to take part
in the athletic games, which were often held there in honor of the gods.
He was so strong that he easily won all the prizes, although Hector and
the other young princes were also striving for them.
When Paris went up to receive the crown of wild olive leaves which was
the victor's prize, every one noticed his likeness to the royal family;
and his sister Cas-san´dra, who was able to foretell future events, said
that he was the son of Priam and Hecuba, and that he would bring great
misfortunes upon Troy.
The king and queen paid no heed to these words, but gladly welcomed
Paris home, and lavished all kinds of gifts upon him to make up for
their cruelty and long neglect.
Paris was so fond of change and adventure, that he soon grew tired of
court life, and asked Priam for a ship, so that he might sail off to
Greece.
This request was readily granted, and Paris went away. The young prince
sailed from island to island, and came at last to the southern part of
the Peloponnesus, where the descendants of Hercules had founded the city
of Sparta. Here he was warmly welcomed by King Men-e-la´us; but this
king was obliged to leave home shortly after the arrival of Paris, and
he bade Helen, his wife, the most beautiful woman in the world, do all
she could to entertain the noble stranger.
Helen was so kind to Paris that he soon fell in love with her. His
greatest wish was to have her as his wife: so he began to tell her that
Ve´nus, the goddess of love, had promised him that he should marry the
most beautiful woman in the world.
Talking thus day after day, the handsome young Paris finally persuaded
Helen to leave her husband and home. She got on board of his vessel, and
went with him to Troy as his wife. Of course, this wrongdoing could not
bring happiness; and not only were they duly punished, but, as you will
soon see, the crime of Paris brought suffering and death to his friends
as well.
[Illustration: Menelaus.]
When Menelaus came home and found that his guest had run away with his
wife, he was very angry, and vowed that he would not rest until he had
punished Paris and won back the beautiful Helen.
He therefore made ready for war, and sent word to his friends and
relatives to come and help him, telling them to meet him at Au´lis, a
seaport, where they would find swift-sailing vessels to carry them
across the sea to Troy.
XIV. THE MUSTER OF THE TROOPS.
When the neighboring kings and chiefs received Menelaus' message, they
were delighted; for fighting was their only occupation, and they enjoyed
the din of battle more than anything else. They began to collect their
soldiers, polish their arms, and man their vessels. Then, inviting all
who wished to join them, they started out for Aulis, where they formed a
huge army.
Each of the parties was led by its own king or chief. Some of these
chiefs were very brave, and their names are still well known. The
leading ones among them were Nes´tor, the wisest man of his day, to whom
every one came for good advice; and U-lys´ses, the crafty or sly king,
who was so clever that he could easily outwit all men.
There were also A´jax, the strongest man of his time; Thersander, the
new king of Thebes, who came with the Epigoni; and Ag-a-mem´non, King of
Mycenæ, Menelaus' brother, who was chosen chief of the whole army.
The Greeks never began any undertaking without consulting the oracles to
find out how it would end. Agamemnon, therefore, consulted one of these
soothsayers, who said that Troy would never be taken unless A-chil´les
fought with the Greeks.
When they heard this answer, the chiefs immediately asked who Achilles
was, and they soon learned all about him. He was a young prince of whom
it had been foretold at the time of his birth that he would be the
greatest warrior of his age, and that he would die young. His mother,
who loved him dearly, shed many tears when she heard these words, and
made up her mind to do all she could to prevent this prophecy from
coming true.
She first carried Achilles, when but a baby, to the river Styx, for it
was said that those who bathed in its waters could never be wounded.
Afraid to let go of her child for fear he might drown, but anxious to
make sure that the waters should touch every part of him, the mother
plunged him into the rushing tide, holding him fast by one heel.
This she held so tight that the waters never even wet it; and it was
only long after, when too late to remedy it, that an oracle told her
that Achilles could be wounded in his heel, which the waters of the Styx
had not touched. As soon as this good mother heard the first news of the
coming war, her heart was troubled; for she knew that Achilles, who was
now a young man, would want to join the army, and she was afraid of
losing him.
To prevent his hearing anything about the war, she persuaded him to
visit the King of Scyros. There, under pretext of a joke, he was induced
to put on girl's clothes, and to pretend that he was a woman.
The Greeks, after hearing the oracle's words, sent messengers for
Achilles; but they could not find him, as he had left home, and no one
would tell them where he had gone. As it was of no use to set out
without him, according to the oracle's answer, which they thoroughly
believed, the army lingered at Aulis in despair.
Ulysses, seeing that they would never start unless Achilles were found,
now offered to go and get him. Disguised as a peddler, with a pack upon
his back, he went first to Achilles' home, where the chattering maids
told him all he wished to know, and thence he went to the Island of
Scyros.
Achilles was so well disguised that Ulysses could not tell him from the
king's daughters and their maids: so he made use of a trick to find him
out. Among the trinkets in his pack, he put a sword of fine workmanship,
and, entering the palace, spread out his wares before the admiring
maidens. They all gathered about him; but, while the real girls went
into raptures over his ornaments, Achilles grasped the sword, drew it
from the scabbard, carefully tested the blade, and swung it with a
strong arm.
Of course, Ulysses then easily saw that he was not a girl, and, slipping
up to him, managed to whisper news of the coming war, and won his
promise to join the army at Aulis in a few days.
XV. THE SACRIFICE OF IPHIGENIA.
True to his promise, Achilles soon came to Aulis with his well-trained
soldiers, the Myr´mi-dons, and with him came his friend Pa-tro´clus. All
were now eager to start, and ready to embark; but unfortunately there
was no favorable wind to fill their sails and waft them over to Asia
Minor.
Day after day they waited, and offered sacrifices to the gods, but all
in vain. At last they again consulted the oracle, who said that the
wind would not blow until Iph-i-ge-ni´a, Agamemnon's daughter, were
offered up in sacrifice to Di-an´a, goddess of the moon and the chase,
whom this king had once offended.
Agamemnon at first said that he would not sacrifice his daughter, but
finally his companions persuaded him to do so. Just as the priest was
about to kill the maiden on the altar, however, the goddess Diana came,
and carried her off unharmed, leaving a deer to be sacrificed in her
stead.
The deer was killed, the wind rose, the sails filled, and the Greek
fleet soon came within sight of the high walls and towers of Troy.
There, contrary to their expectations, the Greeks found the people ready
to fight them; but, after many days' struggle, they saw that they had
made no great advance.
On the wide plain which stretched out between the city and the sea, the
Greek and Tro´jan armies fought many a battle; and sometimes one party,
and sometimes the other, had the victory. The men on both sides had been
trained to handle their weapons with great skill, and there were many
fights in which the Greek heroes met the bravest Trojans.
[Illustration]
Nine years passed thus in continual warfare, but even then the Greeks
were as far from taking the town as on the first day; and the Trojans,
in spite of all their courage, had not been able to drive their enemies
away.
XVI. THE WRATH OF ACHILLES.
In all their battles, the booty won by the Greeks from the enemy had
been divided among the chiefs and soldiers, and on one occasion female
slaves were given to Agamemnon and Achilles. These girls were not born
slaves, but were captives of war reduced to slavery, as was then the
custom; for, while the men and boys were always killed, the women and
girls were forced to be the servants of the victors.
Now, it happened that the slave given to Agamemnon was the daughter of a
priest of A-pol´lo. He was very sorry when he heard she had fallen into
the hands of the Greeks, and sent a message to Agamemnon, offering to
give him a large sum of money if he would only set her free.
Agamemnon would not accept the money, and sent a rude message to the
priest, who, in anger, asked Apollo to avenge this insult by sending a
plague upon the Greeks. The god heard and granted this prayer, and soon
all the soldiers in the Greek camp were suffering from a terrible
disease, of which many of them died.
As no remedy could relieve the sufferers, the Greek leaders consulted an
oracle, to find out how the plague might be stopped. Then they learned
that Apollo was angry with Agamemnon because he had refused to give up
his slave, and that the Greeks would continue to suffer until he made up
his mind to give her back to her father.
Thus forced to give her up to save his men from further suffering and
even from death, Agamemnon angrily said he would take Achilles' slave
instead, and he had her brought to wait upon him in his tent.
Achilles, who wanted to save the Greeks from the plague, allowed the
maiden to depart, warning Agamemnon, however, that he would no longer
fight for a chief who could be so selfish and unjust. As soon as the
girl had gone, therefore, he laid aside his fine armor; and although he
heard the call for battle, and the din of fighting, he staid quietly
within his tent.
While Achilles sat thus sulking day after day, his companions were
bravely fighting. In spite of their bravery, however, the Trojans were
gaining the advantage; for, now that Achilles was no longer there to
fill their hearts with terror, they fought with new courage.
The Greeks, missing the bright young leader who always led them into the
midst of the fray, were gradually driven back by the Trojans, who
pressed eagerly forward, and even began to set fire to some of the Greek
ships.
Achilles' friend, Patroclus, who was fighting at the head of the Greeks,
now saw that the Trojans, unless they were checked, would soon destroy
the whole army, and he rushed into Achilles' tent to beg him to come and
help them once more.
His entreaties were vain. Achilles refused to move a step; but he
consented at last to let Patroclus wear his armor, and, thus disguised,
make a last attempt to rally the Greeks and drive back the Trojans.
Patroclus started out, and, when the Trojans saw the well-known armor,
they shrank back in terror, for they greatly feared Achilles. They soon
saw their mistake, however; and Hector, rushing forward, killed
Patroclus, tore the armor off his body, and retired to put it on in
honor of his victory.
Then a terrible struggle took place between the Trojans and the Greeks
for the possession of Patroclus' body. The news of his friend's death
had quickly been carried to Achilles, and had roused him from his
indifferent state. Springing upon the wall that stretched before the
camp, he gave a mighty shout, at the sound of which the Trojans fled,
while Ajax and Ulysses brought back the body of Patroclus.
XVII. DEATH OF HECTOR AND ACHILLES.
The next day, having secured armor and weapons, Achilles again went out
to fight. His purpose was to meet Hector, and, by killing him, to avenge
his dead friend, Patroclus. He therefore rushed up and down the
battlefield; and when at last he came face to face with his foe, they
closed in deadly fight. The two young men, each the champion warrior of
his army, were now fighting with the courage of despair; for, while
Achilles was thirsting to avenge his friend, Hector knew that the fate
of Troy depended mostly upon his arm. The struggle was terrible. It was
watched with breathless interest by the armies on both sides, and by
aged Priam and the Trojan women from the walls of Troy. In spite of
Hector's courage, in spite of all his skill, he was doomed to die, and
soon he fell under the blows of Achilles.
Then, in sight of both armies and of Hector's weeping family, Achilles
took off his enemy's armor, bound the dead body by the feet to his
chariot, and dragged it three times around the city walls before he went
back to camp to mourn over the remains of Patroclus.
That night, guided by one of the gods, old King Priam came secretly into
the Greek camp, and, stealing into Achilles' tent, fell at his feet. He
had come to beg Achilles to give back the body of Hector, that he might
weep over it, and bury it with all the usual ceremonies and honors.
Touched by the old man's tears, and ready now to listen to his better
feelings, Achilles kindly raised the old king, comforted him with gentle
words, and not only gave back the body, but also promised that there
should be a truce of a few days, so that both armies could bury their
dead in peace.
The funerals were held, the bodies burned, the usual games celebrated;
and when the truce was over, the long war was begun again. After several
other great fights, Achilles died from a wound in his heel caused by a
poisoned arrow that was treacherously shot by Paris.
The sorrowing Greeks then buried the young hero on the wide plain
between Troy and the sea. This spot has been visited by many people who
admired the brave young hero of the Il´i-ad (see p. 60).
[Illustration]
XVIII. THE BURNING OF TROY.
As the valor of the Greeks had proved of no avail during the ten-years'
war, and as they were still as far as ever from taking Troy, Ulysses the
crafty now proposed to take the city by a stratagem, or trick.
The Greeks, obeying his directions, built a wooden horse of very large
size. It was hollow, and the space inside it was large enough to hold a
number of armed men. When this horse was finished, and the men were
hidden in it, the Greeks all embarked as if to sail home.
The Trojans, who had watched them embark and sail out of sight, rushed
down to the shore shouting for joy, and began to wander around the
deserted camp. They soon found the huge wooden horse, and were staring
wonderingly at it, when they were joined by a Greek who had purposely
been left behind, and who now crept out of his hiding place.
In answer to their questions, this man said that his companions had
deserted him, and that the wooden horse had been built and left there as
an offering to Po-sei´don (or Nep´tune), god of the sea. The Trojans,
believing all this, now decided to keep the wooden horse in memory of
their long siege, and the useless attempt of the Greeks to take Troy.
They therefore joyfully dragged the huge animal into the city; and, as
the gates were not large enough for it to pass through, they tore down
part of their strong walls.
That very night, while all the Trojans were sleeping peacefully for the
first time in many years, without any fear of a midnight attack, the
Greek vessels noiselessly sailed back to their old moorings. The
soldiers landed in silence, and, marching up softly, joined their
companions, who had crept out of the wooden horse, and had opened all
the gates to receive them.
Pouring into Troy on all sides at once, the Greeks now began their work
of destruction, killing, burning, and stealing everywhere. The Trojan
warriors, awakening from sleep, vainly tried to defend themselves; but
all were killed except Prince Æ-ne´as, who escaped with his family and a
few faithful friends, to form a new kingdom in Italy.
All the women, including even the queen and her daughters, were made
prisoners and carried away by the Greek heroes. The men were now very
anxious to return home with the booty they had won; for they had done
what they had long wished to do, and Troy, the beautiful city, was
burned to the ground.
All this, as you know, happened many years ago,--so many that no one
knows just how long. The city thus destroyed was never rebuilt. Some
years ago a German traveler began to dig on the spot where it once
stood. Deep down under the ground he found the remains of beautiful
buildings, some pottery, household utensils, weapons, and a great deal
of gold, silver, brass, and bronze. All these things were blackened or
partly melted by fire, showing that the Greeks had set fire to the city,
as their famous old poems relate.
The Greeks said, however, that their gods were very angry with many of
their warriors on account of the cruelty they showed on that dreadful
night, and that many of them had to suffer great hardships before they
reached home. Some were tossed about by the winds and waves for many
long years, and suffered shipwrecks. Others reached home safely, only to
be murdered by relatives who had taken possession of their thrones
during their long absence.
[Illustration: Vase.]
[Illustration: Jug.]
[Illustration: Cup.]
Only a few among these heroes escaped with their lives, and wandered off
to other countries to found new cities. Thus arose many Greek colonies
in Sicily and southern Italy, which were called Great Greece, in honor
of the country from which the first settlers had come.
As you have already seen, Prince Æneas was among these Trojans. After
many exciting adventures, which you will be able to read in the "Story
of Rome," he sailed up the Ti´ber River, and landed near the place where
one of his descendants was to found the present capital of Italy, which
is one of the most famous cities in the world.
XIX. HEROIC DEATH OF CODRUS.
You remember, do you not, how the sons of Pelops had driven the
Heraclidæ, or sons of Hercules, out of the peninsula which was called
the Peloponnesus? This same peninsula is now called Mo-re´a, or the
mulberry leaf, because it is shaped something like such a leaf, as you
will see by looking at your map.
The Heraclidæ had not gone away willingly, but were staying in Thessaly,
in the northern part of Greece, where they promised to remain one
hundred years without making any attempt to come back.
Shortly after the end of the Trojan War, this truce of a hundred years
came to an end; and the Heraclidæ called upon their neighbors the
Dorians to join them, and help them win back their former lands.
Led by three brave chiefs, the allies passed through Greece proper,
along the Isthmus of Corinth, and, spreading all over the Peloponnesus,
soon took possession of the principal towns. The leading members of the
family of Hercules took the title of kings, and ruled over the cities of
Argos, Mycenæ, and Spar´ta.
The Dorians, who had helped the Heraclidæ win back their former
possessions, now saw that the land here was better than their home in
the mountains, so they drove all the rest of the Ionians out of the
country, and settled there also.
Thus driven away by the Dorians and the Heraclidæ, these Ionians went to
Athens, to the neighboring islands, and even to the coast of Asia Minor,
south of the ruined city of Troy, where they settled in great numbers.
They called the strip of land which they occupied Ionia, and founded
many towns, some of which, such as Eph´e-sus and Mi-le´tus, were
destined to become famous.
Of course, the Ionians were very angry at thus being driven away from
home; and those who had gone to live in Athens soon asked Co´drus, the
Athenian king, to make war against the Heraclidæ of Sparta.
The two armies soon met, and prepared for battle. Codrus, having
consulted an oracle, had learned that the victory would be given to the
army whose king should be killed, so he nobly made up his mind to die
for the good of his people.
Instead of going into battle in royal dress, with his guards all around
him, as was his habit, he dressed himself like an ordinary soldier, and
went forward until he stood in the very first rank of the army. Then he
rushed boldly into the midst of the foe.
Of course, he was soon cut down; but the Athenians, seeing his courage,
and learning why he had thus risked his life, fought with such valor
that they defeated the Spar´tan forces, and forced them to retreat.
The victory had been won; but the Athenians were so sorry to lose their
beloved king, that they could not rejoice, and sadly returned home,
carrying the body of Codrus. Such was the admiration of all the people
for this act of royal courage, that they vowed they would never again
call any one by the name of king.
When Codrus had been buried, therefore, the Athenians gave his son and
heir the government of the city, calling him archon, or chief for
life,--a title which was borne by many rulers after him.
The Spartans, who had come into Attica to fight the Athenians, retreated
hastily after their defeat, and returned to their city, where they
settled, forcing all the people who dwelt in the neighborhood either to
leave the country or to serve them as their slaves.
The return of the Heraclidæ into the Peloponnesus is the last event of
the Heroic Age, and now real history begins. After this, it is no longer
necessary to try to find out the truth hidden in the old tales which
were handed down from father to son, and which were the only fairy
stories the Greek children knew; for henceforth records were kept of all
the principal events.
XX. THE BLIND POET.
Three or four centuries after the siege of Troy, there lived a poor old
blind poet who wandered about from place to place, playing upon his
lyre, and reciting wonderful verses which told about the adventures of
the Greek heroes, and their great deeds during the Trojan War.
We are told that this old man, whose name was Ho´mer, had not always
been poor and blind, but that, having embarked by mistake upon a vessel
manned by pirates, he not only had been robbed of all his wealth, and
blinded, but had been left upon a lonely shore.
By some happy chance, poor blind Homer found his way to the inhabited
parts of the country, where he soon won many friends. Instead of
spending all his time in weeping over his troubles, Homer tried to think
of some way in which he could earn his living, and at the same time give
pleasure to others. He soon found such a way in telling the stories of
the past to all who cared to listen to them.
[Illustration: Homer.]
As the people in those days had no books, no schools, and no theaters,
these stories seemed very wonderful. Little by little Homer turned them
into verses so grand and beautiful that we admire them still; and these
he recited, accompanying himself on a lyre, which he handled with much
skill. As he wandered thus from place to place, old and young crowded
around him to listen to his tales; and some young men were so struck by
them that they followed him everywhere, until they too could repeat
them. This was quite easy to do, because Homer had put them into the
most beautiful and harmonious language the world has ever known. As soon
as these young men had learned a few of the tales, they too began to
travel from place to place, telling them to all they met; and thus
Homer's verses became well known throughout all Greece.
[Illustration: Telling Homer's Tales.]
The Greeks who could recite Homer's poems went next to the islands and
Asia Minor, stopping at every place where Greek was spoken, to tell
about the wrath of Achilles, the death of Patroclus, Hector, or old
Priam, the burning of Troy, the wanderings of Ulysses, and the return of
the Greeks. Other youths learned the poems; and so, although they were
not written down for many a year, they were constantly recited and sung,
and thus kept alive in the memory of the people.
As for Homer, their author, we know but little about him. We are told
that he lived to be very old, and that although he was poor as long as
he lived, and forced to earn his living by reciting his songs, he was
greatly honored after his death.
His two great heroic poems--the Iliad, telling all about the Trojan War,
and the Od´ys-sey, relating how Ulysses sailed about for ten years on
his way home from Troy--were finally written down, and kept so carefully
that they can still be read to-day. Such was the admiration felt for
these poems, that some years after Homer's death an attempt was made to
find out more about him, and about the place where he was born.
Fifty cities claimed the honor of giving him birth; but, although it was
never positively found out where he was born, most people thought the
Island of Chi´os was his birthplace. The Greek towns, wishing to show
how much they admired the works of Homer, used to send yearly gifts to
this place, the native land of the grandest poet the world has ever
known.
XXI. THE RISE OF SPARTA.
The city of Sparta, founded in the days of the Pelasgians, and once
ruled over by Menelaus and Helen, had fallen, as we have seen, into the
hands of the Heraclidæ when they came back to the Peloponnesus after
their exile of a hundred years. It was first governed by
A-ris-to-de´mus, one of their three leaders; and, as records soon began
to be kept, we know a great deal about the early history of this famous
place.
As the town had formerly belonged to the Heraclidæ, and had been ruled
by one of their ancestors, called Lac-e-dæ´mon, they called it by his
name, and the country around it they named La-co´ni-a. Having won back
the town by fighting, the Heraclidæ said that they would attend to war
and politics, and make the conquered people till the ground.
The old inhabitants of Laconia, therefore, went on living in the
country, where they sowed and harvested for the benefit of the Spartans.
All the prisoners of war, however, became real slaves. They were obliged
to serve the Spartans in every way, and were called He´lots.
When Aristodemus died, his twin sons were both made kings; and, as each
of them left his throne to his descendants, Sparta had two kings,
instead of one, from this time on. One member of the royal family,
although he never bore the name of king, is the most noted man in
Spartan history. This is Ly-cur´gus, the son of one ruler, the brother
of another, and the guardian of an infant king named Char-i-la´us.
Lycurgus was a thoroughly good and upright man. We are told that the
mother of the baby king once offered to put her child to death that
Lycurgus might reign. Fearing for the babe's safety, Lycurgus made
believe that he agreed to this plan, and asked that the child should be
given to him to kill as he saw fit.
Lycurgus, having thus obtained possession of the babe, carried him to
the council hall. There the child was named king; and Lycurgus promised
that he would watch carefully over him, educate him well, and rule for
him until he should be old and wise enough to reign alone.
While he was thus acting as ruler, Lycurgus made use of his power to
bring many new customs into Sparta, and to change the laws. As he was
one of the wisest men who ever lived, he knew very well that men must be
good if they would be happy. He also knew that health is far better than
riches; and, hoping to make the Spartans both good and healthy, he won
them over little by little to obey a new set of laws, which he had made
after visiting many of the neighboring countries, and learning all he
could.
XXII. THE SPARTAN TRAINING.
The laws which Lycurgus drew up for the Spartans were very strict. For
instance, as soon as a babe came into the world, the law ordered that
the father should wrap it up in a cloak, and carry it before a council
made up of some of the oldest and wisest men.
They looked at the child carefully, and if it seemed strong and healthy,
and was neither crippled nor in any way deformed, they said that it
might live. Then they gave it back to the father, and bade him bring up
the child for the honor of his country.
If the babe was sickly or deformed, it was carried off to a mountain
near by, and left alone; so that it soon died of hunger or thirst, or
was eaten up by the wild beasts.
The Spartan children staid under their father's roof and in their
mother's care until they were seven years old. While in the nursery,
they were taught all the beautiful old Greek legends, and listened with
delight to the stories of the ancient heroes, and especially to the
poems of Homer telling about the war of Troy and the adventures of
Ulysses.
As soon as the children had reached seven years of age, they were given
over to the care of the state, and allowed to visit their parents but
seldom. The boys were put in charge of chosen men, who trained them to
become strong and brave; while the girls were placed under some good and
wise woman, who not only taught them all they needed to know to keep
house well, but also trained them to be as strong and fearless as their
brothers. All Spartan boys were allowed but one rough woolen garment,
which served as their sole covering by night and by day, and was of the
same material in summer as in winter.
They were taught very little reading, writing, and arithmetic, but were
carefully trained to recite the poems of Homer, the patriotic songs, and
to accompany themselves skillfully on the lyre. They were also obliged
to sing in the public chorus, and to dance gracefully at all the
religious feasts.
As the Spartans were very anxious that their boys should be strong and
fearless, they were taught to stand pain and fatigue without a murmur;
and, to make sure that they could do so, their teachers made them go
through a very severe training.
Led by one of the older boys, the little lads were often sent out for
long tramps over rough and stony roads, under the hot sun; and the best
boy was the one who kept up longest, in spite of bleeding feet, burning
thirst, and great fatigue.
Spartan boys were allowed no beds to sleep in, lest they should become
lazy and hard to please. Their only couch was a heap of rushes, which
they picked on the banks of the Eu-ro´tas, a river near Sparta; and in
winter they were allowed to cover these with a layer of cat-tail down to
make them softer and warmer.
XXIII. THE BRAVE SPARTAN BOY.
As greedy and disobedient children were viewed at Sparta with the
contempt they deserved, all the boys were trained to obey at a word,
whatever the order given, and were allowed only the plainest and
scantiest food.
Strange to relate, the Spartans also trained their boys to steal. They
praised them when they succeeded in doing so without being found out,
and punished them only when caught in the act. The reason for this queer
custom was this: the people were often engaged in war, and as they had
no baggage wagons following their army, and no special officer to
furnish food, they had to depend entirely upon the provisions they could
get on their way.
Whenever an army came in sight, the people hid not only their wealth,
but also their food; and, had not the Spartan soldiers been trained to
steal, they would often have suffered much from hunger when they were at
war.
To test the courage of the Spartan boys, their teachers never allowed
them to have a light, and often sent them out alone in the middle of the
night, on errands which they had to do as best they could.
Then, too, once a year all the boys were brought to the Temple of Diana,
where their courage was further tried by a severe flogging; and those
who stood this whipping without a tear or moan were duly praised. The
little Spartan boys were so eager to be thought brave, that it is said
that some let themselves be flogged to death rather than complain.
The bravery of one of these boys was so wonderful that you will find it
mentioned in nearly every Greek history you read. This little fellow had
stolen a live fox, and hidden it in the bosom of his dress, on his way
to school.
The imprisoned fox, hoping to escape, began to gnaw a hole in the boy's
chest, and to tear his flesh with his sharp claws; but, in spite of the
pain, the lad sat still, and let the fox bite him to death.
It was only when he fell lifeless to the floor that the teachers found
the fox, and saw how cruelly he had torn the brave little boy to pieces.
Ever since then, when boys stand pain bravely and without wincing, they
have been called little Spartans, in memory of this lad.
In order that the boys should be taught to behave well under all
circumstances, they were never allowed to speak except when spoken to,
and then their answers were expected to be as short and exact as
possible.
This style of speaking, where much was said in few words, was so usual
in the whole country of Laconia, that it is still known as the laconic
style.
To train them in this mode of speech, the elders daily made the boys
pass an oral examination, asking them any questions they could think of.
The boys had to answer promptly, briefly, and carefully; and if they
failed to do so, it was considered a great disgrace.
These daily questionings were meant to sharpen their wits, strengthen
their memories, and teach them how to think and decide quickly and
correctly.
The Spartan youths were further taught to treat all their elders with
the greatest respect; and it must have been a pretty sight to see all
these manly fellows respectfully saluting all the old people they met,
and even stopping their play to make way for them when they came on the
street.
To strengthen their muscles, the boys were also carefully trained in
gymnastics. They could handle weapons, throw heavy weights, wrestle, run
with great speed, swim, jump, and ride, and were experts in all
exercises which tended to make them strong, active, and well.
XXIV. PUBLIC TABLES IN SPARTA.
The Spartan men prided themselves upon living almost as plainly as the
boys, and, instead of eating their meals at home with the women and
children, they had a common table. Each man gave a certain amount of
flour, oil, wine, vegetables, and money, just enough to provide for his
share of food.
Instead of having varied and delicate dishes, they always ate about the
same things; and their favorite food was a thick dark stew or soup,
which they called black broth. Rich and poor were treated alike, sat
side by side, and ate the same food, which was intended to make them
equally strong and able to serve their country.
The girls and women never came to these public tables; but the boys were
given a seat there as soon as they had learned their first and most
important lesson, obedience.
When the boys came into the public dining hall for the first time, the
oldest man present called them to him, and, pointing to the door,
solemnly warned them that nothing said inside the walls was ever to be
repeated without.
Then, while the boys took their places and ate without speaking a word,
the old men talked freely of all they pleased, sure that Spartan lads
would never be mean enough to repeat anything they said, and trusting to
their honor.
Although the Spartans had wine upon their table, they were a very
temperate people, and drank only a very little with each meal. To show
the boys what a horrible thing drunkenness is, and the sure result of
too much drinking, the old men sometimes gave them an object lesson.
They sent for one of the meanest Helots or slaves, and purposely gave
him plenty of wine. He was encouraged to go on drinking until he sank on
the floor in a drunken sleep. Then the old men would point him out to
the boys, and explain to them that a man who has drunk too much is
unworthy of the love or esteem of his fellow-creatures, and is in many
ways worse than a beast.
The Spartan boys, thus early warned of the evils of drinking, were
careful to take but very little wine, and to keep their heads quite
clear, so that they might always be considered men, and might never
disgrace themselves as they had seen the Helots do.
When the boys had passed through the first course of training, they in
turn became the teachers and leaders of the smaller lads, and thus
served their country until they were old enough to go to war. When they
left for their first campaign, all the people came out to see them off,
and each mother gave her son his shield, saying,--
"Come back with it or on it."
By this she meant "Come home honorably, bearing your shield, thus
showing that you have never thrown it away to save yourself by flight;
or die so bravely that your companions will bring back your body resting
on your shield, to give you a glorious burial."
XXV. LAWS OF LYCURGUS.
The Spartan girls, who were brought up by the women, were, like the
boys, taught to wrestle, run, and swim, and to take part in gymnastics
of all kinds, until they too became very strong and supple, and could
stand almost any fatigue.
[Illustration: A Dancing Girl.]
They were also taught to read, write, count, sing, play, and dance; to
spin, weave, and dye; and to do all kinds of woman's work. In short,
they were expected to be strong, intelligent, and capable, so that when
they married they might help their husbands, and bring up their children
sensibly. At some public festivals the girls strove with one another in
various games, which were witnessed only by their fathers and mothers
and the other married people of the city. The winners in these contests
were given beautiful prizes, which were much coveted.
Lycurgus hoped to make the Spartans a strong and good people. To hinder
the kings from doing anything wrong, he had the people choose five men,
called ephors, to watch over and to advise them.
Then, knowing that great wealth is not desirable, Lycurgus said that the
Spartans should use only iron money. All the Spartan coins were
therefore bars of iron, so heavy that a yoke of oxen and a strong cart
were needed to carry a sum equal to one hundred dollars from one spot to
another. Money was so bulky that it could neither be hidden nor stolen;
and no one cared to make a fortune, since it required a large space to
stow away even a small sum.
When Charilaus, the infant king, had grown up, Lycurgus prepared to go
away. Before he left the town, he called all the citizens together,
reminded them of all he had done to make them a great people, and ended
by asking every man present to swear to obey the laws until he came
back.
The Spartans were very grateful for all he had done for them, so they
gladly took this oath, and Lycurgus left the place. Some time after, he
came back to Greece; but, hearing that the Spartans were thriving under
the rules he had laid down, he made up his mind never to visit Sparta
again.
It was thus that the Spartans found themselves bound by solemn oath to
obey Lycurgus' laws forever; and as long as they remembered this
promise, they were a thriving and happy people.
XXVI. THE MESSENIAN WAR.
Not very far from Sparta, and next to Laconia, was a country called
Mes-se´ni-a, which was much more fertile, and had long been occupied by
a kindred race descended from Le´lex, brother of Lacedæmon.
When the Spartans found out that the Mes-se´ni-an fields were more
fruitful than their own, they longed to have them, and anxiously watched
for some excuse to make war against the Messenians and win their land.
It was not long before they found one.
There was a temple on the boundary of Messenia and Laconia, where the
people of both countries used to assemble on certain days to offer up
sacrifices to the gods. The Messenian lads, seeing the beauty of the
Spartan girls, and longing to have such strong, handsome, and
intelligent wives, once carried off a few of them into their own
country, and refused to give them up again. The Spartans, indignant at
this conduct, flew to arms, and one night, led by their king, attacked
the Messenian town of Am-phe´a.
As no one expected them, they soon became masters of the place, and in
their anger killed all the inhabitants. The other Messenians, hearing of
this cruel deed, quickly made ready to fight, and bravely began the
struggle which is known as the First Messenian War.
Although very brave, the Messenians had not been as well trained as the
Spartans, and could not drive them back. On the contrary, they were
themselves driven from place to place, until they were forced to take
refuge in the fortified city of I-tho´me. Here they were shut in with
their king, Aristodemus, who was a proud and brave man.
Ithome was built high up on a rock, so steep that the Spartan soldiers
could not climb it, and so high that they could not even shoot their
arrows into the town.
The Messenians, hoping to keep this place of refuge, kept a sharp
lookout, and, whenever the Spartans made any attempt to climb the rocks,
they rolled great blocks of stone down upon them.
All went well as long as the food lasted, but the time came when the
Messenians in Ithome had nothing to eat. Some of their bravest men tried
to go down into the valley in search of provisions; but, as they were
attacked by the Spartans, they could not bring the hungry people much to
eat.
When Aristodemus saw that the people would all die of hunger unless some
way were found to get food, he consulted an oracle, in order to find out
what it was best for him to do. The oracle answered that a battle should
be fought, and promised the victory to the king who offered his daughter
in sacrifice to the gods.
When Aristodemus heard this answer, he shuddered with fear; for,
although he knew that his ancestors had offered up human victims on
their altars, he loved his only daughter too well to give her up.
For some time longer, therefore, he resisted every attack, and tried to
think of some other way to save his people. At last, however, seeing
that they would all die unless something were done, he sacrificed the
child he loved so well.
The Messenians were touched by his generosity, and by his readiness to
do all in his power to save them. They felt sure that the gods would now
give them the victory, and rushed out of the town and into the Spartan
camp. Their attack was so sudden, and they fought with such fury, that
they soon killed three hundred Spartans and one of their kings.
This battle did not, as they had hoped, end the war, which went on for
several years. At last Aristodemus, despairing of victory, went to his
beloved daughter's tomb, and there killed himself.
When he was dead, the city of Ithome fell into the hands of the
Spartans. They treated the conquered Messenians with great cruelty, made
them all slaves, and were as unkind to them as they had been to the
Helots.
XXVII. THE MUSIC OF TYRTÆUS.
After suffering great tortures under the Spartan yoke for forty long
years, the Messenians began to plan a revolt.
One of their princes, Ar-is-tom´e-nes, a man of unusual bravery, made up
his mind to free the unhappy people, and to ruin the proud city of
Sparta, which had caused them so much suffering.
He therefore secretly assembled all the Messenians, and, when his plans
were ready, began to war openly against the Spartans, whom he defeated
in several battles.
With his small army, he even pressed forward toward the city of Sparta,
and camped within sight of its dwellings. The Spartan women could thus
see a very unusual sight,--the light of the enemies' fires.
To frighten the Spartans still more, Aristomenes went secretly into the
city one dark night, stole into the principal temple, and there hung up
the arms he had taken during the war.
These weapons were arranged so as to form what the Greeks called a
trophy, and right under them Aristomenes boldly wrote his name in
letters so large that all could see it.
When morning dawned, and the Spartans came as usual into the temple to
offer up their morning prayer and sacrifice, they were astonished and
dismayed at the sight of this trophy. Aristomenes' bravery was so great
that they despaired of conquering him without divine aid, and so they
sent to ask an oracle what they should do.
The oracle answered that the Spartans would be victorious if they
marched to war under the command of an Athenian general. Now, the
Spartans were a proud people, and did not like to ask aid of any one;
but they made up their minds to obey this command, and so sent a
messenger to Athens to ask for a good leader.
Whether the Athenians, who were well known for their love of joking,
wished to make fun of the Spartans, or whether they wanted to show them
that the bodily beauty and strength which the Spartans prized so highly
was not everything, no one now knows. The fact is, however, that the
Athenians sent the Spartans a poor, lame schoolmaster, called Tyr-tæ´us,
to lead them in battle. This man had never handled a weapon in his life,
and the Spartans were very angry when he placed himself at their head
with a lyre instead of a sword; but when he suddenly began to sing one
of those war songs which make one's blood tingle, it roused their
patriotism to such a point that all were ready to conquer or die, and
their scorn was soon changed to deep admiration.
Fired by these patriotic songs, and by the stirring music the lame
schoolmaster played, the Spartans fought better than ever before,
overcame the Messenians, and came home in triumph with their prisoners,
among whom was the brave Aristomenes.
As it was then usual to put all prisoners of war to death, the Spartans
threw all the Messenians down into a horrible pit called the Ce´a-das.
This was a dark hole of great depth, and its sides were all covered with
jagged rocks, against which the prisoners were dashed to pieces long
before they reached the bottom.
The Messenians were cast into this place one after another, Aristomenes
being thrown in last of all, so that he might have the sorrow of seeing
his companions die. Of course, this was very cruel, but the Spartans had
been brought up to think this mode of getting rid of their enemies quite
right; and when they had thus killed them, they cheerfully went back to
the city and celebrated their victory.
[Illustration]
XXVIII. ARISTOMENES' ESCAPE.
Although the Spartans thought that Aristomenes was dead, they were
greatly mistaken. By some miracle he had not struck against any of the
sharp, jagged rocks, but, falling upon the heap of his dead companions,
had reached the bottom of the Ceadas unhurt.
There was apparently no way out of this pit except by the opening at the
top, through which a bit of sky could be seen; and Aristomenes soon
found that the sides were so steep that it was impossible to reach the
opening. He therefore went off to one side, away from the heap of dead,
and sat down on a stone in that cold, damp, and dark place. There he
drew his cloak over his head to wait patiently until he should starve to
death. Three days had thus been spent in this place, and his strength
was already fast failing, when he suddenly felt a warm breath on his
hand.
He softly drew aside his cloak, and, now that his eyes were used to the
darkness, he dimly saw a fox prowling around him, and sniffing his
clothes suspiciously.
Gently wrapping his cloak around his hand to protect it from the fox's
sharp teeth, Aristomenes caught the animal firmly by the tail. Then, in
spite of all its efforts to get away, he held it tight; and when it
started off, he followed its lead.
As he had shrewdly suspected, the fox knew a way out of the horrible
place. All at once it slipped into a hole; and Aristomenes, seeing a
little light at the end of this, let the fox go. With the help of a
sharp stone, he soon made the fox's hole big enough to crawl through,
and quickly made his way back to the Messenians.
You can imagine how happy they were to see the beloved chief whom they
thought dead, and how tenderly they cared for him until he was well and
strong again. They never tired of hearing the story of his fall,
imprisonment, and escape; and when he proposed to lead them once more
against the Spartans, they gladly promised to help him.
In spite of all Aristomenes' courage, however, Messenia finally fell
into the hands of the Spartans, and the Second Messenian War came to an
end. All the people who wished to escape slavery or death left their
native country, and went to Italy or Sicily, where they founded Greek
colonies.
The cities that they built soon became very powerful, and one of them
they named Mes-si´na in honor of their native land. This city still
stands, as you will see by looking at your maps; and near it is the
strait of the same name, which separates Sicily from Italy.
XXIX. THE OLYMPIC GAMES.
Northwest of Sparta, in the country called E´lis and in the city of
O-lym´pi-a, rose a beautiful temple for the worship of Ju´pi-ter (or
Zeus), the principal god of the Greeks. This temple was said to have
been built by Hercules, the great hero from whom, as you remember, all
the Heraclidæ claimed to be descended.
According to the legends, Hercules was a son of the god Jupiter, and had
ordered that a great festival should be held here every four years in
honor of his divine father.
[Illustration: The Temple at Olympia.]
For the purpose of attracting all the neighboring people to the temple
at Olympia, Hercules founded many athletic games, such as wrestling,
stone and spear throwing, foot, horse, and chariot races, boxing,
swimming, and the like.
Hercules himself was present at the first of these festivals, and acted
as umpire of the games, rewarding the victors by giving them crowns of
wild olive leaves. This custom had been kept up ever since, and the
Greek youths considered this simple crown the finest prize which could
be given.
As the Spartans were great athletes, they soon took important parts in
the Olympic games, won most of the prizes, and claimed the honor of
defending the temple at Olympia in all times of danger.
All the people who went to Olympia to witness the games laid some
precious offering before the shrines, so that the temple came to be
noted for its beauty and wealth. Painters and sculptors, too, further
adorned it with samples of their skill, and it soon contained numerous
gems of art.
The most precious of all was a statue representing Jupiter, which was
the work of the renowned sculptor Phid´i-as. This statue was more than
forty feet high; and, while the god himself was carved out of pure white
ivory, his hair, beard, and garments were made of gold, and his eyes of
the brightest jewels.
The temple and grove were further adorned with a great many statues
representing the other gods and all the prize winners, for it was
customary to place a life-sized statue of each of them in this beautiful
place.
During the celebration of the Olympic games many sacrifices were offered
up to the gods, and there were many religious processions in their
honor. Poets and artists, as well as athletes, were in the habit of
hastening thither on every occasion; for there were contests in poetry
and song, and the people were anxious to hear and see all the new
works.
Between the games, therefore, the poets recited their poems, the
musicians sang their songs, the historians read their histories, and the
story-tellers told their choicest tales, to amuse the vast crowd which
had come there from all parts of Greece, and even from the shores of
Italy and Asia Minor.
As the games were held every four years, the people eagerly looked
forward to their coming, and soon began to reckon time by them. It was
therefore usual to say that such and such a thing happened in the first,
second, or third year of the fifth, tenth, or seventieth O-lym´pi-ad, as
the case might be.
Soon even the historians began to use this way of dating important
events; and by counting four years for each Olympiad, as the time
between the games was called, we can find out exactly when the chief
events in Greek history took place.
Although the Olympic games were probably held many times before this
system of counting was begun, and before any good record was kept, we
can trace them back to 774 B.C.
For one thousand years after that, the name of each victor was carefully
written down; and it was only about three centuries after Christ that
the Olympic records ceased. Then the games came to an end, to the sorrow
of all the Greeks.
Several attempts have since been made to revive these games; but all
proved fruitless until the Greek king arranged to renew them in 1896. In
that year a great festival was held, not at Olympia, but in the city of
Athens.
Besides some of the old-fashioned Greek games, there were bicycle and
hurdle races, shooting matches, and contests in jumping. People from all
parts of the world went to see them in as large numbers as they went to
Olympia in the olden times.
The victors in the games, who belonged to many different nations,
received medals, and wreaths of wild olive and laurel leaves; but the
people did not wear crowns of flowers as formerly, nor offer sacrifices
to the old gods, for Greece is now a Christian country.
XXX. MILO OF CROTON.
Among the athletes whose statues were to be seen at Olympia was Mi´lo, a
man of Cro´ton, one of the Greek colonies in Italy. This man was
remarkable for his great strength, and could carry very heavy weights.
In order to develop his muscle and become strong, he had trained himself
from a boy, and had practiced carrying burdens until he could lift more
than any other man of his time.
We are told that he was so earnest in his efforts to become strong, that
he daily carried a pet calf, gradually increasing the distance. As the
calf grew larger, Milo became stronger, and his muscles became so
powerful that he could carry the animal with ease when it became a
full-sized ox.
To please his companions and show them what he could do, Milo once
carried an ox for several miles, and then, feeling hungry, killed it
with one blow of his fist, cooked it, and ate it all at a single meal.
On another occasion, Milo was sitting with several companions in a
rather tumble-down house. All at once he noticed that the roof was
falling in. He stretched up his great arms, spread out his hands, and
held the roof up until all his companions had run out of the house.
Milo's hands were so strong that when he seized a chariot, even with one
hand only, four horses could not make it stir until he let it go. Of
course, Milo was very proud of his great strength, which, however,
proved unlucky for him, and caused his death.
One day when he was very old, Milo wandered out alone into a forest
where some woodcutters had been at work. The men had gone away, leaving
their wedges in an unusually large tree trunk.
Milo, remembering his former strength, gazed for a moment at the tree,
and then, feeling sure that he could easily pull it apart, he slipped
his fingers into the crack. At his first effort the tree parted a
little, and the wedges fell out; but the two halves, instead of
splitting apart, suddenly came together again, and Milo found his hands
held fast.
In vain he struggled, in vain he called. He could neither wrench himself
free nor attract any one's attention. Night came on, and soon the wild
beasts of the forest began to creep out of their dens.
They found the captive athlete, and, springing upon him, tore him to
pieces, for he could not defend himself, in spite of all his boasted
strength.
XXXI. THE JEALOUS ATHLETE.
Near the statue of Milo of Croton stood that of The-ag´e-nes, another
noted athlete, who lived many years after Milo. He too had defeated
every rival. He was the winner of many prizes, and all envied him his
strength and renown.
One of the men in particular, whom he had defeated in the games, was
jealous of him, and of the honors which he had won. This man, instead of
trying to overcome these wicked feelings, used to steal daily into the
temple to view his rival's statue, and mutter threats and curses against
it.
In his anger, he also gave the pedestal an angry shake every night,
hoping that some harm would befall the statue. One evening, when this
jealous man had jostled the image of Theagenes a little more roughly
than usual, the heavy marble toppled and fell, crushing him to death
beneath its weight.
When the priests came into the temple the next day, and found the man's
dead body under the great statue, they were very much surprised. The
judges assembled, as was the custom when a crime of any kind had been
committed, to decide what had caused his death.
As it was usual in Greece to hold judgment over lifeless as well as over
living things, the statue of Theagenes was brought into court, and
accused and found guilty of murder.
The judges then said, that, as the statue had committed a crime, it
deserved to be punished, and so they condemned it to be cast into the
sea and drowned. This sentence had scarcely been executed, when a plague
broke out in Greece; and when the frightened people consulted an oracle
to find out how it could be checked, they learned that it would not
cease until the statue of Theagenes had been set up on its pedestal
again. The superstitious Greeks believed these words, fished the statue
up out of the sea, and placed it again in Olympia. As the plague stopped
shortly after this, they all felt sure that it was because they had
obeyed the oracle, and they ever after looked upon the statue with great
awe.
XXXII. THE GIRLS' GAMES.
Although the women and girls were not often allowed to appear in public,
or to witness certain of the Olympic games, there were special days held
sacred to them, when the girls also strove for prizes.
They too ran races; and it must have been a pretty sight to see all
those healthy, happy girls running around the stadium, as the foot-race
course was called.
One of these races was called the torch race, for each runner carried a
lighted torch in her hand. All were allowed to try to put out each
other's light; and the prize was given to the maiden who first reached
the goal with her torch aflame, or to the one who kept hers burning
longest.
The prize for the girls was the same as that given to the boys; but the
boys took part in more games, and were present in greater numbers,
than the girls, and their victories were praised much more than those of
their sisters.
[Illustration: A Torch Race.]
The crowd of people watching the games often grew so excited that they
carried the victor all around the grounds on their shoulders, while
Olympia fairly re-echoed with their cries of joy.
We are also told that one old man called Chi´lo was so happy when his
son laid at his feet the crowns he had just won, that he actually died
of joy, thus turning his son's happiness into bitter grief.
While all the foot races took place in the stadium, the horse and
chariot races were held in the hippodrome, and excited the greatest
interest. There were two-, four-, and eight-horse races; and, as the
horses were sometimes unruly, the chariots were liable to be overturned.
Thus at times a number of horses would fall in a heap, and lie
struggling and kicking in the dust, which added to the general
excitement.
XXXIII. THE BLOODY LAWS OF DRACO.
You have already learned that Athens was one of the greatest cities of
ancient Greece, and that after the heroic self-sacrifice of Codrus the
inhabitants would not allow any one to bear the name of king.
The sons of Codrus were named archons, or rulers for life,--an office
which was at first handed down from father to son, but which soon became
elective; that is to say, all the people voted for and elected their
own rulers. Then nine archons were chosen at once, but they kept their
office for only one year.
As these men received no pay for serving the state, only the richest
citizens could accept the office; and thus Athens, from a monarchy, or
country ruled by a king, became an oligarchy, or state ruled by the rich
and noble citizens.
As the rich thus held the reins of the government, they often used their
power to oppress the poor, and this gave rise to many quarrels. Little
by little the two parties, the rich and the poor, grew to hate each
other so much that it was decided that a new code or set of laws should
be made, and that they should be obeyed by all alike.
A severe archon called Dra´co was chosen to draw up these new laws (602
B.C.); and he made them so strict and cruel that the least sin was
punished as if it had been a crime, and a man was sentenced to be hanged
for stealing even a cabbage.
When the Athenians heard these new laws, they were frightened. Such
severity had never been known before; and one and all said that the laws
had been written in blood instead of ink. Some of the citizens, hoping
to make Draco change them, asked why he had named such a terrible
punishment for so small a crime as the theft of a cabbage. Draco sternly
replied that a person who stole even the smallest thing was dishonest,
and deserved death; and that, as he knew of no severer punishment, he
could not inflict one for the greater crimes.
The Athenians had all promised to obey Draco's laws, so they were
obliged to submit for a short time. Then, driven wild by their
strictness, rich and poor rose up, drove the unhappy lawmaker out of the
city, and forced him to go to the neighboring Island of Æ-gi´na. Here
Draco spent all the rest of his life.
The people were now in a state of great uncertainty. The laws of Draco
were too severe, but they had no others to govern the city. While they
were hesitating, not knowing what to do, Cy´lon, an Athenian citizen,
tried to make himself king.
His first move was to gather together a few of his friends, and go
secretly to the Acropolis, or fortress of Athens, which he took by
surprise. Now that he was master of the fortress, he tried to force the
Athenians to recognize him as their king, but this they stoutly refused
to do.
Instead of yielding, the Athenians armed themselves, met the rebels in a
bloody battle, and killed Cylon himself in the midst of the fight.
As their leader was now dead, and they feared the anger of their
fellow-citizens, Cylon's friends fled in haste to the temple of the
goddess Athene. Once inside the sacred building, they felt quite safe;
for no person could be killed in a temple, or be taken out of it by
force.
Although they had neither food nor drink, the rebels refused to leave
the temple, until the archon Meg´a-cles, fearing that they would die
there, and thus defile the temple, promised to do them no harm if they
would only come out.
The rebels did not quite trust to this promise, so they came out of the
temple holding a small cord, one end of which was fastened to the statue
of the goddess. They were thus still under her protection, and any one
touching them would be guilty of a great crime.
When the men reached the street at the bottom of the hill where the
temple stood, the cord to which they were all clinging suddenly broke.
Megacles, the first to notice this, said that the goddess refused to
protect the rebels any longer, and gave orders to kill the unhappy men.
XXXIV. THE LAWS OF SOLON.
Shortly after the death of Cylon and the murder of his followers, a
great many troubles came upon the city of Athens. The people were
frightened, and soon the friends of Cylon began to whisper that the gods
were surely punishing the Athenians, and especially Megacles, for
breaking his promise.
This report spread throughout the city. The terrified people assembled,
and voted to exile Megacles and all his family, the Alc-mæ-on´i-dæ. Such
was the fury of the Athenians against the archon whose crime had brought
misfortunes upon them, that they even dug up the bones of his ancestors,
and had them carried beyond the boundary of Attica.
The city had been defiled by the crime which Megacles had committed, and
the people felt that they would never be prosperous again until Athens
had been purified; but the great question was to find a man holy enough
to perform the ceremony.
After much talking, they decided to send for Ep-i-men´i-des, and to ask
him to purify the city. This man, when a mere lad, once went into a cave
near his native town, and there laid himself down to sleep. Instead of
taking an ordinary nap, however, he slept fifty-eight years, without
awakening or undergoing any change. When he came out of the cave, where
he fancied he had spent only a few hours, he was surprised to find
everything new and strange to him.
His relatives had all died, no one knew him, and it was only after some
time had passed that he found out that he had slept fifty-eight years at
a stretch. This man was a poet of note, and, as he had enjoyed so long a
sleep, the people thought that he was a favorite of the gods.
When the Athenians asked him to purify the town, he came to do so; but
when the ceremonies were ended, he refused to accept any of the rich
gifts which the people offered him as reward. Instead, he humbly begged
them to give him a twig of the sacred olive tree which they said Athene
herself had planted on the Acropolis.
Their troubles having now ceased, the Athenians began to think of making
another and less severe code of laws. This time they chose as lawmaker a
wise man called So´lon, a descendant of the noble Codrus; and he soon
consented to tell them what to do.
Solon was a studious and thoughtful man, and had acquired much of his
wisdom by traveling, and by learning all he could from the people he
visited. He knew so much that he was called a sage, and he loved to
meet and talk with wise people.
Solon changed many of Draco's severe laws, arranged that the farmers and
poor people should no longer be treated badly by the rich, and even took
care of the slaves. He also gave the Athenians a court of law called
A-re-op´a-gus. Here there were jurymen to judge all criminals; and here,
for the first time, an accused person was allowed to speak in his own
defense.
When a man was accused of any wrongdoing, he was brought before this
jury, who sat under the open sky at night. No light was provided, and
the whole trial was carried on in the dark, so that the jury should not
be influenced by the good or bad looks of the prisoner, but should judge
merely from what was proved about him.
If the accused person was found guilty, he was also sentenced and
executed in the dark, so that the bright sun god, riding across the sky
in his golden chariot, should not be offended by the sad sight of a man
dying for his misdeeds.
Every citizen of Athens, whether rich or poor, was allowed to vote; and
as a salary was now paid to the men who helped govern the city, even a
man of small means, if elected to the Tribunal, could afford to give his
time to public duties.
By Solon's order the people were encouraged to talk matters over in
public in the market place; and, as the Athenians were fond of making
speeches, many of them became very eloquent.
Solon saw that his reforms were likely to work all the better if they
were fairly tried, and if he were not there to see how the people did.
He therefore made the Athenians promise to obey his laws for ten years,
and again set out on his travels.
XXXV. THE FIRST PLAYS.
In the days of Solon, men were often to be seen wandering around the
streets during the festival of Di-o-ny´sus, god of wine. They were clad
in goatskins, were smeared with the dregs of wine, and danced and sang
rude songs in honor of their god.
[Illustration: Theater of Dionysus.]
These songs were called tragedies, which in Greek means "goat songs,"
because the goat was sacred to the god whom they thus worshiped. The
people were greatly amused by the rude songs and dances of these
worshipers of Dionysus, and crowds gathered about them to listen to
their singing and to watch their antics.
Thes´pis, a Greek of great intelligence, noticed how popular these
amusements were, and to please the public taste he set up the first rude
theater. In the beginning it was only a few boards raised on trestles to
form a sort of stage in the open air; but Thespis soon built a booth, so
that the actors, when not on the stage, could be hidden from public
view.
The first plays, as already stated, were very simple, and consisted of
popular songs rudely acted. Little by little, however, the plays became
more and more elaborate, and the actors tried to represent some of the
tales which the story-tellers had told.
Some people did not approve of this kind of amusement; and among them
was Solon, who said that Thespis was teaching the Athenians to love a
lie, because they liked the plays, which, of course, were not true.
In spite of Solon's displeasure, the actors went on playing, and soon
the best poets began to write works for the stage. The actors became
more and more skillful, and had many spectators, although no women were
allowed on the stage, their parts being taken by men.
Finally, to make room for the ever-increasing number of theater goers, a
huge amphitheater was built. It was so large, we are told, that there
were seats for thirty thousand spectators. These seats were in
semicircular rows or tiers, of which there were one hundred, rising one
above another. The lowest row of all, near the orchestra, was composed
of sixty huge marble chairs. The amphitheater was open to the sky, the
stage alone being covered with a roof; and all the plays were given by
daylight. The ruins of this building, which is known as the Theater of
Dionysus, were dug out in 1862, and are now often visited by people who
go to Athens.
[Illustration: Sophocles.]
The Greek actors soon dressed in costume, and all wore masks expressing
the various emotions they wished to represent. The principal parts of
the play were recited; but from time to time singers came on the stage,
and chanted parts of the play in chorus.
Some of these plays were so sad that the whole audience was melted to
tears; others were so funny that the people shouted with laughter. When
you learn Greek, you will be able to read the grand tragedies which were
written by Æs´chy-lus, Soph´o-cles, and Eu-rip´i-des, and the comedies
or funny plays of Ar-is-toph´a-nes.
XXXVI. THE TYRANT PISISTRATUS.
Not very long after Solon had given the new laws to the Athenians, the
two political parties of the city again began to quarrel. One of these
parties was composed wholly of rich men and nobles, or _aristoi_, from
which Greek word is formed our English word "aristocrat;" the other
party included the farmers and poor people, or _demos_, the Greek term
which has given rise to the word "democrat."
Among the aristocrats, or nobles, there was a nephew of Solon called
Pi-sis´tra-tus. He was very rich; but, instead of upholding his own
party, he seemed to scorn the rich, and always sided with the poor. To
make friends with the democrats, he pretended to obey the laws with the
greatest care, and addressed every man with the utmost politeness.
Once, having killed a man by accident, Pisistratus came of his own free
will before the judges of the Areopagus, confessed his crime, and was so
humble that he quite disarmed the anger of the people.
As soon as he felt quite sure that he had won many friends among the
poor, Pisistratus appeared one day in the market place, covered with
blood, which flowed from slight wounds which he had made upon his own
body.
His polite manners and kindly words had been only a pretense, however;
and he was not only a hypocrite, but also a liar. So he now said that
the aristocrats had tried to kill him because he was the friend of the
people.
In proof of these words, he pointed to his wounds. The poorer
Athenians, who believed him, were very indignant, and began to talk
angrily about the wicked nobles, who had hurt Pisistratus only because
he was ready to help them.
When Pisistratus cried out that his life was no longer safe, all the
democrats exclaimed that they would protect him; and, as they had the
right of voting, they then and there said that he should have a
bodyguard of fifty armed men to protect him.
Pisistratus pretended to be very grateful for this favor, and, under
pretext of choosing his bodyguard, engaged a great number of soldiers.
When his plans were all ready, he took possession of the Acropolis by
force.
The people now found out, but too late, that Pisistratus had deceived
them only to get more power; and that, thanks to the guard they had
voted him, he had become master of the town, and held the reins of the
government.
The Athenians did not long remain angry with their former favorite,
however; for he did all he could to make them happy, and ruled them very
wisely. He improved the city by building magnificent temples and other
public buildings, and made a great aqueduct, so that the people could
have plenty of pure water to drink.
Pisistratus also laid out a public park, the Ly-ce´um, just outside the
city walls, so that the Athenians could go there, and enjoy the cool
shade of the groves he had planted.
Then he began to collect all the poems of Homer, had them carefully
written down, and placed them in a public library, so that the Greeks
could read them whenever they pleased. Until then these poems had only
been recited, and no written copy existed. Pisistratus, therefore, did a
very good work in thus keeping for our enjoyment the greatest epic poems
ever composed.
As Pisistratus ruled just as he pleased, without consulting the Tribunal
or people, he has been called a tyrant. This word in those days meant
"supreme ruler;" but as many of those who followed him made a bad use of
their power, and were cruel and grasping, its meaning soon changed, and
the word now means "a selfish and unkind ruler."
XXXVII. THE TYRANT'S INSULT.
While Pisistratus was thus governing Athens to suit himself, Solon was
traveling in Asia, where he met several interesting persons of whom you
will hear in ancient history.
Solon had gone away for ten years, hoping that the Athenians would
strictly obey his laws. During that time he had no news of his native
land; for there were no post offices or newspapers in those days, and
people neither wrote nor received letters except when something very
important happened.
On coming back to Athens, Solon was very sorry to learn that it was
Pisistratus, his own kinsman, who had taken the power of the archons;
but when he saw how wisely Pisistratus governed the people, and how
careful he was to make them happy and improve them, he freely forgave
him, and remained on good terms with him until he died.
Pisistratus went on ruling the Athenians for thirty-three years, and
when he died they mourned him greatly. In their grief for their loss,
they allowed his sons, Hip´-pi-as and Hip-par´chus, to succeed him,
without raising any objections.
These young men were very careful at first to follow their father's good
example; but they soon began to neglect business for pleasure, and,
instead of thinking of the people's good, they spent much of their time
in feasting and drinking.
In those days there dwelt at Athens two young men named Har-mo´di-us and
A-ris-to-gi´ton. They were intimate friends, and were loved by all on
account of their good qualities, and more especially because they were
so anxious to increase the glory and prosperity of their native city.
Harmodius had a sister who was as good as she was beautiful: so the
people, hoping to please him, chose her to carry a basket of flowers in
the great religious procession which took place in Athens every year.
One of the tyrants, Hipparchus, was very jealous of Harmodius, because
the people loved him so much. He therefore tried to annoy the young man
in every way; and when he heard that his sister had been chosen to bear
the flowers, he rudely forbade her presence at the feast.
This was a great insult, for none but wicked women were forbidden to
appear; and, as Hipparchus had thus publicly disgraced the girl, her
brother was very angry.
His friend, Aristogiton, was as angry as he; and the two young men,
consulting together, decided that as long as these men ruled, the
Athenians would be treated badly, and that it would be well to get rid
of them soon.
XXXVIII. DEATH OF THE CONSPIRATORS.
Harmodius and Aristogiton, having decided to get rid of the tyrants,
told their plans to a few of their friends. Secret meetings were held at
the house of a brave lady called Le-æ´na ("the lioness"), who was the
only woman in the plot.
As the Athenians were in the habit of attending the feast in armor, the
young men waited until then to carry out their plans. They mingled with
the crowd, found a good place near the tyrants, and all at once drew
their swords from their scabbards and attacked their enemies.
Harmodius was so quick that he managed to kill Hipparchus; but, before
his companions could join and protect him, he was cut down by the
tyrants' guards.
Aristogiton, his friend, rushed forward to save him, but was made
prisoner, and dragged before Hippias, who bade him tell the names of his
companions. The young man at first refused to speak; but after a while,
pretending to yield, he named some of the tyrants' friends who were
helping him oppress the Athenians.
The tyrant, in dismay, sent for the accused, and had them and
Aristogiton killed without trial. When he found out his mistake, he
again tried to learn the names of the real conspirators. He knew that
Harmodius and Aristogiton had often visited Leæna: so he had her
imprisoned and tortured, to make her tell the names of the conspirators,
because he wanted to kill them all as he had killed Aristogiton.
The brave woman, knowing that the lives of several young men depended
upon her, and that a single word might cause their death, resolved not
to utter a sound. In spite of the most awful tortures, she therefore
kept her mouth tightly closed; and when she was finally set free, they
found that she had bitten off her tongue for fear of betraying her
friends.
Poor Leæna did not live long after this; and when she died, she was
buried in a beautiful tomb, over which her friends put the image of a
lioness without a tongue, to remind the people of her courage.
The Athenians were very sorry for her death, and mourned the brave
youths Harmodius and Aristogiton for a long time; but the tyranny of the
son of Pisistratus daily grew more cruel and disagreeable.
XXXIX. HIPPIAS DRIVEN OUT OF ATHENS.
Four years passed thus, and the Athenians were hoping that the time
would soon come when they could get rid of Hippias. They were only too
glad, therefore, when they at last found a way to drive him out of the
town.
[Illustration: Delphi.]
You must remember how Megacles had killed the men who came out of
Athene's temple clinging to the cord they had fastened to her statue.
Megacles, as you know, had been banished from Athens with all his family
(the Alcmæonidæ) on account of this crime, but he had always hoped to be
allowed to return.
Meanwhile the beautiful temple at Delphi had been burned to the ground,
and the people were very anxious to rebuild it. They therefore voted a
certain sum of money for this purpose; and, as the Alcmæonidæ offered
to do the work for the least pay, the contract was given to them.
The Alcmæonidæ faithfully carried out the plans, and used the money;
but, instead of building the temple of brick, they made it of pure white
marble, paying for the more costly material themselves.
The priests of Delphi were so pleased with the handsome new building,
and with the generosity of the builders, that they were eager to do them
a good turn. So, knowing that the Alcmæonidæ wanted to get back to
Athens, they told the Spartans who came to consult the oracle, that
Hippias should be driven away, and the Alcmæonidæ allowed to return to
their native city.
As the people believed all the oracle said, the Spartans armed at once,
and, helped by the Alcmæonidæ, began to make war against the Athenians.
By a clever trick, they soon managed to capture the family of Hippias,
and they refused to set them free unless the tyrant left Athens forever.
Thus forced to give in, Hippias left Athens, and withdrew with his
family to Asia Minor. Here he spent all his time in trying to persuade
the different cities to make war against Athens, offering to lead their
armies, for he still hoped to regain his lost power.
The Athenians, delighted at the expulsion of the Pis-is-trat´i-dæ, as
the driving-away of Hippias and his family is called in history, now
dared to make statues in honor of their favorites Harmodius and
Aristogiton, and openly expressed their regret that these brave young
men had not lived to see their native city free.
Many songs were composed to celebrate the patriotism of the two
friends; and these were sung on all public occasions, to encourage other
youths to follow their example, lead good and virtuous lives, and be
ready at any time to die, if need be, for the sake of their native land.
Leæna, too, received much praise, for the Athenian women never forgot
how bravely she had endured torture rather than betray the men who had
trusted her.
The Alcmæonidæ, having thus found their way back into the city, now
began to play an important part in the government; and Clis´the-nes,
their leader, urged the Athenians to obey again the laws which had been
made by Solon.
These were slightly changed, however, so as to give more power to the
people; and the government thus became more democratic than ever. Then,
too, Clisthenes said that there should always be ten Athenian generals
who should hold supreme command each for a day in turn.
He also made a law, to the effect that no man should be driven out of
the city unless there were six thousand votes in favor of his exile.
These votes were given in a strange way.
When a man was so generally disliked that his departure seemed best, all
the Athenians assembled in the market place. Then each voter received a
shell (Greek, _ostrakon_), and dropped it into a place made for that
purpose. All in favor of banishment wrote upon their shells the name of
the man they wished to exile. The others left theirs blank.
When all the votes had thus been cast, the shells were carefully
counted, and, if six thousand bore the name of the same man, he was
driven out of the city, or ostracized, as it was called from the name of
the shell, for ten years.
XL. THE GREAT KING.
Hippias, the exiled tyrant of Athens, as we have already seen, had taken
up his abode in Asia Minor, where he made several unsuccessful attempts
to regain his power.
The Greek cities were not ready to help him, however, so he tried to get
another ally. Now, the greatest ruler in Asia Minor was Da-ri´us, the
king who won his throne by the aid of his horse and groom, as you will
see in ancient history.
He was a powerful monarch,--so powerful that the Greeks, who had built
cities all along the coast of Asia Minor, in the country called Ionia,
never spoke of him except as "The Great King."
Darius' kingdom was so large that it was quite impossible for one person
to govern it without help. He therefore divided it into satrapies, or
provinces, each of which was under the care of a satrap, or governor.
These men received their orders from the king, saw that they were obeyed
in all the territory under their care, and kept Darius informed of all
that was going on.
The Great King generally dwelt at Ec-bat´a-na, a city surrounded by
seven walls, each painted in a different but very bright color. Inside
the seventh and last wall stood the palace and treasure house, which was
fairly overflowing with gold and precious stones.
As there were armed soldiers at every gate in the seven walls, only the
people to whom the king was willing to grant an audience could enter.
Now, although so secluded, Darius knew perfectly well all that was
happening in every part of his kingdom, and even in the neighboring
states; for his satraps sent him messengers daily to report all the
news, and he had many paid spies, whose duty it was to tell him all they
knew.
He was therefore one of the first Eastern rulers who heard of the revolt
of the Athenians; and soon after this he learned that Hippias had come
to Asia, and was trying to induce the Greek cities to make war against
the Athenians.
When Hippias arrived at Ecbatana in search of aid, he could not
immediately see the king, but was obliged to send in a message written
on a waxen tablet. This passed from hand to hand, and finally reached
Darius, who, recognizing the name at the bottom of the request,
graciously said that he would receive the exiled tyrant of Athens.
XLI. HIPPIAS VISITS DARIUS.
Hippias was led by one of the officers of the king's household past all
the guards, who respectfully made way for him, and was brought into the
most magnificent dwelling he had ever seen. All the walls were covered
with silken hangings of the richest dyes, and the furniture sparkled
with gold and precious stones.
After passing through many rooms, where he saw richly dressed courtiers,
and guards with jeweled weapons, Hippias was finally brought into a
great audience chamber, at one end of which hung a heavy curtain of
royal purple.
Here all the courtiers knelt, bending over to touch the floor with their
foreheads, in token of homage to The Great King. The officer now bade
Hippias do likewise; and when the Athenian raised his head, after
reluctantly going through this performance, he saw that the curtain had
been quietly pulled aside.
On a beautiful throne of ivory and gold, all overshadowed by a golden
vine bearing clusters of jeweled grapes, sat the Persian king. He was
clad in superbly embroidered robes, wore a diamond crown or tiara, held
a scepter of pure gold, and was surrounded by his officers, who were
almost as richly dressed as he.
As the Athenians were plain people, Hippias had never seen such a sight
before, and stared at the garments, which were far handsomer than those
which the Greek gods were given to wear.
Invited to speak freely and make his errand known, Hippias now told
Darius that he had come to ask his aid against the revolted Athenians.
Darius listened politely to all he had to say, and then sent him away,
graciously promising to think the matter over, and giving orders that
Hippias should be royally entertained in the mean while.
Among Darius' numerous slaves, most of whom were captives of war, there
was a learned Greek doctor called Dem-o-ce´des. This man, hoping soon to
recover his freedom by paying a sum of money, was very careful to hide
his name, and not to tell any one how much he knew.
It happened, however, that the king hurt his foot; and after the Persian
doctors had all vainly tried to cure him, he sent for Democedes, saying
that he would put him to death if he did not speedily help him.
Thus forced to use his knowledge, Democedes did all he could for the
king, and treated the wound so skillfully that the monarch was soon
cured. The king, who had found out from the other captives that the man
was a doctor, now named him court physician, and even had him attend his
wives.
One of these women was A-tos´sa, the favorite queen; and when she became
ill, Democedes was fortunate enough to save her life. The king was so
delighted with this cure, that he bade Democedes choose any reward he
pleased except his freedom.
Democedes, after a few moments' thought, asked permission to visit his
native land once more; and Darius let him go under the escort of fifteen
officers, who had orders not to lose sight of the doctor for a moment,
to bring him back by force if necessary, and to spy out the land.
In spite of the constant watching of these fifteen men, Democedes
managed to escape while they were in Greece, and hid so well that they
were never able to find him. They were therefore obliged to go home
without him; and as soon as they arrived in Persia, they reported to
Darius all they had done on the way.
The Great King questioned them very closely about all they had seen; and
his curiosity was so excited by what they told him, that he made up his
mind to conquer Greece and add it to his kingdom.
He therefore sent for Hippias again, told him that he was ready to help
him, and gave orders to collect one of the largest armies that had ever
been seen. With this army he hoped not only to take the whole country,
but also to get back the runaway doctor, Democedes, who in the mean
while was living peacefully in Greece, where he had married a daughter
of the famous strong man, Milo of Croton.
XLII. DESTRUCTION OF THE PERSIAN HOST.
The Persian preparations for war were hastened by news that all the
Ionian cities had rebelled. These were, as you remember, Greek colonies
founded on the coast of Asia Minor. They had little by little fallen
into the hands of the Persians; but, as they hated to submit to foreign
rule, they had long planned a revolt.
The Athenians, who knew that the Persians were talking of coming over to
conquer them, now offered to help the Ionians, and sent some troops over
to Asia Minor. These joined the rebels, and together they managed to
surprise and burn to the ground the rich city of Sar´dis, which belonged
to Darius.
A messenger was sent in hot haste to bear these tidings to The Great
King; and when he heard them, he was very angry indeed. In his wrath, he
said that he would punish both rebels and Athenians, and immediately
sent his army into Ionia.
The first part of his vow was easily kept, for his troops soon defeated
the Ionian army, and forced the rebels to obey him once more. When
Darius heard this, he was very much pleased; and then, sending for his
bow, he shot an arrow in the direction of Athens, to show that the
punishment of the Athenians would be his next care.
As he was afraid of forgetting these enemies in the pressure of other
business, he gave orders that a slave should appear before him every day
while he sat at dinner, and solemnly say, "Master, remember the
Athenians!"
When the preparations for this distant war were ended, the Persian army
set out for Greece. In order to reach that country, it had to march a
long way through the northern part of Asia Minor, cross a narrow strait
called the Hel´les-pont, and pass along the coast of the Ægean Sea,
through Thrace and Scyth´i-a.
In these countries the Persian army met the fierce and warlike
Scyth´i-ans mounted on their fleet-footed horses, and was nearly cut to
pieces. The Persians were so frightened by the attack of these foes,
that they refused to go any farther, and even beat a hasty retreat.
The Persian fleet in the mean while had sailed along bravely. It soon
came to the promontory formed by Mount A´thos, a tall mountain which
sometimes casts a shadow eighty miles long over the sea. Here a terrible
tempest overtook the fleet, and the waves rose so high that six hundred
vessels were dashed to pieces.
All the rest of the Persian vessels were so damaged by the storm, that
it was soon decided that they had better return home. The soldiers of
The Great King were of course greatly discouraged by these misfortunes;
but Darius was more than ever determined to conquer Greece, and at once
began to gather a second army and to build a second fleet.
XLIII. THE ADVANCE OF THE SECOND HOST.
Darius was very busy preparing this other army to march against Greece.
While the men were being drilled, he sent two messengers to the Greek
towns and islands, bidding them surrender and give him earth and water.
By demanding "earth and water," Darius meant that he wanted them to
recognize him as their king, and as master of all their lands and
vessels. The inhabitants of many of the islands and towns were so
frightened by the messages sent by The Great King, that they humbly
yielded; but when the messengers came to Sparta and Athens, they met
with a different reception.
In both cities the people proudly replied that they were their own
masters, and would not yield to the demands of the Persian king. Then,
angered by the insolent command to give earth and water, the Spartans
entirely forgot that the life of an ambassador is sacred. In their rage,
they seized the Persians, flung one into a pit and the other into a
well, and told them to take all the earth and water they wanted.
This conduct made Darius all the more angry, and he hastened his
preparations as much as he could. He was so active that in a short time
he was able to start out again, with an army of a hundred and twenty
thousand men.
The generals of this force were Da´tis and Ar-ta-pher´-nes, who were
guided and advised by the traitor Hippias. The fleet was to land the
army on the plain of Mar´a-thon, close by the sea, and only one day's
journey from Athens.
When the Athenians heard that the Persians were coming, they immediately
decided to ask the Spartans, who were now their allies, to come to their
aid, and help them drive back the enemy. As there was no time to lose,
they chose as their messenger a fleet-footed Athenian, who made the
journey of a hundred and fifty miles in a few hours, running every step
of the way, and only seldom pausing to rest.
The Spartans listened breathlessly to his tidings, and promised that
they would help the Athenians; but they added, that they would not be
able to start until the moon was full, for they thought that they would
be beaten unless they set out at a certain time.
The Persians in the mean while were advancing rapidly, so the Athenians
started out to meet them with no other help than that of their neighbors
the Pla-tæ´ans. The whole Greek force numbered only ten thousand men,
and was under the command of the ten Athenian generals who were each
entitled to the leadership for a day in turn.
Among these ten Athenian generals were three remarkable
men,--Mil-ti´a-des, Ar-is-ti´des, and The-mis´to-cles. They consulted
together, hoping to find a plan by which their small army could
successfully oppose the Persian host, which was twelve times greater.
At last Miltiades proposed a plan which might succeed, provided there
was but one chief, and all obeyed him well. Aristides, who was not only
a good man, but also remarkably just and wise, at once saw the
importance of such a plan, and offered to give up his day's command, and
to carry out his friend's orders just as if he were nothing but a common
soldier.
[Illustration: Themistocles.]
The other generals, not wishing to appear less generous than he, also
gave up their command to Miltiades, who thus found himself general in
chief of the Athenian and Platæan armies. So he speedily made his
preparations, and drew up his small force on the plain of Marathon,
between the mountains and the sea.
XLIV. THE BATTLE OF MARATHON.
The Greek army seemed so very small beside the huge host of invaders,
that the Persians felt perfectly sure that it would surrender as soon as
the fight began. Imagine their surprise, therefore, when the Greeks,
instead of waiting for them, gave the signal for battle, and rushed
furiously upon them.
The daring and force of the Greek attack so confused the Persians, that
they began to give way. This encouraged the Greeks still further, and
they fought with such bravery that soon the army of The Great King was
completely routed.
Hippias, fighting at the head of the Persian army, was one of the first
to die; and when the Persians saw their companions falling around them
like ripe grain under the mower's scythe, they were seized with terror,
rushed toward the sea, and embarked in their vessels in great haste.
The Athenians followed the enemy closely, killing all they could reach,
and trying to prevent them from embarking and so escaping their wrath.
One Greek soldier even rushed down into the waves, and held a Persian
vessel which was about to push off.
The Persians, anxious to escape, struck at him, and chopped off his
hand; but the Greek, without hesitating a moment, grasped the boat with
his other hand, and held it fast. In their hurry to get away, the
Persians struck off that hand too; but the dauntless hero caught and
held the boat with his strong teeth, and died beneath the repeated
blows of the enemy without having once let go. Thanks to him, not one of
those enemies escaped.
The victory was a glorious one. The whole Persian force had been routed
by a mere handful of men; and the Athenians were so proud of their
victory, that they longed to have their fellow-citizens rejoice with
them.
One of the soldiers, who had fought bravely all day, and who was covered
with blood, said he would carry the glad news, and, without waiting a
moment, he started off at a run.
Such was his haste to reassure the Athenians, that he ran at his utmost
speed, and reached the city in a few hours. He was so exhausted,
however, that he had barely time to gasp out, "Rejoice, we have
conquered!" before he sank down in the middle of the market place, dead.
The Greeks, having no more foes to kill, next began to rob the tents,
where they found so much booty that each man became quite rich. Then
they gathered up their dead, and buried them honorably on the
battlefield, at a spot where they afterward erected ten small columns
bearing the names of all who had lost their lives in the conflict.
Just as all was over, the Spartan force came rushing up, ready to give
their promised aid. They were so sorry not to have had a chance to fight
also, and to have missed a share in the glory, that they vowed they
would never again allow any superstition to prevent their striking a
blow for their native land whenever the necessity arose.
Miltiades, instead of permitting his weary soldiers to camp on the
battlefield, and celebrate their victory by a grand feast, next ordered
them to march on to the city, so as to defend it in case the Persian
fleet came to attack it.
The troops had scarcely arrived in town and taken up their post there,
when the Persian vessels came in; but when the soldiers attempted to
land, and saw the same men ready to meet them, they were so dismayed
that they beat a hasty retreat without striking another blow.
XLV. MILTIADES' DISGRACE.
The victory of Marathon was a great triumph for the Athenians; and
Miltiades, who had so successfully led them, was loaded with honors. His
portrait was painted by the best artist of the day, and it was placed in
one of the porticos of Athens, where every one could see it.
At his request, the main part of the booty was given to the gods, for
the Greeks believed that it was owing to divine favor that they had
conquered their enemies. The brazen arms and shields which they had
taken from the ten thousand Persians killed were therefore melted, and
formed into an immense statue of Athene, which was placed on the
Acropolis, on a pedestal so high that the glittering lance which the
goddess held could be seen far out at sea when the sunbeams struck its
point.
The Athenians vented their triumph and delight in song and dance, in
plays and works of art of all kinds; for they wished to commemorate the
glorious victory which had cost them only a hundred and ninety men,
while the enemy had lost ten thousand.
One of their choicest art treasures was made by Phidias, the greatest
sculptor the world has ever known, out of a beautiful block of marble
which Darius had brought from Persia. The Great King had intended to set
it up in Athens as a monument of his victory over the Greeks. It was
used instead to record his defeat; and when finished, the statue
represented Nem´e-sis, the goddess of retribution, whose place it was to
punish the proud and insolent, and to make them repent of their sins.
Miltiades was, as we have seen, the idol of the Athenian people after
his victory at Marathon. Unfortunately, however, they were inclined to
be fickle; and when they saw that Miltiades occupied such a high rank,
many began to envy him.
Themistocles was particularly jealous of the great honors that his
friend had won. His friends soon noticed his gloomy, discontented looks;
and when they inquired what caused them, Themistocles said it was
because the thought of the trophies of Miltiades would not let him
sleep. Some time after, when he saw that Miltiades was beginning to
misuse his power, he openly showed his dislike.
Not very far from Athens, out in the Ægean Sea, was the Island of
Pa´ros. The people living there were enemies of Miltiades; and he, being
sole head of the fleet, led it thither to avenge his personal wrongs.
The expedition failed, however; and Miltiades came back to Athens,
where Themistocles and the indignant citizens accused him of betraying
his trust, tried him, and convicted him of treason.
Had they not remembered the service that he had rendered his country in
defeating the Persians at Marathon, they would surely have condemned him
to death. As it was, the jury merely sentenced him to pay a heavy fine,
saying that he should remain in prison until it was paid.
Miltiades was not rich enough to raise this large sum of money, so he
died in prison. His son Ci´mon went to claim his body, so that he might
bury it properly; but the hard-hearted judges refused to let him have it
until he had paid his father's debt.
Thus forced to turn away without his father's corpse, Cimon visited his
friends, who lent him the necessary money. Miltiades, who had been the
idol of the people, was now buried hurriedly and in secret, because the
ungrateful Athenians had forgotten all the good he had done them, and
remembered only his faults.
XLVI. ARISTIDES THE JUST.
The Athenians were very happy, because they thought, that, having once
defeated the Persians, they need fear them no more. They were greatly
mistaken, however. The Great King had twice seen his preparations come
to naught and his plans ruined, but he was not yet ready to give up the
hope of conquering Greece.
On the contrary, he solemnly swore that he would return with a greater
army than ever, and make himself master of the proud city which had
defied him. These plans were suspected by Themistocles, who therefore
urged the Athenians to strengthen their navy, so that they might be
ready for war when it came.
Aristides, the other general, was of the opinion that it was useless to
build any more ships, but that the Athenians should increase their land
forces. As each general had a large party, many quarrels soon arose. It
became clear before long, that, unless one of the two leaders left the
town, there would be an outbreak of civil war.
All the Athenians, therefore, gathered together in the market place,
where they were to vote for or against the banishment of one of the
leaders. Of course, on this great occasion, all the workmen left their
labors, and even the farmers came in from the fields.
Aristides was walking about among the voters, when a farmer stopped him.
The man did not know who he was, but begged him to write his vote down
on the shell, for he had never even learned to read.
"What name shall I write?" questioned Aristides.
"Oh, put down 'Aristides,'" answered the farmer.
"Why do you want him sent away? Has he ever done you any harm?" asked
Aristides.
"No," said the man, "but I'm tired of hearing him called the Just."
Without saying another word, Aristides calmly wrote his own name on the
shell. When the votes were counted, they found six thousand against him:
so Aristides the Just was forced to leave his native city, and go away
into exile.
This was a second example of Athenian ingratitude; for Aristides had
never done anything wrong, but had, on the contrary, done all he could
to help his country. His enemies, however, were the men who were neither
honest nor just, and who felt that his virtues were a constant rebuke to
them; and this was the very reason why they were so anxious to get him
out of the city.
XLVII. TWO NOBLE SPARTAN YOUTHS.
Darius was in the midst of his preparations for a third expedition to
Greece, when all his plans were cut short by death. His son and
successor, Xerx´es I., now became King of Persia in his stead.
The new monarch was not inclined to renew the struggle with the Greeks;
but his courtiers and the exiled Greeks who dwelt in his palace so
persistently urged him to do it, that he finally consented. Orders were
then sent throughout the kingdom to get ready for war, and Xerxes said
that he would lead the army himself.
During eight years the constant drilling of troops, manufacture of arms,
collecting of provisions, and construction of roads, were kept up all
through Asia. A mighty fleet lay at anchor, and the king was almost
ready to start. Rumors of these great preparations had, of course, come
to the ears of the Greeks. All hearts were filled with trouble and fear;
for the coming army was far larger than the one the Athenians had
defeated at Marathon, and they could not expect to be so fortunate
again.
When the Spartans saw the terror of the people, they regretted having
angered the king by killing the Persian messengers, and wondered what
they could do to disarm his wrath. Two young men, Bu´lis and
Sper´thi-as, then nobly resolved to offer their lives in exchange for
those that had been taken.
They therefore set out for Persia, and, having obtained permission to
enter the palace, appeared before the king. Here the courtiers bade them
fall down before the monarch, and do homage to him, as they saw the
others do. But the proud young men refused to do so, saying that such
honor could be shown only to their gods, and that it was not the custom
of their country to humble themselves thus. Xerxes, to the surprise of
his courtiers did not at all resent their refusal to fall down before
him, but kindly bade them make their errand known.
Thus invited to speak, one of them replied, "King of Persia, some years
ago our people killed two of your father's messengers. It was wrong to
touch an ambassador, we know. You are about to visit our country to seek
revenge for this crime. Desist, O king! for we have come hither, my
friend and I, to offer our lives in exchange for those our people have
taken. Here we are! Do with us as you will."
Xerxes was filled with admiration when he heard this speech, and saw the
handsome youths standing quietly before him, ready to die to atone for
their country's wrong. Instead of accepting their offer, he loaded them
with rich gifts, and sent them home unharmed, telling them he would not
injure the innocent, for he was more just than the Lac-e-dæ-mo´ni-ans.
But a few months later, when his preparations were complete, Xerxes set
out with an army which is said to have numbered more than two million
fighting men. As they were attended by slaves and servants of all kinds,
some of the old historians say that ten millions of human beings were
included in this mighty host.
XLVIII. THE GREAT ARMY.
Xerxes' army marched in various sections across Asia Minor, and all the
forces came together at the Hellespont. Here the king had ordered the
building of two great bridges,--one for the troops, and the other for
the immense train of baggage which followed him.
These bridges were no sooner finished than a rising storm entirely
destroyed them. When Xerxes heard of the disaster, he not only condemned
the unlucky engineers to death, but also had the waves flogged with
whips, and ordered chains flung across the strait, to show that he
considered the sea an unruly slave, who should be taught to obey his
master.
Then, undaunted by his misfortune, the King of Persia gave orders for
the building of new bridges; and when they were finished, he reviewed
his army from the top of a neighboring mountain.
The sight must have been grand indeed, and the courtiers standing around
were greatly surprised when they saw their master suddenly burst into
tears. When asked the cause of his sorrow, Xerxes answered, "See that
mighty host spread out as far as eye can reach! I weep at the thought
that a hundred years hence there will be nothing left of it except,
perhaps, a handful of dust and a few moldering bones!"
The king was soon comforted, however, and crossed the bridge first,
attended by his bodyguard of picked soldiers, who were called the
Immortals because they had never suffered defeat. All the army followed
him, and during seven days and nights the bridge resounded with the
steady tramp of the armed host; but, even when the rear guard had passed
over the Hellespont, there were still so many slaves and baggage wagons,
that it took them a whole month to file past.
That was a procession such as has never again been seen. You can imagine
what a sight it was for all the boys and girls who lived near enough to
the Hellespont to see this mighty parade, which continued night and day.
They saw not only the sacred chariot drawn by eight white horses, the
glittering array of the Immortals, the burnished helmets and arms of the
foot soldiers, and the silken canopies and tents over the grandees, but
also countless chariots drawn by four horses, and provided on either
side with sharp scythes, which were intended to mow down the enemy like
ripe grain.
[Illustration: Crossing the Hellespont.]
Besides these strange mowing machines, there were many other engines of
war, which were all made to strike terror into the hearts of the Greeks,
and to subdue completely the proud people who had so sorely defeated
Darius' troops at Marathon.
To prevent his fleet from being wrecked as his father's was, Xerxes had
given orders to dig a great canal across the isthmus that connected
Mount Athos with the mainland; and through this the vessels sailed past
the promontory in safety.
XLIX. PREPARATIONS FOR DEFENSE.
The news of Xerxes' crossing of the Hellespont, and of his approach to
conquer Greece, soon reached Athens, where it filled all hearts with
fear. The people then remembered Miltiades, and bitterly regretted his
death, and their ingratitude, which had been its real cause.
As the mighty general who had already once delivered them was dead, they
tried to think who could best replace him, and decided to recall
Aristides the Just from his undeserved exile. Aristides generously
forgave his fellow-citizens for all the harm they had done him, and he
and Themistocles began to do all in their power to insure the safety of
Athens.
Swift runners were dispatched in every direction with messages urging
all the Greek cities to unite for the good of the country by sending as
many brave men as possible to check the Persian army, and to try to
hinder it from really entering Greece.
Themistocles was the most active in this attempt to induce the Greek
cities to join forces, and it was he who planned a great council, or
meeting, at Corinth, in 481 B.C. There it soon became evident that the
cities were too jealous of each other to unite as they should.
Many of them promised help, which they never sent; others vowed they
would neither send troops nor furnish aid of any kind, unless _their_
generals had supreme command; and even the oracles gave vague and
discouraging answers, when consulted as usual.
In spite of all these drawbacks, Themistocles managed to get a few
allies; and, in order to induce the Spartans to lend their aid, he
promised them the command not only of the army, but also of the fleet.
He next persuaded them that it would be wisest to send an armed force
into Thessaly, so as to defend the narrow pass of Thermopylæ, which was
the only road by which the Persians could enter Greece. This natural
causeway, as we have seen, lay between the mountains and the sea; and,
because there were springs of warm water here, it was generally known as
Thermopylæ, which is the Greek for "Hot Gateway."
Under the guidance of Le-on´i-das, one of the Spartan kings, three
hundred Lacedæmonian soldiers and six thousand allies marched thither,
and undertook to guard the pass. This was a very small army; but it was
impossible to get more soldiers at the time, as all the Greeks were more
anxious to attend the Olympic games, which were just then being
celebrated, than to defend their country and homes.
Many of them said they were afraid the gods would be angry if they did
not keep the feast as usual, and declared that it was against the law to
bear arms or make war during that time. This was perfectly true; but
Xerxes did not care at all for the Greek gods, and the country would
have been defenseless had it not been for Leonidas and his handful of
men.
While this little army traveled northwards, the rest of the people
thronged to Olympia, promising to come and fight as soon as the games
were ended, and they could again bear arms without offending the gods.
The Persian fleet, as you have seen, had passed behind Mount Athos,
instead of rounding it as before, and Xerxes intended landing part of
his army just below Thermopylæ. Unfortunately for him, however, the four
hundred vessels bearing his troops were wrecked by a sudden storm.
Another fleet was immediately prepared; but, before it was ready, the
Olympic games came to an end, and the Greeks, flying to arms as they had
promised, hastily embarked upon their own vessels, and came and took up
their position at Ar-te-mis´ium, to hinder the advance of the Persian
fleet.
[Illustration]
L. LEONIDAS AT THERMOPYLÆ
The Persian army had come to the Pass of Thermopylæ; and Xerxes, seeing
that it was guarded by only a few men, sent them a haughty message,
bidding them surrender their arms.
Instead of seeing a meek compliance with this request, as they expected,
the Persian heralds were amazed to hear Leonidas reply with true laconic
brevity, "Come and take them!"
The Spartan king, however, had quickly seen that it would be impossible
for him to do much more than stop for a while the advance of this mighty
host. As a Spartan never drew back, he made up his mind to die on the
field of battle, and bade his warriors comb their hair, don their
choicest armor, and dress themselves in their richest attire, as was the
custom when some great danger threatened them and they expected to die.
The Persians, seeing this, were greatly surprised, and advanced
confidently, for they fancied that men who took so much trouble to curl
and perfume their hair would not be hard to conquer. They soon found out
their mistake.
As they advanced, the archers shot a volley of arrows, and in such
numbers that they fairly darkened the sun. One of the allies, seeing
this, ran to warn Leonidas; but he received the startling news with
great coolness, and merely said, "Very well; then we can fight in the
shade."
When Xerxes saw that the Greeks would not yield without striking a blow,
he gave orders for the battle to begin. The Persians pressed forward,
under the eye of their king, who sat high up on the rocks to see them
conquer; but, to his surprise, they were driven back by that mere
handful of men.
Again and again they tried to force the pass, but all their attempts
proved vain. The Persian soldiers, amazed at the courage of the Greeks,
were filled with superstitious fears, and began to refuse to advance,
except when driven onward under the stinging blows of the lash.
The king was furious to see their close ranks give way time after time,
and finally ordered his own Immortals to march on and scatter the army,
which, although so small, was keeping millions of men at bay. He
expected that everything would of course give way at the very first
charge of these troops.
Imagine his wrath, therefore, when he saw the Immortals also retreat,
after many useless efforts to drive away the enemy. The Persians did not
know what to do. They could not advance, and were ashamed to retreat.
LI. DEATH OF LEONIDAS.
While the Persians were hesitating thus, a Greek shepherd, Eph-i-al´tes,
stole into their camp, and, vile traitor that he was, offered to show
them another way to get into Greece, if they would pay him well. This
man was led into the tent of a Persian general, where he explained that
he could easily lead a troop of Persians over the mountains.
By a goat path known to the Greeks only, it was possible not only to
cross the mountains, but also to come down upon the small Greek force
guarding the Pass of Thermopylæ.
His offer as guide was accepted. Ephialtes, true to his promise, if not
to his country, led the Persian Immortals along this narrow way.
Leonidas, who could not imagine that any one of the Greeks would be base
enough to sell his country and honor for gold, had placed only a few of
the allies at this spot.
[Illustration: A Fighting Persian.]
The Immortals followed Ephialtes, easily cut these few men down, and
came unperceived behind the Spartan troops. It was only when he heard
the tramp of horses behind him and on the mountain above him, that
Leonidas found out that he had been betrayed.
Hastily calling his allies, he gave them permission to save themselves
by flight, declaring, however, that he and his companions would never
leave their post, and that, since they could not conquer, they were
ready to die.
Some of the allies took advantage of this permission to escape, but
seven hundred Thes´pi-ans nobly chose to remain with the Spartans. With
the courage of despair, these men now fought against the Persians before
and behind them, selling their lives as dearly as possible. In spite of
the odds against them, they refused to surrender, and finally fell, one
after another, on the spot which they had undertaken to guard.
Their bodies, which were found almost in a heap,--for they had scorned
to fly,--were honorably buried in a single mound, over which rose a
monument with this modest inscription,--
"Go, passer-by, at Sparta tell,
Obedient to her law we fell."
The Persians had forced their way into Greece. Nothing could check their
further advance, so the mighty army swept southward. The first place of
note on their way to Athens was Delphi, the site of the sacred temple,
where great treasures were stored.
The Greeks knew that the Persians did not worship the same gods, and
feared that they might rob the temple: so they now eagerly questioned
the oracle, to find out whether they should not all assemble there in
its defense.
To their surprise, the oracle proudly replied, "The gods will take care
of their own," and bade them rather use their strength to defend their
own homes.
The Persians marched into the rocky gorge leading to the temple at
Delphi, but just as they were entering the valley a terrible
thunderstorm broke forth. The darkness became so great that the
soldiers lost their way. The rocks rolled and crashed down upon them;
and the soldiers, filled with dread, beat a hasty retreat, and never
again dared venture into this valley.
In the mean while the Greek fleet at Artemisium had held the Persian
vessels at bay, until news was brought of the death of Leonidas, and the
passage of Thermopylæ. Then the Greeks sailed as fast as they could
toward Athens, knowing that they would be needed there to defend the
city.
The various allies, sure that it would be quite useless to try to defend
the northern part of Greece any longer, retreated into the Peloponnesus,
and, hoping to prevent the Persians from entering there, hastily began
to build a huge wall all across the Isthmus of Corinth, which is only
about five miles wide.
LII. THE BURNING OF ATHENS.
As all their allies were trying only to defend the Peloponnesus, the
Athenians were left entirely alone. Many of their friends advised them
to abandon their city, and follow the other Greeks southward, leaving
all Attica a prey to the foe.
This the Athenians did not wish to do, so they sent in haste to Delphi,
to inquire of the oracle whether they had better retreat, or attempt to
defend their city. As was generally the case, the oracle did not give a
plain answer, but merely said, "The wooden walls will defend you and
your children."
When this answer was brought to Athens, no one could tell exactly what
it meant. Some of the citizens fancied that the oracle was advising them
to retreat behind the ancient wooden stockade on the Acropolis, but
Themistocles insisted that by "wooden walls" the oracle meant their
ships.
He finally persuaded the Athenians to believe him. All the old men,
women, and children were hastily brought on board the ships, and carried
to the Peloponnesus, where they were welcomed by their friends. Then the
men embarked in their turn, and the fleet sailed off to the Bay of
Sal´a-mis, where it awaited a good chance to fight.
The Persians swept down into Attica, and entered the deserted city of
Athens. Here they gazed in wonder at all they saw, and, after robbing
the houses, set fire to the town, and burned down all the most beautiful
buildings.
The Persians were so delighted at having attained their purpose, and
reduced the proud city to ashes, that they sent messengers to bear the
glad tidings to the Persian capital. Here the people became almost wild
with joy, and the whole city rang with their cries of triumph for many a
day.
As you will remember, Themistocles had allowed the Spartans to command
both the army and the navy. It was therefore a Spartan king,
Eu-ry-bi´a-des, who was head of the fleet at Salamis. He was a careful
man, and was not at all in favor of attacking the Persians.
Themistocles, on the contrary, felt sure that an immediate attack, being
unexpected, would prove successful, and therefore loudly insisted upon
it. His persistency in urging it finally made Eurybiades so angry that
he exclaimed, "Those who begin the race before the signal is given are
publicly scourged!"
Themistocles, however, would not allow even this remark to annoy him,
and calmly answered, "Very true, but laggards never win a crown!" The
reply, which Eurybiades thought was meant for an insult, so enraged him
that he raised his staff to strike the bold speaker. At this, the brave
Athenian neither drew back nor flew into a passion: he only cried,
"Strike if you will, but hear me!"
Once more Themistocles explained his reasons for urging an immediate
attack; and his plans were so good, that Eurybiades, who could but
admire his courage, finally yielded, and gave orders to prepare for
battle.
LIII. THE BATTLES OF SALAMIS AND PLATÆA.
The fleets soon came face to face; and Xerxes took up his post on a
mountain, where he sat in state upon a hastily built throne to see his
vessels destroy the enemy. He had made very clever plans, and, as his
fleet was far larger than that of the Greeks, he had no doubt that he
would succeed in defeating them.
His plans, however, had been found out by Aristides, who was in the
Island of Ægina; and this noble man rowed over to the fleet, at the risk
of being caught by the enemy, to warn his fellow-citizens of their
danger.
He first spoke to Themistocles, saying, "Rivals we have always been; let
us now set all other rivalry aside, and only strive which can best serve
his native country."
Themistocles agreed to this proposal, and managed affairs so wisely and
bravely that the Greeks won a great victory. When they came home in
triumph with much spoil, the women received them with cries of joy, and
strewed flowers under their feet.
From his high position, Xerxes saw his fleet cut to pieces; and he was
so discouraged by this check, that he hastened back to Persia, leaving
his brother-in-law Mar-do´ni-us with an army of three hundred thousand
men to finish the conquest of Greece.
The Greeks were so happy over their naval victory at Salamis, that they
all flew to arms once more; and Pau-sa´ni-as, the Spartan king, the
successor of Leonidas, was soon able to lead a large army against
Mardonius.
The two forces met at Pla-tæ´a, and again the Greeks won, although
fighting against foes who greatly outnumbered them. Strange to relate,
while Pausanias was winning one battle at Platæa, the other Spartan
king, Eurybiades, defeated a new Persian fleet at Myc´a-le.
These two victories finished the rout of the greatest army ever seen.
Mardonius fled with the remnant of his host, leaving his tents, baggage,
and slaves to the Greeks, who thus got much booty.
We are told that the Spartans, entering the Persian camp, were greatly
amazed at the luxury of the tents. Pausanias stopped in the one that had
been occupied by Mardonius, and bade the slaves prepare a meal such as
they had been wont to lay before their master.
[Illustration: Return of the Victorious Greeks.]
Then, calling his own Helots, he gave orders for his usual supper. When
both meals were ready, they made the greatest contrast. The Persian tent
was all decked with costly hangings, the table was spread with many
kinds of rich food served in dishes of solid gold, and soft couches were
spread for the guests.
The Spartan supper, on the contrary, was of the plainest description,
and was served in ordinary earthenware. Pausanias called his officers
and men, and, after pointing out the difference between the Spartan and
the Persian style of living, he showed how much he liked plain food by
eating his usual supper.
To reward Pausanias for his bravery and for defeating the enemy, the
Greeks gave him a part of all that was best in the spoil. Next they set
aside one tenth of it for Apollo, and sent it to his priests at Delphi
as a token of gratitude for the favor of the god.
To show that they were grateful also to Zeus and Poseidon,--the gods
who, they thought, had helped them to win their battles by land and by
sea,--they sent statues to Olympia and Corinth; and they erected a
temple in honor of Athene, the goddess of defensive war, on the
battlefield of Platæa.
LIV. THE REBUILDING OF ATHENS.
The Persians had been driven out of Greece, and the war with them was
now carried on in Asia Minor instead of nearer home. The Greek army won
many battles here also, and even managed to free the city of Miletus
from the Persian yoke.
These triumphs encouraged all the Ionian cities, and they soon formed a
league with the other Greeks, promising to help them against the
Persians should the war ever be renewed. As soon as this alliance was
made, the Greek fleet returned home, bringing back to Athens as a trophy
the chains with which Xerxes had pretended to bind the rebellious sea.
In the mean while the Athenians, who had taken refuge on the
Peloponnesus, had returned to their native city, where, alas! they found
their houses and temples in ruins. The desolation was great; yet the
people were so thankful to return, that they prepared to rebuild the
town.
They were greatly encouraged in this purpose by an event which seemed to
them a good omen. Near the temple of the patron goddess of Athens stood
a sacred olive tree, supposed to have been created by her at the time
when the city received her name.
This place had been burned by the invaders, and the returning Athenians
sorrowfully gazed upon the blackened trunk of the sacred tree. Imagine
their delight, therefore, when a new shoot suddenly sprang up from the
ashes, and put forth leaves with marvelous speed.
The people all cried that the goddess had sent them this sign of her
continued favor to encourage them to rebuild the city, and they worked
with such energy that they were soon provided with new homes.
As soon as the Athenians had secured shelter for their families, they
began to restore the mighty walls which had been the pride of their
city. When the Spartans heard of this, they jealously objected, for they
were afraid that Athens would become more powerful than Sparta.
Of course, they did not want to own that they were influenced by so mean
a feeling as jealousy, so they tried to find a pretext to hinder the
work. This was soon found, and Spartan messengers came and told the
Athenians that they should not fortify the town, lest it should fall
again into the hands of the enemy, and serve them as a stronghold.
Themistocles suspected the real cause of these objections, and made up
his mind to use all his talents to help his fellow-citizens. He
therefore secretly assembled the most able men, and told them to go on
with the work as fast as possible, while he went to Sparta to talk over
the matter with the Lacedæmonians.
When he arrived at Sparta, he artfully prolonged the discussions until
the walls were built high enough to be defended. Of course, there was
now nothing to be done; but the Spartans were very angry, and waited
anxiously for an opportunity to punish the Athenians. This came after a
time, as you will see in the following chapters.
LV. DEATH OF PAUSANIAS.
Pausanias, the Spartan king, was very proud of the great victory he had
won over the Persians at Platæa, and of the praise and booty he had
received. He was so proud of it, that he soon became unbearable, and
even wanted to become ruler of all Greece.
Although he had at first pretended to despise the luxury which he had
seen in the tent of Mardonius, he soon began to put on the Persian dress
and to copy their manners, and demanded much homage from his subjects.
This greatly displeased the simple Greeks, and he soon saw that they
would not help him to become sole king.
In his ambition to rule alone, he entirely forgot all that was right,
and, turning traitor, secretly offered to help the Persians if they
would promise to make him king over all Greece.
This base plot was found out by the ephors, the officers whose duty it
was to watch the kings, and they ordered his own guards to seize him.
Before this order could be carried out, however, Pausanias fled, and
took refuge in a neighboring temple, where, of course, no one could lay
violent hands upon him.
As the ephors feared he might even yet escape to Persia, and carry out
his wicked plans, they ordered that the doors and windows of the temple
should all be walled up.
It is said that as soon as this command had been given, Pausanias'
mother brought the first stone, saying she preferred that her son should
die, rather than live to be a traitor.
Thus walled in, Pausanias slowly starved to death, and the barriers were
torn down only just in time to allow him to be carried out, and breathe
his last in the open air. The Spartans would not let him die in the
temple, because they thought his dying breath would offend the gods.
As Themistocles had been a great friend of Pausanias, he was accused of
sharing his plans. The Athenians therefore rose up against him in anger,
ostracized him, and drove him out of the country to end his life in
exile.
After wandering aimlessly about for some time, Themistocles finally went
to the court of Ar-tax-erx´es, the son and successor of Xerxes.
The Persian monarch, we are told, welcomed him warmly, gave him a
Persian wife, and set aside three cities to supply him with bread, meat,
and wine. Themistocles soon grew very rich, and lived on the fat of the
land; and a traveler said that he once exclaimed, "How much we should
have lost, my children and I, had we not been ruined by the Athenians!"
Artaxerxes, having thus provided for all Themistocles' wants, and helped
him to pile up riches, fancied that his gratitude would lead him to
perform any service the king might ask. He therefore sent for
Themistocles one day, and bade him lead a Persian army against the
Greeks.
But, although Themistocles had been exiled from his country, he had not
fallen low enough to turn traitor. He proudly refused to fight; and it
is said that he preferred to commit suicide, rather than injure the
people he had once loved so dearly.
LVI. CIMON IMPROVES ATHENS.
As soon as Themistocles had been banished from Athens, Aristides again
became the chief man of the city, and he was also made the head and
leader of the allies. He was so upright and just that all were ready to
honor and obey him, and they gladly let him take charge of the money of
the state.
In reward for his services, the Athenians offered him a large salary and
many rich gifts; but he refused them all, saying that he needed nothing,
and could afford to serve his country without pay.
He therefore went on seeing to all the public affairs until his death,
when it was found that he was so poor that there was not enough money
left to pay for his funeral. The Athenians, touched by his virtues, gave
him a public burial, held his name in great honor, and often regretted
that they had once been so ungrateful as to banish their greatest
citizen, Aristides the Just.
As Aristides had watched carefully over the money of the allied states,
and had ruled the Athenians very wisely, it is no wonder that Athens had
little by little risen above Sparta, which had occupied the first place
ever since the battle of Thermopylæ.
The Athenians, as long as Aristides lived, showed themselves just and
liberal; but as soon as he was dead, they began to treat their former
allies unkindly. The money which all the Greek states furnished was now
no longer used to strengthen the army and navy, as first agreed, but was
lavishly spent to beautify the city.
Now, while it was a good thing to make their town as fine as possible,
it was certainly wrong to use the money of others for this purpose, and
the Athenians were soon punished for their dishonesty.
Cimon, the son of Miltiades, was made the head of the army, and won
several victories over the Persians in Asia Minor. When he returned to
Athens, he brought back a great deal of spoil, and generously gave up
all his share to improve the city and strengthen the walls.
[Illustration: The Theseum.]
It is said that Cimon also enlarged the beautiful gardens of the
A-cad´e-my; and the citizens, by wandering up and down the shady walks,
showed that they liked this as well as the Lyceum, which, you will
remember, Pisistratus had given them.
They also went in crowds to these gardens to hear the philosophers, who
taught in the cool porticoes or stone piazzas built all around them, and
there they learned many good things.
Cimon showed his patriotism in still another way by persuading the
people that the remains of Theseus, their ancient king, should rest in
the city. Theseus' bones were therefore brought from Scyros, the island
where he had been killed so treacherously, and were buried near the
center of Athens, where the resting-place of this great man was marked
by a temple called the The-se´um. A building of this name is still
standing in the city; and, although somewhat damaged, it is now used as
a museum, and contains a fine statue of Theseus.
LVII. THE EARTHQUAKE.
Cimon, as you have already seen, was very wealthy, and as generous as he
was rich. Besides spending so much for the improvement of the city, he
always kept an open house. His table was bountifully spread, and he
gladly received as guests all who chose to walk into his home.
Whenever he went out, he was followed by servants who carried full
purses, and whose duty it was to help all the poor they met. As Cimon
knew that many of the most deserving poor would have been ashamed to
receive alms, these men found out their wants, and supplied them
secretly.
Now, although Cimon was so good and thoughtful, you must not imagine
that it was always very easy for him to be so. It seems that when he was
a young man he was very idle and lazy, and never thought of anything but
his own pleasure.
Aristides the Just noticed how lazy and selfish the young man was, and
one day went to see him. After a little talk, Aristides told him
seriously that he ought to be ashamed of the life he was living, as it
was quite unworthy of a good citizen or of a noble man.
This reproof was so just, that Cimon promised to do better, and tried so
hard that he soon became one of the most industrious and unselfish men
of his day.
Cimon was not the only rich man in Athens, however; for Per´i-cles,
another citizen, was even wealthier than he. As Pericles was shrewd,
learned, and very eloquent, he soon gained much influence over his
fellow-citizens.
While Cimon was generally seen in the company of men of his own class,
and was hence considered the leader of the nobles or aristocrats,
Pericles liked to talk with the poorer class, whom he could easily sway
by his eloquent speeches, and who soon made him their idol.
Day by day the two parties became more distinct, and soon the Athenians
sided either with Pericles or with Cimon in all important matters. The
two leaders were at first very good friends, but little by little they
drifted apart, and finally they became rivals.
About this time an earthquake brought great misfortunes upon Greece. The
whole country shook and swayed, and the effects of the earthquake were
so disastrous at Sparta that all the houses and temples were destroyed.
Many of the inhabitants were crushed under the falling stones and
timbers, and there were only five houses left standing. The Spartans
were in despair; and the Helots, or slaves, who had long been waiting
for an opportunity to free themselves, fancied that the right time had
come.
They quickly assembled, and decided to kill the Spartans while they were
groping about among the ruined dwellings for the remains of their
relatives and friends.
The plan would have succeeded had not the king, Ar-chi-da´mus, found it
out. Without a moment's delay, he rallied all the able-bodied men, and
sent a swift messenger to Athens for aid.
True to their military training, the Spartans dropped everything when
the summons reached them; and the Helots came marching along, only to
find their former masters drawn up in battle array, and as calm as if no
misfortune had happened.
This unexpected resistance so frightened the Helots, that they hastily
withdrew into Messenia. Here they easily persuaded the Messenians to
join forces with them and declare war against the Spartans.
In the mean while the swift runner sent by Archidamus had reached
Athens, and told about the destruction of the town and the perilous
situation of the people. He ended by imploring the Athenians to send
immediate aid, lest all the Spartans should perish.
Cimon, who was generous and kind-hearted, immediately cried out that the
Athenians could not refuse to help their unhappy neighbors; but
Pericles, who, like most of his fellow-citizens, hated the Spartans,
advised all his friends to stay quietly at home.
Much discussion took place over this advice. At last, however, Cimon
prevailed, and an army was sent to help the Spartans. Owing to the
hesitation of the Athenians, this army came late, and they fought with
so little spirit that the Lacedæmonians indignantly said that they might
just as well have remained at home.
This insult so enraged the Athenians that they went home; and when it
became publicly known how the Spartans had treated their army, the
people began to murmur against Cimon. In their anger, they forgot all
the good he had done them, and, assembling in the market place, they
ostracized him.
LVIII. THE AGE OF PERICLES.
As soon as Cimon had been banished, Pericles became sole leader of the
Athenians; and as he governed them during a long and prosperous time,
this period is generally known as the Age of Pericles.
The Spartans who had so rudely sent away their Athenian allies manfully
resolved to help themselves, and set about it so vigorously that they
soon brought the Helots back to order, and rebuilt their city. When they
had settled themselves comfortably, however, they remembered the
lukewarm help which had been given them, and determined to punish the
Athenians.
The Persian general was just then planning a new invasion of Greece, so
the Athenians found themselves threatened with a twofold danger. In
their distress they recalled Cimon, who was an excellent general, and
implored him to take command of their forces.
Cimon fully justified their confidence, and not only won several
victories over the Spartans, but compelled them at last to agree to a
truce of five years. This matter settled, he next attacked the Persians,
whom he soon defeated by land and by sea.
He then forced Artaxerxes, the Persian king, to swear a solemn oath that
he would never again wage war against the Athenians, and forbade the
Persian vessels ever to enter the Ægean Sea.
[Illustration: Pericles.]
These triumphs won, Cimon died from the wounds he had received during
the war. His death, however, was kept secret for a whole month, so that
the people would have time to get used to a new leader, and not be
afraid to fight without their former general.
While Cimon was thus successfully battling with the enemy abroad,
Pericles had managed affairs at home. He urged the Athenians to finish
their walls; and by his advice they built also the Long Walls, which
joined the city to the Pi-ræ´us, a seaport five miles away.
Pericles also increased the Athenian navy, so that, by the time the
five-years' truce was over, he had a fine fleet to use in fighting
against the Spartans.
As every victory won by the Athenians had only made Sparta more jealous,
the war was renewed, and carried on with great fury on both sides. The
Spartans gained the first victories; but, owing to their better navy,
the Athenians soon won over all the neighboring cities, and got the
upper hand of their foes.
[Illustration: The Acropolis.]
They were about to end the war by a last victory at Cor-o-ne´a, when
fortune suddenly deserted them, and they were so sorely beaten that they
were very glad to agree to a truce and return home.
By the treaty then signed, the Athenians bound themselves to keep the
peace during a term of thirty years. In exchange, the Spartans allowed
them to retain the cities which they had conquered, and the leadership
of one of the confederacies formed by the Greek states, reserving the
head of the other for themselves.
During these thirty years of peace, Pericles was very busy, and his
efforts were directed for the most part toward the improvement of
Athens. By his advice a magnificent temple, the Par´the-non, was built
on top of the Acropolis, in honor of Athene.
This temple, one of the wonders of the world, was decorated with
beautiful carvings by Phidias, and all the rich Athenians went to see
them as soon as they were finished. This sculptor also made a
magnificent gold and ivory statue of the goddess, to stand in the midst
of the Parthenon. But in spite of all his talent, Phidias had many
enemies. After a while they wrongfully accused him of stealing part of
the gold intrusted to him. Phidias vainly tried to defend himself; but
they would not listen to him, and put him in prison, where he died.
Between the temple of Athene and the city there was a series of steps
and beautiful porticoes, decorated with paintings and sculptures, which
have never been surpassed.
Many other beautiful buildings were erected under the rule of Pericles;
and the beauty and art loving Athenians could soon boast that their city
was the finest in the world. Artists from all parts of the country
thronged thither in search of work, and all were well received by
Pericles.
[Illustration: Phidias.]
LIX. THE TEACHINGS OF ANAXAGORAS.
As Pericles was a very cultivated man, he liked to meet and talk with
the philosophers, and to befriend the artists. He was greatly attached
to the sculptor Phidias, and he therefore did all in his power to save
him from the envy of his fellow-citizens.
An-ax-ag´o-ras, a philosopher of great renown, was the friend and
teacher of Pericles. He, too, won the dislike of the people; and, as
they could not accuse him also of stealing, they charged him with
publicly teaching that the gods they worshiped were not true gods, and
proposed to put him to death for this crime.
Now, Anaxagoras had never heard of the true God, the God whom we
worship. He had heard only of Zeus, Athene, and the other gods honored
by his people; but he was so wise and so thoughtful that he believed the
world could never have been created by such divinities as those.
He observed all he saw very attentively, and shocked the people greatly
by saying that the sun was not a god driving in a golden chariot, but a
great glowing rock, which, in spite of its seemingly small size, he
thought must be about as large as the Peloponnesus.
Of course, this seems very strange to you. But Anaxagoras lived more
than two thousand years ago, and since then people have constantly been
finding out new things and writing them in books, so it is no wonder
that in this matter you are already, perhaps, wiser than he. When you
come to study about the sun, you will find that Anaxagoras was partly
right, but that, instead of being only as large as the Peloponnesus, the
sun is more than a million times larger than the whole earth!
Anaxagoras also tried to explain that the moon was probably very much
like the earth, with mountains, plains, and seas. These things, which
they could not understand, made the Athenians so angry that they exiled
the philosopher, in spite of all Pericles could say.
Anaxagoras went away without making any fuss, and withdrew to a distant
city, where he continued his studies as before. Many people regretted
his absence, and missed his wise conversation, but none so much as
Pericles, who never forgot him, and who gave him money enough to keep
him in comfort.
Another great friend of Pericles was a woman called As-pa´sia. She was
so bright that the wisest men of Athens used to go to her house merely
for the pleasure of talking to her. All the best-informed people in town
used to assemble there; and Cimon and Pericles, Phidias, Anaxagoras, and
Soc´ra-tes were among her chosen friends.
LX. BEGINNING OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
The end of Pericles' long and useful life was troubled by a new war
between Athens and Sparta; for, as soon as the thirty-years' truce was
ended, both cities flew to arms. The war which then began, and which in
history is known as the Peloponnesian War, lasted almost as long as the
truce; that is to say, for nearly thirty years.
Pericles knew very well that the Athenians, not being so well trained,
were no match for the Spartans on land. He therefore advised all the
people to come into the city, and take refuge behind the mighty walls,
while the fleet carried on the war by sea.
This advice was followed. All the farmers left their fields, and crowded
into Athens. When the Spartans came into Attica, they found the farms
and villages deserted; but from the top of the Acropolis the people
could see the enemy burn down their empty dwellings and destroy the
harvests in their fields.
In the mean while the Athenian fleet had sailed out of the Piræus, and
had gone down into the Peloponnesus, where the troops landed from time
to time, striking terror into the hearts of the inhabitants, and causing
much damage.
The Spartans also had a fleet; but it was so much smaller than that of
the Athenians, that it could not offer any very great resistance. Still
the time came when a battle was to take place between the vessels of the
two cities.
It happened on a day when there was to be an eclipse of the sun. Now,
you know that this is a very simple and natural thing. An eclipse of the
sun is a darkening of its surface, which occurs whenever the moon passes
between it and the earth.
As the moon is a very large and solid body, we cannot see either through
or around it, and for a few minutes while it is directly between us and
the sun it entirely hides the latter from our sight. Pericles, who had
so often talked with Anaxagoras and the other learned men of his day,
knew what an eclipse was, and had even been told that one would soon
take place. He was therefore quite ready for it, warned his soldiers
that it was coming, and illustrated his meaning by flinging his cloak
over the head of his pilot.
"Can you see the sun now?" he asked.--"Why, no! master, of course not!"
replied the man. "Your thick cloak is between me and the sun; how could
I see through it?"--"Well, neither can you see through the moon, then,"
replied Pericles.
His men, thus warned, showed no fear of the eclipse; but the Spartans,
who did not trouble themselves greatly with learning, were terrified.
They imagined that the darkening of the sun at midday was the sign of
some coming misfortune, and hardly dared to fight against the Athenians.
Thanks to this superstitious fear, Pericles laid waste the fields of the
Peloponnesus, and came back to Athens in triumph; for, although much
damage had been done to the enemy, the Athenians had lost only a few
men. These were buried with great honors. Pericles himself pronounced
their funeral oration; and we are told that he was so eloquent that all
his hearers were melted to tears.
LXI. DEATH OF PERICLES.
Although the Athenian fleet had caused much damage, and had come home
victorious, the Spartan army was still in Attica. The Spartans had been
awed and frightened by the eclipse, but they did not give up their
purpose, and continued the war.
The Athenians remained within the city walls, not daring to venture out
lest they should meet with a defeat, and they soon began to suffer
greatly. As there were not enough water and food for the crowded
multitude, a terrible disease called the plague soon attacked the
people. This sickness was contagious, and it spread rapidly. On all
sides one could see the dead and dying. The sufferers were tormented by
a burning thirst; and as there was soon no one left to care for the
sick, they painfully dragged themselves to the sides of the fountains,
where many of them died.
Not only were the sick uncared for, but it was also nearly impossible to
dispose of the dead; and the bodies lay in the streets day after day,
waiting for burial.
When the Athenians were in the greatest distress, Pericles heard that
there was a Greek doctor, named Hip-poc´ra-tes, who had a cure for the
plague; and he wrote to him, imploring his help.
Hippocrates received Pericles' letter at the same time that a message
arrived from Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The king asked him to come and
save the Persians, who were suffering from the same disease, and offered
the doctor great wealth.
The noble doctor did not hesitate a moment, but sent away the Persian
messenger, saying that it was his duty first to save his own countrymen.
Then he immediately set out for the plague-stricken city of Athens,
where he worked bravely night and day.
His care and skill restored many sufferers; and, although thousands died
of the plague, the remaining Athenians knew that they owed him their
lives. When the danger was over, they all voted that Hippocrates should
have a golden crown, and said he should be called an Athenian
citizen,--an honor which they seldom granted to any outsider.
The plague had not only carried away many of the poorer citizens, but
had also stricken down the nobles and the rich. Pericles' family
suffered from it too. All his children took it and died, with the
exception of one.
The great man, in spite of his private cares and sorrows, was always in
and out among the people, helping and encouraging them, and he finally
caught the plague himself.
His friends soon saw, that, in spite of all their efforts, he would die.
They crowded around his bed in tears, praising him in low tones, and
saying how much he had done for the Athenians and for the improvement of
their city.
"Why," said one of them warmly, "he found the city bricks, and leaves it
marble!"
Pericles, whose eyes had been closed, and who seemed unconscious, now
suddenly roused himself, and said, "Why do you mention those things?
They were mostly owing to my large fortune. The thing of which I am
proudest is that I never caused any fellow-citizen to put on mourning!"
Pericles then sank back, and soon died; but his friends always
remembered that he had ruled Athens for more than thirty years without
ever punishing any one unjustly, and that he had always proved helpful
and merciful to all.
LXII. THE PHILOSOPHER SOCRATES.
When Pericles died, the Peloponnesian War had already been carried on
for more than three years, but was not nearly at an end. As the
Athenians felt the need of a leader, they soon chose Nic´ias to take the
place left vacant by Pericles.
This Nicias was an honest man; but he was unfortunately rather dull, and
very slow about deciding anything. Whenever he was called upon to see to
matters of state, he hesitated so long, and was so uncertain, that the
Greeks often had cause to regret the loss of Pericles.
There was another man of note in Athens at this time, the philosopher
Socrates, a truly wise and good man. He was no politician, however; and,
instead of troubling himself about the state, he spent all his spare
moments in studying, or in teaching the young men of Athens.
Like his friend Anaxagoras, Socrates was a very deep thinker. He, too,
always tried to find out the exact truth about everything. He was
specially anxious to know how the earth had been created, who the Being
was who gave us life, and whether the soul died with the body, or
continued to live after the body had fallen into dust.
Socrates was a poor man, a stonecutter by trade; but he spent every
moment he could spare from his work in thinking, studying, and
questioning others. Little by little, in spite of the contrary opinion
of his fellow-citizens, he began to understand that the stories of the
Greek gods and goddesses could not be true.
He thought that there must surely be a God far greater than they,--a God
who was good and powerful and just, who governed the world he had
created, and who rewarded the virtuous and punished the wicked.
[Illustration: Socrates.]
Socrates believed that everybody should be as good and gentle as
possible, and freely forgive all injuries. This belief was very
different from that of all ancient nations, who, on the contrary,
thought that they should try to avenge every insult, and return evil for
evil.
The philosopher Socrates not only taught this gentleness, but practiced
it carefully at home and abroad. He had plenty of opportunity to make
use of it; for he had such a cross wife, that her name, Xan-thip´pe, is
still used to describe a scolding and bad-tempered woman.
Whenever Xanthippe was angry, she used to scold poor Socrates roundly.
He always listened without flying into a passion, or even answering her;
and when her temper was too unbearable, he quietly left the house, and
went about his business elsewhere.
This gentleness and meekness only angered Xanthippe the more; and one
day, when he was escaping as usual, she caught up a jug full of water
and poured it over his head.
Socrates good-naturedly shook off the water, smiled, and merely remarked
to his companions, "After the thunder comes the rain."
LXIII. SOCRATES' FAVORITE PUPIL.
As you have already heard, Socrates was a teacher. He did not, however,
have a school like yours, with desks, and books, and maps, and
blackboards. His pupils gathered about him at his workshop, or in the
cool porticoes, or under the trees in the garden of the Academy.
Then, while hammering his stone, or while slowly pacing up and down, the
philosopher talked to his scholars so gently and wisely, that even the
richest and noblest youths of Athens were proud to call him their
teacher. He also visited the house of the noted Aspasia, and was a
friend of Pericles, Phidias, and Anaxagoras, besides being the teacher
of three very celebrated men,--Pla´to, Xen´o-phon, and Al-ci-bi´a-des.
[Illustration: Alcibiades dared the Driver to come on.]
Plato and Xenophon, even in their youth, were noted for their coolness
and right-mindedness; but Alcibiades, a general favorite, was very
different from them both. He was an orphan, and the ward of Pericles.
His father had left him a large fortune; and, as Alcibiades was
handsome, intelligent, and very high-spirited, he was made much of and
greatly spoiled.
Even as a little child he was very headstrong, and, as he had no father
and mother to check him, he was often led by his willfulness into great
danger. We are told that once, when he saw a wagon coming down the
street where he and his playmates were playing, he called to the man to
stop. The man, who cared nothing for their game, drove on, and the other
children quickly sprang aside so as not to be run over. Alcibiades,
however, flung himself down across the road, in front of his playthings,
and dared the driver to come on.
This was of course very foolish; and if the driver had given him a few
sharp cuts with his whip, it might have done Alcibiades a great deal of
good. But the man was so amused by the little fellow's pluck, that he
actually turned around and drove through another street.
When Alcibiades grew a little older, he went to listen to the teachings
of Socrates. In the presence of this wise man, Alcibiades forgot all his
vanity and willfulness, talked sensibly, and showed himself well
informed and kind-hearted.
He seemed so earnest and simple that Socrates soon grew very fond of
him. They often walked together on the street; and it must have been
pleasing to see this tall, handsome, and aristocratic youth, eagerly
listening to the wise words of the homely, toil-worn workman beside
him.
Unfortunately, however, Alcibiades could not pass all his time with the
good philosopher, and when he left him it was to spend the rest of the
day with his own class. As he was rich, generous, and handsome, his
companions always flattered him, approved of all he did, and admired
everything he said.
This constant flattery was very bad for the young man; and, as he was
anxious to please everybody, it often led him to do foolish things. He
gave costly banquets, drove fast horses, boasted a great deal, and even
started out for his first battle in a magnificent suit of armor all
inlaid with gold.
His shield was also inlaid with gold and ivory, and on it was a picture
of Cu´pid throwing the thunderbolts of Jove (Zeus). All his flatterers,
instead of telling him frankly that such armor was ridiculous, admired
him greatly, and vowed that he looked like the god of the sun.
In the midst of the battle, Alcibiades, who was very brave, rushed into
the thick of the foe. His armor was not as strong as a plainer suit
would have been; and he soon found himself hemmed round, and almost
ready to fall. His fine friends had of course deserted the lad; but,
fortunately for him, Socrates was there. The philosopher rushed into the
midst of the fray, caught up the young man in his strong arms, and bore
him off the battlefield to a place of safety, where he tenderly bound up
his wounds.
As Alcibiades was a good-hearted youth, he felt deeply grateful to
Socrates for saving his life, and ever after proudly claimed him as a
friend. In spite of the philosopher's advice, however, the young man
continued to frequent the same society; and, as he was genial and
open-handed with all, he daily grew more popular.
LXIV. YOUTH OF ALCIBIADES.
As the Greeks all loved the Olympic games, Alcibiades was always seen
there. He took part in the chariot races especially; and his horses won
three prizes in succession, to the delight of his admirers.
Alcibiades was shrewd enough, in spite of all his vanity, to understand
that the people of Athens loved him principally because he was handsome
and rich. He also knew that they delighted in gossip, and he sometimes
did a thing merely to hear them talk about it.
He had a very handsome dog, for instance; and for a little while its
beauty was praised by every one. But the Athenians soon grew used to the
animal, and ceased to talk about it. Then Alcibiades had the dog's tail
cut off, and of course every one began to exclaim about that.
Some of the Athenians became so inquisitive that they asked why he had
done so, and he laughingly answered that it was merely in order to
supply them with material for conversation and wonder.
Alcibiades was so merry and light-hearted that he treated even serious
matters in a joking way. We are told, that, when he was first admitted
to the city council, he acted like a schoolboy, and mischievously let
loose a captive quail, which ran in and out among the feet of the
councilors, and fluttered about so wildly as to upset the gravity of the
whole assembly.
On another occasion the councilors were all waiting for Alcibiades to
begin their proceedings. He entered the hall with a crown of flowers on
his head; begged them to excuse him, because he could really not attend
to business, as he had a banquet at his house; and asked them to adjourn
and go home with him.
Strange to relate, his manner was so fascinating that the grave
councilors did as he wished, and dropped their important business to
feast with him. It was on account of this influence that an Athenian
citizen once bitterly exclaimed, "Go on, my brave boy! Your prosperity
will bring ruin on this crowd."
Alcibiades was such a favorite among rich and poor, that the Athenians
would gladly have made him king. Fortunately, however, the young man
still had sense enough to refuse this honor; but, although he would not
accept the title, he exercised much of the power of a king, and soon he
and Nicias were the principal politicians of the day.
Alcibiades was as ambitious as Nicias was careful; and while the latter
was always trying to keep the Athenians as quiet and contented as
possible, Alcibiades was always ready to think of some plan by which the
power of the city could be extended.
This ambition of Alcibiades was destined to have a very bad effect upon
his own fortunes and upon those of his native land, as you will see by
the end of his career.
LXV. GREEK COLONIES IN ITALY.
The Greeks, as you know, had founded colonies all along the coast of
Asia Minor and on many of the islands. They had also sailed as far as
Italy and Sicily, where they built many towns.
Little by little these colonies grew richer and stronger. As the Greek
settlers increased in number, they claimed more and more land. In Sicily
and southern Italy the soil was so fertile that the people soon grew
very rich; and, as they had vessels in plenty, they traded everywhere,
and became noted for their commercial enterprise.
The first of the Greek colonies in southern Italy was the city of
Syb´a-ris. It was so prosperous that the people had more money than they
knew what to do with; and they spent large sums in making their houses
beautiful and in securing every comfort.
The Syb´a-rites soon became so luxurious in their habits, that they were
noted all over the country for their love of ease. We are told that one
Sybarite, for instance, once ordered his slaves to prepare a couch for
him of fresh rose leaves.
When it was ready, he stretched himself out upon it and slept. In a
short time he awoke with cries of great distress, saying that he could
not sleep because a rose leaf was crumpled under him, and chafed his
tender skin.
Ever since then, when people make a great fuss about a trifle, they are
apt to hear the remark, "'Tis the crumpled rose leaf!" and when they
spend too much thought upon their bodily comfort, and indulge in too
much luxury, they are called Sybarites.
The people of this town continued to flourish for some time, but they
finally quarreled with the neighboring colony of Croton. A war followed,
in which the ease-loving Sybarites were defeated and their city was
destroyed.
Croton and Ta-ren´tum on the mainland, and Messina and Syr´a-cuse on the
Island of Sicily, were now the principal colonies. They were all very
rich and prosperous, so Alcibiades told the Athenians that it would be a
good plan to send out a fleet to conquer and annex them.
Nicias and his party opposed this plan; but when it was put to the vote,
it was found that the eloquence of Alcibiades had prevailed. A large
fleet was prepared, and Nicias, Lam´a-chus, and Alcibiades were chosen
generals of the expedition. The fleet was on the point of sailing out of
the Piræus, when the Athenians found out that all the statues of their
god Her´mes, which were used as boundary marks and milestones, had been
shamefully broken.
The excited people assembled on the market place to discuss this event;
and all cried loudly against it, for the statues were considered sacred,
as they represented a god. Alcibiades' enemies--and he had a number,
although he was so popular--now stepped forward, and declared that he
had done it after the banquet which he had given to celebrate his
departure.
The young man denied having broken the statues, and asked that his
trial might take place at once, so that he might prove his innocence
before he started out; but, in spite of this urgent request, it was
postponed, and he was forced to depart with this cloud hanging over him.
LXVI. ALCIBIADES IN DISGRACE.
Alcibiades had no sooner sailed, however, than his enemies, grown
bolder, began to talk louder, and soon convinced the people of his
guilt. In their wrath, the Athenians now sent a messenger to Sicily to
overtake him, and bid him return to Athens to be tried.
His friends, seeing the excitement of the people, and fearing that they
would condemn him in anger, sent word to him not to return, but to wait
until the popular fury had had time to blow over.
In obedience to this advice, Alcibiades left the fleet, and, instead of
going to Athens, went straight to Sparta, where he took up his abode.
Here the changeable youth adopted the Spartan dress, lived with the
utmost simplicity and frugality, and even used the laconic mode of
speech.
As he was tall and strong, and a very good athlete, he soon won the
admiration of the Spartans, and made many friends. During his stay here,
he heard that he had been tried at Athens, although absent, found guilty
of sacrilege, and even sentenced to death.
This ingratitude on the part of his people so angered Alcibiades, that
he told the Spartans all the Athenian plans, and showed how to upset
them. By his advice, the Spartans sent aid to the Greeks in Sicily,
helped them to resist the Athenian attack, and even captured both
generals and seven thousand soldiers, who were put to death.
The Spartans, still under Alcibiades' instructions, now took and
fortified the small town of Dec-e-le´a, only twelve miles from Athens.
Here they kept an armed force, ready to spring out at any minute and
molest the Athenians, who thus found themselves in a continual state of
warfare and insecurity.
The small cities and islands which the Athenians had won by force now
seized this favorable opportunity to revolt; and the Persians, at
Alcibiades' invitation, joined them, and again began to wage war with
the proud city.
[Illustration: Alcibiades.]
The Athenians were almost in despair. They had enemies on all sides, and
were also worried by the quarrels of aristocrats and democrats within
the city. These two political parties were now so opposed to each other,
that nothing could make them friends.
The army, longing for action, and without a leader, finally took matters
into their own hands. They recalled Alcibiades, and asked him to help
them. The young man, who was generous and kind-hearted, immediately
responded to this appeal; and, now that it was too late, he repented of
what he had done, and began to do all in his power to defeat the enemy
he had aroused.
By his eloquence and skill, Alcibiades finally succeeded in winning the
Persians over to side with the Athenians, and to fight against the
Spartans; but all his efforts to make up for the past were vain. His
treachery had ruined Athens; and when he led the troops against the
Spartans, the Athenians were completely defeated.
LXVII. DEATH OF ALCIBIADES.
Afraid to return to his native city, where he knew the people would
blame him for their sufferings, Alcibiades fled. After roaming about for
some time, he took refuge in a castle which he had built on the
Cher-so-ne´sus.
From the height upon which the castle stood, Alcibiades could overlook
the sea on both sides; and he watched the Spartan and Athenian fleets,
which, unknown to each other, had come to anchor very near him. He soon
discovered that the Spartans had become aware of the presence of the
Athenians, and were preparing to surprise them.
He therefore left his castle, and, at the risk of his life, went down to
warn the Athenians of the coming danger. They, however, treated his
warning with scorn, and bade him return to his castle, and remember
that he no longer had any right to interfere in their affairs.
From the top of his promontory, Alcibiades saw the complete destruction
of the Athenian fleet. Only a few men managed to escape to his castle
for shelter; while a single ship sailed in haste to Athens, to report
the defeat, and warn the people of the coming danger.
A few days later the victorious Spartan army marched unchallenged into
Athens, for there were now no fighting men left to oppose them. The
Spartans said that Athens must now obey them in all things; and, to
humiliate the people, they tore down the Long Walls to the sound of
joyful music on the anniversary of the glorious victory of Salamis.
Thus ended the Peloponnesian War, which, as you have seen, began shortly
before the death of Pericles. From this time on, the fame of Athens was
due mostly to her literature and art.
By order of the Spartans, Solon's laws were set aside, and thirty men
were chosen to govern the city. These rulers proved so stern and cruel,
that they were soon known as the Thirty Tyrants, and were hated by every
one.
The Athenians suffered so sorely under the government which the Spartans
had thus forced upon them, that they soon began to long for the return
of Alcibiades, who, whatever his faults, was always generous.
When the Thirty Tyrants and the Spartans learned of this feeling, they
were afraid that the Athenians would summon Alcibiades, so they bribed
the Persian governor to put him to death.
A party of murderers went to his house at night, and set it afire.
Alcibiades, waking up suddenly, tried to escape with his household; but
no sooner had he reached the door than he found himself surrounded by
enemies.
Alcibiades quickly wrapped his cloak around his left arm to serve as a
shield, and, seizing his sword in his right hand, rushed manfully out
upon his foes. The Persians, frightened at his approach, fled in haste;
but they came to a stop at a safe distance, and flung so many stones and
spears at him that he soon fell dead from the blows.
His body was left where it had fallen, and was found by his wife, who
loved him dearly in spite of all his faults. She tenderly wrapped it up
in her own mantle, and had it buried not far from where it lay.
Thus ended the life of the brilliant Alcibiades, who died at the age of
forty, far away from his native land, and from the people whose idol he
had once been, but whom he had ruined by his vanity.
LXVIII. THE OVERTHROW OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS.
Although the Thirty Tyrants ruled in Athens but a short time, they
condemned fifteen hundred men to death, and drove many good citizens
into exile. During their brief period of authority they even found fault
with Socrates, and would have liked to kill him, though he was the
greatest philosopher the world has ever known.
As the rule of the Thirty Tyrants had been forced upon them by the
victorious Spartans, the Athenians soon resolved to get rid of them.
Among the good citizens whom these cruel rulers had driven away into
exile, was Thras-y-bu´lus, who was a real patriot.
He had seen the sufferings of the Athenians, and his sympathy had been
roused. So he began plotting against the Thirty Tyrants, assembled a few
brave men, entered the city, drove out the Spartans, and overturned
their government when they least expected it.
Some years later the Athenians rebuilt the Long Walls, which Ly-san´der,
the Spartan general, had torn down to the sound of festive music. They
were so glad to be rid of the cruel tyrants, that they erected statues
in honor of Thrasybulus, their deliverer, and sang songs in his praise
at all their public festivals.
The Spartans, in the mean while, had been changing rapidly for the
worse, for the defeat of the Athenians had filled their hearts with
pride, and had made them fancy they were the bravest and greatest people
on earth. Such conceit is always harmful.
Lysander, in capturing Athens and the smaller towns of Attica, had won
much booty, which was all sent to Sparta. The ephors refused at first to
accept or distribute this gold, saying that the love of wealth was the
root of all evil; but they finally decided to use it for the improvement
of their city.
Lysander himself was as noble a man as he was a good general, and kept
none of the booty for his own use. On the contrary, he came back to
Sparta so poor, that, when he died, the city had to pay his funeral
expenses.
The Spartans felt so grateful for the services which he had rendered
them, that they not only gave him a fine burial, but also gave marriage
portions to his daughters, and helped them to get good husbands.
LXIX. ACCUSATION OF SOCRATES.
Socrates, as you know, was one of the best and gentlest of men, yet he
had many enemies. These were principally the people who were jealous of
him and of his renown for great wisdom; for his reputation was so well
established, that the oracle at Delphi, when consulted, replied that the
most learned man in Greece was Socrates.
Although Socrates was so wise and good and gentle, he was not at all
conceited, and showed his wisdom by never pretending to know what he did
not know, and by his readiness to learn anything new, provided one could
prove it to be true.
Among the noted Athenians of this time was Aristophanes, a writer of
comedies or funny plays. He was so witty that his comedies are still
admired almost as much as when they were played in the Theater of
Dionysus for the amusement of the people.
Like most funny men, Aristophanes liked to turn everything into
ridicule. He had often seen Socrates and Alcibiades walking through the
streets of Athens, and was greatly amused at the contrast they
presented.
Now, Aristophanes, with all his cleverness, was not always just; and
while his ridicule sometimes did good, at other times it did a great
deal of harm. He soon learned to dislike Alcibiades; but he saw how
dearly the people loved the young man, and fancied that his faults must
be owing to the bad advice of his teacher. Such was not the case, for
Socrates had tried to bring out all the good in his pupil. Alcibiades'
pride, insolence, and treachery were rather the result of the constant
flattery to which he had been exposed on the part of those who claimed
to be his friends.
Aristophanes disliked Alcibiades so much that he soon wrote a comedy
called "The Clouds," in which he made fun of him. Of course, he did not
call the people in the play by their real names; but the hero was a
good-for-nothing young man, who, advised by his teacher, bought fast
horses, ran his father into debt, cheated everybody, and treated even
the gods with disrespect.
As the actors who took part in this comedy dressed and acted as nearly
as possible like Alcibiades and Socrates, you can imagine that the play,
which was very comical and clever, made the Athenians roar with
laughter.
Everybody talked about it, repeated the best jokes, and went again and
again to see and laugh over it. We are told that Socrates went there
himself one day; and, when asked why he had come, he quietly said, "I
came to find out whether, among all the faults of which I am accused,
there may not be some that I can correct."
You see, the philosopher knew that it was never too late to mend, and
fully intended to be as perfect as possible. He knew, of course, that he
could not straighten his crooked nose or make his face good-looking,
but he hoped to find some way of improving his character.
"The Clouds" amused the Athenians for about twenty years; and when
Alcibiades turned traitor, and caused the ruin of his country, the
people still went to see it. In their anger against Alcibiades, they
began to think that perhaps Aristophanes was right, and that the youth
they had once loved so dearly would never have turned out so badly had
he not been influenced for evil.
As the teacher in the play was blamed for all the wrongdoing of his
pupil, so Socrates was now accused by the Athenians of ruining
Alcibiades. Little by little the philosopher's enemies became so bold
that they finally made up their minds to get rid of him. As he was quite
innocent, and as there was no other excuse for dragging him before the
Tribunal, they finally charged him with giving bad advice to young men,
and speaking ill of the gods.
LXX. DEATH OF SOCRATES.
The false accusation made against Socrates by his enemies soon had the
desired effect, for the Tribunal gave orders for his arrest and trial.
The philosopher, sure of his innocence, came before his judges, and
calmly answered their questions.
He told them he had never turned the gods into ridicule, as he knew it
was wrong to make fun of anything which others deemed sacred. Then, as
they still further pressed him to explain his views, he confessed that
he believed there was a God greater and better than any they worshiped.
As to teaching the young men anything which could do them harm, he said
it was quite impossible; for he had ever told them that they should be
as good, virtuous, and helpful as they could, which was surely not
wrong.
Socrates gave noble answers to all their questions; but the judges,
blinded with prejudice, believed the lying charges of his enemies, which
Socrates scorned to contradict. The philosopher's friends begged him to
use his eloquence to defend himself and confound his accusers; but he
calmly refused, saying, "My whole life and teaching is the only
contradiction, and the best defense I can offer."
Socrates, as you have seen, was really one of the best men that ever
lived, and, without having ever heard of the true God, he still believed
in him. Nearly four centuries before the coming of Christ, when people
believed in revenge, he preached the doctrine of "Love one another" and
"Do good to them that hate you."
But, in spite of all his goodness and constant uprightness, Socrates the
philosopher was condemned to the shameful death of a base criminal.
Now, in Greece, criminals were forced to drink a cup of deadly poison at
sunset on the day of their condemnation, and there was generally but a
few hours' delay between the sentence and its execution. But the law
said that during one month in the year no such punishment should be
inflicted. This was while an Athenian vessel was away on a voyage to
the Island of De´los to bear the annual offerings to Apollo's shrine.
As Socrates was tried and condemned at this season, the people were
forced to await the return of the vessel before they could kill him: so
they put him in prison. Here he was chained fast, yet his friends were
allowed to visit him and to talk with him.
Day after day the small band of his pupils gathered around him in
prison; and, as some of them were very rich, they bribed the jailer, and
arranged everything for their beloved master's escape.
When the time came, and Socrates was told that he could leave the prison
unseen, and be taken to a place of safety, he refused to go, saying that
it would be against the law, which he had never yet disobeyed.
In vain his friends and disciples begged him to save his life: he would
not consent. Then Cri´to, one of his pupils, began to weep, in his
distress, and exclaimed indignantly, "Master, will you then remain here,
and die innocent?"
"Of course," replied Socrates, gravely. "Would you rather I should die
guilty?"
Then, gathering his disciples around him, he began to talk to them in
the most beautiful and solemn way about life and death, and especially
about the immortality of the soul.
This last conversation of Socrates was so attentively listened to by his
disciple Plato, the wisest among them all, that he afterward wrote it
down from memory almost word for word, and thus kept it so that we can
still read it.
[Illustration: Socrates' Farewell.]
As the sun was slowly setting on that last day, the sacred vessel came
back from Delos. The time of waiting was ended, and now the prisoner
must die. The jailer interrupted this beautiful last talk, and entered
the cell, bringing the cup of poison.
Socrates took the cup from his hand and drained it, unmoved, telling his
disciples that he felt sure that death was only birth into another and
better world. Then he bade them all farewell.
As he was a good and scrupulous man, very careful about paying his debts
and keeping his promises, he now told Crito to remember that he had
promised to sacrifice a cock to Æs-cu-la´pi-us, the god of medicine, and
bade him do it in his stead.
He then lay down upon his hard prison bed, and, while he felt the chill
of death slowly creeping upward toward his heart, he continued to teach
and exhort his pupils to love virtue and do right.
All his last sayings were carefully treasured by Plato, who wrote them
down, and who concludes the story of his death in these beautiful words:
"Thus died the man who, of all with whom we are acquainted, was in death
the noblest, and in life the wisest and best."
Some time after the death of Socrates, the Athenians found out their
mistake. Filled with remorse, they recalled the sentence which had
condemned him, but they could not bring him back to life. In token of
their sorrow, however, they set up a statue of him in the heart of their
city.
This statue, although made of bronze, has long ceased to exist; but the
remembrance of Socrates' virtues is still held dear, and all who know
his name both love and honor him.
LXXI. THE DEFEAT OF CYRUS.
It was at the close of the Peloponnesian War that Darius II., King of
Persia, died, leaving two sons, Artaxerxes and Cy´rus. These two heirs
could not agree which should reign. Artaxerxes claimed the throne
because he was the elder, and Cyrus because he was the first son born
after their father had become king; for in Persia it was the custom for
a ruler to choose as his successor a son born after he had taken
possession of the throne.
The quarrel between the two brothers daily became more bitter; and when
Artaxerxes made himself king by force, Cyrus swore that he would compel
him to give up his place again.
To oust his brother from the throne, Cyrus collected an army in Asia
Minor; and, as he could not secure enough Persian soldiers, he hired a
body of eleven thousand Greeks, commanded by a Spartan named
Cle-ar´chus.
This Greek army was only a small part of Cyrus' force; but he expected
great things from it, as the Persians had already found out to their
cost that the Greeks were very good fighters.
After a long march, the armies of both brothers met at Cu-nax´a; and
there was a terrible battle, in the midst of which Cyrus was killed. Of
course, his death ended the quarrel, and the Persians all surrendered.
But the Greeks continued fighting bravely, until Artaxerxes sent them
word that his brother was dead, and that he would have them guided
safely back to their own country if they would lay down their arms.
The Greeks, believing him, immediately stopped fighting; and their
officers accepted an invitation to enter the Persian camp, and be
present at the council of all the generals.
Their trust was sadly misplaced, however; for no sooner had the Greek
officers entered the tent than they were surrounded and slain. The
Persian king then sent a message to the Greek troops, saying that their
leaders were all dead, and summoning them to give up their arms and to
swear to obey him in all things.
This message filled the hearts of the Greeks with rage and despair. What
were they to do? Their chiefs were dead, they were in a strange country
surrounded by enemies, and their own home lay eight months' journey
away.
They had no leaders, no money or provisions, and no guides to show them
the way back across the burning sands, deep rivers, and over the
mountains. They had nothing, in short, but the armor on their backs and
the weapons in their hands.
As they did not even know the language of the country, they could not
ask their way; and as they were surrounded by enemies, they must be
constantly on their guard lest they should be surprised and taken
prisoners or killed. They were indeed in a sorry plight; and no wonder
that they all fancied they would never see their homes again. When night
came on, they flung themselves down upon the ground without having eaten
any supper. Their hearts were so heavy, however, that they could not
sleep, but tossed and moaned in their despair.
In this army there was a pupil of Socrates, called Xenophon. He was a
good and brave man. Instead of bewailing his bad luck, as the others
did, he tried to think of some plan by which the army might yet be
saved, and brought back to Greece.
His night of deep thought was not in vain; and as soon as morning dawned
he called his companions together, and begged them to listen to him, as
he had found a way of saving them from slavery or death.
Then he explained to them, that, if they were only united and willing,
they could form a compact body, and, under a leader of their own
choosing, could beat a safe retreat toward the sea.
LXXII. THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND.
Xenophon's advice pleased the Greeks. It was far better, they thought,
to make the glorious attempt to return home, than basely to surrender
their arms, and become the subjects of a foreign king.
They therefore said they would elect a leader, and all chose Xenophon to
fill this difficult office. He, however, consented to accept it only
upon condition that each soldier would pledge his word of honor to obey
him; for he knew that the least disobedience would hinder success, and
that in union alone lay strength. The soldiers understood this too, and
not only swore to obey him, but even promised not to quarrel among
themselves.
So the little army began its homeward march, tramping bravely over sandy
wastes and along rocky pathways. When they came to a river too deep to
be crossed by fording, they followed it up toward its source until they
could find a suitable place to get over it; and, as they had neither
money nor provisions, they were obliged to seize all their food on the
way.
The Greeks not only had to overcome countless natural obstacles, but
were also compelled to keep up a continual warfare with the Persians who
pursued them. Every morning Xenophon had to draw up his little army in
the form of a square, to keep the enemy at bay.
They would fight thus until nearly nightfall, when the Persians always
retreated, to camp at a distance from the men they feared. Instead of
allowing his weary soldiers to sit down and rest, Xenophon would then
give orders to march onward. So they tramped in the twilight until it
was too dark or they were too tired to proceed any farther.
After a hasty supper, the Greeks flung themselves down to rest on the
hard ground, under the light of the stars; but even these slumbers were
cut short by Xenophon's call at early dawn. Long before the lazy
Persians were awake, these men were again marching onward; and when the
mounted enemy overtook them once more, and compelled them to halt and
fight, they were several miles nearer home.
As the Greeks passed through the wild mountain gorges, they were further
hindered by the neighboring people, who tried to stop them by rolling
trunks of trees and rocks down upon them. Although some were wounded and
others killed, the little army pressed forward, and, after a march of
about a thousand miles, they came at last within sight of the sea.
You may imagine what a joyful shout arose, and how lovingly they gazed
upon the blue waters which washed the shores of their native land also.
But although Xenophon and his men had come to the sea, their troubles
were not yet ended; for, as they had no money to pay their passage, none
of the captains would take them on board.
Instead of embarking, therefore, and resting their weary limbs while the
wind wafted them home, they were forced to tramp along the seashore.
They were no longer in great danger, but were tired and discontented,
and now for the first time they began to forget their promise to obey
Xenophon.
To obtain money enough to pay their passage to Greece, they took several
small towns along their way, and robbed them. Then, hearing that there
was a new expedition on foot to free the Ionian cities from the Persian
yoke, they suddenly decided not to return home, but to go and help them.
Xenophon therefore led them to Per´ga-mus, where he gave them over to
their new leader. There were still ten thousand left out of the eleven
thousand men that Cyrus had hired, and Xenophon had cause to feel proud
of having brought them across the enemy's territory with so little loss.
After bidding them farewell, Xenophon returned home, and wrote down an
account of this famous Retreat of the Ten Thousand in a book called the
A-nab´a-sis. This account is so interesting that people begin to read it
as soon as they know a little Greek, and thus learn all about the
fighting and marching of those brave men.
LXXIII. AGESILAUS IN ASIA.
You may remember that the Greeks, at the end of the Peloponnesian War,
had found out that Sparta was the strongest city in the whole country;
for, although the Athenians managed to drive the Spartans out of their
city, they were still forced to recognize them as the leaders of all
Greece.
The Spartans were proud of having reached such a position, and were
eager to maintain it at any cost. They therefore kept all the Greek
towns under their orders, and were delighted to think that their king,
A-ges-i-la´us, was one of the best generals of his day.
He was not, however, tall and strong, like most of his fellow-citizens,
but puny and very lame. His small size and bad health had not lessened
his courage, however, and he was always ready to plan a new campaign or
to lead his men off to war.
When it became known that Artaxerxes was about to march against the
Greek cities in Ionia, to punish them for upholding his brother Cyrus,
and for sending him the ten thousand soldiers who had beat such a
masterly retreat, Agesilaus made up his mind to go and help them.
There was no prospect of fighting at home just then, so the Spartan
warriors were only too glad to follow their king to Asia. Agesilaus had
no sooner landed in Asia Minor, than the Greek cities there gave him
command over their army, bidding him defend them from the wrath of
Artaxerxes.
Now, although the Persian host, as usual, far outnumbered the Greek
army, Agesilaus won several victories over his enemies, who were amazed
that such a small and insignificant-looking man should be at the same
time a king and a great general.
They were accustomed to so much pomp and ceremony, and always saw their
own king so richly dressed, that it seemed very queer to them to see
Agesilaus going about in the same garments as his men, and himself
leading them in battle.
LXXIV. A STRANGE INTERVIEW.
We are told that Agesilaus was once asked to meet the Persian general
Phar-na-ba´zus, to have a talk or conference with him,--a thing which
often took place between generals of different armies.
The meeting was set for a certain day and hour, under a large tree, and
it was agreed that both generals should come under the escort of their
personal attendants only.
Agesilaus, plainly clad as usual, came first to the meeting place, and,
sitting down upon the grass under the tree, he began to eat his usual
noonday meal of bread and onions.
[Illustration: Agesilaus and Pharnabazus.]
A few moments later the Persian general arrived in rich attire, attended
by fan and parasol bearer, and by servants bringing carpets for him to
sit upon, cooling drinks to refresh him, and delicate dishes to tempt
his appetite.
At first Pharnabazus fancied that a tramp was camping under the tree;
but when he discovered that this plain little man was really Agesilaus,
King of Sparta, and the winner of so many battles, he was ashamed of his
pomp, sent away his attendants, and sat down on the ground beside the
king.
They now began an important talk, and Pharnabazus was filled with
admiration when he heard the short but noble answers which Agesilaus had
for all his questions. He was so impressed by the Spartan king, that he
shook hands with him when the interview was ended.
Agesilaus was equally pleased with Pharnabazus, and told him that he
should be proud to call him friend. He invited him to leave his master,
and come and live in Greece, where all noble men were free.
Pharnabazus did not accept this invitation, but renewed the war,
whereupon Agesilaus again won several important victories. When the
Persian king heard that all his soldiers could not get the better of the
Spartan king, he resolved to try the effect of bribery.
He therefore sent a messenger to Athens to promise this city and her
allies a very large sum of money provided that they would rise up in
revolt against Sparta, and thus force Agesilaus to come home.
LXXV. THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS.
The Athenians hated the Spartans, and were only waiting for an excuse to
make war against them: so they were only too glad to accept the bribe
which Artaxerxes offered, and were paid with ten thousand Persian coins
on which was stamped the figure of an archer.
As soon as the Spartan ephors heard that the Athenians had revolted,
they sent a message to Agesilaus to tell him to come home. The Spartan
king was about to deal a crushing blow to the Persians, but he was
forced to obey the summons. As he embarked he dryly said, "I could
easily have beaten the whole Persian army, and still ten thousand
Persian archers have forced me to give up all my plans."
The Thebans joined the Athenians in this revolt, so Agesilaus was very
indignant against them too. He energetically prepared for war, and met
the combined Athenian and Theban forces at Coronea, where he defeated
them completely.
The Athenians, in the mean while, had made their alliance with the
Persians, and used the money which they had received to strengthen their
ramparts, as you have seen, and to finish the Long Walls, which had been
ruined by the Spartans ten years before.
All the Greek states were soon in arms, siding with the Athenians or
with the Spartans; and the contest continued until everybody was weary
of fighting. There was, besides, much jealousy among the people
themselves, and even the laurels of Agesilaus were envied.
The person who was most opposed to him was the Spartan An-tal´ci-das,
who, fearing that further warfare would only result in increasing
Agesilaus' popularity and glory, now began to advise peace. As the
Greeks were tired of the long struggle, they sent Antalcidas to Asia to
try to make a treaty with the Persians.
Without thinking of anything but his hatred of Agesilaus, Antalcidas
consented to all that the Persians asked, and finally signed a shameful
treaty, by which all the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the Island of
Cy´prus were handed over to the Persian king. The other Greek cities
were declared independent, and thus Sparta was shorn of much of her
power. This treaty was a disgrace, and it has always been known in
history by the name of the man who signed it out of petty spite.
LXXVI. THE THEBAN FRIENDS.
Although all the Greek cities were to be free by the treaty of
Antalcidas, the Spartans kept the Messenians under their sway and, as
they were still the most powerful people in Greece, they saw that the
other cities did not infringe upon their rights in any way.
Under pretext of keeping all their neighbors in order, the Spartans were
always under arms, and on one occasion even forced their way into the
city of Thebes. The Thebans, who did not expect them, were not ready to
make war, and were in holiday dress.
They were all in the temple, celebrating the festival of Demeter, the
harvest goddess; and when the Spartans came thus upon them, they were
forced to yield without striking a single blow, as they had no weapons
at hand.
The Spartans were so afraid lest the best and richest citizens should
try to make the people revolt, that they exiled them all from Thebes,
allowing none but the poor and insignificant to remain.
To keep possession of the city which they had won by this trick, the
Spartans put three thousand of their best warriors in the citadel, with
orders to defend and hold it at any price.
Among the exiled Thebans there was a noble and wealthy man called
Pe-lop´i-das. He had been sorely wounded in a battle some time before,
and would have died had he not been saved by a fellow-citizen named
E-pam-i-non´das, who risked his own life in the rescue.
This man, too, was of noble birth, and was said to be a descendant of
the men who had sprung from the dragon teeth sown by Cadmus, the founder
of Thebes. Epaminondas, however, was very poor; and wealth had no charms
for him, for he was a disciple of Py-tha´o-ras, a philosopher who was
almost as celebrated as Socrates.
Now, although Epaminondas was poor, quiet, and studious, and Pelopidas
was particularly fond of noise and bustle, they became great friends and
almost inseparable companions. Pelopidas, seeing how good and generous a
man his friend was, did all he could to be like him, and even gave up
all his luxurious ways to live plainly too.
He therefore had plenty of money to spare, and this he spent very freely
for the good of the poor. When his former friends asked why he no
longer cared for his riches, he pointed to a poor cripple near by, and
said that money was of importance only to unhappy men like that one, who
could do nothing for themselves.
LXXVII. THEBES FREE ONCE MORE.
The Spartans, coming into Thebes, as we have seen, exiled the rich and
important Pelopidas, but allowed his friend Epaminondas to remain. They
little suspected that this quiet and seemingly stupid man would in time
become their greatest enemy, and that the mere sound of his name would
fill their hearts with dread.
Pelopidas, thus forced to leave home, withdrew to Athens, where he was
very kindly received. He was not happy, however, and was always longing
to return home, and see his friend Epaminondas, whose society he missed
very much.
He therefore called a few of the Theban exiles together, and proposed
that they should return to Thebes in disguise, and, taking advantage of
the Spartans' carelessness, kill their leaders, and restore the city to
freedom.
This proposal was received with joy, although the Spartans numbered
three thousand, and the Theban exiles only twelve. The chances were of
course against them; but the men were so anxious to free their city,
that they resolved to make the attempt.
They therefore set out from Athens with weapons and hunting dogs, as if
bent upon a day's sport in the country. Thus armed, they secretly
entered the house of Cha´ron, one of their friends in Thebes. Here they
exchanged their hunting garments for women's robes; for, hearing that
the Spartan general and his officers were feasting, they had resolved to
pretend that they were dancing girls, in order to gain an entrance into
the banquet hall, and kill the men while they were drinking.
They had just finished dressing, when a knock was heard at the door, and
a Spartan soldier came in and gravely informed Charon that the commander
wished to see him.
For a moment Pelopidas and his companions fancied that their plans were
discovered, and that Charon had betrayed them. He read this suspicion in
their frightened faces, and, before leaving the house with the soldier,
he placed his only son, a mere infant, in the arms of Pelopidas, saying,
"There, keep him; and if you find that I have betrayed you, avenge
yourselves by killing my only child, my dearest treasure."
After speaking thus, Charon went out, and soon came back to report that
all was well.
The Theban exiles now went to the banquet hall, where they were readily
allowed to enter to amuse the company. The Spartan officers, who were no
longer frugal and temperate as of old, were so heavy and stupid with
wine, that the supposed dancing girls easily killed them.
[Illustration: "Avenge yourselves by killing my only child."]
One version of the story is, that Pelopidas and his companions rushed
out into the street with lighted torches, and slew every Spartan they
met. The Spartan soldiers, deprived of most of their officers (who had
been killed in the banquet hall), and greatly frightened, fled in the
darkness from what they fancied was a large army, and returned in haste
to Sparta.
Imagine their shame, however, when it became known there that they had
been routed by only twelve determined men! The Spartan citizens were so
angry that they put the two remaining officers to death, and, collecting
another army, placed it under the leadership of Cle-om´bro-tus, their
second king, because Agesilaus was too ill at the time to fight.
LXXVIII. THE BATTLE OF LEUCTRA.
The Thebans, delighted at having thus happily got rid of their enemies,
had made Pelopidas and Epaminondas Boe´o-tarchs, or chiefs of
Boeotia, the country of which Thebes was the capital. These two men,
knowing well that the Spartans would soon send an army to win back the
city, now made great preparations to oppose them.
Epaminondas was made general of the army; and Pelopidas drilled a choice
company, called the Sacred Battalion. This was formed of three hundred
brave young Thebans, who took a solemn oath never to turn their backs
upon the enemy or to surrender, and to die for their native country if
necessary.
The Thebans then marched forth to meet their foes; and the two armies
met at Leuc´tra, a small town in Boeotia. As usual, the Thebans had
consulted the oracles to find out what they should do, and had been
told that all the omens were unfavorable. Epaminondas, however, nobly
replied that he knew of none which forbade fighting for the defense of
one's country, and he boldly ordered the attack.
The Spartans were greatly amused when they heard that Epaminondas, a
student, was the commander of the army, and they expected to win a very
easy victory. They were greatly surprised, therefore, when their
onslaught was met firmly, and when, in spite of all their valor, they
found themselves defeated, and heard that their leader, Cleombrotus, was
dead.
The Thebans, of course, gloried in their triumph; but Epaminondas
remained as modest and unassuming as ever, merely remarking that he was
glad for his country's and parents' sake that he had been successful. To
commemorate their good fortune, the Thebans erected a trophy on the
battlefield of Leuctra, where their troops had covered themselves with
glory.
The inhabitants of Sparta, who had counted confidently upon victory,
were dismayed when they saw only a few of their soldiers return from the
battle, and heard that the Thebans were pursuing them closely. Before
they could collect new troops, the enemy marched boldly down into
Laconia; and the women of Sparta now beheld the smoke of the enemy's
camp for the first time in many years. As there were neither walls nor
fortifications of any kind, you can easily imagine that the inhabitants
were in despair, and thought that their last hour had come.
If Epaminondas had been of a revengeful temper, he could easily have
destroyed the city; but he was gentle and humane, and, remaining at a
short distance from the place, he said that he would go away without
doing the Spartans any harm, provided they would promise not to attack
Thebes again, and to set the Messenians free.
These conditions were eagerly agreed to by the Spartans, who found
themselves forced to take a secondary place once more. Athens had ruled
Greece, and had been forced to yield to Sparta; but now Sparta was
compelled in her turn to recognize the supremacy of Thebes.
LXXIX. DEATH OF PELOPIDAS.
Thebes was the main power in Greece after the brilliant victory at
Leuctra, and for a short time the city managed to maintain its
supremacy. By virtue of its position, it decided the destiny of less
powerful cities; and when Al-ex-an´der, tyrant of Thessaly, became very
cruel, the Thebans sent Pelopidas to remonstrate with him.
Instead of treating the ambassador of the Thebans with courtesy,
however, the Thessalian tyrant loaded him with heavy chains, put him in
prison, and vowed he would keep him there as long as he lived.
When the news of this outrage reached the Thebans, they set out at once,
under the guidance of two new Boeotarchs, to deliver their beloved
fellow-citizen. Epaminondas, too, marched in the ranks; for, now that
his term of office was ended, he had contentedly returned to his former
obscure position.
The new Boeotarchs were unfortunately very poor generals. They met the
Thessalian army, but were defeated and driven back. Indeed, the Thebans
were soon in such danger, that the soldiers revolted against their
generals, and begged Epaminondas again to take the lead.
As they were in great distress, Epaminondas could not refuse to help
them: so he assumed the command, and beat such a skillful retreat that
he brought them out of the country in safety.
The following year, when again chosen Boeotarch, Epaminondas made
plans for a second campaign, and marched into Thessaly to deliver his
friend, who was still a prisoner.
When Alexander the tyrant heard that Epaminondas was at the head of the
army, he was frightened, and tried to disarm the wrath of the Thebans by
setting Pelopidas free, and sending him to meet the advancing army.
Of course, Epaminondas was very glad to see his friend; but when he
heard how cruelly Alexander treated all his subjects, he nevertheless
continued his march northward, hoping to rid the country of such a bad
ruler.
Just then the Spartans, in spite of their solemn promise, suddenly rose
up in arms against the Thebans; and Epaminondas, leaving part of the
army in Thessaly with Pelopidas, hurried southward with the rest to put
down the revolt.
Pelopidas marched boldly northward, met the Thessalians, and fought a
fierce battle. When it was over, the Thebans, although victorious, were
very sad; for their leader, Pelopidas, had been slain in the midst of
the fray.
Still, undaunted by his death, the army pursued the Thessalians, and
killed Alexander. Then, to show their scorn for such a vile wretch, they
dragged his body through the mud, and finally flung it out of a palace
window into the courtyard, where it was torn to pieces by his own
bloodhounds.
LXXX. THE BATTLE OF MANTINEA.
When Epaminondas heard that his friend Pelopidas was dead, he grieved
sorely; but nevertheless, knowing that his country had need of him, he
vigorously continued his preparations to meet and conquer the Spartan
army.
The battle promised to be hard fought; for while Epaminondas, the victor
of Leuctra, led the Thebans, Agesilaus, the hero of countless battles,
was again at the head of the Spartan army. The Thebans pressed forward
so eagerly, however, that the two armies met at Man-ti-ne´a, in the
central part of the Peloponnesus.
In spite of Agesilaus' courage and experience, and the well-known
discipline of the Spartan troops, the Thebans again won a splendid
victory over their foes. Their joy, however, was turned to mourning when
they heard that Epaminondas had been mortally wounded just as the battle
was drawing to an end.
A spear had pierced his breast; and as he sank to the ground, some of
his followers caught him, bore him away tenderly in their arms, and
carefully laid him down under a tree on a neighboring hillside. As soon
as he opened his eyes, he eagerly asked how the army was getting along.
Gently raising him so that he could see the battlefield, his friends
pointed out the Spartan army in full flight, and the Thebans masters of
the field. Epaminondas sank back with a sigh of relief, but soon roused
himself again to ask whether his shield were safe.
It was only when he had seen it that he would allow the doctors to
examine his wound. They found the head of a barbed spear sunk deep into
his breast, and said that it must be pulled out. Still they hesitated to
draw it out, for they feared that the rush of blood would kill him.
Epaminondas, therefore, bade them leave it alone, although he was
suffering greatly; and then he called for his assistant generals, to
give them a few important orders. The friends standing around him sadly
told him that both had fallen in the battle, and could no longer execute
his commands. When Epaminondas heard this unwelcome news, he realized
that there was no one left who could replace him, and maintain the
Theban supremacy: so he advised his fellow-countrymen to seize the
favorable opportunity to make peace with the Spartans.
When he had thus done all in his power to provide for the future welfare
of his native city, Epaminondas drew out the spear from his wound with
his own hand, for he saw that his friends were afraid to touch it.
As the doctors had foreseen, there was a great rush of blood, and they
soon saw that Epaminondas had only a few minutes to live. His friends
wept over him, and one of them openly expressed his regret that
Epaminondas left no children.
These words were heard by the dying hero, who opened his eyes once more,
and gently said, "Leuctra and Mantinea are daughters enough to keep my
name alive!"
This saying has proved true; for these two great victories are put down
in every Greek history, and are never spoken of except in connection
with the noble general who won them in behalf of his country, and died
on the field when the last victory was secured.
In memory of Epaminondas, their greatest citizen and general, the
Thebans erected a monument on the battlefield, and engraved his name
upon it, with an image of the dragon from whose teeth his ancestors had
sprung.
The Thebans, remembering his dying wish, then proposed a peace, which
was gladly accepted by all the Greek states, for they were exhausted by
the almost constant warfare they had kept up during many years.
LXXXI. THE TYRANT OF SYRACUSE.
You have seen what a cruel man Alexander was. He was not the only tyrant
in those days, however; for the city of Syracuse in Sicily, which
Alcibiades had hoped to conquer, was ruled by a man as harsh and mean as
Alexander.
This tyrant, whose name was Di-o-nys´ius, had seized the power by force,
and kept his authority by exercising the greatest severity. He was
always surrounded by guards, who at a mere sign from him were ready to
put any one to death.
Dionysius was therefore feared and hated by the people whom he governed,
but who would have been very glad to get rid of him. No honest man cared
to come near such a bloodthirsty wretch, and there were soon none but
wicked men to be found in his court.
These men, hoping to win his favor and get rich gifts, used to flatter
him constantly. They never told him the truth, but only praised him, and
made believe to admire all he said and did.
Of course, even though they were wicked too, they could not really
admire him, but secretly hated and despised him. Their praise,
therefore, was as false as they, and their advice was always as bad as
bad could be.
Now, Dionysius was as conceited as he was cruel, and fancied that there
was nothing he could not do. Among other things, he thought he could
write beautiful poetry. Whenever he wrote a poem, therefore, he read it
aloud to all his courtiers, who went into raptures over it, although
they made great fun of it behind his back.
Dionysius was highly flattered by their praise, but thought he would
like to have it confirmed by the philosopher Phi-lox´e-nus, the most
learned man of Syracuse.
He therefore sent for Philoxenus, and bade him give his candid opinion
of the verse. Now, Philoxenus was far too noble a man to tell a lie: and
whenever he was consulted by Dionysius, he always boldly told the
truth, whether it was agreeable or not.
When the tyrant asked his opinion about the poems, therefore, he
unhesitatingly answered that they were trash, and did not deserve the
name of poetry at all.
This answer so angered Dionysius, and so sorely wounded his vanity, that
he called his guards, and bade them put the philosopher into a prison
hewn out of the living rock, and hence known as "The Quarries."
Here Philoxenus was a prisoner for many a day, although his only fault
was having told the tyrant an unwelcome truth when asked to speak.
The philosopher's friends were indignant on hearing that he was in
prison, and signed a petition asking Dionysius to set him free. The
tyrant read the petition, and promised to grant their request on
condition that the philosopher would sup with him.
Dionysius' table was well decked, as usual, and at dessert he again read
aloud some new verses which he had composed. All the courtiers went into
ecstasies over them, but Philoxenus did not say a word.
Dionysius, however, fancied that his long imprisonment had broken his
spirit, and that he would not now dare refuse to give a few words of
praise: so he pointedly asked Philoxenus what he thought of the poem.
Instead of answering, the philosopher gravely turned toward the guards,
and in a firm voice cried aloud, "Take me back to The Quarries!" thus
showing very plainly that he preferred suffering to telling an untruth.
The courtiers were aghast at his rashness, and fully expected that the
tyrant would take him at his word and put him in prison, if nothing
worse; but Dionysius was struck by the moral courage which made
Philoxenus tell the truth at the risk of his life, and he bade him go
home in peace.
LXXXII. STORY OF DAMON AND PYTHIAS.
There lived in those days in Syracuse two young men called Da´mon and
Pyth´i-as. They were very good friends, and loved each other so dearly
that they were hardly ever seen apart.
Now, it happened that Pythias in some way roused the anger of the
tyrant, who put him in prison, and condemned him to die in a few days.
When Damon heard of it, he was in despair, and vainly tried to obtain
his friend's pardon and release.
The mother of Pythias was very old, and lived far away from Syracuse
with her daughter. When the young man heard that he was to die, he was
tormented by the thought of leaving the women alone. In an interview
with his friend Damon, Pythias regretfully said that he would die easier
had he only been able to bid his mother good-by and find a protector for
his sister.
Damon, anxious to gratify his friend's last wish, went into the presence
of the tyrant, and proposed to take the place of Pythias in prison, and
even on the cross, if need be, provided the latter were allowed to visit
his relatives once more.
Dionysius had heard of the young men's touching friendship, and hated
them both merely because they were good; yet he allowed them to change
places, warning them both, however, that, if Pythias were not back in
time, Damon would have to die in his stead.
At first Pythias refused to allow his friend to take his place in
prison, but finally he consented, promising to be back in a few days to
release him. So Pythias hastened home, found a husband for his sister,
and saw her safely married. Then, after providing for his mother and
bidding her farewell, he set out to return to Syracuse.
The young man was traveling alone and on foot. He soon fell into the
hands of thieves, who bound him fast to a tree; and it was only after
hours of desperate struggling that he managed to wrench himself free
once more, and sped along his way.
He was running as hard as he could to make up for lost time, when he
came to the edge of a stream. He had crossed it easily a few days
before; but a sudden spring freshet had changed it into a raging
torrent, which no one else would have ventured to enter.
In spite of the danger, Pythias plunged into the water, and, nerved by
the fear that his friend would die in his stead, he fought the waves so
successfully that he reached the other side safe but almost exhausted.
Regardless of his pains, Pythias pressed anxiously onward, although his
road now lay across a plain, where the hot rays of the sun and the
burning sands greatly increased his fatigue and faintness, and almost
made him die of thirst. Still he sped onward as fast as his trembling
limbs could carry him; for the sun was sinking fast, and he knew that
his friend would die if he were not in Syracuse by sunset.
[Illustration: Damon and Pythias.]
Dionysius, in the mean while, had been amusing himself by taunting
Damon, constantly telling him that he was a fool to have risked his life
for a friend, however dear. To anger him, he also insisted that Pythias
was only too glad to escape death, and would be very careful not to
return in time.
Damon, who knew the goodness and affection of his friend, received these
remarks with the scorn they deserved, and repeated again and again that
he knew Pythias would never break his word, but would be back in time,
unless hindered in some unforeseen way.
The last hour came. The guards led Damon to the place of crucifixion,
where he again asserted his faith in his friend, adding, however, that
he sincerely hoped Pythias would come too late, so that he might die in
his stead.
Just as the guards were about to nail Damon to the cross, Pythias dashed
up, pale, bloodstained, and disheveled, and flung his arms around his
friend's neck with a sob of relief. For the first time Damon now turned
pale, and began to shed tears of bitter regret.
In a few hurried, panting words, Pythias explained the cause of his
delay, and, loosing his friend's bonds with his own hands, bade the
guards bind him instead.
Dionysius, who had come to see the execution, was so touched by this
true friendship, that for once he forgot his cruelty, and let both young
men go free, saying that he would not have believed such devotion
possible had he not seen it with his own eyes.
This friendship, which wrung tears from the grim executioners, and
touched the tyrant's heart, has become proverbial. When men are devoted
friends, they are often compared to Damon and Pythias, whose story has
been a favorite with poets and playwrights.
LXXXIII. THE SWORD OF DAMOCLES.
Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, was not happy, in spite of all his wealth
and power. He was especially haunted by the constant fear that some one
would murder him, for he had been so cruel that he had made many bitter
enemies.
We are told that he was so afraid, that he never went out unless
surrounded by guards, sword in hand, and never walked into any room
until his servants had examined every nook and corner, and made sure
that no murderer was hiding there.
The tyrant even carried his caution so far, that no one was allowed to
come into his presence until thoroughly searched, so as to make sure
that the visitor had no weapon hidden about his person. When his barber
once jokingly said that the tyrant's life was daily at his mercy,
Dionysius would no longer allow the man to shave him.
Instead of the barber, Dionysius made his wife and daughter do this
service for him, until, growing afraid of them also, he either did it
himself or let his beard grow.
Suspicious people are never happy; and, as Dionysius thought that
everybody had as evil thoughts as himself, he was always expecting
others to rob or murder or injure him in some way.
His sleep, even, was haunted by fear; and, lest some one should take him
unawares, he slept in a bed surrounded by a deep trench. There was a
drawbridge leading to the bed, which he always drew up himself on his
own side, so that no one could get at him to murder him in his sleep.
Among the courtiers who daily visited Dionysius there was one called
Dam´o-cles. He was a great flatterer, and was never weary of telling the
tyrant how lucky and powerful and rich he was, and how enviable was his
lot.
Dionysius finally grew tired of hearing his flattery; and when he once
added, "If I were only obeyed as well as you, I should be the happiest
of men," the tyrant offered to take him at his word.
By his order, Damocles was dressed in the richest garments, laid on the
softest couch before the richest meal, and the servants were told to
obey his every wish. This pleased Damocles greatly. He laughed and sang,
ate and drank, and was enjoying himself most thoroughly.
By chance he idly gazed up at the ceiling, and saw a naked sword hanging
by a single hair directly over his head. He grew pale with terror, the
laughter died on his lips, and, as soon as he could move, he sprang from
the couch, where he had been in such danger of being killed at any
minute by the falling sword.
Dionysius with pretended surprise urged him to go back to his seat; but
Damocles refused to do so, and pointed to the sword with a trembling
hand. Then the tyrant told him that a person always haunted by fear can
never be truly happy,--an explanation which Damocles readily understood.
Since then, whenever a seemingly happy and prosperous person is
threatened by a hidden danger, it has been usual to compare him to
Damocles, and to say that a sword is hanging over his head.
LXXXIV. DION AND DIONYSIUS.
When Dionysius the tyrant died at last, he was succeeded by his son, a
lazy, good-for-nothing young man, who was always changing his mind.
Every day he had some new fancy, admired something new, or rode some new
hobby. As the son's name was the same as the father's, the latter is now
sometimes known as Dionysius the Elder, while the son is generally
called Dionysius the Younger.
The new tyrant had a brother-in-law named Di´on, a good and studious
man, who had received an excellent education. Like most rich young
Greeks of his day, Dion had gone to Athens to finish his studies; and
there he had been a pupil of Plato, the disciple of Socrates.
As Dion was modest, truthful, and eager to learn, he soon became a
favorite of Plato, who took great interest in him, and spared no pains
to make him a fine scholar and philosopher.
When Dion came back to Syracuse, he often spoke with great warmth of
his teacher. This so excited the curiosity of Dionysius, the new tyrant,
that he longed to see Plato himself. He therefore begged Dion to invite
Plato to Syracuse to teach him also.
The young man was very glad to do so. He hoped, that, under the
philosopher's wise teachings, Dionysius would learn to be good and
industrious, and thus become a blessing instead of a curse to his
people. But Plato was already an old man, and answered that he could not
undertake so long a journey at his advanced age.
Dion then wrote again such imploring letters, that the philosopher
finally decided to change his mind, and set sail for Syracuse. There he
was received at the shore by Dionysius in person, and escorted to the
palace.
For a short time the tyrant listened with great pleasure to the
philosopher's teachings. Then, growing weary of virtue as of everything
else, he suddenly began to reproach Dion for bringing such a tiresome
person to court.
All the courtiers had pretended to listen to Plato's teaching with the
greatest interest; but they liked feasting better than philosophy, and
now began to make fun of the great Athenian, and to turn him into
ridicule.
They were so afraid that the virtuous Dion would again win their fickle
master's ear, and induce him to do something really useful and
reasonable, that they made up their minds to get rid of him.
By artful slander they soon made Dionysius believe that his
brother-in-law was a traitor, and that his only wish was to take the
power, and become tyrant of Syracuse in his stead.
Now, these accusations were not true; but Dionysius believed them, and
sent Dion into exile, forbidding his wife, who loved him dearly, to go
with him, and even forcing her to take another husband instead.
The courtiers wished to revenge themselves for the weary hours they had
spent listening to Plato's beautiful talk, which they were too base to
understand, so they now said that he had helped Dion; and they had him
first put into prison, and then sold into slavery.
Happily, there were some of the philosopher's friends in town; and they,
hearing of this outrage, knew no rest until they had bought his freedom,
and sent him back to Athens to end his life in peace.
On his way home, Plato stopped at Olympia to attend the games. As soon
as the people found out that he was there, they shouted for joy; and one
and all voted him a crown just like those won by the victors in the
games.
This was the highest honor the Greeks could bestow; and, although it was
nothing but a wreath of olive leaves, you may be sure that the
philosopher prized it more highly than if it had been of pure gold,
because it was a token of the love and respect of his countrymen.
LXXXV. CIVIL WAR IN SYRACUSE.
When Dion was exiled from Syracuse by Dionysius, he went to Greece,
where he was unhappy only because he could not see the wife and child he
loved so dearly.
When he heard that the tyrant had forced his wife to belong to another
husband, he vowed he would punish Dionysius for this crime. Plato vainly
tried to persuade Dion not to return to Syracuse. The young man refused
to listen to his advice, and, gathering together a small army, he set
sail without delay.
He landed boldly, although he was an exile, and was welcomed with great
joy by all the people, who were very weary of their ruler. When he told
them that he had come to punish the tyrant, they all joined him, and
marched with him up to the palace.
As Dionysius was out of town at the time, they had no trouble whatever
in getting into the royal dwelling. This was hastily deserted by the
tyrant's few friends, who took refuge in the citadel.
Some time after, when Dionysius came back to the city, he found the
harbor blocked by a great chain stretched across it to prevent the
entrance of any ship; and he was forced to retreat into the citadel,
where the angry Syr-a-cus´ans came to besiege him.
Now, Dion had a great many friends, and, as everybody knew that he was
truthful and well-meaning, the people all fought on his side. He was so
strict with himself, however, that he treated his subjects also with
great rigor, and exacted such obedience and virtue that they soon grew
weary of his reign.
Then, too, while he was always ready to reward the good, Dion punished
the wicked with such severity that he soon made many enemies. One of
these was the courtier Her-a-cli´des, who, instead of showing his
dislike openly, began to plot against him in secret.
Dionysius, besieged in the citadel, was in sore straits by this time,
and almost dying of hunger; for the Syracusans, afraid that he would
escape, had built a wall all around the citadel, and watched it night
and day, to prevent any one from going in or out, or smuggling in any
food.
As Dionysius had no army, and could not win back his throne by force, he
made up his mind to do so, if possible, by a trick. He therefore wrote a
letter, in which he offered Dion the tyranny in exchange for his
freedom. This message was worded so cleverly that it sounded as if Dion
had asked to be made tyrant of Syracuse.
LXXXVI. DEATH OF DION.
Now, after suffering so much under Dionysius and his father, the
Syracusans had learned to hate the very name of tyrant; and ever since
Dion had come into the city, and taken the lead, they had loudly said
they would never stand such a ruler again.
As soon as the letter was ended, Dionysius tied it to a stone, and threw
it over the wall. Of course, it was carried to Dion, who read it aloud,
little suspecting its contents, or the effect it would produce upon his
followers.
The people began to frown and look angry, and Heraclides boldly seized
this opportunity to poison their minds against Dion. He urged them to
drive their new leader out of the city, and to give the command of the
army to him instead.
The people, ever ready for a change, gladly listened to this advice,
and, after banishing Dion, made Heraclides their chief. Dionysius
cleverly managed to escape from the citadel; and his general, Nyp´sius,
only then becoming aware of the revolution, took his place there, and by
a sudden sally won back the greater part of the city.
As Heraclides was taken by surprise at this move, and greatly feared the
wrath of Dionysius, he now wrote to Dion, begging him to come back and
save those who had upheld him.
The appeal was not made in vain. Dion generously forgave the treachery
of Heraclides, and, marching into the city once more, drove Nypsius back
into the citadel, where this general died.
The people of Syracuse were ashamed of having so suddenly turned against
Dion after their first warm welcome to him, and they now fell at his
feet, begging his pardon, which he freely granted to them all.
In spite of this kindness, which they had not deserved, Heraclides and
many others went on plotting secretly against Dion, until his friends,
weary of such double dealing, put Heraclides to death.
Dion was sorry for this, reproved his friends for committing such a
crime, and said that he knew the Syracusans would in time lay the murder
at his door, and try to punish him for it.
He was right in thinking thus, for the friends of Heraclides soon began
plotting against him; and, entering his country house one day when he
was alone, they fell upon him and killed him.
As soon as Dionysius heard that Dion was dead, he hastened back to
Syracuse, where he ruled more cruelly than ever, and put so many people
to death that the citizens rose up against him once more. With the help
of a Co-rin´thi-an army, they then freed their city, and sent Dionysius
to Corinth, where he was forced to earn his living by teaching school.
[Illustration: The people all hooted.]
As Dionysius was a cross and unkind teacher, the children would neither
love nor obey him; and whenever he passed down the street, clad in a
rough mantle instead of a jewel-covered robe, the people all hooted, and
made great fun of him.
LXXXVII. PHILIP OF MACEDON.
In the days when Thebes was the strongest city in Greece, and when
Epaminondas was the leader in his native country, he received in his
house a young Mac-e-do´-ni-an prince called Philip. This young man had
been sent to Greece as a hostage, and was brought up under the eye of
Epaminondas. The Theban hero got the best teachers for Philip, who was
thus trained with great care, and became not only quite learned, but
also brave and strong.
Mac´e-don, Philip's country, was north of Greece, and its rulers spoke
Greek and were of Greek descent; but, as the people of Macedon were not
of the same race, the Greeks did not like them, and never allowed them
to send any one to the Amphictyonic Council.
Two years after the battle of Mantinea, when Philip was eighteen years
old, he suddenly learned that the king, his brother, was dead, and had
left an infant to take his place. Philip knew that a child could not
govern: so he escaped from Thebes, where he was not very closely
watched, and made his way to Macedon.
Arriving there, he offered to rule in his little nephew's stead. The
people were very glad indeed to accept his services; and when they found
that the child was only half-witted, they formally offered the crown of
Macedon to Philip.
Now, although Macedon was a very small country, Philip no sooner became
king than he made up his mind to place it at the head of all the Greek
states, and make it the foremost kingdom of the world.
This was a very ambitious plan; and in order to carry it out, Philip
knew that he would need a good army. He therefore began to train his
men, and, remembering how successful Epaminondas had been, he taught
them to fight as the Thebans had fought at Leuctra and Mantinea.
Then, instead of drawing up his soldiers in one long line of battle, he
formed them into a solid body,--an arrangement which soon became known
as the Macedonian phalanx.
Each soldier in the phalanx had a large shield, and carried a spear. As
soon as the signal for battle was given, the men locked their shields
together so as to form a wall, and stood in ranks one behind the other.
The first row of soldiers had short spears, and the fourth and last rows
very long ones. The weapons of the other rows were of medium length, so
that they all stuck out beyond the first soldiers, and formed a
bristling array of points which no one dared meet.
Philip not only trained his army so as to have well-drilled soldiers
ready, but also found and began to work some gold mines in his kingdom.
As they yielded much precious metal, he soon became one of the richest
men of his time.
This wealth proved very useful, for it helped him to hire a great force
of soldiers, and also to buy up a number of allies. In fact, Philip soon
found that his gold was even more useful than his army, and he was in
the habit of saying that "a fortress can always be taken if only a mule
laden with gold can be got inside."
Philip was so kind and just that he soon won the love of all his
subjects. It is said that he listened to the complaints of the poor and
humble with as much patience as to those of his noblest courtiers.
Once, after dining heavily and drinking too much, Philip was suddenly
called upon to try the case of a poor widow. As the king's head was not
very clear, he was not able to judge as well as usual: so he soon said
that she was in the wrong, and should be punished.
The woman, who knew that she was right, was very angry; and, as the
guards were dragging her away, she daringly cried, "I appeal!"
"Appeal?" asked Philip, in a mocking tone, "and to whom?"
"I appeal from Philip drunk to Philip sober!" replied the woman.
These words made such an impression upon Philip, that he said he would
try the case again on the next day, when his head was quite clear. He
did not forget his promise on the morrow; and when he found that the
woman was right, he punished her accuser, and set her free.
LXXXVIII. PHILIP BEGINS HIS CONQUESTS.
As we have already seen, when Philip found himself in the wrong, he was
not afraid to admit his mistake, and to try to do better. He was also
very patient and forgiving. On one occasion he heard that a man named
Ni-ca´nor was always speaking ill of him.
He therefore sent for the man, who came in fear and trembling, thinking
that the king would either imprison or slay him. Philip, however,
received him kindly, made him sit at his own table, and let him go only
after giving him many rich gifts. As the king had not found fault with
him in any way, Nicanor was greatly surprised, and vowed that he would
not speak another word against so generous a man.
As soon as Philip had made sure of his authority at home, drilled his
army, and piled up enough gold, he began to carry out his bold plans.
First of all, he wished to subdue a few of his most unruly neighbors,
such as the Thracians and O-lyn´thi-ans.
An archer named As´ter came to him just before he began this war. This
man offered his help to the king, and began to boast how well he could
shoot. Philip, who believed only in spears for fighting, sent the man
away, after saying that he would call for his help when he began to war
against starlings and other birds.
This answer made Aster so angry that he went over to the enemy and
enlisted in their ranks. Philip soon came to besiege the city where
Aster was stationed; and as soon as the archer heard of it, he got an
arrow upon which he wrote, "To Philip's left eye."
Aster then went up on the wall, took careful aim, and actually put out
the king's left eye. Philip was so angry when he heard of the writing on
the arrow, that he ordered another shot into the city. On this arrow was
written, "If Philip takes the city, he will hang Aster."
The city was taken, and the archer hung; for Philip always prided
himself upon keeping promises of this kind. The Olynthians, finding that
they would not be able to resist long, now wrote a letter to the
Athenians, begging them to come to their rescue.
The Athenians read the letter in the public square, so that every one
could hear it, and then began to discuss whether they should send any
help. As was always the case, some were for, and others against, the
plan, and there was much talking. Among the best speakers of the city
was the orator De-mos´the-nes, a very clear-sighted man, who suspected
Philip's designs. He therefore warmly advised the Athenians to do all
they could to oppose the Macedonian king, so as to prevent his ever
getting a foothold in Greece. Indeed, he spoke so eloquently and
severely against Philip, and told the people so plainly that the king
was already plotting to harm them, that violent speeches directed
against any one have ever since been called "Philippics," like these
orations against the King of Macedon.
LXXXIX. THE ORATOR DEMOSTHENES.
As you have seen in the last chapter, Philip had one great enemy in
Greece, the orator Demosthenes. He had distrusted Philip from the very
first, and had kept warning the Athenians that the King of Macedon was
very ambitious, and would soon try to become master of all Greece. When
the Olynthians asked for aid, he had warmly urged the Athenians to give
it, saying that they ought to bring on the conflict with Philip as soon
as possible, so that the fighting might be done outside of Greece. In
spite of his good arguments, however, Demosthenes failed.
[Illustration: Demosthenes.]
Philip took not only O-lyn´thus, but all the towns which formed the
Olynthian union, and destroyed them so completely that a few years later
one could not even find out where these once prosperous cities had been.
Demosthenes made three very fine speeches in favor of the Olynthians,
and several against Philip. These were written down, and have been
translated time and again. You may some day read and admire them for
yourselves.
Of course, when Philip heard of Demosthenes' speeches, he was very
angry; but he thought that his gold could do wonders, so he sent a
beautiful cup of that precious metal to the orator. The gift was
accepted; still Demosthenes, instead of remaining silent as Philip had
expected, went on talking against him as openly as before.
As Demosthenes was such a great man, you will like to hear how he
learned to speak so well. He was an orphan, but very ambitious indeed.
He saw how eagerly the Athenians listened to the best speakers, and he
thought that he too would like to become an orator.
Unfortunately, he could not talk very plainly, and instead of listening
to him, even his playmates made fun of him. But instead of crying,
sulking, or getting angry, Demosthenes sensibly made up his mind to
learn how to speak so well that they could no longer laugh at him. He
therefore learned a great deal of poetry, which he recited daily as
distinctly as possible. To be able to do this without attracting any
attention, he used to go down to a lonely spot on the seashore, where he
would put some pebbles in his mouth, and then try to recite so loud that
his voice could be heard above the noise of the waves.
To make his lungs strong, he used to walk and run up hill, reciting as
he went; and, in order to form a pleasant style, he copied nine times
the works of the great Greek historian Thu-cyd´i-des.
When a young man, he shut himself up in the house to study hard. Then,
as he was afraid of being tempted to go out and amuse himself, he shaved
one side of his head, and let the hair grow long on the other.
You see, he was bound to succeed, and his constant trying was duly
rewarded, as it always is. He became learned, eloquent, and energetic;
and whenever he rose to speak in the public places of Athens, he was
surrounded by an admiring crowd, who listened open-mouthed to all he
said.
The Athenians were too lazy at this time, however, to bestir themselves
very much, even for their own good. So, in spite of all that Demosthenes
could say, they did not offer any great resistance to Philip, who little
by little became a very powerful king.
XC. PHILIP MASTERS GREECE.
When Philip had entirely subdued the Thracians and Olynthians, he helped
the Thessalians to get rid of their tyrant; and, adding their cavalry to
his infantry, he boasted of as fine an army as the Greeks had ever been
able to muster. He was very anxious to find a pretext to march into
Greece at the head of this force, because he thought that, once there,
he would soon manage to become master of all the towns. And the excuse
for which he longed so much soon came.
A contest known as the Sacred War was going on in Greece at that time.
It had arisen because the Pho´cians had taken possession of lands that
were left waste in honor of the god Apollo. The Amphictyonic Council
said they should pay a fine for this offense; and the Phocians, angry at
being thus publicly reproved, defied the council.
To show how little they intended to obey, they not only kept the land
they had taken, but robbed the temple at Delphi. Then they used the
money thus obtained to win over some allies, and soon began to make war
against the people who obeyed the council.
The loyal Greeks fought against the Phocians for a long time, but were
unable to conquer them: so Philip proposed to come and help the council.
In their anxiety to win in this war, the Greeks gladly allowed him to
bring his army into their country, and he soon completely subdued the
rebels.
In reward for his help, Philip was made president of the council,--a
position he had long coveted,--and leader of the Pyth´i-an games held in
honor of Apollo.
When the war was ended, Philip quietly went back to Macedon. He was,
however, merely waiting for a favorable opportunity to reënter Greece,
and punish the Athenians for listening to Demosthenes' speeches against
him.
In the mean while, Philip's gold had been very busy, and he was buying
up as many friends and allies as he could. Many of his gifts had the
desired effect, and were not like the gold cup which he sent to
Demosthenes. This, you know, had wholly failed in its purpose, for the
orator went on talking more eloquently than ever against the Macedonian
king.
He finally roused the Athenians to the point of arming to meet Philip,
when they heard that he was really coming at last to make himself master
of Greece. Their allies, the Thebans, joined them; and the two armies
met at Chær-o-ne´a, in Boeotia, where a terrible battle was fought.
Demosthenes had joined the army; but as he was no soldier, and was not
very brave, he fled at the very first onset. Dashing through the bushes,
he was suddenly stopped by some spiky branches that caught in his cloak
and held him fast. The orator was so frightened that he thought the
enemy had captured him, and, falling upon his knees, he began to beg
that his life might be spared.
While Demosthenes was thus flying madly, his friends and fellow-citizens
were bravely meeting the Macedonians; but, in spite of all their
courage, they were soon forced to yield to the Macedonian phalanx, and
the battlefield was left strewn with their dead.
Alexander, Philip's son, who was then only eighteen years of age,
commanded one wing of his father's army, and had the glory of completely
crushing the Sacred Battalion of the Thebans, which had never before
been beaten.
This brilliant victory at Chæronea made Philip really master of all
Greece; but he generously refrained from making the Athenians recognize
him openly as their lord, although he made their government do whatever
he pleased.
As Greece was now obedient to him, the ambitious Philip began to plan
the conquest of Asia and the downfall of the Persian Empire. To get as
large an army as possible, he invited all the Greeks to join him,
artfully reminding them of all they had suffered at the hands of the
Persians in the past.
His preparations were nearly finished, and he was on the point of
starting for Asia, when he was murdered by Pausanias, one of his
subjects, whom he had treated very unkindly.
XCI. BIRTH OF ALEXANDER.
When Philip died, he was succeeded by his son Alexander, a young man of
twenty, who had already earned a good name by leading part of the army
at the battle of Chæronea. His efforts, as you know, had defeated the
Sacred Battalion of the Thebans, and helped much to secure the victory.
Through his mother, O-lym´pi-as, Alexander was a descendant of Achilles,
the well-known hero of the Trojan War. He was born at Pel´la, a city of
Macedon, three hundred and fifty-six years before Christ. His father was
so pleased to have a son, that he said that all the boys born in his
kingdom on the same day should be brought up with Alexander in the
palace, and become his bodyguard.
Thus you see the young prince had plenty of playmates; and, as there
was nothing he liked better than fighting, he soon began to play
soldiers, and to train his little regiment.
From the very first, the Macedonians had declared that Alexander was
born to greatness, and several noted events that took place on the day
of his birth served to confirm this belief.
In the first place, Par-me´ni-o, Philip's general, won a grand victory
on that day; then Philip's horses, which had been sent to Olympia, got
the prize at the chariot races; and, lastly, the famous temple at
Ephesus, dedicated to Diana, was burned to the ground.
The first two events were joyful in the extreme; but the burning of
this temple, which was among the wonders of the world, was a great
calamity. Every one was anxious to know how it had happened; and all
were very angry when they found out that it was not an accident, but had
been done on purpose.
The man who had set fire to it was crazy. His name was E-ros´tra-tus;
and when he was asked why he had done such a wicked thing, he said that
it was only to make his name immortal. The people were so indignant,
that they not only condemned him to die, but forbade all mention of his
name, hoping that it would be forgotten.
In spite of this care, Erostratus' name has come down to us. It is
immortal indeed, but who except a crazy man would wish to win such fame,
and could bear to think that all who ever heard of him would condemn his
action, and consider him as wicked as he was insane?
Alexander was first given over to the care of a nurse. He loved her
dearly as long as he lived, and her son Cly´tus was always one of his
best friends and most faithful comrades.
As soon as he was old enough, Alexander began to learn the Iliad and
Odyssey by heart; and he loved to hear about the principal heroes, and
especially about his own ancestor, Achilles.
He admired these poems so much that he carried a copy of them with him
wherever he went, and always slept with it under his pillow. Both the
Iliad and the Odyssey were kept in a box of the finest gold, because
Alexander thought nothing was too good for them.
XCII. THE STEED BUCEPHALUS.
When only thirteen years of age, Alexander once saw some horsedealers
bringing a beautiful steed before the king. The animal had a white spot
on his nose shaped somewhat like the head of an ox, and on this account
was named Bu-ceph´a-lus, which means "ox-head."
Philip admired the horse greatly, and bade the grooms try him, to see if
his gait was good. One after another mounted, only to be thrown a few
minutes later by the fiery, restless steed, which was becoming very much
excited.
The horse seemed so skittish that Philip finally told the men to lead
him away, adding that a man would be foolish to purchase such a useless
animal. Alexander then stepped forward and begged permission to try him.
His father first made fun of him for asking to mount a horse which none
of the grooms could manage; but, as Alexander persisted in his wish, he
was finally allowed to make the attempt.
The young prince then quietly walked up to the excited horse, took the
bridle, held it firmly, and began to speak gently and pat the steed's
arched neck. After a moment, Alexander led Bucephalus forward a few
steps, and then turned him around, for he had noticed that the horse was
frightened by his shadow.
Then, when the shadow lay where he could not see it, and where it could
no longer frighten him, the young man dropped his cloak quietly, and
vaulted upon the horse's back. Once more Bucephalus reared, pranced,
kicked, and ran; but Alexander sat firmly on his back, spoke to him
gently, and, making no effort to hold him in, let him speed across the
plain.
[Illustration: Alexander and Bucephalus.]
In a few moments the horse's wildness was over, and Alexander could ride
back to his proud father, sitting upon a steed which obeyed his
slightest touch.
Philip was so delighted with the coolness, courage, and good
horsemanship that Alexander had shown on this occasion, that he made him
a present of the steed. Bucephalus became Alexander's favorite mount,
and, while he would allow no one else to ride him, he obeyed his master
perfectly.
Although most young men began the study of philosophy only at sixteen,
Alexander was placed under the tuition of Ar´is-totle soon after his
first ride on Bucephalus. This philosopher was a pupil of Plato. He was
so learned and well known, that Philip, in writing to him to tell him of
Alexander's birth, expressed his pleasure that the gods had allowed his
son to live in the same age with so great a teacher.
Alexander loved Aristotle dearly, and willingly learned all that was
required of him. He often said that he was very grateful, for this
philosopher had taught him all the good he knew. Alexander's remarkable
coolness, judgment, and perseverance were largely owing to his teacher,
and, had he always followed Aristotle's advice, he would have been truly
great.
But although Alexander did not always practice the virtues which
Aristotle had tried to teach him, he never forgot his old tutor. He gave
him large sums of money, so that the philosopher could continue his
studies, and find out new things; and during his journeys he always sent
him complete collections of the animals and plants of the regions he
visited.
XCIII. ALEXANDER AS KING.
Philip, King of Macedon, as we have seen, had one great fault. He drank;
and often his reason was clouded, and his step unsteady. Now, it is
impossible to respect a man who is drunk, and everybody used to make fun
of Philip when he was in that state.
Even Alexander, his own son, felt great contempt for him when he thus
disgraced himself; and once when he saw his father stagger and fall
after one of his orgies, he scornfully exclaimed, "See! here is a man
who is getting ready to cross from Europe to Asia, and yet he cannot
step safely from one couch to another."
Alexander, we are told, was greatly displeased by his father's
conquests, and once angrily cried that if Philip really beat the
Persians, and took possession of Asia, there would be nothing left for
him to do.
You may readily imagine, therefore, that he was not very sorry when his
father died before the expedition could be undertaken; for he thus
became, at twenty, master of an immense army and of great riches, and
head of all the Greek cities, which were then the finest in the world.
The news of Philip's death was received with great joy by the Athenians
also, who thought they would now be free. Demosthenes, in particular,
was so glad to be rid of his hated foe, that he ran all through the city
with a crown of flowers on his head, shaking hands with everybody he
met, and shouting his congratulations.
His joy was so great, because he and all his fellow-citizens fancied
that a mere boy like Alexander would never be able to hold his own, and
because they hoped to become again the leading people of Greece.
The Thracians, who also thought that Alexander would not be able to
carry out his father's plans, now revolted, and the young king was
obliged to begin his reign by marching against them.
Three months passed. The Greeks heard no news of Alexander or of his
army, and fancied that he had been defeated and killed. The Thebans,
thinking the right moment had come, suddenly rose up, and said that they
would never again submit to the Macedonian yoke, but would stay free.
They soon had cause to repent of this rash talk. Alexander was not dead,
but had conquered the Thracians completely. Without stopping to rest, he
now marched straight down into Boeotia, and besieged and took Thebes.
All the inhabitants were either slain or sold into slavery, the walls
torn down, and not a single building was left standing, except the house
of Pin´dar, a Greek poet, whose songs Alexander had always admired.
The other Greek cities, frightened by the terrible punishment of Thebes,
sent messengers to the young king, offering not only to obey him as
their chief, but also to supply all the men, money, and stores he
wished for the expedition to Asia. Alexander graciously accepted all
these proposals, and then marched southward as far as Corinth.
XCIV. ALEXANDER AND DIOGENES.
Everybody bowed down before Alexander, and all looked at him with awe
and respect, as he made his triumphant progress through Greece,--all
except the sage Di-og´e-nes.
This man belonged to a class of philosophers who were called "cynics,"
which means "doglike," because, as some say, they did not care for the
usual comforts of life.
It is said that Diogenes, the principal philosopher of this kind, chose
as his home a great earthenware tub near the Temple of Ce´res. He wore a
rough woolen cloak, summer and winter, as his only garment, and ate all
his food raw. His only utensil was a wooden bowl, out of which he drank.
One day, however, he saw a child drinking out of its hollow palm.
Diogenes immediately threw away the bowl, saying he could do without
luxury as well as the child; and he drank henceforth from his hand.
As you see, Diogenes was a very strange man. He prided himself upon
always telling the truth, and upon treating all men alike. Some of his
disciples once met him wandering about the streets with a lantern,
anxiously peering into every nook and corner, and staring fixedly at
every person he met. When asked what he was looking for so carefully,
yet apparently with so little hope, he bluntly answered, "An honest
man."
Alexander had heard of this queer philosopher, and was anxious to see
him. He therefore went to the Temple of Ceres, escorted by all his
courtiers, on purpose to visit him. Diogenes was lying on the ground in
front of his tub, warming himself in the rays of the sun.
Alexander, drawing near, stood between the philosopher and the sun, and
tried to begin a conversation; but Diogenes gave surly answers, and
seemed to pay little heed to his visitor.
At last the young king proudly remarked, "I am Alexander the king!"
"And I," replied the philosopher in exactly the same tone, "am Diogenes
the cynic!"
As he could win nothing but short or rude answers, Alexander was about
to go away, but he first asked the sage if there was anything he could
do for him. "Yes," snapped Diogenes; "stand out of my sunshine!"
The courtiers were shocked at this insolent behavior, and began to talk
of the philosopher in a scornful tone as they were moving away.
Alexander, overhearing them, soon stopped them by saying, "If I were not
Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes."
By this remark he wished them to understand, that, if he could not be
master of all earthly things, he would rather despise them.
Strange to relate, Alexander the king, and Diogenes the cynic, died on
the same night, and from the same cause. Diogenes died in his tub, after
a too plentiful supper from the raw leg of an ox; while Alexander
breathed his last in a Bab-y-lo´ni-an palace, after having eaten and
drunk to excess at a rich banquet.
XCV. ALEXANDER'S BRILLIANT BEGINNING.
As soon as the Greek states had all been brought to a proper state of
obedience, Alexander prepared to conquer Persia, although he had a force
of only 34,500 men. These men were very well trained, however, and
promised to be more powerful on the battlefield than the million
warriors of Xerxes.
In his joy at departing, Alexander made rich presents to everybody,
until one of his advisers modestly reminded him that his treasure was
not boundless, and asked him what he would have left when he had given
away all he owned.
"My hopes!" answered Alexander proudly, for he expected to conquer not
only Persia and Asia Minor, but all the known world.
While his army slowly made its way along the coast and across the
Hellespont, Alexander, attended by only a few followers, sailed straight
for Troy, the ancient Asiatic city.
He landed on the desert plain where the proud city had once stood,
visited all the scenes of the mighty conflict, and offered sacrifices on
the tomb of Achilles, while his friend He-phæs´ti-on did the same on
that of Patroclus.
When this pious pilgrimage to the tomb of his ancestor was over,
Alexander hastened to join the army, for he longed to do like the
ancient Greeks, and win a glorious victory.
His wishes were soon granted, for before long he met the Persian army
near the Gra-ni´cus River, where a terrible battle was fought. Alexander
himself joined in the fighting, and would certainly have been killed had
not his friend Clytus, the son of his old nurse, rushed to his rescue
and saved his life.
In spite of the size of the Persian army, which was much larger than his
own, Alexander won a complete victory at the Granicus. Then, marching
southward, he took the cities of Sardis and Ephesus without striking
another blow. These towns were very rich, and offered of their own free
will to pay him the same tribute that they had given to the Persians.
Alexander, however, would not take it, but bade them use the money to
rebuild the Temple of Diana, which had been burned to the ground on the
night he was born. As the sacred image of the goddess had been saved,
the E-phe´sians gladly built a second magnificent shrine, which was
visited many years later by Paul, the disciple of Christ.
From Sardis and Ephesus, Alexander marched on into the province of
Ca´ri-a. Here the queen of the country warmly welcomed him, adopted him
as her son, and even proposed to give him her best cooks, so that they
might prepare his food for him on the march.
Alexander thanked her heartily for this kind offer, but declined it,
saying that his tutor Aristotle had given him the very best recipe for
making him relish his meals.
The queen, whose appetite was fanciful, eagerly asked what it was; and
Alexander smilingly answered, "A march before daybreak as the sauce for
my dinner, and a light dinner as the sauce for my supper."
This was, as you may see, a very good recipe; and if Alexander had
always remembered to be temperate, as Aristotle had advised, he would
not have died of over eating and drinking at the age of thirty-three.
XCVI. THE GORDIAN KNOT.
Alexander did not stop long in Caria. Marching onward, he soon came to
the city of Gor´di-um, in Phryg´i-a, where Mi´das had once reigned. In
one of the temples the people proudly showed Alexander the cart in which
this king rode as he entered their city.
The yoke was fastened to the pole by a rope tied in a peculiar and very
intricate knot. Now, it seems that an ancient prophecy had declared that
whoever untied the Gordian knot would surely be master of all Asia.
Of course, as Alexander had set his heart upon conquering the whole
world, he looked at this knot with great interest; but a few moments'
careful examination made him feel sure that he would not be able to
untie it.
Rather than give it up, however, Alexander drew his sword, and cut it
with a single quick stroke. Ever since then, when a person has settled a
difficulty by bold or violent means instead of patiently solving it,
the custom has been to say that he has "cut the Gordian knot," in memory
of this feat of Alexander's.
[Illustration: Alexander cutting the Gordian Knot.]
From Gordium, Alexander next passed on to Tar´sus, which also became
subject to him; and shortly after that the young conqueror nearly lost
his life.
He had been exposed to the hot sun, and had thus become terribly
overheated, when he came to the river Cyd´nus. This stream was a torrent
whose waters were very cold, but, in spite of all that his attendants
could say, Alexander insisted upon taking a bath in it.
The sudden chill brought on a cramp, and he would have been drowned had
not some of his people plunged into the water, and pulled him out. As it
was, his imprudence brought on a serious illness, and for a short time
Alexander's life was in great danger.
His physician, however, was Philip, a Greek doctor, who had attended him
ever since he was born, and who now took great care of him. When the
fever was at its worst, he said he hoped to save the king by means of a
strong medicine which he was going to prepare.
Just after Philip went out to brew this potion, Alexander received a
letter which warned him to beware of his physician, as the man had been
bribed by the Persian king, Darius III., to poison him.
After reading the letter, Alexander slipped it under his pillow, and
calmly waited for the return of his doctor. When Philip brought the cup
containing the promised remedy, Alexander took it in one hand, and gave
him the letter with the other. Then, while Philip was reading it, he
drank every drop of the medicine.
When the physician saw the accusation, he turned deadly pale, and looked
up at his master, who smilingly handed back the empty cup. Alexander's
great trust in his doctor was fully justified; for the medicine cured
him, and he was soon able to go on with his conquests.
XCVII. ALEXANDER'S ROYAL CAPTIVES.
Alexander was marching southward, and Darius was hastening northward
with a vast army, hoping to meet him and to prevent his advancing any
farther.
By a singular chance it happened that the two armies missed each other,
and passed through separate defiles in the same range of mountains.
Alexander became aware of this first, and retraced his steps without
delay, for he was anxious to find and defeat the enemy.
The two armies soon met at a place called Is´sus, where the Persians
were routed. Darius was forced to flee, and his mother, wife, and family
were made captives.
As soon as the battle was over, Alexander went to visit the royal ladies
in their tent, to assure them that they would be treated with all
respect. He was accompanied by his friend Hephæstion, who was somewhat
taller and larger than he.
As they entered the tent, in their plain armor, the queen mother,
Sis-y-gam´bis, mistook Hephæstion for the king, and fell down upon her
knees before him, begging his mercy for herself and her children. When
she found out her mistake, she was greatly dismayed; but Alexander
kindly reassured her by leaning upon his friend's shoulder, and saying
of him, "He is my other self."
The young conqueror treated the Persian ladies with the utmost kindness,
and often visited them in their own tent, to talk for a while with them.
As he always found them idle, he fancied that time must hang very
heavily upon their hands, and once offered to have them taught to spin
and weave, as the Greek ladies were wont to do.
At this proposal, Sisygambis burst into tears, and asked if he wished to
make slaves of them, for Persian ladies considered any labor a disgrace.
Alexander, seeing her grief, hastened to comfort her, and tried to
explain how happy the Greek ladies always seemed over their dainty work.
But when he understood that the royal family would rather remain idle,
he never again proposed to furnish them with occupation of any kind. On
the contrary, he was so gentle and respectful, that Sisygambis soon
learned to love him, and used to treat him like her own son.
XCVIII. ALEXANDER AT JERUSALEM.
Darius, as we have seen, had fled after the disastrous battle of Issus.
His terror was so great that he never stopped in his flight until he had
reached the other side of the river Ti´gris, where he still believed
himself safe.
Instead of going after Darius at once, Alexander first went southward
along the coast; for he thought it would be wiser to take all the cities
near the sea before he went farther inland, so as to make sure that he
had no enemies behind his back.
Marching down through Syr´i-a and Phoe-nic´ia, Alexander took the
cities of Da-mas´cus and Si´don, and came at last to Tyre, a prosperous
commercial city built on an island at a short distance from the shore.
The Tyr´i-ans would not open their gates and surrender, so Alexander
prepared to besiege the city. As he had no fleet, he began to build a
great causeway out to the island.
This was a very difficult piece of work, because the water was deep; and
while his men were building it, they were greatly annoyed by showers of
arrows, stones, and spears from the walls of the city and from the decks
of the Tyrian vessels.
A storm, also, broke the causeway to pieces once, when it was nearly
finished, and the army had to begin the work anew. The obstinate
resistance of Tyre made Alexander so angry, that he celebrated his final
victory by crucifying a large number of the richest citizens.
After offering up a sacrifice to Hercules on the flaming ruins of Tyre,
Alexander went on toward Je-ru´sa-lem. His plan was to punish the Jews,
because they had helped his enemies, and had supplied the Tyrians with
food.
The news of his coming filled the hearts of the Jews with terror, for
they expected to be treated with the same frightful cruelty as the
Tyrians. In their fear they knew not whether to surrender or fight.
Finally Jad-du´a, the high priest, had a vision, in which an angel of
the Lord appeared to him, and told him what to do. In obedience to this
divine command, he made the Le´vites put on their festal garments, and
then, dressed in his priestly robes, he led them down the hill to meet
the advancing conqueror.
When Alexander saw the beautiful procession, headed by such a dignified
old man, he quickly got down from his horse, knelt before Jaddua, and
worshiped the name written on his holy vestments.
His officers, astonished at this unusual humility, finally asked him why
he did such honor to a foreign priest. Then Alexander told them of a
vision he had had before leaving Macedon. In it he had beheld Jaddua,
who bade him come over to Asia without fear, as it was written that the
Persians would be delivered into his hands.
Walking beside the aged Jaddua, Alexander entered the holy city of
Jerusalem and the courts of the temple. Here he offered up a sacrifice
to the Lord, and saw the Books of Daniel and Zech-a-ri´ah, in which his
coming and conquests were all foretold.
XCIX. THE AFRICAN DESERT.
After staying a few days in Jerusalem, Alexander continued on his way to
Egypt, which he quickly conquered also. Here he founded a new city at
the mouth of the Nile, and named it Al-ex-an´dri-a, after himself. It
was so favorably located, that it soon became an important town, and
has continued so even till the present day.
Then, having heard that there was a famous temple in Lib´y-a, dedicated
to Jupiter, Alexander resolved to go there and visit it. The road lay
through an African desert, and the journey was very dangerous indeed.
The soldiers toiled painfully along over the burning sand, in which
their feet sank up to the ankles. The blazing African sun fell straight
down upon their heads, and made them stagger and grow faint with the
heat.
From time to time a hot wind, the simoom, blew over the desert, raising
great clouds of dust, and choking men and horses as it rolled over them
like a torrent, burying them under its shifting waves.
The horses died from thirst and fatigue, for such animals are not fit
for travel in the desert. The only creature which can journey
comfortably over the dreary waste of the Sa-ha´ra is the camel, whose
stomach is made in a peculiar way, so that it can drink a large quantity
of water at a time, and store it up for future use.
Undaunted by fatigue or danger, Alexander pressed onward. Like his
soldiers, he suffered from heat and thirst; and like them, too, he was
deceived by the mirage.
This is an optical effect due to a peculiar condition of the desert
atmosphere. The traveler suddenly sees trees, grass, and running water,
apparently a short distance before him. He hastens eagerly forward to
lie in the shade, and to plunge his hot face and hands in the refreshing
stream; but when he reaches the spot where he saw water and trees, there
is nothing but sand, and he sinks down exhausted and cruelly
disappointed.
After enduring all these hardships, Alexander arrived at last at the
oasis, or green island in the sandy desert, where the Temple of Jupiter
stood. The priests led him into the holy place, and, hoping to flatter
him, called him the son of Jupiter.
After resting for some time in this pleasant spot, Alexander and his men
again braved the dangers of the desert, went back to Alexandria and
Tyre, and from there began the long-delayed pursuit of Darius.
The Greek soldiers had suffered so many hardships since beginning the
war, that they were now ready for anything. They crossed the Eu-phra´tes
over a hastily built bridge; then coming to the Tigris, where neither
bridge nor boats could be found, they boldly swam across the river,
holding their shields over their heads to protect themselves from the
arrows of the Persians who stood on the other bank.
Alexander was always the first to rush forward in battle, and he now led
the way across the river. He was longing to meet the Persians again, and
was very glad to overtake them on the other side of the Tigris.
Here, on the plains of Ar-be´la, the third great battle was fought, and
Alexander won the victory. Darius fled once more before the conqueror,
while Alexander marched straight on to Bab´y-lon, the most wonderful
city in the East.
C. DEATH OF DARIUS.
Alexander soon won the good will of the Babylonians by allowing them to
rebuild the Temple of Bel, which had been destroyed. He also secured the
affections of the captive Jews; for he excused them from doing any work
on this building as soon as he heard that they considered it the Tower
of Babel, and hence objected to aiding in its erection.
The young conqueror spent one month in Babylon, and then went on to
Su´sa. There he found the brazen statue of Athene which Xerxes had
carried off to Persia; and he sent it back to the Athenians, who
received it with much joy.
The Persian queen now became very ill, and, in spite of the utmost care,
she soon died. Throughout her illness, Alexander was most thoughtful and
attentive; and when she died, he gave orders that she should be buried
with all the pomp due to her high rank.
He also comforted the mourning Sisygambis, and sent the news of the
queen's death to Darius, who had fled to the northern part of his
kingdom, where he was hastily gathering together another army. Touched
by Alexander's conduct, Darius now wrote to him, offering peace, and
proposing to share the throne of Persia with him.
The young conqueror's head had been turned by his many victories, and he
was growing more haughty every day: so he proudly refused this proposal,
saying that the world could not have two masters any more than two
suns.
In his pride, Alexander now assumed the dress and state of an Oriental
king, surrounded himself with luxury, and spent most of his time in
feasting and revelry. His courtiers encouraged him in this folly, and he
soon forgot the wise lessons taught by Aristotle.
On several occasions the young king drank so much that he did not know
what he was doing; and once, in a fit of drunken rage, he set fire to
the beautiful palace of Per-sep´o-lis, and burned it to the ground.
As he had refused Darius' offers of peace, he soon considered it
necessary to continue the war: so, laying aside his jeweled robes, he
put on his armor and set out for the north. He was about to overtake the
Persian king, when Darius was mortally wounded by one of his followers
named Bes´sus.
The traitor thought that he would win Alexander's favor by this crime,
and came and boasted of it to him. Alexander was so angry, however, that
he bade his guards seize Bessus, and had him put to death in the most
barbarous way.
When the Macedonian king finally came up with Darius, he found him
bathed in his own blood, and breathing his last. He had only time to
assure him of the safety of his family, and to promise to continue to
protect them, before Darius sank back dead.
By Alexander's orders the body was embalmed, and carried to Sisygambis,
so that it could be properly buried in the beautiful tomb of the Persian
kings. This last act of generosity quite won the aged queen's heart; and
she felt so grateful, that she loved Alexander as long as he lived.
CI. DEFEAT OF PORUS.
Now that Darius was dead, Alexander took the Persian title of "Shah in
Shah" (king of kings), and became ruler of all the empire which had been
subject to the Persian monarch.
He was so proud of his new state and of his vast conquests, that he
entirely forgot that he owed them mostly to his brave generals and
soldiers; and he became so obstinate, that he would no longer listen to
any advice, and only thought of having his own way.
His father's general, Parmenio, who had always given him the wisest
counsel, was no longer in favor, because he tried to restrain the king's
extravagance. Indeed, Alexander's once generous and noble nature was so
changed, that, when his courtiers accused Parmenio of treachery, he
listened to them, and actually put the faithful general to death.
Every day now Alexander indulged in feasts and banquets, always drinking
more and more, although it was affecting his health as well as his
temper. Clytus, the son of his old nurse, tried to check his excesses,
but only succeeded in provoking his wrath.
On one occasion such remonstrances so enraged Alexander, that in his
drunken fury he seized a spear and killed Clytus. When he saw him dead
at his feet, the king realized what a terrible crime he had committed,
and felt deep remorse for a short time.
He reformed, and, instead of giving himself up entirely to pleasure,
spent the next two years in the work of governing Persia, where he
founded several cities called by his name.
As all the central part of Asia now acknowledged his rule, he next went
down into India, where he found King Po´rus, the bravest adversary he
had ever met. This king, whose realm was in the northwestern part of
India, came against Alexander with a very large army. In the ranks were
many elephants, trained to crush the enemy beneath their huge feet, and
bearing on their broad backs wooden turrets filled with brave fighting
men and good archers.
In spite of these elephants, which at first awakened great fear in the
Greek soldiers, the Macedonian phalanx won the victory as usual, and
Porus was made prisoner. He was led into the presence of Alexander, who
haughtily asked him how he expected to be treated. "Like a king!" was
the proud reply.
This answer so pleased Alexander, that he not only set Porus free, but
even allowed him to keep his kingdom, after he had sworn to be the
faithful subject of his conqueror.
Alexander, having thus won the help and affection of Porus, made war
against several other Indian kings, and continued his advance toward the
south. In one of these battles he lost his faithful steed Bucephalus,
which had borne him safely through many a fight.
Alexander felt this loss deeply, and not only had a monument built over
his remains, but also founded a city near by, which was called
Bu-ceph´a-la.
CII. THE RETURN TO BABYLON.
Upon reaching the Hyph´a-sis River, Alexander would have liked to cross
it, and continue his conquests; but his soldiers now refused to go any
farther. They were tired of fighting and danger, and were longing to go
back to Macedon.
Although he was unwilling to do so, Alexander was therefore obliged to
stop in his conquests; but, instead of going home as he had come, he now
built a fleet, and sailed down the In´dus River to the sea.
Now, the Greeks had no maps such as we have; and their knowledge of
geography was very small. When Alexander came to the sea, however, he
thought it must be the same as that into which the Euphrates flowed.
To find out if this was true, he bade his admiral, Ne-ar´chus, sail
along the coast and explore it, while the army went homeward on foot.
Alexander himself staid with the army, and led the soldiers along a new
way, which was very wearisome and dangerous.
The Macedonians had to pass through large wastes of burning sand, where
they suffered a great deal. They were cheered and encouraged, however,
by the example of Alexander, who nobly shared their hardships, and
always went ahead of them on foot, carrying his own armor.
Once, when they were panting with thirst, some of his men found a little
water, which they brought him. Rather than indulge in anything which all
could not share with him, Alexander poured the water out upon the sand,
saying he would refresh himself only when his men could do so too.
After many months of weary travel and great suffering, the army finally
joined the fleet at the mouth of the Euphrates, for Nearchus had in the
mean while sailed all along the northern coast of the Indian Ocean and
up the Persian Gulf.
He wrote an account of this wonderful sea journey, which was of great
importance, as it opened a new and convenient road for Eastern commerce.
The people soon took advantage of it to establish colonies and trading
stations, and to carry on a lively business with the East.
CIII. DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
Alexander now went back to Babylon, where he married Rox-an´a, a Persian
princess, giving her sister's hand to his intimate friend Hephæstion.
This wedding was celebrated with great pomp, for eighty Macedonian
officers took Persian wives on the same day.
The feasting for the weddings went on for many days, and the revelry was
carried to such a shameful excess, that Hephæstion actually drank
himself to death.
In token of sorrow, Alexander built him a fine tomb, had him buried with
all the magnificence possible, and even decreed that he should
henceforth be worshiped as a god. In this folly he was upheld by the
priests, who were now ready to grant his every wish, and were always
filling his mind with their senseless flatteries.
Alexander then fell into his old habits more than ever. He had again
assumed all the pomp of an Eastern king, and sat on a wonderful golden
throne. Over his head was the golden vine that had formerly belonged to
the first Darius. Its leaves were of emeralds, while its grapes were
clusters of fine carbuncles.
This vine had been given to a Persian king by Croe´sus, the wealthy
ruler of Lyd´i-a, and was considered one of the most precious treasures
which the young conqueror had won.
But in spite of all Alexander's successes, he was not nearly so happy as
he used to be when only king of Macedon. He no longer enjoyed the fine
health which had helped him to bear the greatest hardships, and,
weakened by over eating and drinking, he soon fell dangerously ill.
The doctors crowded around his bed, doing their best to save him, but
they soon saw that he would die. When the Macedonian soldiers heard
this, they were beside themselves with grief, and one and all insisted
upon seeing their beloved leader once more.
Silently and sadly they filed past his bed, gazing upon the dying face
which they had seen so bright and full of life a short time before. As
most of the soldiers were older than their king, they had never expected
to outlive him; and every one said that it was sad to die thus, at
thirty-three, when master of nearly all the known world.
Just before he died, some one begged Alexander to name his successor. He
hesitated for a moment, then drew his signet ring from his finger, gave
it to Per-dic´cas, his principal general, and whispered that the
strongest among them should have the throne.
[Illustration: Death of Alexander.]
Alexander's death was mourned by all, for, in spite of his folly and
excesses, he was generally beloved. Even Sisygambis, the Persian queen
whom he had taken captive a few years before, shed many tears over his
remains, and declared she had lost a protector who had always treated
her as kindly as if he had been her own son.
The conqueror's body was laid in a golden coffin, and carried in state
to Alexandria, the city he had founded at the mouth of the Nile. Here a
fine tomb was built by order of Ptol´e-my, one of Alexander's generals,
who said that his dead master also should be worshiped as a god.
Ptolemy wanted the body to remain in Egypt because an oracle had said
that he who buried Alexander would be master of his kingdom.
CIV. THE DIVISION OF THE REALM.
The day after Alexander's death there was a sad assembly in the palace.
All the Macedonian generals sat there in silence and dismay, gazing at
the empty golden throne, upon which Perdiccas had solemnly laid the
royal signet ring.
Who was to take the place of the king whose military genius and great
conquests had won for him the title of "Great"? It is true that
Alexander had a half-brother, named Ar-ri-dæ´us, but he was weak-minded.
The only other heir was an infant son, born shortly after his father's
death.
The generals gravely talked the matter over, and finally said that
Arridæus and the child should be publicly named successors of the dead
king, while four of their own number should be appointed guardians of
the princes, and regents of the vast realm.
This decision was considered wise, and the kingdom of Alexander was
divided into thirty-three provinces, each governed by a Macedonian
officer, who was to hold it in the name of Arridæus and of the child.
In dying, Alexander had foretold that his funeral would be followed by
bloodshed, and this prediction came true. The generals who had met so
solemnly around the empty throne soon became dissatisfied at being only
governors, and each wanted to be king in his own right, of the land
intrusted to his care.
Perdiccas, having received Alexander's signet ring from his dying hand,
was, of course, their leader, and took under his own protection the
infant king and the Persian mother Roxana.
He fancied that it would thus be an easy matter to keep the power in his
own hands, and to govern the vast realm as he pleased. But An-tip´a-ter,
governor of Macedon, no sooner heard that Alexander was dead, than he
placed the idiot Arridæus on the throne, proclaimed him king, and began
to rule as if he were the only regent.
The other Macedonian generals daily claimed new rights, which Perdiccas
was forced to grant in order to pacify them; but when it was too late,
he found out how mistaken he had been, and regretted that he had yielded
to their demands.
The various governors, never satisfied with the honors given them, were
not only suspicious of each other, but particularly jealous of
Perdiccas, the head of the realm. In their envy, they rose up against
him; and for many years Perdiccas was forced to hold his own against
them all, while trying to make his way back to Macedon, where he wanted
to place Alexander's son upon the throne.
CV. DEATH OF DEMOSTHENES.
When Alexander left for the East, the orator Demosthenes began to urge
the Greeks to rise up against him, and win back their freedom. All his
eloquence, however, was not enough to persuade them to make war as long
as Alexander lived.
But when the conqueror's death was made known, Demosthenes again tried
to arouse them, and this time with success. Pho´cion, a cautious
Athenian, vainly begged the people to wait at least until the news was
confirmed, saying, "If Alexander is dead to-day, he will still be dead
to-morrow and on the next day, so that we may take counsel at our
leisure."
This wise caution, however, did not suit the Athenians, who were joined
in their revolt by most of the little states and principal towns of
Greece, except Sparta. The united Greeks soon raised an army, which
marched northward, and met the Macedonian governor's troops near
Thermopylæ.
[Illustration: Phocion.]
The Greeks were successful here, and, after shutting up the enemy in the
fortress of La´mi-a, closely besieged them. But after a time the Greek
general was killed; and, when the Macedonians were reënforced, they
gained a decisive victory. This really ended the war; for the Macedonian
general, Antipater, broke up the union, and made separate terms of peace
for each city.
In his anger, Antipater said he would punish all those who had
encouraged the Greeks to revolt. He soon learned that Demosthenes had
been one of the principal men to advise the uprising, so he sent his
soldiers to make him prisoner.
Demosthenes, warned of his danger, immediately fled, but had only time
to take refuge in the Temple of Neptune. There, in spite of the holiness
of the place, Antipater's guards came to get him.
Seeing that it would be useless to resist, the orator asked for a few
moments' respite, that he might write a letter to his friends. The men
consented; and Demosthenes, closely watched, took up his tablet and the
reed with which he generally wrote.
The soldiers saw him trace a few lines, then stop and bite the top of
his reed, as if thinking about what he would say next. But, instead of
going on to write his letter, the orator soon covered his head with his
cloak and staid quite still.
After a few moments' waiting, one of the men went to him, and, receiving
no answer to his question, drew aside the folds of the cloak. He started
back in terror, for the orator's face was very pale, and he was
evidently about to die.
The men quickly carried him out of the temple, so that it should not be
defiled by death, and then they found that the reed with which he wrote
was hollow, and had contained a deadly drug. Demosthenes had taken the
poison, thinking that death would be better than prison.
The Athenians now saw that it would have been wiser to listen to the
cautious Phocion: so they set him at the head of their affairs, and
promised to obey him. Although honest, Phocion was not very clever, and
his caution little by little became cowardice.
In his fear of the Macedonians, he allowed them to have more and more
power; and Greece a few years later was entirely under the rule of
Antipater, the Macedonian governor.
CVI. THE LAST OF THE ATHENIANS.
Antipater, although master of all Greece, did not treat the people
cruelly, for he was very anxious to secure friends who would help him to
keep his share of Alexander's realm.
He soon heard that Perdiccas was marching homeward with the infant king,
who was named, like his father, Alexander; and he knew that the general
wanted to place the child on the Macedonian throne. This plan was very
distasteful to Antipater. He was not at all afraid of the infant
Alexander, but he knew that Perdiccas would want to be regent, and he
wished that position himself.
Rather than give up his authority, Antipater decided to fight; and, as
many of Alexander's generals were dissatisfied, they all rose up in arms
at the same time, as we have seen.
Perdiccas was surrounded by enemies, but he faced them all bravely, and
even led an army into Egypt to subdue Ptolemy, his greatest foe. To
reach the enemy, the soldiers under Perdiccas were obliged to swim
across the Nile. Here so many of them were eaten up by huge crocodiles,
that the rest, angry with their general for leading them into such
danger, fell upon him and killed him.
Almost at the same time, Antipater died, leaving his son, Cas-san´der,
and his general, Pol-ys-per´chon, to quarrel over the government of
Macedon. Each gathered together an army, and tried to get as many
friends as possible, especially among the Greeks.
The Athenians vainly tried to remain neutral during this quarrel; but in
the course of the war, Polysperchon came into their city, said that
Phocion and many other great citizens were siding with Cassander, and
condemned them to die by drinking poison brewed from the hemlock plant.
It seems, however, that there was not enough poison ready to kill them
all, so the jailer made Phocion give him some money to buy more. The
noble old man, forced to do as he was bidden, gave the necessary amount,
saying, "It seems that one cannot even die for nothing in Athens."
As he was the last really noted politician in the city, he has been
called the "Last of the Athenians." No one ever dared to uphold the
city's power after his death, or tried to help it win back its old
freedom.
As soon as Perdiccas was dead, Roxana and her son were brought to
Macedon, where they were finally placed under the protection of
Polysperchon. When Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, saw his
infant son, she was so anxious to secure the throne for him alone, that
she slew the idiot king Arridæus and all his family.
Under pretext of avenging this crime, Cassander captured and slew
Olympias; and then, having won Macedon and Greece from Polysperchon, and
seeing that there was no one left to protect Roxana and the child king,
he put both mother and son in prison, where they were killed by his
order shortly after.
Thus, twelve years after Alexander's death, all his family were dead,
and his vast kingdom was a prey to quarreling, which broke it up into
several states.
CVII. THE COLOSSUS OF RHODES.
When Perdiccas died, An-tig´o-nus ("the one-eyed") was named his
successor, and became governor of all the Eastern province. He no sooner
heard that Cassander had murdered Alexander's family, than he marched
westward, intending to avenge the crime.
On his way, Antigonus passed through Syria, the land governed by
Se-leu´cus, and asked that ruler how he had spent the money of the
kingdom. Seleucus, who had a bad conscience, instead of answering, ran
away to Egypt, where he became a friend of Ptolemy.
Then, fearing that they would not be able to fight against Antigonus
successfully, these two generals persuaded Cassander, ruler of Macedon,
and Ly-sim´a-chus, ruler of Thrace, to join them.
For several years the war was kept up between the four allies on one
side, and Antigonus and his son De-me´tri-us on the other. The field of
battle was principally in Asia Minor. The fighting continued until the
generals became weary of warfare, and concluded to make peace.
A treaty was then signed, settling the claims of all parties, and
providing that all the Greek cities should have their freedom. This
done, each went back to his own province; but it soon became evident
that the peace would not last, for Cassander did not keep his promise to
make the Greek states free.
When Cassander's wrongdoing became known, the generals called upon
Demetrius to bring him to terms. The Athenians were so pleased when
they heard of this, that they received Demetrius with great joy.
Demetrius was such a good general that he soon managed to defeat
Cassander at Thermopylæ; and when he came back to Athens in triumph, the
happy people gave him the title of "The Preserver," called a month by
his name, lodged him in the Parthenon, and worshiped him as a god. Some
time after this, Demetrius conquered Ptolemy, who had shown that he
would not abide by the treaty either. This victory was so great, that
Demetrius' soldiers said he deserved a reward, and named him King of
Syria.
When the other generals heard that Demetrius and his father had accepted
the title of kings, they too put on royal crowns. Then, as each was
still jealous of the rest, and wished to obtain more land for himself,
war soon broke out among them once more.
Demetrius, who had been very lucky in all his wars, now planned to take
the Island of Rhodes from Ptolemy, King of Egypt. It proved, however, a
far more difficult thing than he had expected, and, after besieging the
principal city for a whole year, he gave up the attempt.
But he had invented so many machines to try to subdue the city of
Rhodes, that every one thought he deserved much credit, and they
therefore gave him the title of Po-li-or-ce´tes ("the city taker").
Peace was agreed upon, and Demetrius retreated, giving up to the
Rho´di-ans all the mighty war engines he had brought with him. These
were sold for three hundred talents (something over three hundred
thousand dollars), and the money thus obtained was used in erecting a
colossal statue in honor of Apollo (or He´li-os), the patron god of the
island.
[Illustration: Demetrius Poliorcetes. (Coin.)]
This marvelous brazen statue, which was so fine that it was one of the
seven wonders of the ancient world, represented the sun god, with his
head surrounded by rays, and with his feet resting one on each side of
the entrance of the port.
We are told that the Co-los´sus of Rhodes, as this statue was generally
called, was so tall that ships under full sail easily passed under its
spreading legs in and out of the harbor.
It stood there for about sixty years, when it was overthrown by an
earthquake. After lying in ruins for a long time, the brass was sold as
old metal. It was carried off on the backs of camels, and we are told
that nine hundred of these animals were required for the work.
Thus vanished one of the much talked of wonders of the ancient world.
The others were Diana's Temple at Ephesus, the Tomb of Mau-so´lus (which
was so fine that any handsome tomb is sometimes called a mausoleum), the
Pha´ros or Lighthouse of Alexandria or Messina, the Walls and Hanging
Gardens of Babylon, the Labyrinth of Crete, and the Pyramids of Egypt.
To these is often added the Parthenon at Athens, which, as you have
seen, was decorated by the carvings of Phidias.
CVIII. THE BATTLE OF IPSUS.
Demetrius, having failed to take Rhodes, now passed over into Greece,
hoping to overthrow Cassander; but the other kings, growing afraid of
him, agreed to help the ruler of Macedon. They therefore collected a
large army, and forced Demetrius to stop and fight them all at Ip´sus,
in Asia Minor.
Here, just twenty years after Alexander's death, his generals met in a
great battle. Seleucus, it is said, brought a number of fighting
elephants, such as Porus had used, which added much to the confusion and
fierceness of the struggle.
Antigonus, the father of Demetrius, was slain, and Demetrius himself was
defeated, and driven to Ephesus. The Athenians, who had been his friends
and allies as long as he was prosperous, now basely deserted him. They
declared themselves his enemies, and made a law whereby any one who
spoke well of him, or tried to make peace with him, should be put to
death.
The battle of Ipsus decided the fate of Alexander's kingdom. It was now
divided into four principal parts. Ptolemy remained master of Egypt, and
his family reigned there many years, until under Cle-o-pa´tra, the last
of his race, the country fell into the hands of the Romans.
Seleucus and his descendants, the Se-leu´ci-dæ, had the Persian Empire,
or Syria and the land between the Indus and the Euphrates. The capital
of this empire was first Se-leu´cia, near Babylon, and later An´ti-och,
which became a rich and well-known city.
Lysimachus was given the kingdom of Thrace, which, however, soon passed
into other hands; and Cassander remained master of Macedon. As for
Demetrius, although he had lost a kingdom at the battle of Ipsus, he
soon managed to conquer another.
In his anger at the Athenians, he first marched against them, and
besieged them in their own city. The Athenians were frightened, for they
knew how well they deserved punishment; but they resisted as well as
they could, and the siege dragged on for several months.
At the end of this time there was no food left in the city, and the
people suffered greatly from hunger. Finally they were obliged to yield;
and Demetrius rode into Athens in triumph.
CIX. DEMETRIUS AND THE ATHENIANS.
The Athenians trembled with fear when they saw the stern expression on
Demetrius' face as he entered their city. This terror became still
greater when he ordered all the principal citizens to assemble in the
public square. None of the Athenians dared to disobey, and they were in
no wise reassured when the conquering army surrounded them, each soldier
holding an unsheathed sword in his hand.
Demetrius now sternly addressed the citizens, who fancied that every
moment would be their last. He reproved them harshly for their
ingratitude and desertion, and told them that they deserved death at his
hands; but he ended his speech by saying that he preferred to show his
power by granting them forgiveness rather than by killing them.
Then he went on to tell them, that, knowing how much they had suffered,
he had sent supplies of grain to every house, so that when they went
home they should not find their wives and children starving.
The sudden reaction from their great terror proved almost fatal to the
Athenian citizens. But when they recovered their breath, the air was
rent by a mighty shout of joy in honor of the kind conqueror.
Although Demetrius was as generous as he was brave, his end was very
sad. After a long life of continual warfare, and after conquering and
losing Macedon, he fell into the hands of his rival and enemy, Seleucus,
who kept him in prison as long as he lived.
About this time a new trouble befell Macedon and Greece. This was an
invasion of the Gauls, who came sweeping down from the mountains into
Greece, in order to rob the temple at Delphi.
A second time, however, the temple escaped, thanks to a terrible
thunderstorm, which filled the superstitious minds of the robbers with
dread. In the sudden darkness the Gauls fell upon each other, as the
Persians had done in the days of Xerxes, and fought so desperately that
many were killed.
The Greeks, remembering former victories, now made up their minds to
strike a blow in their own defense. They collected an army, and defeated
the invaders so severely that Bren´nus, the leader of the Gauls, killed
himself in despair, while his followers withdrew to a province in Asia
Minor, which from the Gauls was called Ga-la´tia.
CX. THE ACHÆAN LEAGUE.
While the generals and successors of Alexander were busy trying to crush
one another, most of the Greek towns, left to their own devices, had
become small republics. But instead of forming a union, they became so
jealous, that they began to quarrel and even to fight among themselves.
As the quarrels became more bitter, two parties or leagues were formed,
which, from the two most important provinces at that time, received the
names of Achæan and Æ-to´li-an.
The Achæan League was made up of twelve small towns in the Peloponnesus,
and was under the leadership of A-ra´tus, a native of Sic´y-on. When a
child, Aratus had seen his native city in the hands of a tyrant. His
father, who was a patriot, had made a bold attempt to free the city, but
had failed, and lost his life. Aratus, who was but seven years of age,
heard that his father and all his family had been slain, and knew that
the tyrant would try to kill him too. As he was too weak to defend
himself, he sought refuge in the house of the tyrant's sister, where no
one would be likely to seek for him.
This woman, touched by the child's trust, hid him cleverly, and, when
all danger was over, sent him to some friends, where she paid for his
board, and had him carefully brought up.
As Aratus was patriotic, he was anxious to finish the work which his
father had begun. At the age of twenty, therefore, he assembled a few
comrades, entered Sicyon, called all the lovers of liberty to his aid,
and drove away the tyrant without shedding any blood.
The town, thus freed, joined the Achæan League, of which Aratus soon
became the leader. This office was elective, and no one was expected to
fill it for more than a year; but Aratus was so much loved that he was
chosen leader thirty-five years in succession.
At this time, Greece and Macedon were under the rule of Antigonus
Go-na´tas, son of Demetrius; for this man had conquered for himself the
second kingdom which his father had lost. But now Aratus and the Achæan
League refused to obey him, so he marched down from Macedon to restore
order.
To prevent his advance, and to hinder his getting even as much as a
foothold in the peninsula, Aratus wanted to capture the fortress of
Ac-ro-co-rin´thus, which barred the Isthmus of Corinth.
This undertaking was very difficult, because the fortress was perched
upon a rock so high and steep that it was almost impossible to climb it.
A traitor, Di´o-cles, however, offered to show Aratus a way to climb
this rock, provided that he should receive a certain reward. Although
general of the Achæan League, and one of the greatest men of his day,
Aratus was far from being rich; and, in order to obtain the required
sum, he had to sell all he had, and even pawn his wife's few jewels.
Then, in the midst of the darkness, one rainy night, Diocles led the
Achæan soldiers along a steep path, which they had to climb in Indian
file.
He brought them safely and unseen into the fortress, where they killed
most of the Macedonian sentinels, and put the guards to flight. As soon
as the key of the Peloponnesus had been thus daringly won, most of the
other towns in the peninsula joined the league, and the Achæans gained
such victories, that Antigonus Gonatus fell ill, and died of grief.
The Achæan League became stronger and stronger; and, although Sparta and
a few other cities remained neutral, most of the small towns were freed
from their tyrants. Such was the importance of the league, that the
Roman ambassadors once came to ask for its aid to suppress the pirates
who infested the neighboring seas.
This help was cheerfully given, and the Achæans entered into a treaty
with the Romans. They little suspected, however, that the city whose
name was then almost unknown would in less than a hundred years become
strong enough to subdue them, and be mistress over all Greece.
CXI. DIVISION IN SPARTA.
While the Achæan League was doing its best to restore Greece to its
former power, Sparta had remained inactive. The Spartans had changed
greatly since the days of Lycurgus. They no longer obeyed his wise laws,
and, instead of being brave and frugal, they were greedy, lazy, and
wicked.
One of their kings was named Leonidas; but he was in no way like his
great namesake, the king who had fallen at Thermopylæ. Indeed, he
married an Eastern wife, and to please her assumed all the pomp and led
the idle life of an Eastern king.
His fellow-king, on the other hand, was such a miser that he heaped up
great treasures. When he died, his wife and mother were said to have
more gold than the city and people together. The miser king was
succeeded by his son, but this young man's sole ambition was to restore
Sparta to its former condition.
His name was A´gis. He lived like the Spartans of old, practiced all the
virtues of his ancestors, and was frugal and brave in the extreme. To
restore Sparta, real Spartans were needed, but, in counting them over,
Agis found that there were only about seven hundred of the old stock
left. The first move was to restore equality. For that purpose, all the
money and land would have to be equally divided, so Agis began by
persuading his own mother and grandmother to give up their wealth.
Leonidas did not like the plan of equality, and soon openly opposed it,
although his son-in-law Cleombrotus sided with Agis, and upheld it.
But the people were eager for the new division which would make them all
equal as of old; and they were so angry with Leonidas for his
resistance, that they rose up against him, and proposed to depose him by
reviving an old law which forbade the ruling of a king who married a
foreign wife.
Leonidas had time to flee to the Temple of Athene; and when the ephors
called him to appear before them, he refused to do so, because he feared
for his life. As such a refusal was a crime, the ephors said he should
not reign any longer, and named Cleombrotus king in his stead.
[Illustration: Cleombrotus and Chilonis.]
Leonidas, who had led a selfish, pleasure-loving life, was now forsaken
by every one except his daughter, Chi-lo´nis, who gave up her husband
and the throne in order to console her unfortunate father. She kept him
company in the temple, cared for him and amused him, and, when her
husband begged her to come back, she answered that her place was rather
with her unhappy father than with her prosperous husband.
When it became known that the Spartans were plotting to kill the unhappy
Leonidas, Agis helped him to escape, and Chilonis followed him into
exile.
The Ætolian League, which just then was very strong, now sent an army
across the isthmus to attack the Spartans. The latter sallied forth
under the leadership of Agis, who proved such a skillful general, that
he not only won a great victory, but also drove the Ætolians out of the
peninsula.
During the absence of Agis, many of the richest Spartans who had not yet
given up their property refused to do so, and when urged by Cleombrotus
to obey, they revolted against him, and recalled Leonidas.
Cleombrotus had only time to take refuge in the same temple where his
father-in-law had once found shelter. Here he was soon joined by his
wife, Chilonis, who, ever faithful to the most unhappy, came thither to
comfort him.
Leonidas was so angry that he would probably have treated Cleombrotus
with the utmost severity, had not Chilonis fallen at his feet and
begged him to spare her husband's life. Her tears touched her father,
and he granted the favor she asked, declaring, however, that Cleombrotus
should go into exile.
In spite of her father's entreaties to remain with him, Chilonis
insisted upon accompanying her husband. She gave Cleombrotus one of
their two children, clasped the other to her breast, and left the city,
proudly walking at her husband's side.
CXII. DEATH OF AGIS.
When Agis heard of the changes which had been taking place in Sparta
during his absence, he quickly went home. On arriving in the city, he
found the party of the rich so powerful that he could not oppose them,
and was even forced to seek refuge in a temple, as Leonidas and
Cleombrotus had each done in turn.
His wife, A-gi-a´tis, forced by illness to stay at home, could not show
her love by following him there; but a few faithful friends went with
him, and kept guard over him. Their watchfulness was needed, because
Agis slipped out of the temple every night to go to the bath and refresh
himself.
It happened, however, that two of these friends were false. They basely
took the bribes offered by the ephors for information about the king,
and told them that he left the temple every night, and for what
purpose.
Thus advised, the ephors surprised the little party the next night, and
thrust Agis into prison. He was tried and condemned to death by order of
Leonidas, and thus died when only twenty-two years of age, after having
vainly tried for three years to bring the Spartans back to their former
simplicity and virtue.
Leonidas, not content with killing Agis, gave the widow Agiatis in
marriage to his son, Cle-om´e-nes, who was a mere boy, several years
younger than she. Agiatis soon won great influence over the young
prince, and told him so much about her dead husband, that he tried to
follow the example of Agis in everything.
When Leonidas died, Cleomenes succeeded him, and, thanks to the
teachings of his wife, was both great and virtuous. He drove away the
ephors, who were rich and corrupt, and then distributed all the property
equally among the people, as Agis had planned.
When Aratus heard of the reforms made by Cleomenes, he began to fear
that Sparta would win back her former power, and again try to lord it
over the rest of Greece. To prevent such a misfortune, he decided to
attack the Spartan king while he was too young to excel in the art of
war.
He therefore advanced with a good army; but, to his surprise and dismay,
he was completely defeated by the young king. Several of the smaller
towns now showed a desire to leave the Achæan League and join Sparta, so
Aratus became more eager than ever to suppress her rising power.
In his eagerness he forgot all caution, and even asked help of Antigonus
Do´son, King of Macedon, the successor of Antigonus Gonatas. This ruler
owed his surname of Doson ("who will give") to a bad habit of promising
all kinds of gifts to his followers,--promises which were never kept.
Antigonus Doson was only too glad to send a Macedonian army into Greece,
and not only garrisoned the fortress on the Isthmus of Corinth, but also
sent troops on into the Peloponnesus.
CXIII. THE WAR OF THE TWO LEAGUES.
The Achæan and Macedonian armies now met the Spartans at Sel-la´sia, in
Laconia, where the latter were badly defeated, and Sparta fell into the
enemy's hands. Antigonus was so proud of his victory that he burst a
blood vessel upon hearing the news, and died shortly after.
Before he closed his eyes, however, he had the satisfaction of driving
Cleomenes away from Greece into Egypt. There the young king fell upon
his sword, after killing his children, rather than become a slave.
Tyrants were now allowed again in many of the Greek cities, in spite of
the remonstrances of Aratus, who learned only too late that the
Macedonians had come into the Peloponnesus merely for the purpose of
making themselves masters of the country.
Aratus' eyes were opened. He saw that all his efforts were vain, and
that, owing to his own imprudence, Greece would never again be free. In
his grief, his presence of mind quite forsook him. He did not know what
steps to take in order to undo all the harm he had done.
The Ætolians now became the champions of freedom, and marched against
the Achæans, whom they defeated. In their distress, the Achæans once
more begged the Macedonians to interfere, and send troops into Greece.
The contest which followed is known as the War of the Two Leagues, and
lasted for some time. In the beginning, the Macedonian king allowed
Aratus to take the lead, and followed all his directions; but, growing
weary of this subordinate part, he finally poisoned the Achæan leader,
and became head of the league himself.
When the Spartans and Ætolians, who had joined forces, found that the
Achæans and Macedonians were likely to prove too strong for them, they
also began to look around for allies. As the fame of the rising city of
Rome had reached them, they finally sent thither for the help they
needed.
The Romans were then rapidly extending their territory, and hoped soon
to become masters of the world, so they were glad to help the Spartans
against the Macedonians, who were already their enemies.
They therefore speedily came to the Spartans' aid, set fire to the
Achæan and Macedonian ships, and defeated their armies so sorely, that
Philip was obliged to beg for peace and to give them his son as a
hostage.
The Spartans, having thus freed themselves from the yoke of the Achæan
League, now fell into far worse hands, for they were governed by a
tyrant named Na´bis,--a cruel and miserly man, who, in order to
increase his treasure, often had recourse to vile stratagems.
He had made a cunning instrument of torture, on purpose to obtain money
from any one he wished. This was a statue, the exact image of his wife,
clad in magnificent robes. Whenever he heard that any man was very rich,
Nabis used to send for him. After treating him with exaggerated
politeness, the tyrant would gently advise him to sacrifice his wealth
for the good of the state.
If his guest refused to do so, Nabis would invite him to visit his wife,
and lead the unsuspecting man close to the statue. This was made so as
to move by a system of cunningly arranged springs, and as soon as the
victim came within reach, the statue's arms closed tightly around him.
The terrified guest, caught in an irresistible embrace, then found
himself drawn closer and closer, and pressed against sharp points and
knives hidden under the rich garments.
It was only, when the tortured man had solemnly promised to give up all
he owned, that the tyrant Nabis would set him free; but if he resisted,
he was killed by slow torture, and allowed to bleed to death in the
statue's embrace.
CXIV. THE LAST OF THE GREEKS.
When Aratus died, the principal man in the Achæan army was
Phil-o-poe´men, a brave and virtuous young man. He was patriotic in
the extreme, and so plain and unassuming that no one would have
suspected his rank.
On one occasion, when he had reached the dignity of general, he was
invited to dine at a house where the hostess was a stranger to him. When
he came to the door, she took him for a servant, on account of his plain
clothes, and curtly bade him go and split wood.
Without saying a word, Philopoemen threw aside his cloak, seized an
ax, and set to work. The host, on coming up a few minutes later, was
horrified to see his honored guest cutting wood, and was profuse in his
apologies for a mistake which only made Philopoemen laugh.
When Philopoemen heard how cruel Nabis was, he wanted to free Sparta
from his tyranny. So he entered the town at the head of an armed force
of men, confiscated the treasures for the benefit of the public, and
drove Nabis away.
The Spartans were at first very grateful to the Achæans for freeing
them, but they soon began to feel jealous of their power, and again rose
up in revolt against them. This time Philopoemen treated the Spartans
with the utmost severity, even razing the walls of the city, which were
never rebuilt.
Philopoemen was farsighted enough to see from the beginning that the
Roman alliance would prove bad for Greece. He soon discovered that the
Romans intended to subdue the country, and in order to do so most easily
were trying to make the people quarrel among themselves.
All his efforts were therefore directed toward keeping peace, and for a
time he was quite successful. But the Romans, seeing no other way to
bring about a quarrel, at last bribed the Messenians to revolt.
In the course of the war, Philopoemen was led into an artfully
arranged ambuscade, and was taken in chains to Messenia, where,
notwithstanding his gray hair, he was exposed to the jeers of the common
people.
After thus humiliating him, they led him to the place of torture; but
when he heard that his army had escaped from the ambush, he fervently
cried, "I die happy, since the Achæans are safe."
This only hastened the end of the brave patriot, who has been called the
"Last of the Greeks," because he was the last to try to maintain his
country's independence.
The Achæans soon after took the town of Messenia, stoned all
Philopoemen's murderers on his tomb, and carried his ashes to
Meg-a-lop´o-lis, his native city, where they were buried with great
pomp.
CXV. GREECE A ROMAN PROVINCE.
For centuries the Greeks had been in the habit of assembling at Corinth
every three years for the celebration of the Isthmian games, in honor of
Poseidon, god of the sea. Here, as at Olympia, there were races,
wrestling and boxing matches, and contests in verse and song; and as
usual the prizes were simple crowns of olive leaves, which were
considered far more precious than silver or gold.
In 196 B.C. not only were the Greeks present at this celebration, but
there were also many Romans who wished to witness the games. The Greeks
were then particularly happy because the War of the Two Leagues seemed
to be ended, and the country was at peace.
In the midst of the festival, Quin´tius Flam-i-ni´nus, the Roman consul,
mounted the orator's block, and proclaimed that the Roman army had just
won a great victory over the revolted King of Macedon, and that the
Greek states were now indeed free.
These tidings were received with such a tumult of joyful cries, it is
said, that a flock of birds that were flying overhead fell to the earth,
stunned by the shock of cheers which rent the air.
This joy, however, did not last very long, for the new-won freedom of
Greece existed in name only. As soon as the Romans had completed the
conquest of Macedon under its last ruler, Perseus, they prepared to
annex Greece also.
Their first move was to accuse the Achæans of sending aid to Macedon.
Under this pretext, one thousand leading citizens were seized, and sent
to Rome to be tried.
Here they were kept in exile for many a year, longing to go home, and
fuming against their detention. When they were finally allowed to
return, they were so imbittered, that, as the Romans had foreseen, they
soon stirred up a revolt among the Achæans.
Æ-mil´i-us Pau´lus, the conqueror of Macedon, then marched into Greece,
and swept over the whole country. He took the city of Corinth, and
burned it to the ground, after carrying off many of its most precious
works of art to adorn his triumph.
Such was the ignorance of the Romans at that time, however, about all
matters of art, that the sailors who were to carry these treasures to
Rome were warned by the consul to be careful, as they would have to
replace any article they had damaged or lost.
The Romans then placed garrisons in the principal Greek towns, and the
country became a mere province of Rome, under the name of Achaia.
Thus ends the history of ancient Greece, which, though so small, was yet
the most famous country the world has ever known,--the country from
which later nations learned their best lessons in art, philosophy, and
literature.
INDEX.
PAGE
Academy, gardens of 142
Achæan League 268-270
Achæans exiled to Rome 281
Achilles, avenges Patroclus 50
betrays himself 46
death of 51
in the Styx 45
prophecy regarding 44
Acropolis, captured 88, 96
Parthenon on 149
statue of Athene on 115
temple to Theseus, near 28, 143
Adrastus 37-40
Ægean Sea, derivation of name 27
Persian vessels forbidden to enter 147
Ægeus 27
Ægina, Draco at Island of 88
Æneas, escape of 53
Ætolian League 268, 273
Agamemnon, insults priest of Apollo 48
King of Mycenæ 44
Age of Pericles 146
Agesilaus, at Coronea 189
courage of 185, 199
Agis, condemned to death 275
type of old Spartans 271
Alcibiades, anecdotes of 161, 163, 164
hostility toward 166
killed by Persians 171
shield of 162
Alexander I 197-199
Alexander the Great, birthplace of 227
crosses Libyan desert 245
cuts Gordian knot 238
death of 236, 253
enters Jerusalem 244
generosity of 248
horsemanship of 229, 231
marriage of 252
omens concerning 227
prophecy of 256
self-denial of 251
takes title of "Shah in Shah" 249
tomb of 255
victory of 237, 246
visit of, to Diogenes 235
Alexandria, founded 244
Lighthouse of 264
Ambassador, life of, sacred 111, 120
Amphictyonic Council 20, 217, 224
Anaxagoras, philosopher 151, 152
Antalcidas, treaty of 190
Antigone 36, 40
Antigonus Doson 275
Antigonus Gonatas 269
Antigonus, "the one-eyed" 262
Antipater, governor of Macedon 256, 258, 260
Apollo sends plague 48
statue in honor of 264
Appetite, recipe for good 238
Aratus, leader of Achæan League 269
poisoning of 277
Arbela, battle at 246
Archon, how elected 87
origin of title of 57
Areopagus, court of law 91
Pisistratus before the 95
Aristides, anecdote of 118
burial of 141
discovers plans of Xerxes 133
recall of 124
Aristocrat, derivation of 95
Aristodemus, daughter sacrificed by 72
first ruler of Sparta 61
Aristogiton 99, 102
Aristomenes 73-77
Aristophanes 173-175
Aristotle, teacher of Alexander 231
Arridæus 256, 261
Artaxerxes, befriends Themistocles 140
oath of 147
sends for Hippocrates 155
treachery of 181
Aspasia 152
Aster, an archer 220
Athene, festival in honor of 26
statue of 115, 149, 247
temple to 88, 101, 136, 149, 271
Athene, tree planted by 90, 137
Athenians, at Marathon 113-115
bribery of 189
build statues 102, 179
defeat Spartans 56
extravagance of 141
heroes among 113, 114
ingratitude of 117, 119
last of the 261
thirty-years' peace of 148
Athens, art in 149
becomes an oligarchy 87
burning of 132
called Cecropia 16
chains of Xerxes in 137
Olympic games at in, 1896 80
plague in 155
purification of 90
rebuilt 137
title of king in 56
voting in 91, 103
Athos, Mount 110, 124, 126
Babylon, city of 246
Hanging Gardens of 264
Bessus, treachery of 248
Brennus, leader of Gauls 267
Bucephalus, meaning of 229
monument to 250
Bulis, self-sacrifice of 120
Cadmus 17, 191
Canal dug by Xerxes 124
Cassander 260-263
Cassandra 42
Ceadas, pit of 75
Cecropia. See _Athens_.
Cecrops founds Athens 16
Chæronea, battle at 225
Charilaus educated by Lycurgus 62
Charon, babe of, as pledge 193
Chilo dies of joy 86
Chilonis, self-sacrifice of 273
Chios, Island of 60
Cimon, banishment of 146
death of 147
generosity of 143
son of Miltiades 117
Cleombrotus 195, 273
Cleomenes 275, 276
Cleopatra, last of the Ptolemies 265
Clytus 228, 237, 249
Codrus, heroic death of 56
Coinage of money 24
Colchis, Golden Fleece in 25
Colossus of Rhodes 264
Comedy of "The Clouds" 174, 175
Corinth, city of 280, 281
Isthmus of 17, 131
Coronea 148, 189
Crete, location of 22
Criminals, punishment of 176
self-defense of 91
Crito 177, 179
Croesus, ruler of Lydia 253
Croton, Greek colony 81, 166
Cunaxa, battle at 180
Cyclops, meaning of 14
Cydnus, Alexander bathes in 240
Cylon 88
Cyrus, death of 180
Dædalus invents sails 22
Damocles' sword 209
Damon 204-208
Danaus teaches shipbuilding 17
Darius, army of, routed 113
audience chamber of 106
death of 119, 248
offers peace to Alexander 247
resolves to conquer Greece 108, 117
second army of 110
"The Great King" 104
Decelea, fortification of 168
Delos, Island of 177, 179
Delphi, temple at, rebuilding of 101
robbed 224
saved by thunderstorm 130, 267
Demeter, festival of 17, 191
Demetrius, generosity of 266
imprisonment of 267
"The Preserver" 263
Democedes, court physician 107
Democrat, derivation of 95
Demosthenes, cowardice of 226
joy of, at death of Philip 233
orator 221-223
takes poison 259
Deucalion 19, 20
Diana, goddess 47
temple of 65, 227, 237, 264
Diocles, traitor 269
Diogenes 234, 235
Dion 210-215
Dionysius the Elder 202-210
Dionysius the Younger 210-216
Dionysus, festival and theater of 92-94
Draco, cruel lawmaker 87, 88, 91
"Earth and water," demand for 110
Ecbatana, a walled city 104
Egyptians, civilization of 12
Epaminondas, as commander 196
dying words of 201
risks own life for Pelopidas 191
Ephesus, founded 56
taken by Alexander 237
temple at 227, 264
Ephialtes, perfidy of 128
Epimenides, long sleep of 90
Erostratus wins immortality 228
Eteocles quarrels with Polynices 37-39
Eurybiades, Spartan king 132-134
Flood of Ogyges 15
Furies, duty of 36
Galatia, how named 267
Golden Fleece, search for 25
Gordian knot, cutting the 240
Gordium 238
Granicus, battle near 237
Great Greece 54
Great King, The (see also _Darius_) 104
Greece, alphabet brought to 17
Egyptians settle in 13
freedom of 281
known as Achaia 282
punishment of criminals in 176
situation of 11
Greeks, at Thermopylæ 127, 128
betrayal of 181
commercial journey by 26
geographical knowledge of 251
gods angry with 54
last of the 280
retreat of 182-184
statue judged by 83
Troy taken by 53
truce of 51
victory of, at Salamis 134
Hanging Gardens of Babylon 264
Harmodius, kills Hipparchus 99
statue in honor of 102
Hector, falls by hand of Achilles 50
kills Patroclus 50
sung by Homer 60
Hecuba, dream of 41
Helen runs away with Paris 43
Helios. See _Apollo._
Hellas, how named (see also _Greece_) 21
Hellen, second son of Deucalion 20
Hellespont, a narrow strait 109
bridging the 121
Helots, Spartan slaves 61
strike for freedom 145
temperance taught by 68
Hephæstion, drinks himself to death 252
friend of Alexander 236
mistaken for Alexander 241
Heracles. See _Hercules_.
Heraclidæ, banishment of 28
regain possessions 55
Heraclides, treachery of 214
Hercules, birthplace of 28
festival instituted by 78
games in honor of 38
Hermes, destruction of statues of 166
Heroic Age 25, 57
Hipparchus 98, 99
Hippias, Athenian ruler 98
capture of 102
Darius' generals guided by 111
killed 113
seeks aid from Darius 105
Hippocrates drives out plague 156
Homer, birthplace of 60
blindness of 57
poems of, collected 97
rank of, as poet 58, 60
Hot Gateway 20, 125
Hymettus, honey of 17
Hyphasis River 251
Icarian Sea, how named 24
Icarus flies too high 24
Ilium. See _Troy_.
Immortals, bodyguard of Xerxes 122
gain Pass of Thermopylæ 129
Inachus teaches Pelasgians 13
Ionia, derivation of name 21
location of 56, 104
Iphigenia rescued by Diana 47
Ipsus, battle of 265
Ismene dies of grief 40
Issus, Persians routed at 241
Isthmian games 280
Ithome, fortified city 72, 73
Jaddua, vision of 244
Jason commands the "Argo" 25
Jocasta, kills herself 35
Queen of Thebes 29
Jove, thunderbolts of 162
Jupiter, festival and statue of 78, 79
temple to 245
See also _Zeus_.
Labyrinth of Crete 22, 27, 264
Lacedæmon, how named 61
Laconia, adjective from 66
clemency shown to 197
location of 61
Laius, killed by OEdipus 31
words of oracle to 29
Lamia, fortress of 258
"Last of the Athenians" 261
"Last of the Greeks" 280
Leæna, courage of 100
honor to 103
Leonidas I., betrayal of 129
guards Thermopylæ 125
reply of, to Xerxes 127
Leonidas II. 270-275
Leuctra, Theban victory at 196
Libya, temple at 245
Long Walls, building of 147
destruction of 170
rebuilding of 172
Lyceum, laying out of 96
Lycurgus, in Spartan history 61
iron money originated by 70
laws of 62-70
Macedon, location of 217
Mantinea, Theban victory at 199
Marathon, battle of 113-115
situation of 111
Mardonius, flight of 134
Mausolus, Tomb of 264
Mediterranean Sea, islands in 13
stretch of 11
Megacles, crime of 89, 101
Megalopolis, tomb in 280
Menelaus 42, 43
Messenia 71, 280
Messenians, bribed by Romans 280
thrown into Ceadas 75
war against Spartans 145
Messina, city and colony of 77, 166
Lighthouse of 264
Midas, cart of 238
Miletus 56, 137
Milo the athlete 81, 82
Miltiades, at Marathon 112
conviction and death of 117
Minerva. See _Athene_.
Mirage 245
Money, coining of 24
institution of iron 70
Morea, why so called 55
Nabis, tyrant 278
Navigation taught 17
Nearchus, exploration of 251
Nemean lion 38
Nemesis, statue of 116
Neptune. See _Poseidon_.
Nestor the wise man 44
OEdipus, answers Sphinx's riddle 34
attempted murder of 29
death of 36
fulfillment of prophecy concerning 31, 34
puts out his own eyes 35
Ogyges, flood of 15
Olympia, temple at 78
Olympiad as measurement of time 80
Olympias 227, 261
Olympic games, bearing arms during 126
excitement at 86
girls in 84
renewal of 80
time reckoned by 80
Ostracize, derivation of 104
Panathenæa, festival of 26
Paris, bringing up of 42
Paros, Island of 116
Parthenon 149, 264
Patroclus, armor of Achilles on 49
killed by Hector 50
sung by Homer 60
Pausanias, patriotism of mother of 139
successor of Leonidas 134
walled in 139
Pelasgians, homes and habits of 12
remains of, in old tombs 18
skill of, in building 14
spinning and weaving by 16
Pelopidæ conquer Heraclidæ 28
Pelopidas, exiled Theban 191
returns in disguise 193
slain in battle 199
Peloponnesian War, end of 170
length of 153
Peloponnesus, derivation of name 24
Dorians settle in 55
key of the 270
laid waste 154
present name of 55
Pelops teaches coinage of money 24
Perdiccas, against Ptolemy 260
receives Alexander's ring 253
Pericles, death of 156, 157
eloquence of 154
idol of the poor 144
improvement of Athens by 149
leader of the Athenians 146
Persepolis, burning of 248
Perseus builds Mycenæ 17
Persian army, route of, to Greece 109
Persian fleet, destruction of 110
retreat of 115
Persian vessels shut out of the Ægean 147
Phalanx, Macedonian 218, 250
Pharnabazus 185-188
Pharos 264
Phidias, death of 149
Parthenon decorated by 149, 264
statues by 79, 116, 149
Philip of Macedon, ambition of 217, 220, 226
at Chæronea 226
early training of 217
formation of Macedonian phalanx by 218
gift from, to Demosthenes 222
left eye of, put out 220
murder of 226
president of Amphictyonic Council 225
wealth of 218
Philippic, origin of 221
Philopoemon, anecdote of 279
"Last of the Greeks" 280
Philoxenus, a philosopher 202-204
Phocion, caution of 257
"Last of the Athenians" 261
Phoenicians, home of 13
Pindar, house of 233
Pisistratidæ, expulsion of 102
Pisistratus, death of 98
hypocrisy of 95
improvement of Athens by 96
Platæa 134, 136
Plato, Olympic crown given to 212
pupil of Socrates 59
words of Socrates preserved by 177, 179
Poliorcetes, "the city taker" 263
Polynices 37-39
Porus, Indian king 250
Poseidon 52, 280
Priam, begs Hector's body 51
desertion of Paris by 41
sung by Homer 60
Prisoners of war as slaves 48, 61
Ptolemy, builds tomb for Alexander 255
conquered by Demetrius 263
Pyramids of Egypt 12, 264
Pyrrha 19, 20
Pythias 204-208
Quarries, The 203
Retreat of the Ten Thousand 185
Rome, Achæans exiled to 281
art in 282
power of 270, 277
Roxana, imprisonment of 261
wife of Alexander 252
Sacred Battalion 195, 226
Sacred War 224
Salamis, victory at 134, 170
Sardis, burning of 109
taken by Alexander 237
Seleucia 265
Seleucus 262, 265, 267
Scyros, Island of, Achilles at 46
Theseus killed at 28, 143
Shipbuilding taught 17
Sicyon joins Achæan League 269
Sisygambis, love of, for Alexander 242, 255
Slaves, prisoners of war as 48, 61
Socrates, accusation against 175
belief and practice of 158, 176
death of 179
defense of 176
greatest philosopher of the world 171
last conversation of 177-179
life of Alcibiades saved by 162
statue of 179
Solon, laws of 91, 103, 170
play acting disapproved by 93
return of, to Athens 97
Sophocles 94
Sparta, earthquake at 144
location of 42
rebuilding of 146
rulers of 55
two kings of 61
Spartan, an expression of courage 66
Spartan babes, fate of 63
Spartan boys, education of 63-66
example of bravery of 65
fidelity instilled in 67
test of courage of 65
trained to steal 65
Spartan girls, carried off by Messenians 71
education of 63, 69
Spartan mother, admonition of 68
Spartans, ask aid of Athenians 74
at Pass of Thermopylæ 129
attack Amphea 71
covet Messenia 71
degeneracy of 172, 270
force way into Thebes 190
freed from Achæan League 277
habits of 67, 68, 136
influence of superstition on 111, 154
join in Olympic games 79
overcome Messenians 75
rout of three thousand by twelve 195
seize Persian ambassadors 111
swear allegiance to Lycurgus 70
Sperthias, self-sacrifice of 120
Sphinx 33, 34
Styx, power of waters of 45
Sun, eclipse of 153, 154
Susa, statue at 247
Sybaris, prosperity of 165
Syracuse 166, 204
Temple, at Delphi, command from 19
at Ephesus 227, 264
at Libya 245
at Olympia 78
of Bel, rebuilding of 247
of Jupiter 246
of Neptune 258
protection by a 88, 139, 258, 271
rebuilding of a 247
saved by thunderstorm 130, 267
test of courage at 65
Theagenes, statue of 83
Theater, the first 93
Thebes, founding of 17
siege of 38-40
supremacy of 197
taking, of 191, 233
Themistocles, Athenian general 112
council planned by 125
courage of 133
exiled by Athenians 140
honor of 140
jealousy of 116
Thermopylæ, Greeks at 127, 128
Pass of 20, 125
Thersander 40, 44
Theseum 143
Theseus, bones of 143
Greek hero 26-28
Thespians, bravery of 130
Thespis builds first theater 93
Thessaly, location of 55
Thirty Tyrants, the 170-172
Thrasybulus, statues to 172
Tigris, Greeks swim the 246
Torture, instrument of 278
Tragedy, Greek meaning of 93
writers of 94
Troy, burning of 53
location of 41
siege of 47-53
sung by Homer 60
Truce, hundred years' 28, 55
Tyrant, meanings of 97
Tyre, burning of 243
Tyrtæus leads Spartans 75
Ulysses, in disguise 46
sung by Homer 60
the crafty king 44
wooden horse of 52
Vine, golden 106, 253
Voting in Athens 91, 103
War, end of Peloponnesian 170
engines of 124, 263
First Messenian 71
length of Peloponnesian 153
of the Epigoni 40
of the Two Leagues 277
Second Messenian 77
Wonders of the world 149, 228, 264
Xanthippe 158
Xenophon 159, 182
Xerxes I., canal dug by 124
defeat of 134
host of 121-124
sorrow of 122
vessels of, wrecked 126
Xuthus rules Athens 21
Zeus (see also _Jupiter_) 77, 151, 162
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