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Title: Ontario Teachers' Manuals: Household Management
Author: Ontario. Ministry of Education
Language: English
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[Illustration: A Household Management pupil in uniform]
ONTARIO
TEACHERS' MANUALS
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
TORONTO
THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED
COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1916, BY
THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
CONTENTS
PAGE
COURSE OF STUDY--DETAILS 1
CHAPTER I
Introduction 5
Correlation with Other School Subjects 7
Rooms 9
Equipment 12
Tables, seats, racks, sinks, class cupboard, stoves,
black-boards, illustrative material, book-case, utensils 23
Equipment for Twenty-four Pupils 23
Class table, sink and walls, general cupboard equipment,
kitchen linen, cleaning cupboard, laundry equipment,
dining-room equipment, miscellaneous 28
Equipment for Ordinary Class-rooms 28
Equipment, Packing-box 30
For Class 31
Individual Equipment for Six Pupils 32
CHAPTER II
Suggestions for Class Management 33
Teachers' Preparation 33
Number in Class 33
Uniforms, etc. 33
Discipline 34
Division of Periods 35
Assignment of Work 36
Supplies 37
Practice Work at Home 37
Suggestions, General 38
Suggestions for Schools with Limited or no Equipment 39
CHAPTER III. FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE
Correlations 42
Arithmetic, geography, nature study, hygiene, physical
training, composition, spelling, manual training, art,
sewing 45
CHAPTER IV. FORM III: SENIOR GRADE
Scope of Household Management 46
Equipment, Uniform, etc., Survey of 47
Equipment, Use of 48
Cleaning, Development of a Lesson on
Meaning of Cleaning 49
Methods of Cleaning 49
Common Household Cleansing Agents 50
Black-board Outline 51
Dish Washing 52
Table Cleaning 53
Sink Cleaning 54
Dusting 54
Measures and Recipes
Measures 55
Equivalent Measures and Weights, Table of 58
Measuring, Plan of Lesson on 58
Time limit, preparation, development, practical
work to apply measuring, serving,
note-taking, housekeeping, recipe for cocoa 62
Recipes 62
CHAPTER V. FORM III: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
Cookery
Meaning of Cooking 64
Reasons for Cooking Food 64
Kinds of Heat Used 64
Different Ways of Applying Dry Heat 64
Different Ways of Applying Moist Heat 64
Thermometer, Lesson on 65
Boiling Carrots, Plan of Lesson on 68
Aim, time limit, preparation for practical
work; practical work; development of the
ideas of boiling as a method of cooking;
serving, housekeeping, recipe in detail 70
Simmering Apples, Plan of Lesson on 70
Introduction, discussion of recipe, practical
work, development of ideas of simmering;
serving, housekeeping, recipe (individual) 72
Methods of Cooking: Details 73
Boiling 73
Simmering 74
Steaming 74
Steeping 75
Toasting 76
Broiling 76
Pan-broiling 77
Sautéing 78
Baking 78
Frying 79
Left-overs, Suggestions for the Use of 82
Bread, cake, meat, fish, eggs, cheese, vegetables,
canned fruit 84
Beverages 84
Meaning of Beverages 84
Kinds of Beverages 85
Tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate 86
Table Setting 87
Table Manners 90
CHAPTER VI. FORM IV. JUNIOR GRADE
Kitchen Fire, The 92
Requirements 93
Heat, oxygen, fuels 96
Kitchen Stove, The 96
Fireless Cooker, The 99
Principles of Fireless Cooker 100
Reasons for Use of Fireless Cooker 100
Ways of Using Fireless Cooker 100
Home-made Fireless Cooker, A 101
CHAPTER VII. FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
Food, Study of 103
Uses of Food 103
Necessary Substances in Food 105
Sources of Food 106
Common Foods, Study of 106
Milk 107
Eggs 110
Vegetable Food, Study of 114
Comparative food value of different parts of
plants 119
Green vegetables, root vegetables and
tubers, ripe seeds (peas, beans, and
lentils) 120
Vegetables, General Rules for Cooking 122
Fruit, General Rules for Cooking 123
Fresh Fruit 123
Dried Fruit 123
Starch, Use of, to Thicken Liquids 124
Flour, Use of, to Thicken Liquids 125
Cream of Vegetable Soups 126
Principles of Cream Soups 126
Seeds, Outline of Lesson on Cooking 127
Cereals 127
Legumes: Peas, Beans, Lentils 128
Nuts 128
Salads 129
Ingredients of Salads 129
Food Values of Salads 129
Preparation of Ingredients 130
Dressings for Salads 130
Mineral Food, Study of 131
Summary of Sources of Mineral Foods 133
Diet 133
Reference Table of Food Constituents 134
Water, mineral matter, protein, sugar, starch,
fat 134
Preparing and Serving Meals: Rules 136
CHAPTER VIII. FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
House, Care of the 138
Bed-room, Directions for Care of 138
Sweeping, Directions for 139
Dusting, Directions for 140
Metals, Care and Cleaning of 140
Iron or steel, tin, granite and enamel ware,
aluminium, zinc, galvanized iron, copper or
brass, silver, recipe for silver polish 144
CHAPTER IX. FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
Laundry Work 145
White Cotton and Linen Clothes, Lesson on
Washing 145
Materials--water, alkalies, soap, soap substitutes
or adjuncts, blueing, starch 149
Preparation for Washing 150
Process of Washing 151
Removal of Stains 152
Woollens, Outline of Lessons on Washing 153
Experiments with Cloth Made of Wool Fibre 154
Points in Washing Woollens 156
Steps in Washing Woollens 156
CHAPTER X. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE
Foods 157
Food, Preservation of 158
Bacteria 158
Canning 160
Jams and Preserves 163
Jelly 164
Pickling 165
CHAPTER XI. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
Cookery 166
Flour, Outline of Lesson on 166
Sources of flour, kinds of flour made from
wheat, composition of white flour, kinds of
wheat flour, tests for bread flour 167
Flour Mixtures, Outline of Series of Lessons on 168
Meaning of flour mixtures, kinds of flour
mixtures, methods of mixing flour mixtures,
framework of flour mixtures, lightening
agents used in flour mixtures 169
Experiments 170
Baking-powder 170
Cake making 171
Classes of cake, directions for making cake,
rules for mixing cake, directions for baking
cake 173
Recipe for Basic Cake 174
Variations of Recipe for Basic Cake 174
Spice cake, nut cake, fruit cake, chocolate
cake 174
Recipe for Basic Biscuits 175
Variations of Recipe for Basic Biscuits 175
Sweet biscuit, fruit biscuit, scones, fruit
scones, short cake for fruit, dumplings for
stew, steamed fruit pudding 175
Bread Making 176
Yeast, Outline of Lessons on 177
Bread Making, Practical 179
Ingredients of plain bread, amount of ingredients
for one small loaf, process in
making bread 180
Breads, Fancy 180
Bread-mixer, The 182
Pastry 183
Pastry, outline of lesson on--ingredients 184
Notes on flour, fat, water: lightening
agents used in pastry: kinds of pastry:
amount of ingredients for plain pastry
for one pie 184
CHAPTER XII. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
Meat 186
Names of Meat 187
Parts of Meat 188
Composition of Fat 188
Composition of Bone 188
Composition of Muscle 190
Meat Experiments 191
Selection of Meat 192
Care of Meat 193
General Ways of Preparing Meat 193
Notes on Tough Meat 193
Digestibility of Meat 195
General Rules for Cooking Meat 198
Baking, broiling, boiling, stewing, beef juice 199
Fish
Points of Difference Between Fish and Ordinary
Meat 199
Kinds of Fish 200
Selection of Fish 200
Cooking of Fish 200
Gelatine 200
Source 201
Commercial Forms 201
Properties 201
Steps in Dissolving 201
Value in Diet 202
Ways of Using 202
Frozen Dishes 203
Value 203
Kinds 203
Water ice, frappé sherbet, ice cream, plain
ice cream, mousse 203
Practical Work 204
Freezing, packing, moulding 204
Planning of Meals 205
CHAPTER XIII. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
Infant Feeding 208
Modified Milk, Recipe for 209
Pasteurizing Milk, Directions for 209
Bottles, Care of 210
Food, Care of 210
Feeding, Schedule for 211
CHAPTER XIV. FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
Household Sanitation 212
Means of Bacteria Entering the Body 212
Common Disease-producing Bacteria 213
Methods of Sanitation 214
Disposal of Waste in Villages and Rural Districts 215
Methods of Disinfecting 215
Home Nursing 216
Sick Room, The 216
Location, furniture, ventilation, care 216
Disinfecting, Methods of 218
Patient, The 218
Care of the bed, and diet 218
Poultices 221
Fomentations 222
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Home, The 223
Science and Sanitation 223
Food and Dietetics 223
Cooking and Serving 224
Laundry Work 224
Home Nursing 225
Economics 225
Magazines 225
PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL COURSE OF STUDY
DETAILS
FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE
BILLS OF HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES:
Furniture, bed and table linen, material for clothing
Fuel, meat, milk, groceries
Weekly or monthly expenses of an average household
Comparison of home and store cost of cooked food, such
as cake, bread, meat, canned fruit.
SOURCES OF HOUSEHOLD MATERIALS:
Fuel
Timber for building, and furniture
Cotton, linen, woollen, paper, china
Common groceries, such as salt, sugar,
spices, tea, coffee, cocoa, cheese, butter, cereals
Cleansing agents, such as coal-oil,
gasolene, turpentine, whiting, bathbrick, soap.
MANUFACTURE OF HOUSEHOLD MATERIALS:
Cotton, linen, woollens, paper
Salt, sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, cheese, butter, cereals.
KITCHEN AND EQUIPMENT:
Arrangement of a convenient kitchen
Necessary utensils.
FORM III: SENIOR GRADE
CLEANING:
Elementary principles of cleaning
Practice in cleaning dishes, tables, sinks, towels.
COOKERY:
Table of cooking measurements
A recipe (parts, steps in following)
Reasons for cooking food; kinds of heat used; methods of cooking
Practice in making simple dishes of one main ingredient.
SERVING:
Setting the table
Table service and manners.
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE
THE KITCHEN FIRE:
Requirements of a fire
Comparative merits of fuels
Construction and care of a practical stove.
STUDY OF FOODS:
Uses of food to the body
Necessary elements in food
Composition of the common foods, excepting meat and fish.
COOKERY:
Practice lessons in preparing and cooking the common foods,
(milk, eggs, meat, fish, fruit, vegetables)
Cooking and serving a simple breakfast and a luncheon.
CARE OF THE HOUSE:
Review of methods of cleaning taken in Form III
Cleaning and care of household metals
Sweeping and dusting
Care of a bed-room.
LAUNDRY WORK:
Necessary materials and the action of each
Process in washing white clothes.
NOTE.--These subjects are intended to be taught
simply (not technically). In schools where there
is no laundry equipment, the order of work may
be developed in class and the practice carried
on at home.
FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE
PRESERVATION OF FOOD:
Causes of decay, principles and methods of preservation
Practice in canning.
COOKERY:
Practice lessons to review cooking common foods
Flour (kinds, composition of white flour); flour
mixtures (kinds, methods of mixing, lightening agents)
Practice in making bread and cake
Practice in cooking meat
Cooking and serving a simple home dinner at a fixed cost.
FOODS:
Composition of meat and fish
Planning meals so as to obtain a broad balance of food elements.
INFANT FEEDING:
Proper food; pasteurizing milk
Care of bottles and food
Schedule for feeding.
HOUSEHOLD SANITATION:
Disposal of waste
Principles and methods of sterilizing and disinfecting.
HOME NURSING:
Two simple lessons to include the following:
1. The sick-room (location, size, ventilation, care)
2. Care of patient's bed, and diet
3. Making of mustard and other simple poultices.
NOTE.--Where no equipment has been provided, a
large doll and doll's bed will serve.
LAUNDRY WORK:
Washing of woollens (the processes).
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Until a comparatively recent period, education was regarded mainly as a
means of training the intellect, but this conception of education is now
considered incomplete and inadequate. Our ideas of the purpose of
schools are becoming broader, and we have decided that not only the
mental nature, but all the child's activities and interests, should be
given direction by means of the training given in our schools. We
believe also that these activities and interests can be used to
advantage in assisting the mental development.
Household Management aims to educate in this way, by directing the mind
to ideas connected with the home and by training the muscles to perform
household duties.
Though deemed essentially practical, this subject will, if rightly
presented, give a mental training similar to other subjects of the
Course of Study. It should do more. While a pupil is made familiar with
the duties of home life and with the materials and appliances used in
the home, she will be unavoidably led to think of the work of the larger
world and to realize her relation to it. When such knowledge comes, and
a girl begins to feel that some part of the world's work depends on her,
true character-building will begin.
The purpose of this Manual is to assist teachers in presenting Household
Management to public and separate school classes in such a way as to
attain these ends. It is hoped that it will be especially useful to
those teachers whose training in the subject has been limited.
An attempt has been made to explain the work of Form III Senior, and of
the Junior and Senior divisions of Form IV. The topics of Form II Junior
are not discussed, as the work of this Form is intended to be taught as
information lessons, for which general methods will suffice. In the
other Forms mentioned, the topics of lessons are outlined in detail, but
the method of presentation is not given except in typical cases. Both
outline and method are intended to be merely suggestive and to leave
opportunity for the teacher's originality.
In cases where topics seem incompletely outlined, it is due to the fact
that they are treated in other school subjects or postponed until the
pupils reach a more advanced stage of mental development.
The order of lessons is optional, also the amount of work each should
include, unless this is specially stated.
Many lessons are suitable for rural schools, which have no equipment
except what the ingenuity of the teacher may provide. In such schools,
the teacher may perform the practical work, while the class observes.
Throughout the lessons, there is the difficulty of presenting scientific
facts to immature minds in a way that will be simple and clear. The use
of technical language would often assist the expression, and this is apt
to be unconsciously employed, but there is danger of such forms of
speech not being intelligible to the pupils; the teacher should
therefore choose her words carefully. Technical terms may be taught, but
this is not advised in Junior classes, unless really necessary. If the
facts are intelligently related to the experiences of the pupils, that
is all that is desired.
Temperatures, as indicated by Fahrenheit thermometers, have always been
given, as this scale is best known in the home.
Since this Manual is designed for teachers, few recipes have been
furnished. The books of reference which are appended will supply these
and additional information on the subject.
CORRELATION WITH OTHER SCHOOL SUBJECTS
One of the benefits of placing Household Management in a Course of Study
is that it relates the knowledge gained in school to the home life.
The Household Management teacher has great opportunity for this
correlation. She should be more than a teacher of household duties. She
should lead the pupils to see the importance and necessity of mastering
the other school subjects. Wherever interest in these subjects has
already been established, this interest will form a basis for
development in many Household Management lessons.
Then, too, the teachers of other subjects should, as far as possible,
work with the Household Management teacher in relating their instruction
to the operations and requirements in the home. If the teachers
co-operate in planning their lessons, the pupils will receive a deeper
impression of the facts learned in each subject and will have an
increased interest in the work, through seeing how one branch of
knowledge is related to another.
The following will show how some of the subjects are related to the
class work of Household Management:
Arithmetic.--This subject is used in household accounts, in
measurements, in the division of recipes, and in computing the cost of
foods prepared for the table.
Reading.--The pupils should be asked to read aloud the recipes and their
notes and should be required to do this distinctly and accurately.
Spelling, Writing, Language Work.--In writing recipes and notes, in
stories of household topics, and in written answers, the teacher should
insist on neat writing, correct spelling, and good English.
Geography.--The study of materials for food, clothing, and house
furnishings brings before the mind our commercial relations with foreign
countries and the occupations of their inhabitants. It also suggests
consideration of climate and soils.
History.--The evolution of furniture and utensils, of methods of
housekeeping, and of preparing and serving food, brings out historical
facts.
Elementary Science.--Throughout the Course, this subject is the
foundation of much of the instruction given, as it explains the
principles underlying household industries. Soap-making, bread-making,
preservation of food, and the processes of cooking and cleaning are
examples of this.
Some knowledge of elementary science is also necessary to an
understanding of the construction and practical working of the kitchen
stove, the fireless cooker, the cream separator, and many household
appliances. Its principles determine the methods of heating, lighting,
and ventilating.
Physiology and Hygiene.--The study of food and the planning and
preparation of meals should include a knowledge of the body and its
requirements. The sanitary care of the house and its premises is
directly related to hygiene.
Nature Study.--Animals and plants furnish us with most of our food, and
familiarity with these is necessary to the housekeeper. A knowledge of
the structure of animals is essential in studying the cuts of meat; the
structure of plants and the functions of their different parts give a
key to the value of vegetable food.
Physical Training.--The class should be carefully trained throughout in
correct muscular movements. The position of the body should be closely
watched in working and in sitting, and the classes should enter and
leave the room in systematic order.
Manual Training.--The practical part of housekeeping demands constant
use of the hands. The teacher should be watchful of awkward handling of
materials and utensils and be careful to correct it. She should require
deft, natural movements until they become habits.
Art.--Ideas of colour and design should be applied in choosing
wall-papers, carpets, dishes, furniture, and clothing. The pupils might
be asked to make original coloured designs for these household articles.
ROOMS
It is most desirable to have Household Management include all home
operations and, to make this possible, more than one room should be
provided. Many school boards, however, in introducing the work, find
that one room is all that can be afforded. Where this is the case, it is
necessary that this room be equipped as a kitchen, though it must be
used for other purposes as well. It will serve also for table-setting
and serving, for simple laundry work, for lessons in home-nursing, and
for sewing.
[Illustration: A Household Management class at work]
This kitchen should be large and airy, so that the class can work
comfortably and conveniently. A room having greater length than width
admits of the best arrangement.
On account of the odours that arise from cooking and other domestic
operations, the kitchen should be on the top floor and should have more
adequate means of ventilation than ordinary class-rooms. A north
exposure makes it cooler in summer.
[Illustration: Opposite end of Household Management class-room, showing
the black-board and class cupboard]
EQUIPMENT
In planning an equipment, one must be guided by the conditions to be
met. It is difficult to be definite in details, but certain general
principles should be observed.
The entire equipment should be suited to the needs of the pupils, and it
should also be one which it is desirable and possible for them to have
in their own homes.
[Illustration: A Household Management class-room, showing tables, sinks,
and stoves]
The walls and floor should be washable, and they, as well as the
furniture, should have plain, smooth surfaces which do not catch dust
and are easily cleaned.
The sinks, stoves, tables, and cupboards should be placed so as to save
steps.
TABLES
Where economy is necessary, movable tables may be used, but the fixed
ones are to be preferred. The latter may be placed in the form of a
hollow square or an oval, with openings from opposite sides to give
convenient access to a centre table, which can be used for supplies or
as a dining table.
[Illustration: Section of a table designed for two pupils]
Drawers and cupboards to hold the necessary utensils and supplies should
be provided in the tables for each pupil. Provision may also be made
under the table top for desk boards, which may be pulled out when notes
are written, in order to allow the pupils to sit comfortably in front of
the cupboards. The table top should be of hard wood or some
non-absorbent material, jointed in narrow strips in order to prevent
warping. Part of this must be protected by a metal or glass strip on
which to set the individual stoves or hot dishes.
[Illustration: Contents of a table cupboard equipped for two pupils]
A working drawing and design of the tables used in the Normal Schools
may be obtained from the Department of Education, Toronto.
[Illustration: Contents of an individual utensil drawer]
[Illustration: Contents of an individual supply drawer]
SEATS
The seats may be swing seats, stools, or chairs. The swing seats are
noiseless and easily put out of the way, but are uncomfortable and
unsteady, so that the pupils are inclined to prop themselves by placing
their elbows on the table. The stools and chairs are noisy and occupy a
great deal of room, but the latter are restful and conducive to the
correct position of the pupils, the importance of which cannot be
over-estimated. The former are inexpensive, if made with a plain, wooden
top. Both should admit of being pushed under the table, and for this
reason the chairs should have folding backs. The legs should be tipped
with rubber in order to minimize the noise.
[Illustration: A class towel rack]
RACKS
Towel racks should be placed near the sinks and, if possible, should
allow space for hanging the towels without folding. In some tables a
towel rack may be attached to one of the sides.
SINKS
A sink at each corner of the room saves much time and inconveniences in
the work. Each of these should be provided with hot and cold water. They
may be made of porcelain or of enamelled iron.
[Illustration: A class gas range, showing high ovens]
CLASS CUPBOARD
A large class cupboard in two sections, having glass doors in the upper
part to show the class china and glass, should be placed where it will
be most convenient and add to the attractiveness of the room. This
cupboard will hold the dinner set and extra dishes and utensils, as well
as the linen and some staple food supplies. A refrigerator is desirable
for such foods as butter, eggs, meat, etc.
[Illustration: A class cupboard]
STOVES
[Illustration: Individual table stoves
(_a_) a gas stove
(_b_) an electric stove
(_c_) a blue-flame kerosene stove
(_d_) an ordinary kerosene stove]
The stoves provided will depend on the fuel that is available in the
neighbourhood. Wood is still in use in some rural sections, while coal
is the ordinary fuel in small towns and villages. Where either of these
fuels is commonly used, there should be two ranges. One should be for
coal or wood, to teach the use of the home fuel, and the other an oil,
gas, or electric stove, to demonstrate the time and labour saved the
housekeeper by the use of one of these. If possible, the stoves should
have high ovens, to obviate the necessity of stooping. A section of
glass in the oven door is a great convenience, as it allows the
contents of the oven to be easily watched.
For individual work small table stoves are required. These may be
supplied with oil, alcohol, gas, or electricity, as may be most readily
obtained. These stoves may be arranged so that they can be swung from
the table when not in use. In this way more room is provided for work,
and the table is more easily cleaned. The tops of the stoves should be
wide and flat, so that cooking dishes will not easily upset.
A fireless cooker, though not really necessary, is most helpful. Where
funds are lacking, one may be made by the pupils at small expense. A
barrel, wooden box, or large pail may be filled with hay or excelsior,
and small, covered, granite pails may be used to contain the food.
BLACK-BOARDS
The black-boards should be of slate or glass, and as large as the size
of the room allows. The windows and doors should be so placed that there
will be unbroken stretches of wall for this purpose. Part of the
black-board should be provided with a sliding board which, when
required, can be drawn to conceal what is written. A separate
black-board for current prices of common food materials is an excellent
idea. The responsibility of keeping these prices correct should be given
to the pupils.
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL
A cabinet, or display case, for illustrative material, is of great
educational value and, to the pupils, is one of the most attractive
features of the room. The following list of specimens is suggestive for
this:
[Illustration: A display cabinet--canned fruit]
1. Standard china, such as Crown Derby, Wedgewood, Limoges, Dresden,
Beleek, etc.
2. Standard carpet, such as Axminster, Wilton, Brussels, Tapestry
3. Woods used for furniture and building
4. Food materials in various stages of preparation, such as sugar,
spices, cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa
5. Fruit canned by the pupils
6. Designs for wall-paper, linoleum, dishes, etc., made by the pupils.
Other illustrative material in the form of charts showing the
comparative values of the common foods, or illustrating cuts of meat or
different kinds of vegetables and fish, will be found to aid greatly in
making the teaching effective. There are few of these to be obtained,
but home-made ones may be prepared from cuts in bulletins and magazines.
Pictures illustrating the production and manufacture of food may also be
mounted and used.
BOOK-CASE
Book shelves should be provided, where a small library of books bearing
on the various phases of the subject may be kept, together with the
Government Bulletins and some well-chosen periodicals and magazines.
These may be selected from the _Catalogue of Books_ which has been
prepared by the Department of Education.
UTENSILS
In regard to the selection of small articles required, such as dishes
and utensils of various kinds, the greatest care should be exercised.
This part of the equipment can be exactly duplicated by the pupils in
their homes, and in this way may be of educational value to the
community. The cooking and serving dishes should combine quality,
utility, and beauty.
It is not economy to buy cheap utensils. As far as possible, they should
be chosen with smooth, curved surfaces, as seams and angles allow
lodging places for food and make the cleaning difficult.
Everything should be of good quality, the latest of its kind that has
been approved, and, at the same time, have a shape and colour that is
artistic.
It is wise to buy from stock which can be duplicated if breakages occur,
so that the equipment may be kept uniform. For individual work the
utensils should not be too large.
Coloured granite ware is best for most of the cooking dishes. Where tin
is necessary, it should be of a good quality. Crockery is desirable for
some bowls, jars, and serving dishes. Spoons and serving forks should be
of Nevada silver, and knives of the best steel with well-made wooden
handles.
The cost of this part of the equipment and the number of articles
purchased must of course depend on the funds available. The following
list is intended to give what is really desirable in a specially
equipped room, at prices which are a fair average.
EQUIPMENT
FOR TWENTY-FOUR PUPILS
I. CLASS TABLE
1. UTENSIL DRAWER:
24 plates, enamel, 9 inch $0.70
14 " white crockery, 7 inch .80
24 bowls white crockery, 7 inch 3.60
24 " " " 5 1/2 inch 1.20
24 enamel bowls, 6 inch 2.40
24 popover cups 1.80
24 bakers, crockery (oval) 1.20
24 platters, " (small) 1.50
24 sieves (wire bowl) 1.30
24 spoons, wooden 1.92
24 spatulas, wire handle 7.20
24 knives, paring 2.00
24 forks, Nevada silver 2.50
24 spoons, table, Nevada silver 2.50
48 spoons, tea, " " 1.20
24 cups, measuring, tin 2.40
2. SUPPLY DRAWER:
12 boxes (for flour), tin 10.00
12 " (for sugar), " 7.50
12 cheese jars (for salt) .68
24 shakers, glass 2.40
24 bread tins 4.32
24 biscuit cutters .72
13 safety match-box holders 1.62
3. SUPPLY CUPBOARD:
12 double boilers 5.76
24 stew pans, tin cover, wooden knob 4.56
24 frying-pans 1.20
24 saucepans 2.16
12 knife-boards 1.80
12 meat boards 3.00
6 scrub basins 1.50
12 dish pans 6.00
12 rinsing pans 3.00
12 draining pans 3.00
6 tea-kettles 3.00
12 scrub-brushes 2.00
12 vegetable brushes .30
12 soap dishes .75
12 garbage crocks .96
24 asbestos mats 1.10
II. SINK AND WALLS
1 garbage pail, galvanized iron 1.00
1 waste-paper basket, willow (large) .75
1 soap dish .11
1 brush, hand .03
1 brush, scrub .17
2 basins, hand, enamel .40
2 basins, scrub, enamel .50
1 dish pan .70
1 crock for washing soda .30
2 towel racks 1.50
1 clock 5.50
12 tablets for housekeeping rules .70
III. GENERAL CUPBOARD EQUIPMENT
2 kettles, granite 1.50
1 tea-kettle, granite .85
1 saucepan .28
1 saucepan .35
5 covers, tin .25
1 pie pan .10
1 coffee-pot .32
6 saucepans, 1 qt. size, white enamel 1.08
1 double boiler .59
6 covers, tin .30
1 soup ladle, enamel .09
2 pudding dishes, white enamel .40
12 strainers and mashers 1.80
1 kneading pan .85
3 steamers .67
10 graters 1.00
2 vegetable baskets .30
6 potato mashers .48
4 muffin pans .60
24 patty-pans .20
12 Dover egg beaters 1.20
1 spice box .50
1 japanned tray .25
24 wire toasters 2.40
1 egg spade .15
1 scale 3.10
1 freezer 3.00
1 cast-iron frying-pan .40
1 dripping pan .25
2 roasting pans .60
1 quart measure, granite .60
1 pint measure, " .45
1 funnel, tin .05
4 baking sheets 7" × 17" .92
6 " " 10" × 10" 1.08
24 cups and saucers 1.30
24 tumblers 1.50
6 platters .36
6 plates .34
6 pitchers, 1 1/2 pt. 1.00
3 brown bowls, 2 qt. .75
2 brown bowls .25
nest of mixing bowls 1.00
6 glass measuring cups .60
6 glass lemon reamers .60
6 tea-pots (pint) 1.50
1 covered crock .25
1 doz. 1 qt. fruit jars .65
1 " 2 qt. " " .75
1 " 1 pt. " " .55
1 meat chopper 3.10
1 bread knife .25
1 bread board .25
2 knives, French .85
2 spoons, granite .21
1 fork, large wooden handle .15
2 can openers .20
1 corkscrew .25
1 bunch skewers .15
1 brush, pastry .05
1 knife sharpener .25
3 graters, nutmeg .09
1 box toothpicks .05
1 pad tissue paper .05
3 scissors 1.25
1 doz. jelly glasses .35
1 cream and sugar .30
24 rolling-pins 3.00
1 butter spade .15
1 file and catch .65
3 doz. test-tubes .90
1 " thermometers (Dairy) 2.50
2 lamp chimneys .30
1 bell .40
IV. KITCHEN LINEN
36 yards towelling (3 doz. dish towels) 5.40
16 " " (4 doz. wash cloths) 2.40
13 " check towelling (3 doz. dish cloths) 1.60
6 " towelling .75
6 " " (6 meat cloths) .60
1 1/2 " flannelette (oven cloths) .23
12 " cheesecloth .60
1 3/8 " denim (stove apron) .27
2 " flannelette (for polishing silver) .20
chamois .25
V. CLEANING CUPBOARD
1 stove apron .27
1 stove brush .25
1 dauber .10
3 whisk brooms .45
1 dust-pan .20
1 pair stove mitts .30
1 broom .45
VI. LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT
14 pony wash-boards 1.75
6 doz. clothes-pins .10
1 clothes-line .25
VII. DINING-ROOM EQUIPMENT
1. China and Glass:
1 flower vase .25
1 dinner set, Limoges china 15.50
1 doz. water glasses .80
1 glass fruit set 1.50
2. Silver and Steel:
2 doz. teaspoons 4.20
1 " dessert spoons 4.00
1/2 " tablespoons 1.15
1 " dessert knives 4.50
1 " dessert forks 4.50
1 " dinner knives 4.50
1 " dinner forks 4.50
1 carving set 2.00
1 butter pick .20
3. Linen, etc.:
1 silence cloth 1.50
1 4 yd. table-cloth 5.40
1 doz. napkins 2.75
1 centre-piece .40
2 doylies .50
2 tray cloths 1.00
VIII. MISCELLANEOUS
1 "First Aid" cabinet 10.00
1 fire blanket 2.00
EQUIPMENT FOR ORDINARY CLASS-ROOMS
In some schools it is impossible to set aside a special room for
Household Management work, and the ordinary class-room is all that is
available. In such cases the equipment must be a movable one, and gas
stoves and plumbing are impossible. Table tops may be placed on
trestles or laid across the ordinary desks, and oil or alcohol lamps
must be used. These and the necessary utensils may be kept in a cupboard
in the room.
With certain restrictions, the Department of Education assists in
equipping special rooms in villages and rural districts and also in
maintaining instruction in this subject.
[Illustration: Modified equipment for rural schools]
The classes in these schools are usually smaller, so that an outfit
suitable for individual work with a class of twelve will generally
suffice. The following, suggested by the Macdonald Institute, Guelph, is
a good basis and may be modified as desired:
12 bowls, brown $0.85
12 bread tins .95
12 tea cups and saucers 1.25
12 tin measuring cups 1.25
12 egg beaters .30
12 forks .40
12 case knives 1.25
12 paring knives 1.25
12 plates .85
12 saucepans 1.68
12 tablespoons .50
24 teaspoons .40
12 wooden spoons .60
12 stew pans 2.40
12 strainers .65
2 trays .80
1 bowl, yellow .25
1 " " .35
1 " " .45
3 scissors 1.50
5 trestle tables 20.55
6 frying-pans .90
3 tea strainers .15
3 match-box stands .24
1 emery knife .20
3 soap dishes .25
12 pepper shakers 1.50
12 salt shakers 1.50
1 bell .50
4 lemon reamers .40
6 stoves, kerosene 6.00
12 plates, dinner 1.25
6 plates, soup .60
4 jugs .60
1 jug .45
1 butcher knife .30
1 French knife .60
2 spatulas .80
6 teaspoons .10
3 tablespoons .13
4 brushes .20
2 stove mitts .50
4 asbestos mats .20
1 corkscrew .25
4 egg beaters .60
4 wash basins .92
3 draining pans .69
4 dish pans 2.00
6 broilers .48
3 cake tins .35
4 graters .40
3 strainers .75
24 patty pans .20
2 tin dippers .40
2 fibre pails .70
1 colander .35
1 pail, enamel .70
1 pan, enamel .18
3 tea-kettles 2.70
1 saucepan .30
1 saucepan .25
1 saucepan .23
1 saucepan .30
1 double boiler .85
1 kettle, covered .60
[A]1 stove to burn coal or wood 30.00
--------
Total $100.05
FOOTNOTE:
[A] The above may be replaced by a twenty-dollar wood stove or a
ten-dollar, two burner, coal-oil stove.
PACKING-BOX EQUIPMENT
When even the expense of the modified equipment is too great, the
ingenuity of the teacher and the pupils may be used to provide a
"packing-box" equipment suitable for six pupils. The outlay for this
will vary according to what is provided, but it can in no case be
large. The following equipment used by the Department of Domestic
Science, Teachers' College, Columbia University, will be suggestive:
[Illustration: Packing-box equipment]
FOR CLASS
3 bread boards $0.15
1 rolling-pin .05
3 baking-powder can tops, for cookie cutters ..
1 flour sifter .10
1 large frying-pan .25
1 double boiler .50
1 quart kettle .25
1 tea-kettle .50
1 broiler .20
1 garbage can .25
2 pitchers .25
2 apple corers .10
1 chopping knife .10
1 chopping bowl .05
6 muffin tins .12
2 layer-cake tins .10
3 dish pans .45
3 rinsing pans .30
1 strainer .05
6 china plates .30
3 mixing bowls .30
6 sauce dishes .15
6 cups and saucers .30
1 coffee-pot .25
1 tea-pot .10
3 bread pans .15
6 quart jars .30
3 wooden pails with covers .30
6 dish towels .48
3 dish cloths .15
3 hand towels .15
1 broom .30
1 dust-pan .08
1 scrubbing-brush .10
1 scrubbing pail .20
1 Dover egg beater .09
1 pepper shaker .05
1 salt shaker .05
1 baking dish .10
1 bread knife .25
1 corkscrew .10
-----
Total $8.02
1 packing-box table 1.00
1 packing-box cupboard .50
Large blue-flame oil stove $10.00
INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT FOR SIX PUPILS
1 white bowl, 1 qt. $0.07
1 measuring cup .05
1 granite plate .10
1 saucepan .05
1 tin cover .05
1 steel fork .10
1 steel knife .10
1 tablespoon .03
2 teaspoons .05
-----
Total .60
1 oil stove .75
1 asbestos mat .05
CHAPTER II
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS MANAGEMENT
TEACHERS' PREPARATION
In no subject is careful planning of the details of the lesson more
important than in Household Management. The definite length of the
period allowed in the school programme for this work makes economy of
time absolutely necessary. The cooking processes cannot be hurried, and
unless there is in the teacher's mind a well-arranged plan for the use
of the time, a part of the lesson is apt to be hastily and carelessly
done. Then, too, in the limited space of one room, a number of people
cannot work without confusion unless there is system.
The pupils enjoy a well-regulated lesson and their co-operation is
gained, while, through the poor results of a lesson indifferently
planned, they lose self-confidence and the sense of responsibility.
NUMBER IN THE CLASS
As a Household Management class is one that calls for individual
supervision, the number should not exceed twenty-four, and a smaller
class ensures more thorough supervision on the part of the teacher.
Neatness, thoroughness, and accuracy are important factors in the work
of each lesson, and the number of pupils should not be so large that a
lack of these will pass unnoticed.
UNIFORMS, ETC.
The uniform consists of a large, plain, white apron with a bib large
enough to protect the dress, a pair of sleevelets, a holder, a small
towel for personal use, and a white muslin cap to confine the hair.
(See Frontispiece.) Each pupil will also require a note-book and pencil
for class, and a note-book to be used at home for re-copying the class
work in ink. These books should be neatly written and kept for
reference, and should be regularly examined and marked by the teacher
for correction by the pupils.
The pupils should be encouraged to be clean and neat in appearance. They
should be expected to have tidy hair, clean hands and nails, and neat
uniforms. It is a good plan for each pupil to have two sets of uniforms,
so that when one is in the wash the other will be ready to use. It may
be wise to make a rule that the pupils without uniforms will not be
allowed to work, but such a rule must be judiciously enforced, as in
some cases it might result in much loss of time. There should be lockers
or other proper provision provided at the school for keeping each
uniform separately. Pasteboard boxes may be used for this purpose, when
no such provision is made.
DISCIPLINE
The pupils should be trained to enter and leave the room in the same
order as in their other classes. Each pupil should have a definite
working place and should not be allowed to "visit" others during the
class.
While at work, it is wise to allow the pupils as much freedom in talking
and movement as possible, so as to portray the home life. They should be
taught, however, that when their conduct interferes with the order of
the room or the comforts and rights of others, they must suppress their
inclinations. During the time of teaching there must be perfect quiet
and attention. Marks are sometimes given to secure punctuality and good
work, but the best way to have both is to try to make each member of
the class interested and happy in her work.
DIVISION OF THE PERIODS
The time given to a practical lesson is usually one and a half hours.
This must include both the theoretical and the practical work. In
dividing the period, it is difficult to say how much time should be
given to each of these, but, broadly speaking, the theoretical part may
occupy one third of the time. The time for dish washing and cleaning
will be included in the time allowance for practical work. These duties
should require less time as the class advances in the work.
Notes should be copied at the most convenient time, usually while the
food is cooking. Sitting to write notes will afford an opportunity for
resting after any practical work. If printed cards are used, much of the
note-taking is obviated. A sample card is given below.
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
JUNIOR FOURTH CARD
VEGETABLE WATER SAUCE
1 c. veg. water
2 tbsp. flour
pepper
2 tbsp. butter
1/4 tsp. salt
1. Put the vegetable water over a gentle heat.
2. Mix the flour with a little cold water until smooth and thick as
cream.
3. When the vegetable water is steaming hot, gradually stir the flour
paste into it and keep stirring until it thickens and boils.
4. Add the butter, salt, and pepper.
5. Pour the sauce over the hot vegetable.
ASSIGNMENT OF WORK
For practical work there are two plans in general use--individual and
group work. In individual work, each pupil performs all the processes,
handling small quantities of material. In group work, the pupils work in
groups on one dish, each sharing the duties.
By the first method, the pupil has no chance to deal with quantities
large enough for family purposes, and the small amount does not give
adequate practice in manipulation, though it does give individual
responsibility in every detail. By the second method, normal quantities
are used, but a pupil never has entire responsibility throughout the
processes.
The cost of supplies is often accountable for group work, but lack of
utensils or oven room may make it a necessity. In some lessons,
individual work with normal quantities may be obtained by allowing the
pupils to bring the main ingredients from home; for example, fruit for a
canning lesson. The finished product is then the property of the pupil
who has made it.
The cleaning which always follows the use of the equipment is preferably
done in groups. For instance, if there are groups of fours, number one
can, during a lesson, wash all dishes used by the four, number two can
wipe the dishes, number three can clean the table used by the group, and
number four can clean the sink. During the next lesson number two is
dish washer, and number three dish wiper, and so on, until, in four
lessons, each pupil has had practice in four kinds of household work and
has also been given an idea of the inter-dependence of family life and
interests. The same numbers should be kept during the term, as this
affords an easy way of definitely designating the pupils for certain
duties.
SUPPLIES
The supplies for a lesson may be put on a centre table, or smaller
amounts may be placed on the working tables in front of the groups. If
the class is large, the latter plan is better, especially where
measurements are necessary, as it saves time and confusion. Standard
food supplies, such as salt, pepper, sugar, and flour may be kept in a
drawer of the work-table of each pupil. (See page 15.)
Every member of the class should be familiar with the contents of the
class pantry, cupboards, and drawers, so that she can get or put away
utensils and materials without the help of the teacher.
If breakages occur through carelessness, the utensils should be replaced
at the expense of the offender. This is not only a deserved punishment,
but it always ensures a full equipment.
PRACTICE WORK AT HOME
As a lesson in Household Management comes but once a week, much is
gained by having the work reviewed by practice at home. To encourage
this, in some schools a "practice sheet" is posted, on which the work
done by each pupil, between lessons, is recorded. There is a danger of
the younger pupils attempting work that is too difficult, which will end
in poor results and discouragement. To avoid this, with pupils in the
Third Form, it may be wise to limit their practice in cookery to a
review of the work done in class.
The home practice work may be taken at the beginning of a lesson or
during the time the food is cooking. It may be quickly ascertained by
the pupils rising in order and stating simply the name of the duty they
have done or the dish they have made unless they have had poor results,
when the nature of these should be told. If there have been failures,
the pupils should, if possible, give reasons for these and suggest means
of avoiding them in future.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS
1. The teacher should endeavour to plan lessons which will be definitely
related to the home lives of the pupils. What is useful for one class
may not be useful for another. The connection between the lessons and
the home should be very real. It is also important to have a sequence in
the lessons.
2. Great care should be exercised in criticising any of the home methods
that are suggested by the pupils. A girl's faith in her mother should
not be lessened.
3. The work should be taken up in a very simple manner; scientific
presentation should be left for the high school.
4. Economy should be emphasized in all home duties; time, labour, and
money should be used to give the best possible returns. Wholesome
substitutes for expensive foods and attractive preparation and serving
of left-over foods should be encouraged.
5. Too much vigilance cannot be exercised during the first year of
practical work, when habits are being formed. It is much easier to form
habits than to break away from them.
6. While nothing less than the best work should be accepted from the
pupils, it requires much discernment to know when fault should be found,
in order to avoid saying or doing anything that would discourage them.
7. As Household Management is a manual subject, the teacher is advised,
as far as possible, not to spend time in talking about the work, but to
have the class spend their time in doing the work.
SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOLS WITH LIMITED, OR NO EQUIPMENT
In schools where the ordinary class-room must be used for all subjects,
there are unusual difficulties in teaching Household Management. For
such schools, two modified equipments are outlined.
Since such class-rooms require special arrangement for practical lessons
in this subject, it would be well to take this work in the afternoon, so
that part of the noon hour may be taken for preparation. Pupils who have
earned the right to responsibility may be appointed in turn to assist in
this duty.
In rural schools, the afternoon recess might be taken from 2.15 to 2.30
and, during this time, tables, stoves, and supplies may be placed, so as
to be ready for the lesson to follow in the remaining hour and a half.
For pupils who are not in the Household Management class, definite work
should be planned. They may occupy themselves with manual training,
sewing, art work, map-drawing, composition, etc. In summer, school
gardening may be done.
Since the end of the week, in many schools, is chosen for a break in the
usual routine, Friday afternoon seems a suitable time for Household
Management lessons.
Under such limited conditions, it will be necessary to group the larger
pupils into one class for practical work, and it may be necessary for
the pupils to take turns in working. In some cases, the teacher must
demonstrate what the class may practise at home.
It will be impossible, in such schools, to cover the prescribed work.
From the topics suggested in the Course of Study each teacher may
arrange a programme by selecting what is most useful to the pupils and
what is possible in the school.
Even in schools which have no equipment, much of the theory of Household
Management can be taught and some experiments may be performed. On
Friday afternoons a regular period may be devoted to this subject, when
the ingenious teacher will find ways and means of teaching many useful
lessons.
* * * * *
The following will be suggestive as suitable for lessons under such
conditions:
1. Any of the lessons prescribed in the Course of Study for Form III,
Junior.
2. Measuring.--Table of measures used in cookery, methods of measuring,
equivalent measures and weights of standard foods.
3. Cleaning.--Principles, methods, agents.
4. Water.--Uses in the home, appearance under heat, highest temperature,
ways of using cooking water.
5. Cooking.--Reasons for cooking, kinds of heat used, common methods of
conducting heat to food, comparison of methods of cooking as to time
required and effect of heat on food.
NOTE.--An alcohol stove, saucepan, and
thermometer are necessary for this lesson.
6. The kitchen fire.--Experiments to show necessities of a fire,
construction of a practical cooking stove.
7. Food.--Uses, kinds, common sources.
8. Preservation of food.--Cause of decay, methods of preservation,
application of methods to well-known foods.
9. Yeast.--Description, necessary conditions, sources, use.
NOTE.--A few test-tubes and a saucepan are necessary for this lesson.
10. The table.--Laying a table, serving at table, table manners.
11. Care of a bed-room.--Making the bed, ventilating, sweeping, and
dusting the room.
12. Sanitation.--Necessity for sanitation, household methods.
13. Laundry work.--Necessary materials, processes.
14. Home-nursing.--The ideal sick-room, care of the patient's bed, and
diet.
CHAPTER III
FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE
The pupils of Form III, Junior, are generally too small to use the
tables and stoves provided for the other classes and too young to be
intrusted with fires, hot water, etc.; but they may be taught the
simpler facts of Household Management by the special teacher of the
subject, or by the regular teacher in correlation with the other
subjects. In either case a special room is not necessary.
If the latter plan be adopted, the following correlations are suggested:
CORRELATIONS
Arithmetic.--1. Bills of household supplies, such as furniture, fuel,
meat, groceries, bed and table linen, material for clothing. This will
teach the current prices as well as the usual quantities purchased.
2. Making out the daily, weekly, or monthly supply and cost of any one
item of food, being given the number in the family and the amount used
by each per day.
_Example_: One loaf costs 6c. and cuts into 18 slices. Find the cost of
bread for two days for a family of six, if each person uses 1 1/2 slices
at one meal.
3. Making out the total weekly or monthly expenses of a household, given
the items of meat, groceries, fuel, gas, etc. This brings up the
question of the cost of living.
4. Making out the total cost of a cake, a loaf of bread, a jar of fruit,
or a number of sandwiches, given the cost of the main materials and
fuel used. Compare the home cost with the cost at a store. This may be
used to teach economy.
* * * * *
Geography.--1. The sources of our water supply.
2. The geographical sources of our ordinary household materials, their
shipping centres, the routes by which they reach us, and the means of
transportation.
_Examples_: Fuels, common minerals used in building and furnishing;
timber for floors and furniture; manufactured goods, such as cotton,
linen, carpets, china; domestic and foreign fruits; common groceries,
such as salt, sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, spices, rice, cereals, and
flour.
3. The preparation of our common household commodities.
_Examples_: Cotton, linen, china, paper, sugar, tea, coffee, cereals,
flour.
4. The household products that are exported.
* * * * *
Nature Study.--1. The parts of plants used as food.
2. The natural sources of our common foods, such as cornstarch, flour,
breakfast cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, salt, cheese, butter.
3. The sources of common household substances, such as coal-oil,
gasolene, paraffin, turpentine, washing soda, whiting, bathbrick, soap.
4. The forms of water, as ice, steam.
5. The composition and impurities of the air.
6. The ordinary woods used in house building and furnishing.
Hygiene.--The necessity for the following:
1. Fresh air in the home at all times--in living rooms and sleeping
rooms
2. Good food and plenty of sleep
3. Cleanliness of the body
4. Cleanliness in preparing food
5. Cleanliness in the home and surroundings.
* * * * *
Physical Training.--1. The value of exercise gained by performing
household duties.
2. The importance of correct positions in performing home duties, such
as dish washing, sewing, etc.
3. The value of conveniences to save steps.
* * * * *
Composition.--Topics selected from household materials and activities.
_Examples_: Food materials, cleansing agents, planning a convenient
kitchen or bath-room, sweeping day, baking day, arrangement of a kitchen
cupboard or clothes closet, etc.
* * * * *
Spelling.--Names of household articles and duties as follows:
Furniture of a special room, such as kitchen or sitting-room, kitchen
utensils, contents of a kitchen cupboard, dishes and food used at a
particular meal, etc.
Manual Training.--Construction of household furnishings and utensils for
a doll's house from raffia, paper, and plasticine.
Art.--Designing and colouring carpets, curtains, wall-papers, book
covers, dishes, tiles, ribbons, and dress materials.
Sewing.--Making the uniform for Household Management work.
If the Household Management teacher takes the work with this class, she
should follow the outline of work given in the Course of Study. This
outline will make the pupils familiar with the common household
materials as to their sources, preparation, and cost, and when, in the
next class, they deal with these materials, they will do so with more
interest and intelligence. It will also draw attention to the importance
of economy in time and energy. The convenience of a kitchen and the use
of proper utensils to facilitate labour will impress this fact.
The lessons should be taught simply as information lessons and should be
of the same length as the other studies--from thirty to forty minutes.
If the usual hour and a half period be set aside for this class, the
remainder of the time may be devoted to sewing.
CHAPTER IV
FORM III: SENIOR GRADE
LESSON I
SCOPE OF HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT
In introducing the practical side of Household Management to a class, it
is an advantage to let them have a general idea of what the subject
includes. They will then work with more intelligence and usually with
more interest. Then, too, the prevalent idea that the subject means only
cooking will be corrected from the first.
Throughout the introduction, the teacher should not forget that she is
dealing with immature minds and that the ideas must be very simply
expressed. She might ask what the pupils expect to learn in this class,
have them name other subjects they study in school, and in each case
lead up to the _one_ thing of which a particular subject treats; for
example, arithmetic treats of _numbers_; geography, of the _world_;
history, of _past events_. She should lead the class to see that the one
thing of which Household Management treats is the _home_; and that the
two great requirements for a home are the _house_, and the people who
live in it, or the _occupants_.
To get the details relating to each of these two divisions, let the
pupils imagine they are boarding in some locality where they decide to
make a home for themselves. The first thing to be done is to choose a
building lot. Then they must decide upon the kind of house they want and
the plan of the house. After the house is built, it must be furnished.
When the house is ready, it must be cleaned and kept clean. As soon as
the family move in, new considerations arise--they must have food, which
must be bought, prepared, and served; each member of the family must be
clothed and educated; they must receive proper care when sick. Only a
few minutes should be spent on this introductory talk.
While the class is naturally led to think of and name these details,
they should be written on the black-board in the order of development,
somewhat as follows:
1. Household Management teaches us about the _home_.
2. A home includes two main ideas:
(1) A house, (2) a family.
3. In connection with a _house_ we must consider:
(1) The lot, (2) the plan, (3) the furnishing,
(4) the cleaning.
4. In connection with a _family_ we must consider:
(1) Food (buying, cooking, serving), (2)
clothing (buying, sewing, mending), (3)
education, (4) home nursing.
Tell the pupils that a housekeeper should be informed on all of these
points, but little girls can expect to study only a few of them, such as
questions of food, clothing, and cleaning.
SURVEY OF EQUIPMENT, UNIFORM, ETC.
Equipment.--Most of the time of the first lesson should be used in
making the pupils acquainted with their surroundings and individual
necessities, so that they will be ready for work the next day.
Give each member of the class a definite working place, and let her
examine the contents of the cupboard and drawers which belong to her
place. Explain that the particular places which the pupils are given
will be kept throughout the year, and that, while they have the
privilege of using and enjoying them, they are responsible for their
cleanliness and order.
Point out the remainder of the equipment--hot and cold water-taps, towel
racks, class cupboard with its contents, refrigerator, large and
individual stoves.
Teach each pupil how to light her stove and regulate its heat.
Uniforms, etc.--Tell the pupils that you have shown them what has been
provided for them, but you want them also to provide some things for
themselves. It will be necessary for them to bring a large, plain, white
apron, having a bib large enough to protect the dress; a pair of
sleevelets; a holder; a small towel for personal use; and a white muslin
cap to confine the hair while working. They will also need a note-book
and pencil for class, and a note-book to be used at home for re-copying
the class work in ink. The latter book is to be very neatly written and
kept for reference after it has been examined by the teacher.
LESSON II
USE OF EQUIPMENT
The little girls who make up the classes are not so far removed from
their "playhouse" days that a survey of the dishes, stoves, and tables
will not give them an eager desire to begin using them. This desire
should be gratified, but as the use always necessitates the cleaning as
well, it may be advisable at first to make use of the equipment only for
the purpose of showing proper methods of cleaning.
A short lesson on cleaning may be given in a few minutes, and the rest
of the period spent in putting it into practice. The teacher may proceed
somewhat as follows in the development of a lesson on cleaning:
DEVELOPMENT OF A LESSON ON CLEANING
MEANING OF CLEANING
Take two dishes--plates or saucers--exactly alike. Have one clean and
the other soiled with butter or some well-known substance. Ask the class
the difference between them. One is clean and one dirty. What substance
is on one that hinders your saying it is clean? Butter. What else could
be on it? Jam. What else? Dust. What else? Gravy. Now instead of telling
the name of the particular substance in each case, let us try to find
one name that will apply to all of the substances which, as you say,
make the dish dirty. Let us give these substances a name which will show
that they do not belong to the plate. We may call each of them a foreign
substance. And if I take the substance off the plate what am I doing to
the plate? Cleaning it. Then what is cleaning? Cleaning is removing a
foreign substance.
METHODS OF CLEANING
1. _Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance:_
What would you use to remove the butter from the plate? A piece of paper
or a knife. What are you doing with the knife or paper? Scraping or
rubbing off the foreign substance. Then how was it removed? It was
removed by scraping or rubbing.
Suppose some one has sharpened a pencil and let the pieces fall on the
floor, what would you take to remove the foreign substance from the
floor? A broom. What would you say you are doing with the broom?
Sweeping. How does the movement of the broom over the floor compare with
the movement of the knife over the plate? It is similar. What would you
take to remove the dust from the window-sill? A duster. What would you
say you are doing? Dusting. How does the movement of the duster compare
with the movement of the knife and the broom? It is similar. In all of
these cases of dish, floor, and sill, how did we remove the foreign
substance? We scraped or rubbed it off. Name one way of removing a
foreign substance. Scraping or rubbing it away.
2. _Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping it away:_
Show a much soiled towel and ask what is usually done to clean it. It is
washed. Ask the pupils to tell just what they mean by that. The towel is
put in water and soap used on it. What effect will the soap and water
have on the foreign substance? They will soften or dissolve it. Then
what must be done next? The towel must be rubbed on a board or with the
hands. What effect has this operation on the foreign substance? It
scrapes or rubs the foreign substance away. Then we have another way of
cleaning: By first dissolving the foreign substance, and then scraping
or rubbing it away.
A number of well-known cleaning operations may then be given, and the
pupils asked in each case to decide the method used--such as, whisking a
coat, scrubbing a table, cleaning the teeth, or washing dishes.
COMMON HOUSEHOLD CLEANSING AGENTS
Next, get lists of the common cleansing agents found in an ordinary
home, and arrange them in order of coarseness.
BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE
The black-board scheme, as the lesson develops, will appear as follows:
1. _Meaning of Cleaning:_
Cleaning is removing any foreign substance.
2. _Methods of Cleaning:_
(1) Scraping or rubbing away the foreign
substance.
(2) Dissolving the foreign substance and then
scraping or rubbing it away.
3. _Household cleansing agents used in the first method:_
(1) Duster
(2) Brush
(3) Broom
(4) Washboard
(5) Knife
(6) Whiting
(7) Bathbrick
(8) Coarse salt
(9) Sand
(10) Ashes.
4. _Household cleansing agents used in the second method:_
(1) Water
(2) Hot water
(3) Soap
(4) Lux
(5) Ammonia
(6) Borax
(7) Washing soda
(8) Coal-oil
(9) Gasolene
(10) Acids
(11) Lye.
5. _Combination cleansing agents:_
(1) Bon Ami,
(2) Dutch Cleanser,
(3) Sapolio.
When the class have these ideas, they are ready to put them into
practice, and the remainder of the lesson should be spent in practical
work.
If the pupils have soiled no dishes, it may be wise to drill them first
in table washing or towel washing, so as to get them ready for the next
lesson when tables and towels will be used.
LESSONS III, IV, ETC.
Gradually, in connection with the making of simple dishes, the pupils
should be taught special methods of dish washing, sink cleaning, and
dusting. Each day as they are appointed to different duties in cleaning,
these methods should be strictly followed until they become well known.
While they are still new to the class, it will be a great help to have
outlines of the kinds of cleaning which are necessary in every lesson
posted conveniently in different parts of the room for reference.
These outlines may be as follows:
DISH WASHING
Preparation for washing:
1. Put away the food.
2. Scrape and pile the dishes.
3. Put the dishes that need it to soak.
4. Place soap, pans, brushes, and towels.
5. Put water in the pans.
(1) Fill the dish pan about half full of warm
water, then soap it.
(2) Fill the rinsing pan nearly full of hot
water.
Order of washing:
1. Glass
2. Silver
3. China
4. Crockery
5. Granite ware
6. Tins
7. Pots
8. Steel knives and forks.
Finishing after washing:
1. Soap a dish cloth and wash the sides and bottom of the dish pan,
before emptying it.
2. Empty the dish pan, rinse at the sink, and half fill with clear, warm
water, to rinse the towels.
3. Wash the towels in the rinsing pan, rinse them in the dish pan, shake
them straight, fold, and hang.
4. Soap the dish cloth, wash the inside of the rinsing pan, empty,
rinse, and wipe with the dish cloth.
5. Wash and wipe the soap dish.
6. Empty the dish pan and wipe with the dish cloth.
7. Pile the pans, place the brushes and soap, and set away.
8. Fold the dish cloth and hang it to dry.
TABLE CLEANING (CLASS WORK)
1. If necessary, scrape or brush off the table stoves.
2. Get a scrub cloth, a wash-basin of warm water, and a scrub-brush.
3. Wash the part of the table used by your group, doing the part not
occupied by the dish washing first; then get the dish washers to move
along, so that you can finish it, proceeding as follows:
(1) Wet the table all over.
(2) Rub the soap cake over it.
(3) Scrub with the wet brush with the grain of
the wood.
(4) Rinse the soap off with the clear water.
(5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
4. Get clear water. Rinse the brush and put it away. Rinse the scrub
cloth and wring it dry.
5. Take the basin and cloth to the sink. Empty, rinse the basin, and dry
it with the cloth. Rinse the cloth under the tap and wring it dry.
6. Fold and hang the cloth to dry. Bring back a dry cloth and thoroughly
dry the aluminium strip.
7. Put away the dry cloth and basin.
SINK CLEANING
1. Let the other housekeepers get the water they need.
2. Get a sink pan, a scrub cloth, and a brush. Put warm water in the
pan.
3. Scrub the drain board if there be one, as follows:
(1) Wet the board all over.
(2) Rub the soap cake over it.
(3) Scrub with a wet brush with the grain of
wood.
(4) Rinse the soap off with clear water.
(5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
4. Wash the nickel part of the sink (tap and stand) with soap. Wipe with
the cloth wrung dry.
5. Wash the outside of the basin of the sink.
6. When the other housekeepers have emptied their water, wash the inside
of the sink basin and wipe with the cloth wrung dry.
7. Wash the scrub cloth and pan, rinse the brush, and put all away.
8. Polish the nickel with a dry duster.
DUSTING
1. Get a cheesecloth duster.
2. Dust the chairs and put them in place.
3. Dust the table legs and drawer handles.
4. Dust the cupboard and refrigerator.
5. Dust the wood-work, window-sills, ledges, etc.
6. Wash the duster and hang it up to dry.
MEASURES AND RECIPES
Another preliminary part of the work will be teaching the pupils to
measure and follow a recipe.
MEASURES
The measures used in kitchen work are teaspoon, tablespoon, pint, quart,
and gallon, of which a table should be developed as follows:
3 teaspoonfuls (tsp.) 1 tablespoonful (tbsp.)
16 tbsp. 1 cup
2 cups 1 pint (pt.)
2 pt. 1 quart (qt.)
4 qt. 1 gallon (gal.)
In connection with this table the following points should be brought
out:
1. That all measurements are made level.
2. That in measuring liquids, the measure should be set on a level
surface.
3. That to halve the contents of a spoon, the division should be made
lengthwise.
4. That to quarter the contents of a spoon, the half should be divided
crosswise.
5. That in measuring flour, it should not be shaken down to level it.
6. That in using one measure for both dry and liquid ingredients, the
dry should be measured first.
7. That in measuring a cupful of dry ingredients, the cup should be
filled by using a spoon or scoop.
[Illustration: (_a_) Dividing the contents of a spoon]
[Illustration: (_b_) Dividing a spoonful in halves]
[Illustration: (_c_) Filling a cup]
[Illustration: (_d_) Levelling a cupful]
TABLE OF EQUIVALENT MEASURES AND WEIGHTS
A table of equivalent measures and weights of some staple foods will
also be useful and may be given to the class:
2 cups butter (packed solidly) 1 pound
2 c. granulated sugar 1 "
2 c. rice (about) 1 "
2 c. finely chopped meat 1 "
2 2/3 c. brown sugar 1 "
2 2/3 c. powdered sugar 1 "
2 2/3 c. oatmeal 1 "
2 2/3 c. cornmeal 1 "
4 c. white flour 1 "
PLAN OF LESSON ON MEASURING
TIME LIMIT
One and one-half hours to be divided approximately as follows--one-half
hour for teaching the theory, one-half hour for the practical
application of the theory, and one-half hour for housekeeping (washing
of dishes, tables, sinks, etc., and putting the kitchen in order).
PREPARATION
1. Place a set of measures at hand.
2. Place a large bowl of flour on the teacher's table.
3. Place flour and sugar in the boxes of the supply drawers.
4. Place cans of cocoa and jugs of milk on the centre table.
DEVELOPMENT
1. Introduction.--What do we take for a guide when cooking? How can we
be sure that we use the exact quantities the recipes require? Name some
measures that you have learned in arithmetic. In this lesson we are
going to learn the measures we require in cooking, also the proper ways
of using them.
2. Names of measures.--Show and name the measures, beginning at the
smallest: teaspoon, tablespoon, cup, pint, quart, gallon. As the
measures are named, place them on the table in order of size.
3. Methods of using measures.--Ask two or three pupils, in turn, to
measure a teaspoonful of flour from the bowl on the teacher's table.
They will not agree in their measurements, and the necessity for
levelling will be shown. What can we use for levelling measures? How can
we level liquids?
If we need less than a spoonful, how can we measure it? Which part of
the spoon is deeper? How shall we divide the spoonful to make both
halves equal? How must we divide a spoonful into quarters? Into eighths?
Examine and explain the divisions of the cup. To use one measure for
both liquid and dry ingredients, which should be measured first? (As
these points are obtained, they should be written on the black-board.)
4. Table of measures.--In the tables of measures which you have learned,
you state the number of times one measure is contained in the next
higher. We shall form a table of the measures learned to-day. By
measuring flour from their boxes, let each pupil find how many
teaspoonfuls fill a tablespoon. How many tablespoonfuls fill a cup, a
half cup, a quarter of a cup. They will state the remainder of the table
from memory. Write the table on the black-board and teach the
abbreviations.
NOTE.--After the lesson on measuring is
developed, the class should be given individual
work which will put these ideas into practice.
A simple recipe may be dictated by the teacher,
step by step. Cocoa makes a good recipe for
this lesson, as it affords practice in
measuring liquids as well as dry ingredients,
both powdered and granular. If each girl makes
half a cupful of cocoa, it will give practice
in dividing the contents of a spoon.
PRACTICAL WORK TO APPLY MEASURING
Have each pupil make half a cupful of cocoa by carrying out each step as
it is dictated by the teacher, as follows:
1. Numbers one put two cups of water in the tea kettle; numbers two
light a fire and put the water to boil; numbers three get cocoa from the
centre table; numbers four get milk.
2. Set out sugar boxes and open them.
3. Each take a small saucepan, a measuring cup, a teaspoon, a
paring-knife, and a small cup.
4. Measure half a teaspoonful of sugar into the saucepan.
5. Measure half a teaspoonful of cocoa into the saucepan.
6. Mix the sugar and cocoa by shaking the saucepan.
7. Measure half of a third of a cupful of boiling water and stir it into
the sugar and cocoa.
8. Set the mixture over a gentle fire and stir until it bubbles. Cook
for three minutes.
9. Measure half of a third of a cupful of milk.
10. Stir the milk into the mixture and heat it until it is steaming hot,
but do not boil it.
11. Serve the cocoa in the small cups.
12. Turn out the fires and put the saucepans to soak.
SERVING
Each pupil puts her table in order by moving all cooking utensils to the
metal part of the table and wiping off any soiled spots on the wooden
part; she then sits to drink the cocoa she has made.
NOTE-TAKING
Notes are copied from the black-board in pencil in the ordinary class
note-books. The desk boards under the table tops are pulled out for this
purpose. In this lesson the notes consist of:
1. Table of measures, with abbreviations
2. Points in measuring
3. Recipe for cocoa (if there are recipe cards, these should be
distributed).
HOUSEKEEPING
This will be done in groups of fours, according to their previous
lessons in cleaning. If necessary, some special cleaning, as dish
washing or sink cleaning, may be taught at this point of the lesson:
1. Number one will wash dishes for her group.
2. Number two will wipe dishes for her group.
3. Number three will clean the entire table belonging to her group.
4. Number four will do work outside of her group as appointed, such as
dusting, cleaning a sink or the centre table.
RECIPE FOR COCOA
1 tsp. sugar
1 tsp. cocoa
1/3 c. boiling water
1/3 c. milk.
1. Mix the sugar and cocoa in a saucepan.
2. Stir the boiling water into the mixture, then set it over a gentle
heat.
3. Keep stirring until the mixture bubbles, then boil gently for about
three minutes.
4. Stir in the milk and heat it until it steams, but do not boil it.
5. Serve the cocoa hot or ice-cold.
RECIPES
In connection with a recipe, the pupils should be taught to look for
three parts:
1. The name
2. The list and amount of ingredients
3. The method.
In carrying out a recipe, they should, from the first, be taught to work
in the following systematic order:
1. To attend to the fire if necessary
2. To collect the necessary utensils
3. To collect the necessary ingredients
4. To obey the method.
For this lesson, some simple recipe which will review measuring should
be clearly written on the black-board--the recipe for apple sauce or
cranberry sauce would be suitable. While the pupils are learning
obedience in following a recipe, it is better to keep them together in
carrying out their work. The method should be written in definite,
numbered steps, which may be checked off as each step is accomplished.
When the class has had instruction in cleaning, measuring, and recipes,
they are ready for a series of lessons involving the use of simple
recipes which will put into practice the ideas they have learned. For
this practice, such recipes as the following are suggested:
Boiled potatoes, mashed potatoes; boiled parsnips; boiled celery; boiled
carrots, asparagus, green peas; cranberry sauce; rhubarb sauce;
preparing and combining ingredients for salads (fruit salad, potato
salad, cabbage and nut salad, Waldorf salad)--the dressing being
supplied; stuffed eggs; sandwiches.
The carrying out of these lessons will develop in the pupils accuracy
and obedience, and make them familiar with the use and care of their
utensils, as well as give opportunity for the cleaning of these and
other parts of the equipment.
During these first lessons, careful supervision should be given each
pupil, so that only correct habits may be formed in regard to neatness,
thoroughness, quietness, and natural use of muscles.
The pupils should be encouraged to begin a book of recipes to contain
neatly written copies of all they have used in school. The Art teacher
might correlate the work here by assisting them to design a suitable
cover for this book.
CHAPTER V
FORM III: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
COOKERY
LESSON I
After a number of practice lessons have developed in the pupils a
certain ability and self-confidence in working, formal cookery may be
introduced, and the following ideas should be brought out:
1. The meaning of cooking:
Cooking is the application of sufficient heat
to make a change in the food.
2. Reasons for cooking food:
(1) To make some food digestible.
(2) To change flavours and make some food more
appetizing.
(3) To preserve food.
(4) To kill harmful germs in food.
3. Kinds of heat used:
(1) Dry heat--heat, only, is conveyed to the
food.
(2) Moist heat--heat and moisture are conveyed
to the food.
4. Different ways of applying _dry heat_:
Toasting, broiling, pan-broiling, sautéing,
frying, baking.
5. Different ways of applying _moist heat_:
Boiling, simmering, steaming, steeping.
NOTE.--If the class cannot name these methods,
the teacher may name and write them with only a
word of comment regarding each, or they may not
be given until the methods are studied.
As the moist heat methods are simpler and better known, they should be
studied first. The class should be led to see that some liquid must be
used to supply the moisture and should account for the common use of
water for this purpose. Experiments should then be performed in heating
water, and its appearance and temperature should be noted.
NOTE.--A preliminary lesson on the use of the
thermometer may be necessary to show how to
read it, and to develop the idea that it is an
instrument for measuring heat. This may be
taught in the regular class work, previous to
the Household Management lesson.
LESSON ON THE THERMOMETER
1. Development of the idea of "measuring":
What would you use to measure the length of the table? A foot measure.
What to measure the water in a tub? A pint, quart, or gallon measure.
What to measure the amount of gas burned? A gas-meter.
2. Development of the name "thermometer":
What do we call the instrument
For measuring gas? A gas-meter
For measuring electricity? An electrometer
For measuring speed of a motor? A speedometer
(speed-meter)
For measuring the distance a bicycle travels? A
cyclometer (cycle-meter).
In each case what does "meter" mean? It means an instrument for
measuring. What name may I give to an instrument for measuring heat? You
may call it a heat-meter.
Tell the pupils that, in science, many Greek words are used, and that
you will put a Greek word in place of the English word "heat", namely
"thermos", as in thermos bottle. What will the name become?
Thermosmeter, or _thermometer_.
3. Practice in using thermometers:
The unit of measurement (_degree_) should be given, and the scale taught
from the black-board. Thermometers may then be given to the class to
examine and use.
Saucepans having white inner surfaces are best to use for the
experiments, as changes made by the heat are more plainly seen.
_Observations of water under heat:_
(1) At a temperature of about 100 degrees, very
small bubbles form at the bottom and sides of
the dish and rise slowly to the surface of the
water. These bubbles are a film of water
containing the air that was in solution, which,
when expanded, rises to the top of the water.
(2) At a temperature of about 180 degrees, a
few larger bubbles form at the bottom of the
dish and rise slowly to the surface of the
water, making a slight movement in it. In these
bubbles air is replaced by steam which is
formed from the water by the heat.
(3) At a temperature of 212 degrees, a great
number of large bubbles form and rise quickly
to the surface, making much movement in the
water. The water is then said to boil.
(4) The water will take no higher temperature
than 212 degrees.
(5) After water once boils, it requires little
heat to keep it at this point, therefore the
heat may be reduced.
(6) An increase of heat increases the number,
size, and rate of the bubbles and the volume of
steam, but makes the liquid no hotter.
_Application of these observations:_
(1) If food be cooked in a liquid at its
greatest heat, where many bubbles are making
much movement in it, the process is called
_boiling_.
(2) If cooked in a liquid heated to 180-200,
where there is scarcely any movement in the
liquid, the process is called _simmering_.
(3) If cooked in the steam rising from a
boiling liquid, the process is called
_steaming_.
(4) If boiling liquid be poured over food and
no further heat applied, the process is called
_steeping_.
LESSONS II, III, IV, ETC.
Practice should then be given in each of the moist heat methods of
cooking. The common foods, such as vegetables, fruit, eggs, and milk
should be used for this purpose.
After the class has carried out a method for the first time, they should
be led to consider the order of work required for it. The necessary
steps should be arranged to form a set of rules for reference. The
effects of the method in each case should also be noted.
When the moist heat methods are well known, the dry heat methods should
be taught and practised. The outlines on pages 73-81 will suggest the
development under each method.
PLAN OF LESSON ON BOILING CARROTS
AIM
To apply the principles of boiling, as taught in a previous lesson, to
the cooking of food.
TIME LIMIT
One and one-half hours to be used approximately as follows: twenty-five
minutes for preparation for practical work and the first part of the
practical work, twenty-five minutes for the development of ideas of
boiling as a method of cooking, fifteen minutes for the serving of food,
twenty-five minutes for housekeeping.
PREPARATION FOR PRACTICAL WORK
1. Review.--Question the pupils as follows: What kind of heat is used in
cooking food by boiling? At what temperature is the food cooked by this
method? Name the kinds of boiling. How much hotter is rapid boiling? How
is water made to boil rapidly? When is rapid boiling useful?
2. Discussion of recipe.--Have the recipe written on the black-board and
read by one of the pupils, while the others follow the reading
carefully.
(1) Have the class decide:
(_a_) When the fires should be lighted
(_b_) The dishes required for the work
(_c_) The kind of boiling to use.
(2) Demonstrate the scrubbing, scraping, and
dicing of a carrot, also the draining of a food
cooked in liquid.
(3) State the quantity of ingredients each will
use.
(4) Caution the pupils as to accuracy, neatness,
and quietness while working.
PRACTICAL WORK
Have each pupil prepare the food according to the recipe and put it on
to cook within a certain time. While the class works, carefully observe
each pupil and give individual help to those who require it.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEAS OF BOILING AS A METHOD OF COOKING
This will be done while the carrots are cooking. The ideas brought out
from review and the class work, by questioning, will be those which are
given on boiling under the methods of cooking.
1. Definition of boiling
2. Kinds of boiling
3. Uses of rapid boiling
4. Rules for boiling
5. Effects of boiling.
As these ideas are obtained from the class, they should be written by
the teacher on the black-board and by the pupils in their note-books.
SERVING
The pupils will drain, season, and serve the food. Each girl will set
one place on the wooden part of the table and serve herself. While the
food is being eaten, the table manners of each girl should be observed,
and, if necessary, corrected in a tactful manner.
HOUSEKEEPING
The work of putting the kitchen in order may be done in groups of twos
or fours.
RECIPE: BOILED CARROTS
Carrots
Boiling water
Salt and pepper
Butter.
1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots.
2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them.
3. Put the pieces in a saucepan, set over the fire, and pour in boiling
water until the food is covered.
4. Cook the carrots until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced
with a fork.
5. Drain off the liquid, then season the food with salt, pepper, and
butter.
6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish.
PLAN OF LESSON ON SIMMERING: APPLES
INTRODUCTION
1. Review:
(1) Appearance and temperature of a boiling
liquid.
(2) Appearance and temperature of a simmering
liquid.
2. State the difficulty of keeping a liquid at simmering temperature;
show the double boiler and explain its use for this purpose.
3. Compare boiling and simmering as to length of time required and
difficulty.
4. Tell the pupils they are going to study simmering by making Coddled
Apples.
DISCUSSION OF RECIPE
1. Read recipe.
2. Question regarding:
(1) Kind of heat used
(2) Whether to prepare apples or syrup first,
and why
(3) Management in measuring so as to use only
one cup
(4) Why one quantity of syrup is sufficient for
so many apples.
3. Decide on the dishes required for the work.
PRACTICAL WORK
Assign work in groups of twos--numbers one and three prepare syrup;
numbers two and four prepare apples; all attend to the cooking.
DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS OF SIMMERING
(To be dealt with while food is cooking)
1. Definition.--Obtain this by comparing simmering with boiling.
2. Effects:
(1) Compare a raw and simmered apple to get the
idea of "soft and tender".
(2) Tell the pupils simmering temperature will
not harden and toughen meat and eggs as much as
boiling does.
(3) Lying longer in the liquid to cook
dissolves out more of the food substance.
(4) Less water going off as vapour does not
carry away as much flavour.
(5) Less motion in the liquid does not break up
the food.
SERVING
When the apples are tender, let each girl serve herself with what she
has cooked. While the fruit is being eaten, direct attention to the
flavour of apple in the syrup.
HOUSEKEEPING
Assign the work which is necessary to put the kitchen in order, and
allow the pupils to carry it out in groups of twos or fours.
RECIPE (INDIVIDUAL): CODDLED APPLES
1 apple
1/4 c. sugar
1/2 c. water.
1. Put the sugar and water in the inside part of a double boiler, set
over the fire, and boil gently for about five minutes.
2. Wash and pare the apple, cut it into halves, and remove the core.
3. Put the prepared fruit into the syrup, cover the dish closely, and
set in the under part of the double boiler.
4. Simmer the pieces of apple until tender, turning them occasionally.
5. Lift the fruit carefully into a serving dish, then pour the syrup
over it.
6. Serve hot or cold.
NOTE.--One cup of sugar will make sufficient
syrup for six or seven apples.
METHODS OF COOKING: DETAILS
BOILING
1. Definition:
Boiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food
through a boiling liquid.
2. Kinds of boiling:
(1) Gentle boiling--temperature of 212 degrees.
(2) Rapid boiling--temperature of 212 degrees.
3. Uses of rapid boiling:
(1) To make much steam
(2) To break up food
(3) To keep small particles of food in motion.
4. Rules for boiling:
(1) Put the food in a cooking dish, set over
the heat, and pour in the boiling liquid to
cover the food well.
(2) Regulate the heat to the kind of boiling
required.
(3) Keep the food boiling during the entire
cooking.
(4) Continue the cooking until the food is
tender at the centre when it is tested, or for
the time required by the recipe.
(5) When the food is cooked, lift it from the
liquid or drain the liquid from the food.
5. Effects of boiling:
(1) It makes some food soft and tender--fruit,
vegetables.
(2) It makes some food hard and tough--eggs, etc.
(3) It breaks up food.
(4) It dissolves out some of the food substance.
(5) It causes some loss of flavour (in the steam).
(6) It kills germs.
SIMMERING
1. Definition:
Simmering is a method of cooking in a liquid at a temperature of about
180 degrees.
2. Rules for simmering:
(1) Use a double boiler to keep the temperature
correct.
(2) Put the food in liquid in the top dish, and
proceed as in boiling.
3. Effects of simmering:
(1) It makes some foods soft and tender--fruit
and vegetables.
(2) It does not make the protein of animal food
(milk, eggs, and meat) hard as boiling does.
(3) It dissolves out a good deal of the food
substance into the cooking liquid.
(4) It causes very little loss of flavour.
(5) It does not break up the food.
STEAMING
1. Definition:
Steaming is a method of cooking in the steam from boiling liquid.
2. Rules for steaming:
(1) Have the water boiling rapidly in the under
part of the steamer.
(2) Put the food in the upper part, cover
closely, and place over the lower part.
(3) Keep the water boiling rapidly during the
entire cooking.
(4) If extra water be needed, only boiling
water should be added, as quickly and as gently
as possible.
(5) Continue the cooking according to the time
required by the recipe, or test as in boiling,
if the food permits.
3. Effects of steaming:
(1) It makes vegetable food tender.
(2) It makes the protein of animal food harder
than simmering, but not so hard as boiling
does.
(3) It does not break up the food.
(4) It does not dissolve out the food
substance.
(5) It causes little loss of flavour if closely
covered.
STEEPING
1. Definition:
Steeping is a method of cooking, by pouring boiling water over food, and
letting it stand in a moderately warm place.
2. Rules for steeping:
(1) Heat the steeping dish.
(2) Use water freshly boiled.
(3) Put the food in the hot dish, pour water
over, cover closely, and set in a warm place.
(4) Let the food remain in the liquid until you
have extracted what is desired.
(5) Strain off the liquid and use as required.
3. Effects of steeping:
(1) To heat and soften the food.
(2) To extract the flavour and, sometimes, the
substance of the food.
TOASTING
1. Definition:
Toasting is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food
directly from the fire. It is used mainly for bread.
2. Rules for toasting:
(1) Have a clear, hot fire.
(2) Cut bread in slices from one third to one
half an inch thick.
(3) Hold the food at some distance from the
fire, in a gentle heat at first, to dry and
heat the surfaces. This drying may be done in
the oven.
(4) Then hold the dried, hot surfaces in a
strong heat, to brown and crisp them.
(5) Serve so that the surfaces will not become
steamed from the moisture still contained in
the slices. Put the toast in a toast-rack or
stack it on a hot plate. Buttered toast may be
piled.
3. Effects of toasting:
(1) To heat and dry the surface of the food.
(2) To brown and crisp the surface.
(3) To change the flavour.
(4) To change the starch of the surface into a
brown substance, which is a form of sugar, and
more digestible than starch.
BROILING
1. Definition:
Broiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food
directly. It is used mainly for meat and fish in slices or thin
portions.
2. Rules for broiling:
(1) Have a clear, hot fire.
(2) Grease the broiler and trim the food.
(3) Lay the food in the broiler compactly.
(4) Hold the broiler in a very strong heat to
seal the tubes of the food which hold the
juices, and turn frequently.
(5) When the surface is seared, hold in a
gentler heat to cook the food to the centre,
and turn occasionally while doing this.
(6) Time the cooking to the thickness of the
food--one inch of thickness cooks rare in eight
minutes.
(7) Serve at once on a hot dish, and spread
with butter, salt, and pepper.
3. Effects of broiling:
(1) To sear the surface.
(2) To cook to the centre while browning the
surface.
(3) To change the flavour and develop a very
delicious one in the browned surface.
(4) To make the browned surface hard to digest.
PAN-BROILING
1. Definition:
Pan-broiling is an imitation of broiling and is a method of cooking on a
hissing-hot, metal surface.
2. Rules for pan-broiling:
(1) Have a hot fire.
(2) Heat the pan or metal surface until it
hisses when touched with water.
(3) Lay the food in compactly, and turn
constantly until the entire surface is seared.
(4) Place the pan in a gentle heat and cook the
food to the centre, turning occasionally.
(5) Time the cooking to the thickness of the
food--one inch cooks rare in ten minutes.
(6) Serve at once, as in broiling.
3. Effects of pan-broiling:
The same as in broiling.
SAUTÉING
1. Definition:
Sautéing is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food
through a smoking-hot, greased surface.
2. Rules for sautéing:
(1) Heat the pan enough to melt the fat.
(2) Put in just enough fat to keep the food
from sticking, and let it run over the surface
of the pan, and get smoking hot.
(3) Put in the food and let it brown on one
side, then turn it and brown the other side.
(4) Serve on a hot dish.
3. Effects of sautéing:
(1) To sear the surface of the food.
(2) To brown the surface and develop a
delicious flavour, while cooking to the centre.
(3) To make the surface slightly fat-soaked
with fat which has been very highly heated.
(4) To make the surface indigestible.
BAKING
1. Definition:
Baking is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food
through the confined heat of an oven.
2. Kinds of ovens:
(1) Slow.
(2) Moderate--white paper browns in ten minutes.
(3) Hot--white paper browns in five minutes.
(4) Very hot--white paper browns in one minute.
3. Rules for baking:
(1) Heat the oven according to the recipe.
(2) Put the food in the oven, usually on the
lower shelf, to get an under heat first, then
toward the last of the cooking, set it on the
top shelf to brown.
(3) Watch carefully during the baking, but in
opening the oven door, be gentle and quick.
(4) If the oven gets too hot, set a pan of cold
water in it, or leave the door slightly open.
If browning too quickly, cover the surface with
brown paper.
(5) Cook the food according to the time
required by the recipe, or until it is done, as
shown by some test.
FRYING
1. Definition:
Frying is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food
by immersing it in smoking-hot fat.
2. Temperature for frying:
(1) For cooked foods which have only to brown
and warm through--about 400 degrees.
(2) For raw foods which have to cook--about 350
degrees.
3. Rules for frying:
(1) Use a deep iron, steel, or granite kettle,
which will hold the heat.
(2) Put in sufficient fat to cover the food
well, but never fill the kettle more than
two-thirds full.
(3) Heat the fat to the desired temperature.
(4) Have the food as dry as possible and not
very cold.
(5) When the fat begins to give off a small
quantity of _white_ vapour, test it for the
required heat, as follows:
(_a_) For raw food, put in a small square of
bread, and allow it sixty seconds to brown.
(_b_) For cooked food, allow a square of bread
forty seconds to brown.
(6) Put the food carefully into the hot fat, and
only an amount which will not cool it too much.
(7) When the food is nicely browned, lift it
from the fat with an open spoon or lifter and
drain over the pot until it stops dripping.
(8) Lay the food on crumpled brown paper or
blotting paper, to absorb any fat still clinging
to the surface.
(9) Strain the fat through cheesecloth and set
it away to cool.
4. Effects of frying:
(1) To sear the surface and prevent it from
absorbing fat.
(2) To cook or heat the food to the centre.
(3) To brown the surface of the food and make
it crisp.
(4) To develop a delicious flavour in the
browned surface.
(5) To make the browned surface indigestible,
because it has absorbed highly-heated fat.
NOTE.--As frying requires the fat used to be at
a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let
young children take the responsibility in this
method of cooking. For this reason, it may be
wise to defer lessons on frying until the
Fourth Form, or even later.
For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive:
Boiling.--Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni,
eggs, coffee
Simmering.--Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples;
strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew
Steaming.--Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings,
dumplings, fish
Steeping.--Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce
Toasting.--Bread, rolls
Broiling.--Steak, fish
Pan-broiling.--Steak
Sautéing.--Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes
(teacher prepares the batter)
Baking.--Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped
tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf
Frying.--Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the
dough).
The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also
afford excellent drills in _measuring_, _manipulation_, and _cleaning_.
Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class
should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much
time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these,
instead of correcting them individually.
After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking,
they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient,
for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school,
they may be of service in the homes of the pupils.
Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using
left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy
cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the
necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive
manner.
In this first year of practical work, _the main point is the formation
of correct habits of work_. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should
be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged.
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF LEFT-OVERS
BREAD
1. Toast for garnishing stews and hash
2. Croutons for soup
3. Bread crumbs to use for croquettes and scalloped dishes, or for
stuffing meat and fish
4. Pudding (chocolate bread pudding, cabinet pudding, plain bread
pudding, brown betty)
5. Pancakes.
CAKE
1. Pudding (steamed until just re-heated and served with a sauce)
2. Pudding (baked in a custard mixture)
3. Trifle.
MEAT
1. Meat pie or potato and meat pie
2. Meat loaf
3. Stew with dumplings
4. Hash
5. Scalloped meat
6. Croquettes
7. Meat moulded in gelatine
8. Salad (light meats only)
9. Sandwiches.
FISH
1. Scalloped fish
2. Salad.
EGGS
1. Stuffed eggs
2. Hard-boiled for salad
3. Garnish for salad
4. Sandwiches.
CHEESE
1. Cheese crackers
2. Cheese straws
3. Cheese cream toast
4. Cheese omelet
5. Cheese salad
6. Welsh rarebit
7. Macaroni and cheese
8. Sandwiches.
VEGETABLES
1. Scalloped vegetable
2. Cream of vegetable soup (water in which vegetable is cooked should be
kept for this)
3. Sautéd vegetables
4. Salad.
CANNED FRUIT
1. Cup pudding or roly poly
2. Steamed or baked batter pudding
3. Pudding sauce (strain juice and thicken)
4. Trifle
5. Fruit salad
6. Gelatine mould.
BEVERAGES
After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on
beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the
subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught
incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The
following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson:
MEANING OF BEVERAGES
A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural
beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply
food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself
and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making
beverages.
KINDS OF BEVERAGES
1. Refreshing.--Pure cold water, all cold fruit drinks
2. Stimulating.--All hot drinks, tea, coffee, beef-tea, alcoholic drinks
3. Nutritious.--Milk, cocoa, chocolate, oatmeal and barley water, tea
and coffee with sugar and cream.
NOTE.--As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary
household beverages, they should be specially
studied. Their sources and manufacture will
have been learned in Form III Junior, but their
use as beverages may now be discussed and
practised. It is desirable that the pupils be
led to reason out correct methods of cooking
each.
TEA
1. Description.--The leaves contain, beside a stimulant and flavour, an
undesirable substance known as tannin, which is injurious to the
delicate lining of the stomach. If the tea be properly made, the tannin
is not extracted.
2. Method of cooking.--Steep the tea from three to five minutes, then
separate the leaves from the liquid (suggest ways of doing this).
Boiling is not a correct method to use for making tea, as it extracts
the tannin and causes loss of flavour in the steam.
NOTE.--Because of the stimulant, young people
should not drink tea or coffee.
COFFEE
1. Description.--The beans, or seeds, of coffee also contain tannin as
well as a stimulant and flavour. This beverage is more expensive than
tea, since a much larger amount must be used for one cup of liquid.
After the beans are broken by grinding, the air causes the flavour to
deteriorate, so that the housekeeper should grind the beans as required,
or buy in small quantities and keep in tightly covered cans.
2. Method of cooking.--Coffee may be cooked in different ways, according
to the size of the pieces into which the roasted beans are broken. These
pieces are much harder than the leaves of tea, hence coffee may be given
a higher temperature and a longer time in cooking than tea. Small pieces
of beans are apt to float in the liquid, making it cloudy; this may be
overcome by the use of egg-white or by careful handling.
Coarsely ground coffee must be boiled gently. Finely ground coffee may
be boiled gently or steeped. Very finely ground, or powdered coffee
should be steeped or filtered with boiling water.
COCOA
1. Description.--This contains a stimulant, but differs from tea and
coffee in being nutritious. It makes a desirable drink for children.
2. Method of cooking.--Cocoa contains starch and should be simmered or
gently boiled.
CHOCOLATE
This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much
larger amount of fat.
TABLE SETTING
The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every
lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In
regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares
a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be
placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the
table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining
table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly
arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from
the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for
a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of
neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is
most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack
of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in
the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in
work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply
without loss of time.
Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form
III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the
food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented
as follows:
PREPARATION
1. See that the dining-room is well aired and in order.
2. See that the linen is clean and carefully laundered.
3. See that the glass, silver, and steel are polished.
4. Decide on the number to be served.
ARRANGEMENT
1. Place a silence cloth of felt, woollen, or thick cotton:
(1) To prevent the dishes from making a noise
(2) To give the table a better appearance
(3) To preserve the table top.
2. Lay the cloth, placing the centre of the cloth in the centre of the
table and spreading it smoothly, having its folds parallel with the
edges of the table.
3. Arrange a centre-piece, using a vase or basket of flowers, a small
plant or a dish of fruit.
4. Put a plate at each person's place and lay the cutlery and silver
beside it about one inch from the edge of the table, in the order of
use, those used first on the outside, or farthest from the plate. At
dinner these plates are usually placed before the one who serves.
(1) Place the knives at the right side, with
the sharp edges toward the plate.
(2) Place the forks at the left side, with the
tines up.
(3) Place the soup spoons at the right of the
knife, bowl up.
(4) Place the dessert spoons in front of the
plates, the handle to the right, the bowl up.
(5) Place the dessert forks with the other
forks, or in front of the plates with the
dessert spoons.
5. Place the water glasses at the end of the knife blades, top up.
6. Place the bread and butter plates at the left of the forks. (These
are not necessary at dinner.)
7. Place the napkins at the left, neatly folded; discourage fancy
folding.
[Illustration: Table laid for a home dinner]
8. Place the salt and pepper so that they are convenient to every one.
9. Place the dishes that are to be served at table directly in front of
the one who is to serve them.
10. Place the carving set in front of the host, and the tablespoons as
on page 89, or where food is to be served.
11. Place a chair for each person.
[Illustration: Individual section of table laid for dinner]
TABLE MANNERS
In Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson
on Preparing and Serving Meals, page 136, has been reserved for the work
of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully
trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this
will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the
following:
RULES FOR CORRECT TABLE MANNERS
These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have
in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table.
They may be stated as follows:
1. Stand behind the seat assigned you.
2. Wait until the hostess is seated, before taking a seat.
3. Sit naturally erect, without any support from the elbows, placing the
feet on the floor.
4. Do not begin to eat until others are served.
5. Eat and drink quietly, taking small mouthfuls; keep the mouth closed
while eating.
6. Do not drink with food in the mouth.
7. Do not talk with food in the mouth.
8. Use a fork preferably, whenever it will serve the purpose; and never
put a knife into the mouth.
9. Take soup from the side of the spoon.
10. Wipe the mouth before drinking from a glass.
11. Be attentive to the needs of others.
12. If it be necessary to leave the table, ask the hostess to excuse
you.
13. If a guest for one meal only, leave the napkin unfolded beside the
plate.
14. Never use a toothpick at the table, or in any company.
15. Wait for the hostess to rise, then stand, and replace the chair in
position.
CHAPTER VI
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE
THE KITCHEN
At the beginning of the year's work in Form IV, several lessons should
be spent in reviewing the methods of cooking and cleaning taught in the
previous year. This may be done by reviewing former recipes and by using
new ones which require a knowledge of these methods. As the pupils work,
they should be closely observed, and, without the teacher giving undue
assistance, their weak points should be carefully strengthened. The
length of time spent on the review will vary according to the ability of
the class. This can be plainly judged by their habits of work. The new
recipes given them should be such as they are likely to use at home, so
as to encourage home practice. These recipes will also enlarge their
collection in their special recipe books. Some of the following may be
useful: creamed potatoes, potato omelet, stuffed potatoes, stuffed
onions, corn oysters, baked tomatoes, spaghetti with tomato sauce,
macaroni and cheese, scalloped apples, plain rice pudding, ginger
pudding, sago pudding, tapioca cream.
THE KITCHEN FIRE
Up to this time the pupils have been allowed to manage their individual
table stoves or a gas range. They should now be taught to understand and
to use an ordinary coal or wood range. Two lessons will be necessary for
this purpose. After each lesson has been taught, the remainder of the
period should be spent in some kind of practical work which can be
accomplished in the time. Some cookery which requires only a few minutes
may be reviewed, such as tea, cocoa, coffee, toast, bacon, apple sauce;
drawers and cupboards may be cleaned; silver and steel may be polished;
designs for wall-paper, dishes, curtains, and dress materials may be
drawn; household accounts may be computed; sewing may be finished.
LESSON I
REQUIREMENTS OF A KITCHEN FIRE
In introducing a lesson on the kitchen fire, ask the pupils to imagine
that they have built a new house, which the workmen have just vacated.
Before they can move in it must be cleaned. What kind of water is best
for cleaning? Hot water. What is necessary to provide hot water? A fire.
Find out from the pupils and then write on the black-board what is
necessary for a fire. What is the first requisite? Something to burn.
What do we call such a substance? _Fuel._ Where shall we put the fuel?
In a _stove_. Why is a stove necessary? To confine the fire.
Using a candle as fuel and a lamp chimney as a stove, light the candle
and place it in the chimney. It burns only a short time and then dies
out. Why? Because the oxygen of the air in the chimney is all exhausted.
Then what is another requisite for a fire? _Oxygen._
Imagine the room to be a stove and the chairs, books, tables, etc., to
be fuel. The air in the room also contains much oxygen, so that in this
room we have three requisites for a fire. It is very fortunate for us
that something else is needed. We shall try to find out what it is.
Watch while I hold these strips of paper over this lighted gas stove
high enough to be out of reach of the flame. What happened to them? They
burst into a flame. What did the paper that I held receive that it did
not get when it was lying on the table? Heat. We shall try a match in
the same way, also some thin shavings. They also burn when they receive
heat from the fire. Then what is another requisite for a fire? _Heat._
Name all of the requisites for a kitchen fire. _Fuel_, _stove_,
_oxygen_, and _heat_.
NOTE.--Just here it is a good thing to impress
the care that is necessary in regard to
gasolene, coal-oil, benzine, etc., or any
substance that burns at a low temperature.
Bring out the fact very clearly that it is the
heat that makes fuel burn, that a flame is not
necessary.
HEAT
Experiments to show on what the amount of heat required depends:
1. Heat together two strips of paper of the same size but of different
thicknesses and observe which burns first.
2. Heat together a strip of very thin paper and a match which is much
thicker than the paper, and observe which burns first.
3. Rub a match vigorously on some surface and observe the result.
Conclusions.--1. The amount of heat required to make fuel burn depends
on:
(1) The thickness of the fuel.
(2) The substance composing the fuel.
2. Some substances burn at a very low temperature.
NOTE.--This will explain the order of laying
the fuel for a fire and the use of a match in
lighting it.
OXYGEN
Experiments to show the means of obtaining oxygen:
1. Light a candle, set the lamp chimney over it and observe the result.
2. Raise the chimney by supporting it on two small pieces of wood. Note
the result.
3. Cover the raised chimney with a piece of cardboard. Note the result.
[Illustration: Experiments to show the necessity for oxygen]
Conclusions.--1. A fresh supply of oxygen is constantly required.
2. Two openings are required to ensure a constant supply of oxygen, one
below the fuel and one above it.
3. Oxygen is obtained from the surrounding air.
4. The passage of air through these openings creates a draught.
It will be necessary next to lead the class to see that the supply of
oxygen can be controlled:
1. By the relation of the openings:
(1) Openings directly opposite each other cause
a rapid circulation of air or a "direct
draught".
(2) Indirect openings cause a slower
circulation of air or an "indirect draught".
2. By a cross current of air which tends to check the draught.
FUELS
A discussion of the fuels may next be taken. With pupils of Form IV it
will not be wise to go into too many details regarding these. Besides
the classification of the commonest ones, they may be compared from the
standpoints of cost, and of the time and labour required in their use.
Classes of Fuels:
Liquid--coal-oil, gasolene, alcohol
Solid--coal (coke), wood (charcoal)
Gaseous--natural gas, coal gas.
NOTE.--Electricity is a means of producing
heat, but cannot be called a fuel.
THE KITCHEN STOVE
LESSON II
In developing the construction of a practical coal or wood range, it is
a good idea to use the black-board and make a rough drawing to
illustrate the details, as they are given by the pupils. These details
should be evolved from the knowledge gained in the preceding lessons,
and the drawing should not be an illustration of any particular stove.
After the best practical stove, according to the pupils' ideas, has been
thought out and represented on the black-board, they should examine and
criticise the school range and the stoves at home. They are then ready
to be given the responsibility of managing any ordinary range.
* * * * *
The following are the necessary details to be considered regarding a
kitchen stove:
Material.--(1) Iron, (2) steel
Shape.--Rectangular.
Compartments.--(1) Fire-box, (2) ash-box, (3) oven, (4) passage for hot
air, (5) other compartments if desired, such as water tank, warming
closet, etc.
Dampers.--(1) Front damper--below the fuel, to control the entrance of
oxygen to the fuel. (2) Oven damper--above the fuel at the entrance to
the pipe, to control the heat for the oven, and also to control the
draught. (3) Check damper--at the front of the stove above the fuel, to
admit a cross current of air to check the draught.
Management of the stove.--(1) Lighting the fire, (2) heating the oven,
(3) arranging for over night, (4) cleaning and care.
NOTE.--Openings below the level of the fire
increase the draught, and those above the level
check it.
[Illustration: A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (_a_) oven damper
open]
[Illustration: A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (_b_) oven damper
closed]
THE FIRELESS COOKER
Throughout the training given in Household Management, the teacher
should emphasize the value of labour-saving devices and aids in the
home. How to economize time and energy should be a prominent feature of
every practical lesson. If time permit, a lesson may be taken to
consider specially such aids as are readily procurable, together with
their average cost. In this lesson the fireless cooker is considered.
[Illustration: A fireless cooker]
The principles of the fireless cooker are based on a knowledge of the
laws governing the conduction and radiation of heat. For this reason, an
elementary science lesson relating to these laws should precede this
lesson. Such a science lesson is part of the regular grade work of Form
IV, so if a specialist teaches the Household Management of that grade,
she and the regular teacher should arrange to co-ordinate their
lessons.
PRINCIPLES OF THE FIRELESS COOKER
1. It furnishes no heat, but conserves the heat which is in the food
when it is put into the cooker.
2. It conserves the heat in the food, by surrounding it with substances
which are poor conductors of heat.
3. Extra heat may be given the food, after it is put in the cooker, by
placing heated stone plates above and below the dish that contains the
food. The stone used for this purpose must be a good absorbent of heat.
REASONS FOR THE USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER
1. It saves fuel and is therefore economical.
2. It saves time, because it requires no
watching.
3. It conserves the flavour of the food.
4. It obviates all danger of burning the food.
5. It does not heat the room.
WAYS OF USING THE FIRELESS COOKER
1. Food cooked in liquid:
In all cookers where stone plates are not used, only such foods as are
cooked in liquids can be prepared. Examples of foods cooked in this way
are, meat soup, beef-tea, meat stews, vegetables, fruit, porridge,
cereal, puddings, etc.
The prepared food is put into one of the food receptacles belonging to
the cooker and is placed over a fire, until it has boiled for a few
minutes. The cover is then tightly adjusted, and the dish quickly locked
in the cooker, to conserve the heat that the food and liquid have
absorbed.
2. Food cooked in dry heat by the use of stone plates:
In this method the food is cold when it is placed in the cooker, and all
the heat is supplied by stone plates placed above and below the utensil
containing the food. These plates are heated for about twenty minutes
over a fire, before they are used in the cooker.
Examples of food cooked in this way are, roasts of meat; baked fruit,
such as apples; baked vegetables, such as potatoes or beans; cakes, such
as plain cake or fruit cake; quick bread, such as corn-bread and
biscuits.
3. Food cooked in liquid, aided by the heat of one stone plate:
In cases where the original heat absorbed by the food is not sufficient
to complete the cooking as desired, a heated stone plate may be placed
in the cooker below the utensil containing the hot food. The stone may
be necessary for one of the following reasons--
(1) Because the amount of food put into the
cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is
always better to have the food nearly fill the
dish.
(2) Because the time required is so long that
the heat of the food and liquid becomes
exhausted before the cooking is completed.
(3) Because it is desirable to finish the
cooking in less time.
A HOME-MADE FIRELESS COOKER
Use a large wooden box or a small trunk with a close-fitting cover. Make
it as air-tight as possible by pasting thick paper all over the inside.
Pack it level with clean sawdust or excelsior (the latter preferably),
until just enough height is left to set in a covered granite pail, which
is to be used for holding the food. Place the pail in the centre, so
that its top edge is just about half an inch below the top of the box.
Then pack in more excelsior very tightly around the pail, until level
with it. This will shape the "nest" for the pail.
[Illustration: A home-made fireless cooker]
Make a thick cushion, or mat, of excelsior to fit in the space between
the level of the excelsior and the inside of the cover. Cover the
cushion with cheesecloth or denim to keep it intact.
NOTE.--Only food cooked in a liquid can be
prepared in a home-made cooker.
CHAPTER VII
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
STUDY OF FOOD
The pupils have been working with some of the well-known foods in all of
their recipes and should have a fair knowledge of how to prepare them in
simple ways for the table. It is now time for them to learn what these
foods contain for the use of their bodies. Much of this part of the work
can be taught in rooms without special equipment. An earnest teacher,
with a few articles from home, can make the study interesting and
valuable.
A series of lessons will be necessary for this purpose. The amount of
work to be taken at one time is suggested, but this should be judged by
the teacher. As in other lessons on theory, the remaining time of the
lesson period should be used in practical work. Suggestions for such
practical work are given under the lesson on "The Kitchen Fire", page
92.
Practice lessons, to give variety and sustain interest, should be
interspersed between these lessons as desired.
LESSON I
USES OF FOOD
The lesson may be introduced by asking the class to think in what way
the body of a healthy baby, who is fed regularly, will have changed at
the end of six months. It will be larger; it will have more flesh, more
bone, more hair, etc. We want to get a name that will apply to any part
of the body. No matter which part we examine through a microscope we
find the same fine and beautiful texture, and to this we give a name
similar to that given to fine, thin paper. We call it _tissue_--hair
tissue, bone tissue, flesh tissue.
What has food done to the baby's tissues? It has enlarged its tissues;
the child has grown larger. To the enlargement, or growth, of the
tissues, we may apply the term, _build_, suggested by the building of a
house. Then what may we say food does for the tissues of the body? We
may say that _food builds the tissues of the body_.
Think of some persons who have taken food every day, and yet as long as
you have known them they have not increased in size. What has food done
for their tissues? The class must be told that the tissues of our bodies
wear out through use, and that food has furnished the material to
replace the worn-out parts. What do we say we are doing to clothes when
we replace the worn parts? We are mending or repairing them. What does
food do for our worn-out tissues? _Food repairs the tissues of the
body._
Do not think any more about the tissues of the body. Suppose you had not
been able to get any food for several days. In what way would you be
different from what you are now? You would not be as strong. Food gives
strength or energy by being burned inside the body. There is a fire
burning in our bodies all the time we are alive, the fuel being food.
What do we require from the fire in our homes? We require heat. The
fires in our bodies give us heat also. Any fire gives off both heat and
energy. State another use of food to the body. _Food produces heat and
energy in the body._
But food does more for the body; it contains substances to keep our
bodies in order. Suppose the clock gets out of order and does not keep
good time, what does the watchmaker do to it? He regulates it. That is
what certain kinds of food do for us. What then is another use of food?
_Food regulates the body._
Name the uses of food to the body.
1. It builds the tissues.
2. It repairs the tissues.
3. It produces heat and energy.
4. It regulates the body.
How then can we judge if a substance be a food? By deciding that it
performs one of these duties in the body.
LESSON II
NECESSARY SUBSTANCES IN FOOD
The names of the substances in food which supply the material for the
different uses of the body should be taken next.
1. _For building and repairing._--(1) Mineral matter--used largely in
hard tissues. (2) Nitrogenous matter, or protein--used largely for
flesh. (3) Water--used in all tissues.
2. _For fuel._--Carbonaceous matter (starch, sugar, fat).
3. _For regulating._--Mineral matter, water.
NOTE.--The teacher should call attention to the
fact that few foods contain all these
substances, some have nearly all, some have
only one, some two or more. In order to get
all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class
is now ready to consider the well-known foods,
in order to find out which of these necessary
substances each food contains, and to obtain a
general idea of their comparative food values.
SOURCES OF FOOD
All nature supplies us with food. The three great divisions of nature
are animal, vegetable, and mineral, and from each we obtain food, though
most largely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Animal food is some part of an animal's body or some product of an
animal: examples--meat or fish, milk, eggs.
Vegetable food is some part of a plant: examples--vegetables, fruit,
seeds.
Mineral food is some constituent of the earth's crust used as food. This
mineral food is obtained by drinking water which in coursing through the
earth has absorbed certain minerals, by eating plants which have
absorbed the minerals from the soil, or by eating animal food which was
built from plant food.
This preliminary survey of the sources of all our food gives the pupils
a basis for classifying the foods with which they are familiar. They may
be given exercises in doing this, and will not only find them
interesting, but most useful as nature study.
STUDY OF THE COMMON FOODS
In beginning the analysis of the common foods, it must be remembered
that the pupils have no knowledge of chemistry, and that what is found
in each food must be discovered through the senses (seeing, smelling,
tasting, feeling), or through a process of reasoning.
The pupils should also feel quite sure of what they are setting out to
do; they are going to examine some particular, well-known food, to find
which of the necessary food substances it contains. The food substances
for which they are looking are water, mineral matter, nitrogenous
matter, and carbonaceous matter (sugar, starch, fat).
It is better to provide each pupil with a sample of the food to be
studied, but where conditions make this difficult, the one used by the
teacher will suffice.
STUDY OF MILK
LESSON I
COMPOSITION
Milk is the best food to examine first, because it contains all the food
elements except starch and because these can be easily found.
The pupils may each be asked to bring a half cup of milk from home. It
may be allowed to stand in glasses while other work is taken.
When ready for the lesson, ask the pupils to look at the contents of the
glass, and they will observe a difference of colour where the cream has
risen. Nature itself has divided the milk into two parts. Pour off the
top part and feel it. It feels greasy. Butter is made from this part. We
have found _fat_--a carbonaceous food.
Move the milk around in the glass and let the pupils see that it is a
liquid. Tell them that all liquid in a natural food is mostly water. We
have, therefore, another food substance--_water_, a builder and
regulator.
Let the pupils compare a glass of water with a glass of skimmed milk,
and they see that something is dissolved in the water of the milk,
giving it the white colour. Show them a glass of sour milk, where the
white substance is separate from the water. Get the names curd and whey.
Tell them how the cheesemaker separates sweet milk into curd and whey.
If advisable, let them do it, but in any case show them some sweet milk
separated by rennet. Examine the sweet whey. It tastes sweet, denoting
the presence of _sugar_--another carbonaceous food.
Notice the greenish-yellow colour. Recall this same colour in water in
which potatoes, cabbage, or other vegetables have been cooked. Tell the
pupils that this colour is given by _mineral matter_ being dissolved in
the water.
There is still the curd of milk to examine. The use of the senses does
not allow us to definitely decide what food substance the curd is. Tell
the pupils it is protein, or find the name by a process of reasoning,
thus: Recall the fact that babies live for several months on milk alone
and during that time build all tissues of the body. Milk, therefore,
must contain all tissue-building substances. Review the food substances
which are necessary to build all body tissues--mineral matter, protein,
and water. We have found the mineral matter and water in milk, but not
the protein. Since curd is the only remaining part of milk, it must be
largely protein.
Tell the pupils that the scum which comes on the top of milk, when it is
boiled, is another kind of protein of which there is a small amount in
solution in milk.
Lead the pupils to see that if starch were present, it would be in a raw
form, and in this form is indigestible.
LESSON II
FOOD VALUE
The analysis of milk gives a key to the food value of milk and each of
its by-products (cream, butter, butter-milk, sour milk, skim milk, curd,
whey, cheese, junket). These may now be briefly discussed as to
composition, food value, and cost.
CARE
Milk readily absorbs odours, bacteria, etc., and should be kept in
covered, sterilized dishes in a pure, cool atmosphere.
EFFECT OF HEAT
Experiments should be made to show the effect of simmering and boiling
temperatures. To save time, a different experiment may be given to each
pupil, and the results reported.
1. Simmer sweet milk and note the flavour.
2. Boil sweet milk and note the flavour.
3. Simmer the curd of milk. Examine its texture.
4. Boil the curd of milk. Examine its texture and compare it with the
simmered curd.
5. Boil skim milk and note the scum.
6. Simmer skim milk and note the absence of scum.
NOTE.--From the above experiments deduce the
effect of heat on protein.
Practice lessons may now be given in preparing simple dishes in which
milk is the main ingredient, or, at least, recipes may be given for
these to be made at home. The following would be suitable: cream sauce,
cream soups, custard, junket, cottage cheese, albuminized milk.
STUDY OF EGGS
LESSON I
PARTS
(1) Shell, (2) thick membrane, (3) white, (4) thin membrane, (5) yolk.
These parts are easily seen. Attention should be called to the pores in
the shell, and it should be explained that these allow the entrance of
bacteria which spoil the egg. Any means of closing these pores helps to
preserve the egg.
METHODS OF PRESERVING
Cover the holes in the shell as follows:
1. Pack in salt, bran, sawdust, brine, or water-glass.
2. Coat the shells with fat or wax.
3. Wrap the eggs in paper.
[Illustration: Testing eggs by floating: (1) slightly stale, (2) stale,
(3) very stale]
TESTS
1. In the shell:
After an egg is laid, the liquid which it
contains begins to evaporate through the pores
of the shell and, as this continues, a
noticeable space is left inside.
(1) Shake the egg, holding it near the ear. If
the contents rattle, it is somewhat stale.
(2) Drop the egg in cold water. If it sinks, it
is fresh.
(3) Hold the egg between your eye and the
light. If clear, it is fresh.
(4) A rough appearance of the shell denotes
freshness.
2. Out of the shell:
White--this should be clear and cling to the
yolk.
Yolk--this should round up like a ball.
CARE
1. If eggs are to be used in the near future, they should be washed and
put in a pure, cool atmosphere. The lower shelf of the refrigerator is
best, as odours rise, and eggs readily absorb these.
2. If eggs are to be preserved, they should not be washed unless their
condition compels it, as washing removes the natural covering of the
pores. They should be stored in a clean, cool place, and packed as soon
as possible.
LESSON II
COMPOSITION
It is wiser to develop the food substances in an egg by reasoning,
rather than by examining the different parts. The shell is not used for
food, so it is the contents that should be studied. The class should be
guided in the following sequence of thought:
1. An egg is designed by nature to become a chicken, so it must contain
all of the substances necessary to build a chicken.
2. A chicken is an animal, and all animal bodies are made of the same
substances. These we have seen to be mineral matter, protein, and water.
3. An egg therefore contains these three substances.
4. An egg must also contain three weeks' food for the chicken, therefore
must have fuel food as well. This fuel food is found in the yolk, in the
form of fat.
5. The yolk therefore contains water, mineral matter, protein, and fat.
6. The white contains water, mineral matter, and protein.
EFFECT OF HEAT ON EGGS
The following experiments will show the effect on both yolk and white of
the usual methods of applying heat to eggs:
1. Boil an egg for three minutes and note the effect.
2. Boil an egg for twenty minutes and note the effect.
3. Put an egg in boiling water, remove from the fire, and let it stand
covered from eight to ten minutes.
4. Fry an egg and note the effect.
NOTE.--The eggs may be put to boil and simmer
at the beginning of the lesson, and pupils
designated to take them from the heat at proper
times. The eggs will then be ready to examine
when required.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Boiling an egg for three minutes does not allow time for the heat to
reach the yolk. The white is hard and tough just next the shell, but
soft and liquid as it approaches the yolk.
2. Boiling an egg for twenty minutes hardens and toughens the white, so
that it all becomes hard to dissolve or digest. It also gives the heat
time to reach the centre and hardens the yolk, but does not toughen it
or make it hard to dissolve or digest.
3. Allowing the egg to stand in the hot water coagulates the white to a
jelly-like consistency without toughening it; it also cooks the yolk.
LESSONS III, IV, ETC.
USES OF EGGS
To give practice in preparing eggs and to show their special uses the
following dishes would be suitable:
1. White:
For food--poached eggs on toast, simmered eggs
For cohesive (sticky) property--potato balls,
fish balls
For clearing liquids--coffee
For holding air--foamy omelet
For decoration--hard-boiled eggs cut in fancy
shapes for garnishing, meringue on lemon
pudding, etc.
2. Yolk:
For food--egg-nog, scrambled eggs
For thickening liquids--custard, salad
dressing, lemon pudding
For colouring foods--tapioca cream
For decoration--hard boiled and grated over
salads.
STUDY OF VEGETABLE FOOD
Before beginning this part of the work, it would be most helpful if the
class had one or two nature study lessons on the structure and organs of
plants. With the pupils in possession of some knowledge thus acquired,
the Household Management teacher has only to lead up to ideas of the
preparation and value of these parts as food. These ideas should, as far
as possible, follow in such a natural order that the pupils may even
anticipate the sequence.
The outline may be as follows:
LESSON I
SOURCE
All vegetable food is obtained from plants; it is some part of a plant
used as food.
PARTS OF PLANTS USED AS FOOD
1. Root--carrot, radish
2. Tuber--potato, artichoke
3. Bulb--onion
4. Stem--rhubarb, asparagus
5. Leaf--spinach, cabbage
6. Flower--cauliflower
7. Fruit--apple, orange
8. Seed--(1) Of trees (nuts)--beechnut, almond
(2) Of grasses (cereals)--wheat, corn, rice
(3) Of vines (legumes)--peas, beans, lentils.
In asking for examples of the different parts, there will be more
interest and value if the questions correlate other subjects, for
instance: For what fruit is Canada noted? What fruit does she import?
Name a nut the squirrels gather.
LESSON II
COMPOSITION OF ANY PART OF A PLANT
From the foregoing, the pupils may infer that there are eight different
foods to study. They should be led to see that in reality there is only
one, as all parts of plants are, generally speaking, the same in
structure. Referring to the animal body, they will know that a bone from
the foot is of much the same structure as one from the face; that a
piece of flesh from the leg is the same as a piece from any other part
of the body. In the same way, if we study one part of a plant, it will
be a type of all parts. In general the structure is as follows:
1. A framework, in cellular form, made of a substance called
_cellulose_.
2. Material filling the cells:
(1) A juice in the cells of all parts of plants
except seeds
(2) A solid in the cells of seeds.
To show the framework, some vegetable food having a white colour should
be chosen, such as potato, parsnip, or apple.
It must be explained that all plants are made of a framework of numerous
cells, something like a honey-comb. The cells in plants are of many
different shapes, according to the plant, or the part of the plant, in
which they are found. They are usually so small that they cannot be
distinguished without a microscope; but occasionally they are large
enough to be seen without one. Pass sections of orange or lemon, where
the cells are visible. Make a drawing on the black-board of the cellular
formation of a potato. Lead the class to understand that, in every case,
the cell walls must be broken to get out the cell contents. To
illustrate this, they may use potatoes, and break the cell walls by
grating the potatoes. After they have broken up the framework, the cell
contents should be strained through cheesecloth into a glass. They have
now two parts to examine--cell walls and cell contents.
[Illustration: Cellular structure of a potato]
Wash the framework to free it of any cell juice and study it first. Give
its name, and note its colour and texture. Compare the framework of
potatoes, strawberries, lettuce, trees, etc. Tell the class that in some
cases part of the cellulose is so fibrous that it is used to make
thread, cloth, or twine; for instance, _flax_ and _hemp_.
Cellulose is most difficult to dissolve, so that practically little of
it is digested. It serves a mechanical purpose in the digestive tract by
helping to fill the organs and dilute the real food. If fibrous, it acts
as an irritant and overcomes sluggishness of the intestines known as
constipation. The outer coats of cereals are an example of coarse
cellulose, as used in brown bread and some kinds of porridge.
Examine next the juice which was contained in the cells of the potato.
The liquid shows much water; the colour indicates mineral matter in
solution; the odour suggests a flavour; the white sediment is starch.
COMPOSITION OF POTATO JUICE
Water, mineral matter, flavouring matter, starch.
Draw attention to the fact that the potato is the part of the plant
which acts as a storehouse. In such parts, starch is always found as the
stored form of sugar; but, in parts which are not storehouses, sugar
will be found in its stead. In rare cases both are found, as in the
parsnip.
NOTE.--This is a good time to impress the fact
that plants are the source of starch for
manufacturing purposes. In England, potatoes
are largely used; in Canada, corn. It will be
interesting to state that the early settlers
obtained their starch for laundry purposes at
home from potatoes, by chopping or grinding
them.
The insolubility of starch in cold liquids may be effectively reviewed
at this part of the lesson. The starch has been lying in the water of
the potato cells for several months, yet has not dissolved. Let two or
three of the class gradually heat the potato juice with its starch
sediment, stirring all the time to distribute the sediment evenly. They
will find that a little less than boiling temperature dissolves the
starch. This will show them that heat is necessary for the solution of
starch, and a heat much greater than that in the body, hence raw starch
is indigestible. Recall the milk lesson and the uselessness of starch as
a component of milk, unless the milk be cooked.
Squeeze the juice from a sour apple or lemon, and note the taste.
Explain that all fruit juices contain more or less acid. The effects of
this acid in the body are similar to those of mineral matter.
Protein is also found in plant juices; but in such small quantities that
it may be disregarded as a source of food supply.
GENERAL COMPOSITION OF PLANT JUICE
Water; mineral matter; flavouring matter; starch or sugar, or both; acid
(in fruit juice).
LESSON III
COMPOSITION OF SOLID MATERIAL IN CELLS OF SEEDS
This part of the lesson may be developed as follows:
1. Seeds contain the building material for new plants, as well as their
food for a short time.
2. Plants and animals require much the same material to build and feed
them.
3. Animals require water, mineral matter, protein, sugar, starch, and
fat.
4. Plants require the same; but the seed being a storehouse part of the
plant, it will not have sugar, and water has to be supplied when the new
plant is to be formed.
5. Seeds contain, therefore, mineral matter, protein, starch, and fat.
NOTE 1.--Seeds will grow in water until their
stored food is used: they must then be planted
in soil, to get further nourishment.
NOTE 2.--The two fuel foods, starch and fat,
are not found together in abundance in seeds;
one or the other will be much in excess. For
instance, in walnuts there is a great deal of
fat, while in peas and beans there is scarcely
a trace of fat, but the starch is abundant.
COMPARATIVE FOOD VALUE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANTS
Only a very general idea of this should be attempted. The food value of
any part of a plant can be roughly estimated by considering the office
of that particular part in plant structure. Nature study will assist in
this. The root collects the food to send it to the parts above; the stem
is a hallway through which the food is carried in a more diluted form.
The leaves serve the purpose of lungs and will not contain much food,
though they naturally have a good deal of flavour; parsley, sage, and
tea are examples of this. The fruit is a house to protect the seeds, and
is made most attractive and delicious, so that animals will be tempted
to eat this part, and thus assist in the dispersal of the seeds. The
fruit has comparatively little food value as building material. The seed
contains the stored material to build new plants, and therefore is the
most nutritive part of all. It is the only part of the plant which
contains an appreciable supply of building food, that is, which can take
the place of eggs or meat in the diet. Baked beans are sometimes called
"nuggets of nourishment" or "the poor man's beef".
LESSON IV
After discussing the food value of the different parts in this broad
way, the pupils may be asked to consider the plant foods used in their
diet and to compare their nutritive value.
The facts concerning these may be summed up as follows:
1. Green vegetables:
These generally contain much water, hardly any
protein or fat, and a small amount of sugar.
They are valuable mainly for their mineral
matter and cellulose.
2. Root vegetables and tubers:
These are more nutritious than green
vegetables, because they contain much more
sugar and starch.
3. Ripe seeds (cereals, legumes, and nuts):
These are highly nutritious, because of the
large amount of protein and building mineral
matter they contain, and also the amount of
fuel food.
DRIED VEGETABLES AND FRUIT
It is important that the value of these be pointed out. Dried foods
contain all of the constituents of fresh food excepting water and a
little flavour lost in evaporation, yet they are often much cheaper.
Attention should be directed to the best means of restoring the water
and, if necessary, of giving an additional flavour by the use of cloves,
cinnamon, etc.
Canning is a better means of preserving food for export or for use when
out of season, but where the expense prohibits this method, drying is a
good substitute. In districts where fruit and vegetables cannot be grown
or in seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh, the dried forms are
cheap and have excellent food value.
THE COOKING OF VEGETABLE FOOD
As vegetable food is eaten both raw and cooked, the pupils should be
asked to decide when cooking is necessary and what they wish it to
accomplish.
* * * * *
There are only two substances in vegetable food which will require
cooking, and these are:
1. Cellulose, if it be hard or tough
2. Starch, if it be present.
The pupils have found in their experiment with the potato water, that
starch cooks quickly, hence the time of cooking will depend altogether
on the texture of the cellulose. When the cellulose is softened at the
centre, the last part which the heat reaches, the vegetable or fruit
will be cooked.
If the food is cooked in water by boiling or simmering, much of the
substance will pass into the cooking water. As the cell walls become
softened, they allow the cell contents to partially pass out and the
cooking water to pass in to fill the space. If the food is long in
cooking, the water may have more value than the vegetable, and it should
not be thrown away. It may be used in two ways--as a basis for a sauce
or a soup.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING VEGETABLES
NOTE.--As the principles in the general rules
have been taught, these rules may be dictated
to the class.
PREPARATION
1. Wash, pare, peel, or scrape the vegetable, and cut it into convenient
sizes.
2. Unless green vegetables are freshly gathered, soak them in cold water
for an hour before cooking.
3. Soak dried vegetables at least twelve hours.
COOKING
1. Put all vegetables on to cook in boiling water, except dried
vegetables, which should be put on in cold water.
2. Strong-smelling vegetables should be cooked at simmering point, the
others may boil gently.
3. For vegetables that grow above ground (including onions), salt the
water (one tsp. to a quart).
4. For underground vegetables, do not salt the water.
VEGETABLE RECIPE
Prepare and cook the vegetables until tender, according to the rules
given above. Drain off and measure the vegetable water. For each 1/2 cup
of vegetable, take 1/4 cup of the water and make into a sauce. Re-heat
the vegetable in the sauce and serve in a hot dish.
NOTE 1.--For potatoes and tomatoes do not
follow this recipe.
NOTE 2.--The sauce is made by thickening each
cup of vegetable water with two tablespoonfuls
of flour, and seasoning as desired with salt,
pepper, and butter.
NOTE 3.--Another method of saving and using the
valuable vegetable water is to make it into a
soup.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING FRUIT
FRESH FRUIT
1. Stewed.--Put the prepared fruit in a saucepan with enough water to
keep it from burning. Cover closely, and stew until tender, stirring
often. Add the sugar and let the mixture boil a minute more.
2. Cooked in syrup.--Make a syrup of one part sugar to two or three
parts water. Put the prepared fruit in the hot syrup, cover closely, and
simmer until tender.
DRIED FRUIT
Wash the fruit thoroughly. Cover with cold water and soak twenty-four
hours. Put on to cook in the same water in which it has soaked. Add
spices if desired. Cover closely and simmer until tender. Add the sugar
and simmer ten minutes longer. Take out the fruit, and, if necessary,
boil down the syrup, then pour it over the fruit.
LESSONS V, VI, ETC.
While studying vegetable food, practice will be given in nearly every
lesson in the preparation and cooking of vegetables or fruit, but after
the completion of this series of lessons, these foods should be prepared
and cooked with more intelligence and interest. For this reason, there
may be, at the last, one general practical lesson devoted to vegetables
and fruit, to review and impress the facts that have been taught. As
potatoes, on account of their large amount of starch, require special
care, an extra lesson may be given to this vegetable.
In the lesson on potatoes the attention of the class should be directed
to the following:
POINTS IN COOKING POTATOES
1. Be sure to soften the cellulose thoroughly.
2. After the potatoes are cooked, get rid of all possible moisture, that
they may be white and mealy.
(1) If potatoes are cooked in water, drain them
thoroughly, remove the cover, and shake over
the heat to dry out the starch.
(2) If potatoes are baked, break the skins and
allow the moisture to escape as steam.
3. When serving mashed potatoes, pile them lightly without smoothing.
USE OF STARCH TO THICKEN LIQUIDS
A lesson on the use of starch for thickening purposes should be given
before lessons on the making of a sauce or a soup from the water in
which vegetables have been cooked. The necessity of separating the
starch grains should be shown by experiments.
EXPERIMENTS IN USING STARCH FOR THICKENING
(Any powdered starch may be used)
1. Boil 1/4 cup of water in a small saucepan. While boiling, stir into
it 1/2 tsp. of cornstarch and let it boil one minute. Observe the
result. Break open a lump and examine it.
2. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of cold water, and stir into 1/4
cup of boiling water. Note the result.
3. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of sugar and stir into 1/4 cup
of boiling water. Note the result.
4. Mix 1 tsp. of cornstarch with 2 tsp. of melted fat in a small
saucepan and stir into it 1/4 cup of boiling water. Note the result.
CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE FOREGOING EXPERIMENTS
1. Starch granules must be separated before being used to thicken a
liquid:
(1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid
(2) By adding a double quantity of sugar
(3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat.
2. The liquid which is being thickened must be constantly stirred, to
distribute evenly the starch grains until they are cooked.
BASIC RECIPE FOR LIQUIDS THICKENED WITH FLOUR.
Milk Flour Butter
Thin cream sauce 1 cup 1 tbsp. 1 tbsp.
Thick cream sauce 1 cup 2 tbsp. 2 tbsp.
NOTE.--Use thick cream sauce to pour over a
food. Use thin cream sauce when solid food
substance is mixed with the sauce.
VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE
1. Tomato sauce.--Use strained tomato juice instead of milk.
2. Vegetable sauce.--Use vegetable water in place of the milk.
3. Cheese sauce.--Use 1/3 to 1/2 cup of grated cheese in 1 cup of thick
cream sauce.
CREAM OF VEGETABLE SOUPS
At least one practice lesson should be given on the making of these
soups. The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the
pupils, and it may be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way
of using the cooking water and any left-over vegetable.
The difference between tomatoes and other vegetables should be noted.
Tomatoes are a fruit and, as such, contain an acid. The acid would
curdle milk and must be neutralized by the use of soda, before milk can
be added.
[Illustration: Utensils used for cream soups]
PRINCIPLES OF CREAM SOUPS
1. The liquid may be all milk, part vegetable water and milk, or all
vegetable water.
2. The amount of flour used for thickening depends on the vegetable.
Starchy vegetables need only 1/2 tbsp. to one cup of liquid; non-starchy
vegetables need 1 tbsp. to a cup.
3. The ingredients are combined as follows:
(1) The liquid is heated and thickened with
flour.
(2) The seasonings of butter, salt, and pepper
are added.
(3) The vegetable pulp is added in any desired
quantity, usually about two tbsp. to one cup of
liquid.
A special recipe should be given for cream of tomato soup, so that the
proportion of soda may be correct.
NOTE.--If flavours of onion, bay-leaf, parsley,
etc., are desired, these should be cooked with
the vegetables, so as to be extracted in the
vegetable water.
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON COOKING SEEDS
CEREALS: WHEAT, OATS, CORN, RICE, RYE, BARLEY
1. Forms in which used:
(1) Whole or cracked grains--rice, cracked
wheat, coarse oatmeal, etc.
(2) Granular--corn meal, cream of wheat, fine
oatmeal, etc.
(3) Rolled or flaked grains--wheat, oats, corn,
rice, etc.
(4) Powdered--wheat flour, rice flour, etc.
2. Cooking cereals for breakfast:
For 1 cup of water use 1/4 tsp. of salt and the
following cereal--
Whole or cracked--1/4 cup of cereal
Granular--3 tbsp. of cereal
Rolled or flaked--1/2 cup of cereal.
Put salt and water in the inner part of a double boiler, and set
directly over the fire. When steaming hot, gradually stir in the dry
cereal, and keep stirring until the starch has thickened and boiled.
Stir carefully, so as not to break the flakes of rolled cereals. Then
set the inner dish inside the outer part of the double boiler, in which
there should be boiling water, and cook from two to four hours.
NOTE 1.--Rice has very tender cellulose and
cooks in 3/4 hr.
NOTE 2.--Rolled or flaked cereals have been
steamed an hour or more to soften them for
rolling, so require less cooking.
NOTE 3.--Cereals may be cooked for breakfast
the day before, but _should not be stirred
while being re-heated_.
LEGUMES: PEAS, BEANS, LENTILS
1. Forms in which used:
(1) Ripe seeds
(2) Meals--pea meal, etc.
2. Cooking of dried legumes:
(1) Soak in cold, soft water for twelve hours
or more, and then drain and rinse. Hard water
may be softened by boiling, or by the addition
of soda (1/8 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of water).
(2) Cook by _simmering_ in softened water until
they are soft.
(3) After simmering, the beans may be baked.
NUTS
Forms in which used:
1. Whole or broken nuts--used as dessert or in cakes, salads, etc.
2. Butters--ground and mixed with other ingredients to make a paste.
3. Meals--ground and used to thicken soups.
SALADS
The series of lessons on vegetable foods being finished, it is a good
time to take a salad lesson. All salads were originally made from fresh
young plants or salad greens, and though any food material is now used
for the purpose, the subject seems to follow naturally the lessons on
plant food.
The pupils should derive unusual pleasure from this work. The dishes
made are most attractive and appetizing, besides affording an
opportunity for each member of the class to display individual artistic
skill. None of the principles are new, so that the lesson will be really
a review.
The outline of notes for the class will be:
INGREDIENTS OF SALADS
1. Salad plants _proper_, such as lettuce, water-cress, celery, cabbage
2. Cooked vegetables, such as peas, beans, asparagus, carrots, beets
3. Meat--cold, of any kind
4. Fish--cold, of any kind
5. Eggs--hard-boiled
6. Fruit
7. Combinations of the above in great variety.
FOOD VALUES OF SALADS
This depends on the ingredients. If salad greens only are used, the food
value is mainly the mineral matter, but the dish will be refreshing and
appetizing, and the oil, butter, or egg used in the dressing adds
nutriment.
Salads are prepared with little trouble and with no expense for fuel.
PREPARATION OF SALAD INGREDIENTS
1. Have everything cold before combining.
2. Freshen the greens in cold water until crisp.
3. Meat, fish, and solid ingredients should be seasoned some time before
using, so that they may absorb the flavours of the seasoning.
4. In most cases do not combine the ingredients with the dressing until
just before serving.
(1) Salad greens.--Wash thoroughly, and put in
cold water until crisp, drain on a towel, wrap
in a damp cloth, and put in a cool place.
Cabbage and lettuce may be finely shredded.
(2) Fruit and cooked vegetables.--Cut into
cubes or suitable pieces. Chill and mix with
the dressing, to absorb it.
(3) Meats.--Remove the fat, skin, and gristle.
Cut in cubes and chill.
(4) Fish.--Remove the bones, flake, chill, and
pour dressing over; but do not mix.
DRESSINGS FOR SALADS
1. Cooked salad dressing:
2 tbsp. sugar
1/2 tsp. mustard
1/2 tsp. salt
1/4 cup vinegar
2 eggs
2 tbsp. butter.
(1) Mix the first four ingredients in a
saucepan and heat until dissolved.
(2) Beat the eggs very light in a
round-bottomed bowl, using a Dover egg beater.
(3) Beat the vinegar mixture into the eggs.
(4) Set the bowl, with its contents, over a
dish of boiling water, then beat slowly and
constantly until the mixture is thickened.
(5) Lift the bowl from the heat _at once_.
(6) Beat in the butter and set away to cool.
(7) If desired, a half cup of whipped or plain
cream may be added just before the dressing is
used.
2. Uncooked salad dressing:
1/4 tsp. salt
1/8 tsp. pepper
4 tbsp. olive oil
2 tbsp. vinegar.
(1) Stir the salt and pepper into the oil.
(2) Add the vinegar slowly and stir vigorously
until well blended and slightly thickened.
(3) Serve with any salad made of salad greens.
STUDY OF MINERAL FOOD
As the study of mineral food involves a knowledge of chemistry, little
more can be done in Junior classes than to teach that certain mineral
compounds are required for the body, to point out their two main uses,
and to lead the pupils to know the foods which generally supply these.
Their attention should be directed to the fact that all mineral matter
is found, in the first place, in the earth's crust, but that, with the
exception of salt, animals cannot use it in that form. Plants can use
it, and they absorb it from the soil; then we eat the plants, and in
that way obtain the mineral substance, or we may obtain it by eating the
animals which have eaten the plants. Water also, in making its way
through the earth, may dissolve certain minerals and, by drinking the
water, we obtain these.
It will not be necessary to teach the names of the minerals which our
food must supply, as most of these will mean nothing to the pupils. They
might be asked to name one or two which are very familiar; for instance,
the lime in bone and the iron in blood. They may be told that there are
a few others which they will learn when they study chemistry in the high
school.
The pupils have already learned that mineral matter serves two main
functions in the body: that is, _building_ and _regulating_, and it is a
good plan to classify the well-known foods under these two headings.
With a little guidance the pupils can do most of this for themselves.
They know that milk serves all building purposes in a child's body, and
must, therefore, contain mineral matter. Eggs build animal bodies, and
must contain this substance also. Meat is the animal body that has been
built, therefore meat has this substance; but we shall find in the meat
lessons that there is no mineral matter in fat and that the cook cannot
dissolve it out of bone, therefore muscle or lean meat must be eaten to
obtain it. Seeds, too, contain building material for new plants;
therefore, the building mineral matter must be stored in their cells.
Hard water is known by the lime it contains, therefore this, if drunk,
assists in the formation of bone.
The class must be told that the mineral in the juices of plants is
mainly for regulating purposes; that is, to keep our bodies in order, or
as we say, healthy. When they get out of order, we usually go to a
doctor to be regulated or made well. The medicine which he prescribes
often contains some mineral in solution, perhaps iron. The mineral
matter which is in the juices of plants, being a more natural form than
the mineral matter in the medicine, is more easily made use of in the
bodily processes. This is one reason why people should eat plenty of
vegetables and fruit.
Many springs also furnish water with large quantities of mineral matter
in solution, which is used mainly for medicinal purposes. The pupils may
know some places where we find such springs, and these should be
mentioned, such as Preston Springs, Banff, and Mount Clemens, which have
become health resorts through the presence of these waters. When the
springs are in a distant country and their waters are known to contain a
certain mineral which our bodies need, the water is bottled and shipped
to us, and may be obtained from a druggist. Hunyadi Janos, Apenta,
Vichy, and Apollinaris are well-known medicinal waters shipped from
European springs.
SUMMARY OF SOURCES OF MINERAL FOODS
1. Building mineral matter.--Milk, eggs, lean meat, seeds, hard water
2. Regulating mineral matter.--Fruit, vegetables, mineral waters, salt.
NOTE.--This classification will be most useful
to the pupils in preparing well-balanced meals
in their diet lessons.
DIET
After studying in this elementary way the composition of the animal and
vegetable foods, the pupils will be ready for simple lessons on diet.
The class may now be said to have a working knowledge of the well-known
foods, and they should be given a chance to use this knowledge, by
combining and serving these foods for simple meals.
REFERENCE TABLES OF FOOD CONSTITUENTS
It will be helpful in this work, to guide the pupils in making out a
reference table of the food constituents. This will give lists of food
in which each constituent predominates, as follows:
1. Water:
Beverages (water, milk, tea, coffee, cocoa), fruit, vegetables.
2. Mineral matter:
(1) For building--milk, eggs (yolk and white),
lean meat or fish, seeds, hard water
(2) For regulating--fruit, vegetables, mineral
waters.
3. Protein:
Milk (curd), eggs (yolk and white), lean meat
or fish, seeds.
4. Sugar:
Fruit (juice), non-starchy vegetables (juice),
milk (whey), commercial sugar.
5. Starch:
Parts of plants which serve as storehouses:
Tubers--potatoes, artichokes
Roots--parsnip, tapioca, arrowroot
Stem--sago
Seeds--cereals, legumes, some nuts (peanuts,
chestnuts).
6. Fat:
Milk (cream), egg-yolk, meat or fish (fat),
fruit, as the olive (oil), most nuts (walnut,
butternut, pecan, peanut, etc.).
Besides the necessary substances in food, the pupils must be told that
there are other points for the housekeeper to consider when preparing
the meals, namely:
1. The amount of each food substance required
daily.
2. Special requirements of individuals
according to: (1) age, (2) occupation, (3)
climate, (4) season.
Under 1, above, it may be explained, that when a meal is prepared which
gives the body a correct proportion of each food substance, it is said
to be well balanced. From numerous experiments the "Dietary Standard"
for one day for a grown person has been calculated to be:
Water--about 5 pints, two of which are taken in
solid food
Mineral matter--1 ounce
Protein--3 to 4 1/2 ounces
Fat--2 ounces
Sugar and starch (together)--14 to 18 ounces.
Although the pupils cannot be expected to follow this table accurately,
from lack of sufficient knowledge, it will be of some assistance to them
in choosing a combination of food for the home meals.
Under 2, above, some of the variations of food are obvious, but some
must be taught. Children require simple, nourishing food, which will
contain plenty of protein and mineral matter for tissue building as well
as much fuel food. Their diet should be varied and abundant.
In old age the diet should also be simple, because of the lack of vigour
in the digestive organs, but the amount of building material should be
decreased. The food of old people should contain proportionately more
carbonaceous material.
Brain workers require less food than those engaged in active muscular
work, and it should be less stimulating and less bulky. Their diet
should be in a form that is easily digested.
With the foregoing general ideas in mind, the pupils may be asked to
prepare menus for simple home meals. These should be assigned as home
work, so that plenty of time can be given to their consideration, and
then they may be brought to the class for criticism. The best of these
should be chosen for actual practice in school work.
NOTE.--It is intended that this part of the
work shall be presented in a very rudimentary
way. The teacher should feel satisfied if she
succeeds in implanting ideas of the importance
of these food considerations, so that the
pupils will be ready for more specific
instruction to be gained in higher schools or
from their own reading. Cheap bulletins on
_Human Nutrition_, published by Cornell
University, will be excellent reading on this
subject.
PREPARING AND SERVING MEALS
Before the pupils are given a meal to prepare and serve, table setting
should be reviewed, and the rules of table service taught as follows:
RULES FOR SERVING
1. The hostess serves the soup, salad, dessert, tea, and coffee; the
host serves the meat and fish.
2. Vegetables and side dishes may be served by some one at the table or
passed by the waitress.
3. Dishes are served at the left of each person, commencing with the
chief guest.
4. Guests are served first; ladies before gentlemen.
5. In each course, remove the dishes containing the food before removing
the soiled plates.
6. When one course is finished, take the tray in the left hand, stand on
the left side of the person, and remove the individual soiled dishes
with the right hand, never piling them.
7. Before dessert is served, if necessary, remove the crumbs from the
cloth with a brush, crumb knife, or napkin.
8. Tea or coffee may be poured at table or served from a side table by
the waitress.
NOTE.--Extra cutlery and napkins should be
conveniently placed on a side table, in case of
accident.
Where the class consists of twelve or more pupils, it must be divided
for the preparation and serving of a meal. Each section should prepare
and serve a meal for the others, until all have had experience. As
breakfast and luncheon are the simpler meals, they should be taken first
in the order of lessons. The duties of the cooking and serving should be
definitely settled, and each girl given entire responsibility for a
certain part of the work.
Those who are served should represent a family. Members should be chosen
to act as father, mother, lady guest, gentleman guest, and children of
varying ages, so that the duties and serving of each may be typified.
CHAPTER VIII
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
CARE OF THE HOUSE
The pupils of Form IV Junior should be urged to take entire care of
their own bed-rooms. The Household Management teacher can do much to
encourage them in this. She may include such work as part of the week's
practice.
The order of work should be discussed and planned by the pupils, the
teacher guiding the class by her questioning. In lessons of this kind,
the main work of the teacher is to ascertain what the pupil knows and to
systematize her knowledge.
A typewritten sheet of directions may be given each pupil to hang in her
room, and may serve as an incentive to her to perform the duties
outlined.
DIRECTIONS FOR THE DAILY CARE OF A BED-ROOM
1. Open the window, if it has been closed during dressing.
2. Throw the bed-clothing over the foot of the bed, using a chair to
hold it from the floor, or place it over two chairs near the window.
3. Put night clothing to air.
4. Put away any other clothing in drawers and closet.
5. Tidy and dust the top of the dressing-table.
6. Make the bed, after it has been aired at least half an hour.
Once a week the following work should be added:
1. The blankets and comforter should be hung outside to air.
2. The mattress should be turned, and fresh bed-linen placed on the bed.
3. The room should be thoroughly swept and dusted.
After the pupils have had training in the care of their bed-rooms, this
experience, together with their lessons in cleaning, should enable them
to keep any of the other rooms in the house in good order.
It should be pointed out that, in these days of sanitary building and
furnishing, there is no necessity for the semi-annual "housecleaning" of
former times. Each week the house can be thoroughly gone over, with the
exception of laundering curtains and washing wood-work, and these duties
might be taken in turn, a room at a time every week, so that the work
will not accumulate.
The class should be taught to consider the economy of time and energy
and encouraged to provide themselves with all the latest aids they can
afford.
The cleaning methods which are necessary for this work and which have
not been formally taught, should now be definitely outlined. These are
the weekly sweeping, weekly dusting, and cleaning special metals.
DIRECTIONS FOR WEEKLY SWEEPING
1. Dust and put away all small articles.
2. Lift the small rugs, sweep them on both sides, out-of-doors if
possible, and leave them to air. Rugs too large to take out should be
brushed and folded over to allow of sweeping the under side and wiping
the floor beneath.
3. Cover the furniture with dust sheets.
4. Shut the doors and open a window.
5. Begin at the side of the room farthest from the door and sweep toward
the centre; sweep from the other side toward the centre; gather the dust
in a dust-pan and empty it into the garbage pail or fire.
6. Put away the broom and dust-pan.
7. Leave the room shut up for a few minutes, in order to allow the dust
to settle.
8. Use a "dustless" mop to dust the floor.
DIRECTIONS FOR WEEKLY DUSTING
1. Use a soft cotton or cheesecloth duster very slightly dampened.
2. Roll up the covers that are over the furniture and carry them
outside, in order to shake off the dust.
3. Wipe the dust from the furniture, pictures, window-sills, ledges,
doors, and baseboard, being careful not to scatter it in the air.
4. Change the duster when necessary.
5. Replace the small articles.
6. Wash and dry the dusters.
CARE AND CLEANING OF METALS
IRON OR STEEL
Utensils made of these are heavy, but strong and durable, and hold the
heat well.
1. Care:
They must be kept dry and smooth. Moisture
causes rust, roughens the surfaces of the
utensils, and makes them more difficult to
clean. If they are not to be used for some
time, the surfaces should be greased or coated
with paraffin.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse in hot water,
and dry thoroughly.
(2) If food is burned on, scour with some
gritty material or boil in a solution of
washing soda, rinse in hot water, and dry
thoroughly.
TIN
Utensils made of this are light and inexpensive; they are good
conductors of heat, but they are also good radiators and lose heat
quickly.
1. Care:
As tinware is steel or iron coated with liquid
tin, the grades vary according to the
"base-metal" used and the thickness of the
coating. Utensils made of this metal must be
carefully kept from scratches, since deep
scratches expose the base-metal and allow the
formation of rust.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds, rinse, and dry
thoroughly.
(2) If food is burned on, boil in a weak
solution of washing soda, rinse in hot water,
and dry thoroughly.
NOTE.--Whiting may be used to brighten the tin,
but scouring is not recommended, as it wears
off the coating.
GRANITE AND ENAMEL WARE
Utensils made of this are attractive, not heavy, and they do not tarnish
or rust.
1. Care:
These wares are made by coating steel or
sheet-iron with a specially prepared glassy
substance called enamel or glaze. Two or three
coats are applied. The durability depends on
the ingredients used in the glaze and on the
number of coats applied.
Such utensils should be heated gradually,
scraped carefully, and handled without
knocking, to avoid "chipping".
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.
(2) If stained, use some scouring powder; wash
and dry.
(3) If food is burned on, boil in a solution of
washing soda and then scour; wash and dry.
ALUMINIUM
Utensils made of this are very light in weight and, as they have no
crevices, are easily cleaned. They are also good conductors of heat.
1. Care:
This metal warps under a high temperature, and
should, therefore, be used with care. Do not
turn the gas on full, or, if used over wood or
coal fires, be sure to leave the stove lid on.
Some foods injure the metal, if they are
allowed to remain in it very long.
2. Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot water, with mild soap. Alkalies
should not be used, as they darken the surface.
(2) If food is burned on, the dish should be
soaked in water and then scoured with bathbrick
or emery powder.
(3) Whiting may be used to brighten it.
ZINC
This is not used for utensils, but for table tops and for placing under
stoves, etc.
Cleaning:
(1) Use hot water and mild soap. Alkalies and
acids affect zinc and should be used with care.
(2) If stained, rub with coal-oil or a paste
made of coal-oil and soda, and then wash in hot
water.
GALVANIZED IRON
This is used for garbage pails, ash pans, stove pipes, etc. It is made
by dipping sheet-iron into melted zinc.
Cleaning:
The same as for zinc.
COPPER OR BRASS
Utensils made of these are heavy but durable and are good conductors of
heat. They are dangerous, if not properly cleaned.
Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot water, using a little washing
soda to remove any grease, rinse well, and dry.
(2) If stained or tarnished, scour with salt
and vinegar, then rinse thoroughly, and dry.
SILVER
This is used for spoons, knives, forks, and serving dishes, but never
for cooking utensils, on account of its cost. It is the best conductor
of heat among the house metals.
Cleaning:
(1) Wash in hot soap-suds.
(2) If stained or tarnished, use whiting or
silver polish, wash, and dry.
RECIPE FOR SILVER POLISH
2 tbsp. borax
1 cup boiling water
1/2 cup alcohol whiting.
1. Dissolve the borax in the water.
2. When cold, add the alcohol and enough
whiting to make a thin cream.
3. Bottle, and shake when used.
NOTE.--The care and cleaning of the metals out
of which ordinary utensils are made, such as
granite ware, tin, and steel, may be taught
incidentally as the utensils are used.
CHAPTER IX
FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)
LAUNDRY WORK
This work is but a continuation of the lessons on cleaning. It is the
process of removing foreign matter from cotton, linen, woollen, or silk
fabrics by the use of water and additional cleansing agents. It also
includes the finishing of these materials by the use of blueing, starch,
and heated irons, to restore as far as possible their original
appearance.
The principles of laundry work have been taught in the washing of dish
cloths and towels, and now these principles have only to be extended to
white cotton and linen clothes of any kind.
The pupils may be asked to bring soiled articles of white linen or
cotton from home for use at school in exemplifying the necessary
processes. In schools which lack an equipment, these processes may be
discussed in class and then practised at home. The teacher should choose
from the following outline what is most suitable to the class:
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE WASHING OF WHITE COTTON AND LINEN CLOTHES
LESSON I
MATERIALS
1. Water:
(1) Use:
(_a_) To soften and dissolve certain foreign
substances in the clothes.
(_b_) To carry away all the foreign matter that
has been dissolved or rubbed out of the
clothes.
(_2_) Kinds:
(_a_) _Hard water_
(_b_) _Soft water_
For laundry purposes, the water should be soft.
The quality known as hardness, which some water
has, is due to the lime which it has dissolved
in making its way through the earth.
Water is said to be temporarily or permanently
hard according to the kind of lime it has in
solution. Temporarily hard water may be
softened by boiling; the lime will be
deposited, as may be seen in the "furring" of
tea-kettles. Boiling has no effect in softening
permanently hard water, so a substance known as
an _alkali_ is used for this purpose.
(3) Methods of softening water by alkalies.--For
each gallon of water use one of the following:
(_a_) One tablespoonful of borax or ammonia
dissolved in one cup of water.
(_b_) Two tablespoonfuls of a solution made by
dissolving one pound of washing soda in one
quart of boiling water.
(_c_) One fourth tablespoonful of lye dissolved
in one cup of water.
2. Alkalies (borax, ammonia, washing soda, lye):
(1) Use:
(_a_) To soften hard water
(_b_) To assist in dissolving greasy
substances.
(2) Kinds:
(_a_) _Borax._--This alkali is one of the
mildest, and for this reason is less harmful to
the clothing. It is useful when an alkali is
required to soften water for coloured clothes
or woollens. It also has a tendency to keep
white clothes a good colour.
(_b_) _Ammonia._--This also is a mild alkali,
but is apt to "yellow" white materials. As it
is very volatile, it should not be used unless
the washing can be done quickly.
(_c_) _Washing soda._--This is a cheap
substance and stronger than borax or ammonia.
It should be made into a solution before it is
used, for fear of too great strength.
(_d_) _Lye, or caustic soda._--This alkali is
very strong and should be employed with great
care. It must not be used except in weak
solutions, otherwise it would entirely dissolve
fabrics. It is not advisable for home laundry
work.
3. Soap:
(1) Use.--To act on greasy matter.
Soap-suds penetrate fabrics more completely
than water alone, and when the soap comes in
contact with fatty material, it _emulsifies_
it, that is, very finely divides it into minute
particles, so that it can be easily removed. If
a soap is used that contains free alkali, this
substance unites with the greasy impurities to
form new soap which has cleansing value.
(2) Kinds.--(_a_) Neutral, (_b_) medium, (_c_)
strong.
All soap is a compound of an alkali and fat,
and according as one or the other of these
substances predominates, the kind of soap is
determined.
When just enough alkali is used to completely
_saponify_ the amount of fat, the product is
called a neutral, or mild, soap. When an excess
of alkali is present, the soap is termed medium
or strong, according to the amount of free
alkali it contains.
A mild soap should be used when free alkali
would be injurious, as in washing woollens or
fabrics that have delicate colours.
4. Soap substitutes, or adjuncts:
(1) Use.--To act alone or with soap in exerting
a solvent action on greasy impurities, so that
the cleansing process may be facilitated.
(2) Kinds:
(_a_) _Alkalies._--These must be used in excess
of the amount needed for softening the water.
(_b_) _Harmless solvents, such as turpentine,
paraffin, coal-oil, gasolene._--The clothing
must be well rinsed to get rid of any odour.
(_c_) _Washing powders._--These are prepared
mixtures of soap and some other solvent of
greasy matter.
5. Blueing:
(1) Use.--To make clothes which have a yellow
tinge appear whiter in colour.
(2) Kinds.--There are several kinds on the
market, but the names of these will be of no
value to the class.
NOTE.--Sufficient blueing should be used to
make the blueing water a pale sky-blue colour
when a little of it is lifted in the hand.
6. Starch:
(1) Use:
(_a_) To stiffen fabrics and thus improve their
appearance.
(_b_) To give fabrics a glazed surface, so that
they will shed dust and other impurities.
(2) Kinds.--(_a_) Cold starch, (_b_) boiled starch.
Raw starch does not give as durable a finish as
cooked starch, but it does give greater
stiffness. A fabric will take up more starch in
the raw form, and the heat of the iron cooks
the starch, thus producing the stiffness. The
"body", or stiffness, produced by cooked starch
is usually preferable, though on account of its
preparation, it is not so convenient to use.
(3) Recipes for starch--
(_a_) Cold Starch
2 tbsp. laundry starch
1/2 tsp. borax
2 cups cold water.
Dissolve the borax in a little boiling water. Add the cold water
gradually to the starch and mix thoroughly. Add the dissolved borax and
stir well before using.
(_b_) Boiled Starch
2 tbsp. starch
4 tbsp. cold water
1/2 tsp. lard, butter, or paraffin
1 qt. boiling water.
Mix the starch with the cold water until free from lumps. Add the lard,
then gradually stir in the boiling water, and keep stirring until
thickened. Cook fifteen minutes and use hot.
NOTE.--Borax in starch gives greater gloss and
increases the stiffness. It also gives more
lasting stiffness. Lard, butter, or wax is used
to give a smoother finish and to prevent the
starch from sticking to the iron.
LESSON II
PREPARATION FOR WASHING WHITE LINEN OR COTTON CLOTHES
1. Sort the clothes: (1) Table linen and clean towels
(2) Bed and body linen
(3) Handkerchiefs
(4) Soiled towels and cloths.
2. Mend the clothes.
3. Remove stains.
4. Look after necessary materials.
PROCESS OF WASHING WHITE LINEN OR COTTON CLOTHES
_Steps_ _Method_
1. Soaking:
Wet the clothes; rub the soiled parts with soap
and roll each article separately; pack in a
tub, placing the clothing most soiled at the
bottom; cover with warm soapy water and soak
from one hour to over night.
The soaking softens and loosens the fibres of
fabrics, so that the foreign matter in them can
be more easily separated. It also dissolves the
soluble impurities in the fabrics.
2. Rubbing:
Wring the clothes out of the soaking water, and
place them in a tub of clean warm water or
soap-suds; rub the soiled parts first on one
side and then on the other, using the knuckles,
a washboard, or a washing-machine. When each
piece is clean, wring it tightly.
The rubbing scrapes or rubs out the foreign
matter which has been loosened by the soaking.
3. Rinsing:
Shake out each piece and put it into a tub of
clear water; rub, and move about in the water
to get rid of any soiled water that the clothes
may contain; wring tightly.
4. Boiling:
Shake out each piece and place it in a boiler
of cold water with or without soap; bring to
boiling heat, and boil briskly for twenty
minutes.
The boiling kills any germs and assists in
whitening the clothes.
5. Rinsing:
Lift the clothes from the boiling water by
means of a clothes stick and place them in a
tub of clear, cold water; proceed as in the
first rinsing.
6. Blueing:
Open out each piece and place one or two at a
time in a tub of blueing water for just a
moment; wring tightly, and shake out each
piece.
The blueing tends to counteract any yellow
tinge in the clothes, making them appear
whiter.
7. Starching:
Dip one piece at a time into the starch mixture
until well saturated; then wring.
Only certain articles or parts of articles will
require this part of the process, to give them
body or stiffness and, it may be, glossiness.
8. Hanging:
Shake out each piece thoroughly; fasten to a
clothes-line or hang on a rack to allow the
moisture to evaporate. This should be
out-of-doors in the sunlight if possible.
REMOVAL OF STAINS
Foreign matter which is difficult or impossible to remove by the
ordinary washing process is called a _stain_. Such matter is not
dissolved by the usual cleansing agents used in laundry work, such as
water and soap, but requires some special solvent to act on it. The
choice of the agent to be used will depend on the nature of the foreign
matter to be removed. In some cases it is difficult to find an agent
which will not act also on the colour of the fabric; in other cases to
find one which does not injure the fibre of the goods.
The pupils should be asked to give instances from their own experience
where special solvents were used to remove stains, and be required to
make a list of these. If necessary, the teacher should supplement this
list with the names of other agents and the methods of using them.
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON THE WASHING OF WOOLLENS
The washing of woollen materials is part of the Course for the work of
the Senior Grade of Form IV, but, for the sake of convenience, the
laundry lessons of both Grades of Form IV are outlined in one section of
this Manual.
Before allowing the class any practice in this branch of laundry work,
it will be necessary for the teacher to make certain principles very
clear:
1. That wool is an animal product. As such it tends to be shrunken and
hardened by (1) heat, (2) alkalies.
2. That the surface of each wool fibre woven into woollen materials is
seen under the microscope to be covered with notches, or scales. If
these notches in any way become entangled, the material is thereby drawn
up, or "shrunken".
3. That these notches may be entangled by:
(1) Wetting the woollen material and then
rubbing or twisting it. When the fibres are
wet, they expand somewhat and the projecting
scales, or notches, are loosened. If the
material is rubbed at this time, the notched
edges interlock.
(2) The use of strong soaps or alkalies. These
act chemically on the fibres and soften and
expand them, causing the notched edges to
become so prominent that they catch in one
another.
NOTE.--The structure of woollen fibres may be
sketched on the black-board and compared with
those of cotton and linen.
To impress the foregoing principles, a few experiments will be found
most useful.
EXPERIMENTS WITH CLOTH MADE OF WOOL FIBRE
1. Boil a piece of new woollen cloth for five minutes. Dry, and compare
with an original piece.
2. Saturate a piece of new woollen cloth with a strong solution of
washing soda. Dry, and compare with an original piece.
3. Wash a piece of new woollen cloth in each of the following ways:
(1) By rubbing soap directly on the cloth and
then sousing the goods in the water.
(2) By using a soap solution instead of the
soap, as in (1).
(3) By rubbing on a wash-board.
In each case dry the cloth and compare with an original piece.
After the results of the experiments have been discussed, the pupils may
formulate a series of "points" to be observed in the washing of woollen
fabrics.
[Illustration: Cotton fibres magnified]
[Illustration: Linen fibres magnified]
[Illustration: Woollen fibres magnified]
POINTS IN WASHING WOOLLENS
1. Use lukewarm, soft water.
2. Do not use strong soaps or alkalies.
3. Do not rub soap directly on the woollen material, but use soap
solutions.
4. Do not rub or twist woollen cloth when it is wet.
5. Do not boil to sterilize.
6. Do not dry in extreme heat.
STEPS IN WASHING WOOLLEN MATERIALS
1. Shake or brush the clothing to free it from dust.
2. Put it into lukewarm, soapy water to soak for a few minutes.
3. Wash on both sides by squeezing and sousing in the water.
4. Rinse in clear, lukewarm water; use several waters, if necessary, to
remove the soap.
5. Pass through a loosely set wringer or squeeze the water out by hand.
6. Shake, in order to raise the woolly fibres.
7. Dry in a moderate temperature, in a wind, if possible.
CHAPTER X
FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE
FOODS
The Senior Fourth class is the preparatory class for entrance into the
high school, and for many girls it is the final school year. For this
reason the Course of this year should cover as many of the remaining
household operations as possible.
The training of the previous years should have formed good habits of
work and have given experience in ordinary cleaning, and in the cooking
and serving of the simple food materials. Through this training the
pupils should also have been impressed with the value of food, and
should have learned the sources of food and of all well-known household
materials.
The training of this last year, while continuing the Junior work, should
also emphasize the household processes that require greater mental
development to understand and greater practical skill to carry out. It
is the border year between the public school and the high school, and
must necessarily anticipate the elementary science of the latter. In
this year more responsibility should be given to the pupils and more
originality should be expected of them. Where they have hitherto
followed recipes and been given rules, they should now follow principles
and deduce rules.
Of the several topics outlined in the Course for Form IV Senior, it is
advisable to start with the preservation of food. Fruit and vegetables
are most plentiful when the school year opens, and September is the
most opportune month to preserve these for winter use. Facts concerning
food preservation may have been taken incidentally in previous lessons,
but now the subject should be systematically taught, so that canning,
preserving, and pickling may be intelligently practised.
PRESERVATION OF FOOD
CAUSE OF DECAY
The lesson may be introduced by referring to the unusual attention given
to fruit at the time of ripening. The economical housekeeper takes
certain foods when they are most plentiful and preserves them for use
when they are not in season. Some foods require special care to keep
them from decaying. The decay is caused by the action of microscopic
plants called "bacteria", which get into the food.
BACTERIA
It is difficult for any one to get a correct conception of bacteria;
especially is it so for children. The teacher should be most careful not
to attempt to give the class unimportant details, but the few necessary
facts should be made very clear and real. The following points should be
impressed:
1. Bacteria are plants. (This fact should be kept clearly in mind.)
2. They are microscopic in size and hence the more difficult to deal
with.
3. They are found everywhere that there is life--in the air, in water,
in the soil.
4. They multiply very rapidly under favourable conditions.
5. Some bacteria are useful to the housekeeper; many kinds are her
enemies.
6. Some of these enemies get into food and, growing there, cause a
change in it--then we say the food is spoiled.
CONDITIONS OF BACTERIAL GROWTH
All plants have the same requirements. Any well-known plant may be put
before the class to help them to think of these. They must be told that
microscopic plants differ from other plants in one respect; they do not
need light. Hence bacterial requirements are as follows: (1) water, (2)
food, (3) air (oxygen), (4) heat.
The class should be led to see that if any one of these conditions is
removed, the remaining ones are insufficient for the plant's activity.
MEANS OF OVERCOMING BACTERIA
To the housekeeper, preserving food means overcoming bacteria. There are
only two ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen:
1. Kill the bacteria in the food and exclude others.
2. Subject the food to conditions which are unfavourable for bacterial
growth.
In the first way, extreme heat is used to kill the bacteria in the food,
and then while hot, the food is sealed to keep out other bacteria:
Example, canning.
In the second way, conditions are made unfavourable to the bacteria in
the food, as follows:
1. The bacteria are deprived of water; the food is dried.
2. The bacteria are deprived of sufficient heat to be active; cold
storage is used.
3. Large quantities of certain substances which are detrimental to the
growth of bacteria are put into the food, and the bacteria become
inactive. Examples: salt, sugar, spices, vinegar, smoke, or certain
chemicals.
When the lesson is finished, the class is ready to practise the
principles it involves. The lessons on the special preservation of fruit
may follow at once.
[Illustration: Utensils used in canning]
CANNING
As canning is the method of preservation most commonly used, practice
should be given in this method. In rural schools with a limited
equipment, it may be that only one jar can be prepared. In other
schools, it may be impossible to provide each pupil with material for
work, on account of the expense. In the latter case, the materials may
all be brought from home, or each pupil may bring her own jar and fruit,
and the school supply the sugar.
Instruction on the care of jars and the preparation of fruit and syrup
must precede the practical work.
CARE OF JARS
1. See that the jars are air-tight; partly fill the jar with water;
place rubbers, covers, and rims; screw tightly, and invert. If any water
oozes out, the jar is not air-tight. Often an extra rubber will correct
the trouble.
2. Wash the jars thoroughly with the aid of a small brush.
3. Sterilize the jars in every part; dip them in boiling water, or place
them on a rest (folded paper or wooden slats) in a kettle, to prevent
the jars from touching the bottom. Fill and surround them with tepid
water, then place them over heat until the water boils. Keep them in the
boiling water until ready to fill with fruit. Dip the rubber bands in
boiling water, but do not allow them to remain in it. Use new rubbers
each season.
4. When filling the jars, place them on a folded cloth wrung out of warm
water, then seal, and invert until cool.
PREPARATION OF FRUIT
Use fresh, sound fruit, not too ripe.
1. Berries.--Pick over, wash in a strainer, and hull.
2. Currants, gooseberries.--Pick over, wash, remove ends and stems.
3. Cherries.--Pick over, wash, remove stones and stems.
4. Plums.--Pick over, wash, remove stems, and prick three or four times
with a silver fork, in order to prevent the steam bursting the skin.
5. Pears, apples.--Pick over, wash, pare, and, to prevent discoloration,
keep in cold water until used.
6. Peaches.--Pick over, plunge into boiling water a few seconds (using a
wire basket), then into cold water; peel; drop into cold water to
prevent discoloration.
SYRUP FOR CANNING
Use about 1 cup of water for each pint can.
No. 1 Syrup.--Equal parts of sugar and water, or 1 cup of water and 1
cup of sugar.
No. 2 Syrup.--1 1/2 cups of water and 1 cup of sugar.
1. Use No. 1 syrup for watery fruits and acid fruits.
2. Use No. 2 syrup for pears, peaches, sweet plums, sweet cherries, etc.
METHODS OF CANNING
1. Fruit cooked in a steamer:
Fill the sterilized jars with prepared fruit,
with or without syrup. Place the covers, but do
not fasten them down. Stand the jars in a
steamer over cold water. Cover the steamer and
heat to the boiling point. Steam at least
fifteen minutes, or until the fruit is tender.
Remove from the steamer, fill to overflowing
with boiling syrup, and seal at once. Invert.
2. Fruit cooked in a boiler:
Put a false bottom in the boiler, to prevent
the jars from being broken. Fill the jars with
fruit, and add syrup if desired. Cover and
place the jars in the boiler without touching
one another. Pour in tepid water to within an
inch of the top of the jars and bring gradually
to boiling heat. Cook and finish as directed in
1, above.
3. Fruit cooked in an oven:
Fill sterilized, hot jars with prepared raw
fruit and cover with hot syrup. Place the jars
in a moderate oven, in a baking dish containing
about an inch or two of hot water. Cook and
finish as in 1, above.
4. Fruit cooked in a kettle:
Make a syrup in a fairly deep kettle. Put the
prepared fruit into it and cook gently until
tender. When the fruit is cooked, lift
carefully into hot, sterilized jars, and fill
to overflowing with boiling syrup. Seal at once
and invert.
NOTE.--By Methods 1, 2, and 3 the fruit is kept
more perfect in shape and loses less flavour
than by Method 4. Methods 2 and 4 are best to
choose for class practice.
After the lesson in Canning, it may not be wise to take the school time
for further practice in the preservation of fruit. When such is the
case, the theory of jam and jelly making may be discussed in class for
home practice. The notes of these lessons may appear as follows:
JAMS AND PRESERVES
POINTS IN MAKING JAM
1. In this method sugar is the preservative, therefore the amount used
must be large.
2. The quantity of sugar used is from three quarters to one pound of
sugar to each pound of fruit. Little or no water is used.
3. The natural shape and appearance of the fruit is not kept.
4. The flavour of the fruit is not so natural, on account of the
excessive sweetness.
5. The jar need not be sealed, but merely covered.
JELLY
COMPOSITION OF JELLY
1. Jelly is made from certain fruit juices and sugar.
2. The fruit juice must contain a certain amount of _pectin_, or
jellying principle, and also a certain amount of acid.
PARTS OF FRUIT CONTAINING MOST PECTIN
(1) Skin, (2) core, (3) pits and seeds.
[Illustration: Utensils used in making jelly]
FRUITS CONTAINING MOST PECTIN
1. Currants
2. Crab-apples, apples
3. Quinces
4. Cranberries, blackberries, raspberries
5. Grapes, if rather green.
METHOD OF MAKING JELLY
1. Cut up the prepared fruit if necessary, and add barely enough water
for cooking.
2. Set over the heat and simmer gently until the cellulose is very soft.
3. Turn into a jelly-bag, and drain for a number of hours or over night,
in order to get rid of the cellulose.
4. Measure the drained juice and take the same quantity of sugar.
5. Heat the sugar in the oven.
6. Boil the juice gently and steadily for twenty minutes, skimming when
required.
7. Add the hot sugar and boil very gently from three to five minutes, or
until the mixture will jelly when tested.
8. Empty at once into hot glasses and set to cool.
9. When cold and firm, cover and set in a cool, dark place.
METHODS OF COVERING JAM OR JELLY
1. Melt paraffin and pour a layer on each glass, cover with a tin cover
or paper pasted with egg-white.
2. Cut clean, white paper to fit the glass, and lay on the jelly when it
is firm and cold. Place the cover or paper as in 1, above.
PICKLING
Where the teacher finds it desirable, a lesson should now be given on
pickling, with or without class practice. At least one or two good
recipes may be given for home use.
There are no new principles to teach. The use of vinegar, salt, and
spices as preservatives should be reviewed.
CHAPTER XI
FORM IV: SENOR GRADE (Continued)
COOKERY
The first work in cookery, for this Form, should consist of practice
lessons, which will test the ability of the class in cooking the simple
animal and vegetable foods. The recipes used for these should be such as
to attract the interest of the pupils, and each may be a combination of
several food materials. Cream soups, custards, scalloped dishes, and
shepherd's pie, would be useful for this purpose.
It is desirable that this test shall be made in as few lessons as
possible, because nearly all the time in cookery for this year will be
required for the new work, namely, a series of lessons on flour
mixtures.
OUTLINE OF LESSON ON FLOUR
Flour is a food substance ground into a powder.
1. Sources of flour:
(1) Certain cereals--wheat, rye, barley,
buckwheat, rice
(2) Potatoes.
2. Kinds of flour made from wheat:
(1) Graham flour--the entire wheat seed is
ground.
(2) Whole wheat flour--the first outer coat of
cellulose with its valuable mineral contents is
removed before the seed is ground.
(3) White flour--only the central white part of
the seed is ground.
NOTE.--The pupils should be given specimens of
fall wheat to examine, so as to compare the
outer coat of cellulose with the central white
part of the grain.
3. Composition of white flour:
(1) Starch--a fine, granular, white substance
(2) Gluten--a sticky, yellowish, elastic
substance (a protein food).
To find the substances in white flour, each pupil should mix half a cup
of bread flour with enough cold water to make a dough. She must then be
taught to knead it. This knowledge will be of use later in the bread
lessons. After it is thoroughly kneaded until it is smooth and well
blended, the dough should be washed in several waters. The first washing
water should be poured into a glass and allowed to settle, to show the
starch. After all the starch is washed away, the gluten will remain.
The gluten may then be put into a greased pan and baked, to demonstrate
that it admits of distention, and also to show that it may be stiffened
permanently by heat into any distended shape. The baked gluten should be
reserved to be used as a specimen in succeeding lessons.
4. Kinds of wheat flour:
(1) Bread flour--contains much gluten.
(2) Pastry flour--contains little gluten.
NOTE.--Macaroni is a paste made from wheat
flour which contains much gluten.
5. Tests for bread flour:
(1) The colour is a deeper cream than pastry
flour, on account of the larger amount of
gluten which it contains.
(2) When squeezed, it will not hold the impress
of the hand.
(3) When the flour is made into a dough and
washed, about one fourth of the original
quantity remains as gluten.
OUTLINE OF SERIES OF LESSONS ON FLOUR MIXTURES
LESSON I
1. Meaning of flour mixtures:
A lightened mixture of flour and liquid, with
or without other ingredients, is called a flour
mixture.
2. Kinds of flour mixtures:
(1) Batters.--(_a_) Pour batters--pancakes, popovers
(_b_) Drop batters--cake
(2) Doughs.-- (_a_) Soft dough--cookies, baking-powder
biscuits, doughnuts
(_b_) Stiff dough--pastry.
3. Methods of mixing flour mixtures:
(1) Stirring.--A roundabout movement which
simply mixes the ingredients.
(2) Beating.--An upright, circular movement,
which incorporates air into the ingredients
while being mixed.
(3) Folding.--A slow, careful beating, which
blends the ingredients without loss of the air
they contain.
(4) Kneading.--A movement of the hands to blend
the ingredients and also to incorporate air.
(5) Cutting.--A hacking movement of a knife to
mix fat through flour.
4. Framework of flour mixtures:
(1) Gluten
(2) Gluten and egg-white.
To show the framework, the gluten baked in the flour lessons should be
used. It should be pointed out as the skeleton of the mixture which
upholds the entire structure and on which the other ingredients depend.
To have light mixtures, this framework must admit of being expanded and
also of being stiffened permanently into the stretched shape. Since
egg-white has both of these necessary qualities, it may be used for a
framework either alone or in combination with gluten.
It should also be observed that a mixture of ingredients light in weight
does not prevent the framework from rising as much as heavy ones do.
The pupils will see that the framework of a mixture must increase in
size in order to make the mixture light, but it must be made very clear
that, while heat stiffens any framework, it will not distend it. Some
other agency is required for this.
5. Lightening agents used in flour mixtures:
(1) Air.--Incorporated by beating, kneading,
and sifting.
(2) Steam.--Incorporated in the form of a
liquid which, when heated, changes to steam.
(3) Carbonic acid gas.--Formed in the mixture
by the chemical union of soda with some acid.
Examples: soda and sour milk; soda, cream of
tartar and water; soda and molasses.
The lightening agents, air and steam, may be taught from the samples of
baked gluten. Experiments will show how to produce the carbonic acid
gas.
Experiments:
1. Put into a thick glass 1/8 tsp. of soda and
1/4 tsp. of cream of tartar. Mix, and note the
result. Stir in 1/8 cup of cold water, and note
the result.
2. In No. 1, use hot water in place of cold,
and note the result.
3. Put 1/4 cup of sour milk in a glass. Stir
into the milk 1/4 tsp. of soda, and note the
result.
4. Put 1 tbsp. of molasses in a glass. Stir
into the molasses a pinch of soda, and note the
result.
Baking-powder:
It may now be explained that, for the sake of convenience, soda and
cream of tartar may be obtained already mixed, in accurate proportions
of two parts of acid to one of the soda. This mixture is known as
baking-powder. As very little moisture is necessary to start the action
of the powder, a little cornstarch is added to it to keep it dry. For
the same reason, it should always be kept tightly covered.
Soda is made from common salt and is cheap, but the source of cream of
tartar makes it expensive, so that good baking-powder cannot be low
priced. If such be advertised, it is usually adulterated.
As soon as the foregoing principles of flour mixtures are understood,
they should be put into practice. The lessons on cake, bread, and pastry
should follow in the order named, with as much practical work in
connection with each as the time will allow.
CAKE MAKING
LESSONS II AND III
1. Classes of cake:
(1) Cakes without butter.--These mixtures
contain no heavy ingredients and have little
weight depending on the framework. They are
lightened by air and steam only. Examples:
sponge cake, angel cake.
(2) Cakes with butter.--These are mixtures
having ingredients of greater weight; and the
three lightening agents--air, steam, and
carbonic acid gas are used to raise them.
Examples: pound cake, chocolate cake, nut cake,
etc.
NOTE.--Practice should be given in making at
least one of each kind of cake, to demonstrate
the method of mixing employed.
2. General directions for making cake:
(1) Attend to the fire, so as to have the oven
at a proper heat.
(2) Grease the pans thoroughly; greased paper
may be used to line the bottom of the tin, but,
in the case of fruit cake, the whole tin should
be lined.
(3) Have everything ready, so that the mixing
may be quickly done.
(4) Use pastry flour.
(5) Use fine granulated sugar to ensure its
being dissolved.
(6) Blend the ingredients thoroughly, and at
the same time incorporate as large an amount of
air as possible.
(7) Fill the pan about two-thirds full, pushing
the mixture well to the corners and sides, so
as to leave a depression in the centre.
(8) Attend carefully to the baking.
3. General rules for mixing cake:
(1) Cake without butter--
(_a_) Separate the yolks and whites of the
eggs.
(_b_) Beat the yolks until thick and
lemon-coloured.
(_c_) Add sugar to the yolks gradually and
continue beating; add the flavouring.
(_d_) Beat the whites until stiff and dry, then
_fold_ them into the first mixture.
(_e_) Gradually sift and fold in the flour
until well mixed.
(2) Cake with butter--
(_a_) Cream the butter by working it with a
wooden spoon.
(_b_) Add the sugar gradually by stirring it
in.
(_c_) Beat the eggs until light, and add to the
first mixture. (The eggs may be separated and
the whites added later.)
(_d_) Add the liquid and beat until the sugar
is thoroughly dissolved.
(_e_) Mix the flour and baking-powder in a
sifter and gradually sift and beat it into the
mixture until it is thoroughly blended.
(Liquid and flour may be added alternately.)
(_f_) Fold in the stiffly beaten whites, if the
eggs have been separated.
(_g_) If fruit, peel, nuts, etc., are used,
they should be floured out of the quantity
allowed for the cake and added last.
4. General directions for baking cake:
(1) Small, thin cakes should be baked in a hot
oven.
Examples: cookies, layer cake.
(2) All loaf cakes require a moderate oven.
(3) In baking cakes, divide the time stated in
the recipe into quarters as follows:
First quarter--mixture should begin to rise.
Second quarter--mixture should continue rising.
Third quarter--mixture should begin to brown
and to stiffen into shape.
Fourth quarter--mixture should finish browning
and stiffening and shrink slightly from the
sides of the pan.
(4) Mixture is cooked when a slight pressure
leaves no dent, or when a small skewer or fine
knitting-needle put into the centre comes out
clean and dry.
To the inexperienced minds of the girls in the Fourth Form, to whom the
study of flour mixtures is new, the number and variety of these seems
very large. All cook books give an almost endless collection of recipes
for cakes, cookies, muffins, etc., and to the pupils each of these seems
an entirely new mixture. In reality, many of them are but slight
variations of the same type. A certain mixture of materials is used for
a foundation, and numerous varieties are made from this by addition,
subtraction, or substitution of ingredients. The original mixture is
called a _basic recipe_. Instead of teaching isolated mixtures, it will
be found an excellent idea to give the class the basic ingredients for a
recipe and encourage them to suggest variations, either original or from
memory.
Typical basic recipes for cake and biscuits are given below:
BASIC RECIPE FOR CAKE
1/4 cup butter
3/4 cup sugar
2 eggs
1/2 cup milk
1 1/2 cup flour
1/4 tsp. salt
2 tsp. baking-powder
1/2 tsp. vanilla.
VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE FOR CAKE
1. Spice cake:
To the basic recipe add 1 tbsp. of spice. Sift
in the spice with the flour.
2. Nut cake:
Add 1/2 cup of chopped nuts. Increase the
baking-powder by one third. Put a little of the
flour on the nuts and beat them in at the last.
3. Fruit cake:
Add 3/4 cup of currants, raisins, figs, or
dates, or a mixture of all. Increase the
baking-powder by one third. Flour the fruit and
add it last.
4. Chocolate cake:
Add 1/2 cup grated chocolate. Increase the milk
by 2 tbsp. Heat the chocolate in the milk just
enough to dissolve it. Cool the mixture and use
in place of milk.
BASIC RECIPE FOR BISCUITS, ETC.
2 cups flour
1/2 tsp. salt
4 tsp. baking-powder
2 tbsp. fat (butter, lard, or dripping)
About 2/3 cup milk.
VARIATIONS OF BASIC RECIPE FOR BISCUITS
1. Sweet biscuit:
Add 2 tbsp. of sugar after the fat is added.
2. Fruit biscuit:
Add 2 tbsp. of sugar and 1/2 cup of fruit,
(currants, raisins, peel, or a mixture of all)
after the fat is added.
3. Scones:
Add 2 tbsp. of sugar, and use one egg and only
1/2 cup of milk. Beat the egg until light, add
to milk, and use this for liquid. Form into
round cakes about eight inches in diameter, and
cut into quarters.
4. Fruit scones:
Add 1/2 cup of fruit to the scone recipe.
5. Short cake for fruit:
Same as scones, but double the amount of fat.
6. Dumplings for stews:
Use the basic recipe, leaving out the fat.
7. Steamed fruit pudding:
Use the basic recipe to make the dough that
incases the fruit.
BREAD MAKING
In beginning the bread lessons, it will be found that there are no new
principles to teach. It will, however, be necessary to explain the new
means of producing gas which is used in this particular mixture, namely,
yeast.
From their lessons on the "Preservation of Food" and "Canning", the
pupils are already acquainted with one class of microscopic plants. The
little plants, in that case, were a source of great inconvenience to the
housekeeper. Yeast may be introduced as another family of one-celled
plants, but one which is most useful. Under good conditions these tiny
plants will produce a large amount of carbon dioxide gas, provided they
are given sufficient time. If, however, the gas be required quickly,
soda and acid must be used. For this reason, plain flour mixtures, in
which the carbon dioxide is quickly made, are called quick breads, to
distinguish them from breads in which yeast is used. Examples of these
are baking-powder biscuits, gems, corn-bread, etc.
The use of yeast is the simplest and cheapest way of obtaining carbonic
acid gas, and mixtures so made remain moist longer than those in which
baking-powder is used.
Throughout the introductory lesson, this fact must be kept prominently
before the class, that yeast is a plant and, as such, requires plant
conditions. The necessary conditions will be known from the lesson on
"Bacteria", so that they have only to be reviewed. The pupils may be
told that although they cannot see the plants, they can very plainly see
the bubbles of gas which the plants give off when the latter are made
active under favourable conditions.
LESSON I
OUTLINE OF LESSONS ON YEAST
1. Description of yeast:
Yeast is a one-celled plant which can be seen only with a microscope.
Under good conditions it becomes very active and multiplies rapidly by a
process called _budding_. It is used by the housekeeper for the carbonic
acid gas it gives off.
[Illustration: Yeast plants magnified]
2. Conditions necessary for the activity of yeast:
(1) Oxygen
(2) Water
(3) Food.--This must be sugar, or starch which
it will change into sugar. Potato starch is
more easily used by yeast than flour starch. It
uses also some nitrogenous food and mineral
matter.
(4) Heat.--The yeast plant thrives in a heat of
about the same temperature as our bodies. A
little extra heat will only make it grow
faster; but excessive heat will kill it.
Freezing will not kill the plant, though cold
makes yeast inactive.
3. Sources of yeast:
Yeast was first found as _wild yeast_ in the air, but now it may be
obtained at grocery stores, in three forms:
(1) Liquid yeast.--The plants are put into a
starchy liquid. This will keep only a few days,
as the starch sours.
(2) Dry yeast.--The plants are put into a
starchy paste and the mixture is dried. This
form will keep for months, because it is
perfectly dry but, for the same reason, it
takes the plants a long time to become active
when used.
(3) Compressed yeast.--The plants are put into
cakes of a starchy mixture and left moist. They
will keep only a few days. Good compressed
yeast is a pale fawn colour, smells sweet,
breaks clean, and crumbles easily.
4. Experiments with yeast:
Make a _yeast garden_ by using the plants obtained at the grocery store
as follows:
Take half a cup of lukewarm water to give the plants moisture, a
teaspoonful of sugar for immediate food, and the same of wheat starch
(flour) for a reserve food. Beat the mixture to infold oxygen, and then
put in one-quarter cake of yeast plants.
Divide the mixture among a number of test-tubes, so that each group of
four pupils has three.
(1) Place one test-tube in warm water and heat
to boiling.
(2) Place one test-tube in water which feels
warm to the hand.
(3) Place one test-tube in cracked ice and
freeze the mixture. Afterwards thaw, and place
the same test-tube in lukewarm water.
Observe the results, and compare the amount of gas formed under the
different conditions.
LESSON II
PRACTICAL BREAD-MAKING
Ingredients of plain bread:
1. Liquid.--(1) It wets the mixture and causes the
ingredients to adhere.
(2) It furnishes steam for a lightening
agent.
(3) It allows the gluten to become sticky
and elastic.
(4) It furnishes moisture for yeast plants.
2. Yeast.--It gives off carbonic acid gas, which lightens
the mixture.
3. Salt.--(1) It gives a flavour.
(2) It retards the growth of the yeast
plant.
4. Flour.--(1) It thickens the mixture.
(2) It supplies food for the yeast plant.
(3) It supplies gluten for a framework for
the mixture.
Amount of ingredients for one small loaf:
Liquid--1 cup or 1/2 pt.
Salt--1/2 tsp.
Flour--About three times the amount of liquid
Yeast--Amount depends on the time given the bread to rise, as follows:
12 hr. to rise 5 hr. to rise 3 hr. to rise
1/4 yeast cake 1/2 yeast cake 1 yeast cake
NOTE.--One cake of compressed yeast contains
about the same number of yeast plants as one
cake of dry yeast or one cup of liquid yeast.
Process in making bread:
(1) Mixing (stirring, beating, and kneading).--
(_a_) This mixes the ingredients. (_b_) It
incorporates air to aid the yeast plant and to
act as a lightening agent. (_c_) It makes the
gluten elastic.
(2) First rising.--This allows the yeast plants
conditions and time to produce carbonic acid
gas, until the dough is distended to twice its
original size.
(3) Moulding.--(_a_) This distributes the gas
evenly throughout the loaf. (_b_) It shapes the
loaf.
(4) Second rising.--This again allows the yeast
plants time to produce gas which will distend
the dough to twice its size.
(5) Baking.--(_a_) The heat of the oven expands
the air and gas in the dough, which causes the
gluten framework to distend. (_b_) The water
changes to steam, which becomes another agent
in distending the gluten. (_c_) The starch on
the outside of the loaf becomes brown in the
dry heat of the oven, while the inside starch
is made soluble in the moist heat of the
mixture. (_d_) The gluten stiffens into the
distended shape. (_e_) The yeast plants are
killed.
In this lesson, after deciding on the necessary ingredients, the pupils
may be told the amount of each to use for their class work. They should
then measure and mix these ingredients and set the dough away for the
first rising. While the bread is rising, the kitchen may be put in order
and the other steps of the process reasoned out and written.
Other school work must be taken then, until the dough has fully risen,
when the process may be completed. After each stage of the process has
been carried out, the notes on it may be written.
With the foregoing principles of bread-making in mind, the class should
be able to make any bread mixture. Each pupil should have entire
responsibility for the process of making one small loaf of plain bread.
About half a cup of liquid, mixed with the other necessary ingredients,
makes a good-sized loaf for practice. Smaller loaves than this give
little chance for manipulation.
In Household Management centres, where the pupils come from other
schools for the lesson period only, the process will have to be divided
into two lessons. The first lesson may include the first two
stages--mixing and first rising--each pupil using small quantities, say
for one eighth of a loaf of the ordinary size. At the end of the lesson,
they may carry their dough home for completion, or it may be used by
another class which is ready for the later steps of the process.
The second lesson will include the last three steps--moulding, second
rising, and baking--and it will be necessary for the teacher to have
dough prepared for the moulding stage when the class arrives.
LESSON III
FANCY BREADS
These mixtures are but variations of plain bread. The extra ingredients,
such as milk, eggs, butter, spices, sugar, currants, raisins, peel,
etc., are added at the most convenient stage of the process.
NOTE.--If there is not time to have one fancy
bread, such as Parker House rolls or currant
bread, made in school, recipes for these may be
discussed in class and the work done at home.
THE BREAD-MIXER
1. This utensil mixes and beats the bread by means of a large beater
turned with a handle, thus avoiding the use of the hands for this
purpose.
2. It does this work with less energy and in a much shorter time than if
the hands were used.
3. It can be used only for the first two steps of bread-making, namely,
_mixing_ and _first rising_.
4. The ingredients must all be put in at once; hence, they must be
accurately measured.
5. The amount of ingredients may be learned by calculation from previous
bread-making done in the old way, or by using the book of recipes
accompanying each mixer.
NOTE.--There are several good kinds of
bread-mixers which may be bought in three
sizes. Small size makes 1 to 2 loaves and costs
$1.35 (about). Medium size makes 2 to 6 loaves
and costs $2.00 (about). Large size makes 4 to
10 loaves and costs $2.50 (about).
PASTRY
Pastry is one of the simplest flour mixtures, and one that has the
lowest food value. The intimate blending of butter or lard with the
flour envelopes the starch grains with fat, and makes the mixture
difficult to digest. The same thing occurs in frying food and in
buttering hot toast; so the idea is not a new one to the class.
In introducing the lesson on pastry, this principle of digestion should
be reviewed, and it should be made plain that delicate pudding and
seasonable fruits are a much better form of dessert.
There are no new principles to teach, but some old ones to impress. The
object of the housekeeper should be to make a mixture that is light and
one that will fall to pieces easily. To ensure the latter, anything that
would toughen the gluten must be avoided.
From the bread lesson, the pupils have learned that working the water
into the gluten or much handling of flour after it is wet, makes a
mixture firm and tough. In pastry there must be enough gluten to stick
the ingredients together, but its elastic quality is undesirable. For
the latter reason also, a small amount of water is used.
In the cake mixtures, it was found that the use of fat in the "butter
cakes" made the framework tender and easily broken, so in pastry the
same means may be employed. Fat of some kind is mixed with the flour to
act on the gluten and destroy its toughness.
Air and steam are the only lightening agents commonly used in pastry.
Since cold air occupies less room than warm air and admits of more
expansion, it is desirable that the mixture be kept very cold. The low
temperature also prevents the fat melting; hence, the necessity for the
use of cold utensils and materials throughout the process.
OUTLINE OF LESSON ON PASTRY
1. Ingredients:
(1) Flour, (2) salt, (3) fat, (4) water.
2. Notes on flour:
(1) Use only pastry flour, which will have a
small amount of gluten.
(2) After the flour is wet, handle the mixture
as little as possible, to avoid working the
water into the gluten and making it tough.
3. Notes on fat:
(1) Fat is used to destroy the elasticity of
the gluten, so that it will not be tough when
cooked.
(2) Butter, lard, or dripping may be used.
(3) Lard makes more tender pastry than butter.
(4) Butter gives the best flavour.
(5) Half butter and half lard makes a good
mixture.
(6) Layers of fat may be put in between layers
of pastry, to separate it into flakes.
(7) If two fats are used, the softer is cut
into the flour, and the harder one laid on the
paste and folded in.
4. Notes on water:
(1) Use the water as cold as possible.
(2) Use the least amount of water necessary to
make the ingredients adhere.
5. Lightening agents used in pastry:
(1) Air.--(_a_) This should be as cold as
possible. (_b_) The air may he folded in,
between layers of pastry.
(2) Steam.
6. Kinds of pastry:
(1) Plain pastry.--In this, one quarter to one
third as much fat as flour is used, and it is
all "cut in".
(2) Flaky pastry.--In this, the same amount of
fat is used as in plain pastry, but half of it
is "laid on" and folded in.
(3) Puff pastry.--In this, one half as much fat
as flour, up to equal parts of each is used;
one quarter of the fat is cut in, and the
remainder is laid on and folded in.
7. Amount of ingredients for plain pastry for one pie:
1 1/2 cup pastry flour; 1/4 tsp. salt; 1/2 cup
fat (lard and butter); ice water.
CHAPTER XII
FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
MEAT
As meat is rather a complex food the teaching of which involves a good
many lessons, and as it does not lend itself as well as other foods to
the making of dishes useful in practice work, it seems wise to defer the
study of it until the Senior Form is reached; the ability and home needs
of the pupils should decide this. The season of the year should also be
considered. It is wiser to take meat lessons in cold weather because it
is then more pleasant to handle and easier to keep. The latter
consideration is important in some rural districts, where shops are not
convenient.
More preparation is needed for the first meat lesson than for most
foods. Some days before, thin bones such as leg or wing bones of fowl,
or rib bones of lamb should be soaked in diluted hydrochloric or nitric
acid (one part acid to ten of water), to dissolve the mineral substance
which gives the bone its rigidity.
Any time before the lesson, a large solid bone of an old animal, such as
a knee or hip joint of beef, should be burned for hours to get rid of
the connective tissue which holds the mineral substance in shape. This
should be carefully done, in order to retain the shape of the bone and
to show the porous formation of the mineral substance. If the bone is
not blackened by the fire, its white colour will also indicate the lime
of which it is formed.
On the day of the lesson it will be necessary to have a piece of meat
showing the three parts--fat, bone, and muscle. A lower cut of the round
of beef has all these parts, and the muscle is sufficiently tough to
show its connective tissue plainly. For the study of fat, a piece of
suet is best, as it can be easily picked apart to show its formation.
In examining fat meat and lean meat it is essential that, at least,
every two pupils have a piece, as close scrutiny is necessary. One or
two samples of bone will suffice for the class.
No definite amount of work can be laid down for any one lesson. The
interest and ability of the class must be the guide. In rural schools,
the time of each lesson must be comparatively short, though no Household
Management teacher should spend more than forty minutes on purely
theoretical work without a change of some kind.
The following is an outline of the facts to be considered in this
particular study:
LESSON I
1. Names of meat:
(1) Beef, from the ox or cow. The best meat
comes from an animal about four years old.
(2) Veal, from the calf. It should be at least
six weeks old.
(3) Mutton, from the sheep. Spring lamb is from
six to eight weeks old; yearling is one year
old.
(4) Pork, from the pig.
(5) Fowl, poultry--chicken, turkey, duck,
goose.
(6) Game, wild animals--deer, wild duck,
partridge, etc.
2. Parts of meat:
(1) Fat.--(_a_) Inside fat, around the internal
organs, usually called kidney fat, or suet.
(_b_) Outside fat, next the skin, called caul
fat.
(2) Bone, (3) muscle, or lean meat.
3. Composition of fat:
(1) Connective tissue, (2) true fat, (3) water.
Fat should be the first part studied, because it is the simplest tissue
and the parts are most plainly seen. Pick the specimen apart, and the
tissue that holds it together is found. Its name is easily developed
from its use.
The water may be shown by heating pieces of fat in a small saucepan and,
when it becomes hot, covering the dish with a cold plate. Remove the
plate before it gets heated, and moisture will be condensed on its
surface. The presence of water in fat may also be reasoned out by
remembering that water enters into the composition of all body tissues.
4. Composition of bone:
(1) Mineral matter (lime), (2) connective
tissue, (3) water.
Neither the mineral substance nor the connective tissue in bone can be
seen until either one or the other is eliminated.
Strike the fresh bone with a steel knife, and it shows the quality of
hardness. Bones are built from food, and the only food substance that is
so hard is mineral matter. Show the burned bone, with only the mineral
matter left, and let each pupil examine it. Its formation indicates the
spaces which the part burned out of it occupied. Let it fall or crush
part of it in the fingers, to show how easily it is broken. Such bones
would be no use as a framework to support the body. The bones of very
old persons get too much like this, and we are afraid to have such
people fall. The burned bone needs something to hold it together--a
connective tissue. Such a tissue was in the spaces before the bone was
burned.
Show the bone after it has been prepared in an acid solution, with only
the connective tissue left. Explain how it was prepared. Bend it to show
its pliability. To be of use in the body it needs some substance to make
it hard and rigid--the mineral matter which was dissolved out.
NOTE.--This is an excellent time to show the
necessity for bone-building mineral in the diet
of babies and young children. If they do not
get this mineral substance during the growth
period, they cannot have hard, rigid bones, and
their bodies are apt to become misshapen--bow
legs, curved spines, etc. This substance is
also necessary for hard, sound teeth.
Draw attention to the fact that the mineral matter in milk and eggs is
in solution, and therefore ready to be used by the body. Mineral matter
is not in solution in bone, and cannot be dissolved by the digestive
process, therefore it is practically of no use as food.
Compare the connective tissue of bone with that of fat, and let the
pupils account for the difference in thickness. Lead them to see that
connective tissue can be dissolved in hot water, and in this way may be
extracted from the mineral part of bone. The housekeeper may do this
herself, or she may buy it already extracted, as gelatine.
5. Composition of muscle:
(1) Connective tissue
(2) Red part, made up of microscopic tubes
holding a red juice. The juice contains: (_a_)
Water (_b_) Red colour (_c_) Flavour (_d_)
Muscle albumen--a protein substance similar to
egg-white (_e_) Mineral matter.
[Illustration: Muscle fibres highly magnified
Bundle of fibres. Tubes of one fibre. Proper carving of fibres--across
the grain.]
It should be made clear that the walls of such tiny tubes can never be
thick enough to be tough. Attention should be called to the real cause
of toughness--the thick connective tissue.
NOTE.--Very small pieces of meat will serve for
specimens. Tough meat is better, because it
shows the connective tissue more plainly. When
the muscle is being examined, it should be
carefully scraped with a knife, until a layer
of connective tissue is laid bare. The red part
that is scraped off should be explained, and a
drawing should be made to illustrate it.
Minced lean beef should he soaked in a little cold water for at least
twenty minutes, to extract the muscle juice for examination. The juice
should be strained through a cheesecloth and poured into a glass. It
shows nothing but water and a red colour.
In order to find the other substances, pour part of the juice into a
small saucepan and heat it gradually until it boils gently. The red
colour will disappear, and the albumen which is dissolved in the juice
will coagulate and become plainly visible. The pupils will recall that
egg-white was affected in the same way by heat, and may be told that
this coagulated substance is similar to egg-white, and is called muscle
albumen. The odour given off by heating suggests that the flavour is
also in the muscle juice, hence the importance of conserving this juice
in the cooking process.
Strain the boiled juice to get rid of the coagulated albumen and then
examine the liquid that is left. Its colour plainly denotes mineral
matter in solution.
LESSON II
6. Meat experiments:
If time permit, the following experiments may be taken. The facts which
these experiments prove may, however, be developed in a much shorter
time by questioning:
(1) Cut lean meat into small pieces, cover them
with cold water and let them stand. Note the
colour of the water.
(2) Cover a piece of lean meat with boiling
water and let it stand. Note the colour of the
water.
(3) Sprinkle a piece of meat with salt. What
happens?
(4) Wrap a piece of meat for a few minutes in
ordinary brown wrapping-paper. What happens?
(5) Simmer a small piece of very tough meat for
about an hour and then examine the connective
tissue.
(6) Boil or bake a small piece of very tough
meat and then examine the connective tissue.
7. Selection of meat:
(1) All flesh should be uniform in colour, of a
fine grain, and firm and springy to the touch.
(2) Beef should be bright red in colour, well
mottled, and surrounded with fat.
(3) Mutton should be a dull red, and its fat
white, hard, and flaky.
(4) Lamb is lighter in colour than mutton, and
the bone is redder.
(5) Veal has pinkish-coloured flesh and white
fat. Very pale veal is not good.
(6) Pork should have firm flesh of a pale red
colour. The skin should be white and clear, the
fat white.
(7) Poultry: (_a_) Chickens.--Young chickens
have thin, sharp nails; smooth legs; soft, thin
skin; and soft cartilage at the end of the
breastbone. Long hairs denote age. (_b_)
Turkeys.--These should be plump, have smooth,
dark legs, and soft cartilage. (_c_)
Geese.--These should be plump and have many pin
feathers; they should also have pliable bills
and soft feet.
8. Care of meat:
(1) Remove the meat from the wrapping paper as
soon as it arrives, to prevent the loss of
juices. The butcher should use waxed paper next
to the meat.
(2) Wipe the meat all over with a damp cloth,
but do not put it into water.
(3) Place the meat on an earthen or enamel
dish, and set it in a cool place until
required.
(4) Frozen meat should be thawed in a warm room
before being cooked.
LESSON III
9. General ways of preparing meat:
(1) Extracting certain substances.--(_a_)
Soup--substances extracted in water from lean
meat, bone, and fat. (_b_) Beef-tea--substances
extracted in water from lean meat. (_c_)
Bouillon--substances extracted in water from
lean meat and flavoured with vegetable. (_d_)
Beef juice--juices extracted from lean meat by
heat only, or by pressure.
(2) Retaining all substances.--Roasts, boiling
pieces, steaks, chops, cutlets.
(3) Retaining part and extracting part.--Stews.
10. Notes on tough meat:
(1) The toughness of meat depends on the
thickness of the connective tissue holding the
muscle tubes together.
[Illustration: Cuts of beef
1. Neck, stews and soup. 2. Chuck ribs, cheaper roasts. 3. Prime ribs,
very good roasts. 4. Loin, best steaks or roasts (sirloin, tenderloin,
porterhouse). 5. Rump, roasts and steak. 6. Brisket, stews or corned
beef. 7. Fore shank, soup. 8. Shoulder, stews or pot-roasts. 9. Short
ribs, stews or cheap roasts. 10. Navel, corned beef. 11. Plate, stews or
corned beef. 12. Flank, stews or corned beef. 13. Round, steaks. 14. 2nd
cut round, stews and soup. 15. Hind shank, stews and soup. 16. Tail,
soup.]
[Illustration: Bony structure]
(2) The connective tissue is made thick and
tough by two causes.--(_a_) Age--in old
animals the connective tissue has grown thick.
(_b_) Exercise--in certain parts of the body,
where muscles are much used, these muscles must
be more firmly bound together, as in the neck
and legs, etc.
(3) Dry heat will harden connective tissue,
making it more difficult to cut and chew;
therefore tough cuts should not be cooked in
dry heat.
(4) Moist heat will soften and finally dissolve
connective tissue, making it easy to cut and
chew; therefore tough cuts should be cooked in
moist heat.
(5) Tough meat is more abundant in an animal's
body, and is, therefore, cheaper than tender
meat.
(6) Tough meat has richer juices than tender
meat and should be used for soup, broth, and
beef-tea.
11. Digestibility of meat:
(1) The less muscle juice is coagulated by
heat, the more easily it is digested.
(2) Because of their close texture, the liver,
kidney, and heart of animals are more difficult
to digest.
(3) Mutton and lamb, because of their shorter
fibres, are more easily digested than beef.
(4) Veal is difficult to digest, owing to its
stringy fibres.
[Illustration: Cuts of veal]
[Illustration: Cuts of lamb]
(5) Pork has a large amount of fat intermingled
with its fibres, and is, therefore, difficult
to digest.
(6) Chicken and turkey are easily digested, but
goose and duck are indigestible, because of the
fat through the muscle fibres.
(7) Game is easy of digestion.
The practical work, besides the experiments, in connection with the meat
lessons, should consist of at least three preparations of this food: (1)
the cooking of tender meat, (2) the cooking of tough meat, (3) the
making of soup.
[Illustration: Cuts of pork]
The object of each preparation should be made plain, so that the pupils
may fully understand what they are trying to accomplish.
1. Object in cooking tender meat:
(1) To change the flavour and appearance.
(2) To seal the tubes to keep in the juices.
(3) To cook the meat without densely
coagulating the protein of the muscle juice, so
as to keep it digestible.
2. Object in cooking tough meat:
(1) To change the flavour and appearance.
(2) To soften and partially dissolve the
connective tissue, making it easy to cut.
(3) To avoid making the muscle juice
indigestible.
3. Object in making soup:
(1) To extract the connective tissue from the
bone.
(2) To extract the muscle juice from the tubes.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING MEAT
1. Baking:
Place the meat in a very hot oven with pieces
of the fat or some dripping in the pan. Baste
every ten minutes. Keep the oven very hot for a
small roast. For a large roast, check the fire
after the first fifteen minutes. Bake fifteen
minutes to each pound.
2. Broiling:
(1) Over the coals.--Put the meat between the
hot greased wires of a broiler. Place over a
very hot, clear fire. Turn the broiler every
ten seconds. Beef one inch thick cooks rare in
eight minutes.
(2) Pan Broiling.--Heat a frying-pan smoking
hot. Lay the meat in flat; turn constantly
until seared, then frequently, as in broiling,
but do not pierce the muscle part with a fork.
Beef one inch thick cooks rare in ten minutes.
3. Boiling:
Cover the meat with boiling water. Boil five
minutes. Then simmer until done. Tender meat
takes twenty minutes to the pound; tough meat
takes from three to five hours.
4. Stewing:
Cut the meat in pieces of a suitable size.
Cover with cold water. Bring gradually to the
simmering point and simmer until tender,
usually three or four hours. Keep the pot
closely covered.
5. Beef juice:
Take one pound of steak from the top of the round. Wipe the
steak, remove all fat, and cut the lean meat in small pieces.
Place in canning jar, and cover; place on a rest in the kettle
and surround with cold water. Allow the water to heat slowly,
care being taken not to have it reach a higher temperature than
130 degrees. Let stand two hours; strain and press the meat to
obtain all the juices. Salt to taste.
NOTE.--These rules may be dictated to the
class, as all of the principles which they
involve have been previously discussed.
FISH
Since fish is the flesh of sea animals, there will be little new to
learn concerning it.
Main points of difference between this flesh and ordinary meat are:
1. Fish is less stimulating and nourishing than meat, as it contains
more water and less protein than an equal quantity of lean meat.
2. Oysters, and the class called white-fish, are more easily digested
than meat, hence they should be chosen for invalids or those having weak
digestions.
Kinds of fish:
1. White-fish.--The fat is stored mostly in the liver, making the flesh
easy to digest. Examples: cod, halibut, haddock, white-fish.
2. Oily fish.--The fat is distributed throughout the flesh, making it
more difficult to digest. Examples: salmon, herring, mackerel.
3. Shell-fish.--Because of their close fibres, these are difficult to
digest, with the exception of oysters. Examples: clams, scallops, and
oysters.
4. Crustaceous.--The flesh is tough and hard to digest. Examples:
lobsters, crabs.
Selection of fish:
Fresh fish may be recognized by the following:
1. The eyes should be full and bright.
2. The flesh should be firm and elastic.
3. The gills should be bright red.
4. There should be no unpleasant odour.
Cooking of fish:
Fish may be cooked in any way similar to meat. As the flesh of fish
contains food substances which are very easily dissolved in water,
boiling is not a good method of cooking to choose for this food.
Steaming, baking, and frying are more suitable.
GELATINE
A lesson on gelatine naturally follows the lessons on meat and fish. The
study of bone and the making of soup have explained the source of this
substance, and only a few additional facts are necessary.
The gelatine practice dishes are sure to prove attractive to the class,
and the common use of this food in sickness, and in salads and desserts,
makes it important that its food value be understood.
1. Source of gelatine:
Gelatine is obtained from the bones, cartilage, and skin of animals. It
is the connective tissue dissolved out of these parts.
The housekeeper may obtain it for herself or she may buy it already
extracted; both are equally good.
2. Commercial forms:
(1) Sheet gelatine
(2) Shredded gelatine
(3) Granulated gelatine.
3. Properties of gelatine:
(1) It softens in cold water, but will not
dissolve.
(2) It dissolves in hot water.
(3) It jellies when cold, if the solution be
sufficiently strong.
(4) Good gelatine has little taste, colour, or
odour, and no sediment when dissolved.
4. Steps in dissolving gelatine:
(1) Put a small amount of cold water or any
cold liquid on gelatine, and let it stand until
the liquid is absorbed.
(2) Add a boiling liquid and stir thoroughly
until dissolved.
5. Value in the diet:
(1) Gelatine is a nitrogenous substance, but
cannot of itself build tissues, as most protein
foods do. When eaten, it will save the tissues
already making up the body, hence is called a
_protein-sparer_.
(2) It is very easily digested, and for this
reason it gives a pleasant variety to the diet
of an invalid.
(3) It makes an attractive dessert at the end
of a substantial meal, without adding much
nutriment.
6. Ways of using gelatine:
(1) It may assist in making soup.
(2) Any liquid may be used to dissolve this
substance to make a plain jelly. Examples:
coffee jelly, tomato jelly, wine jelly.
(3) Plain jelly may be varied as follows:
Allow the plain jelly mixture to cool until it
is as thick as cream, and then beat in whipped
egg-white, or fruit, or chopped vegetables, and
set away until firm. Examples: snow pudding,
orange charlotte, vegetable salad.
(4) Strain off the juice from a can of fruit,
heat it, and use it for dissolving the
gelatine. When almost set, add the fruit, and
set away to become firm.
FROZEN DISHES
A lesson on frozen dishes may be taken at any time, but it seems
specially opportune after the gelatine lesson. It may be impossible to
make these dishes in school, but the facts of the lesson may be
discussed and recipes furnished, after which a Form IV pupil should find
no difficulty in carrying out these recipes at home.
Elementary science should be correlated, to explain the use of salt in
the freezing process.
VALUE OF FROZEN DISHES
1. They are cooling, refreshing, and nourishing when properly taken;
they are not good as a final course at a meal, as cold mixtures reduce
the temperature of the stomach and thus retard digestion.
2. They are appetizing in appearance and flavour.
3. They are economical as regards cost of ingredients, fuel, time, and
energy.
KINDS OF FROZEN DISHES
1. Water ice.--Fruit juice diluted with water, sweetened and frozen;
stirred about every five minutes while freezing.
2. Frappé.--Water ice frozen to the consistency of mush; in freezing,
equal parts of ice and salt are used to make the mixture granular.
3. Sherbet.--Water ice to which is added a small quantity of dissolved
gelatine or beaten egg-white; stirred constantly while freezing.
4. Ice cream.--Thin cream, sweetened, flavoured, and frozen; stirred
constantly while freezing.
5. Plain ice cream.--Same as ice cream with custard added.
6. Mousse.--Thick cream, beaten until stiff, sweetened, flavoured,
placed in a mould, packed in ice and salt (two parts ice to one part
salt), and allowed to stand three hours. A small quantity of dissolved
gelatine may be added to the mixture.
PRACTICAL WORK
1. Freezing:
(1) Scald the can and dasher and cool just
before using.
(2) See that all parts of the freezer are
properly adjusted.
(3) Empty the mixture into the can; never fill
the can more than three-quarters full, to allow
for expansion when freezing.
(4) Prepare ice by chipping finely or by
crushing in a canvas bag by means of a mallet.
(5) Allow three measures of ice to one of
coarse rock salt and pack this mixture solidly
around the can.
(6) Turn the crank slowly and steadily until
the mixture begins to freeze, then turn more
rapidly until frozen.
(7) Add more ice and salt as needed, but do not
draw off the salt water except to keep it from
getting inside the can.
2. Packing:
(1) When the mixture is frozen, draw off the
water, remove the dasher, and pack the contents
of the can down solidly with a spoon.
(2) Replace the cover, using a cork for the
opening, then repack in ice and salt (four
parts ice to one part salt).
(3) Cover with newspapers, blanket, or carpet,
and let it stand for at least one hour before
serving.
2. Moulding:
(1) Wet the mould and pack the frozen mixture
in solidly.
(2) Place the cover on the mould and bind
strips of greased cotton or waxed paper around
all the crevices.
(3) Imbed the mould in ice and salt (four parts
ice to one part salt).
(4) Wrap a cloth wrung from hot water around
the mould for an instant, before removing the
mixture.
PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF MEALS
The food work of the previous Forms, from constant reference and use,
should be so well known that it may be reviewed in one lesson, under the
following heads:
1. Uses of food
2. Necessary substances in food
3. Composition of the common foods--milk, eggs, meat, vegetables, fruit,
seeds
4. General sources of each food substance.
After the review, the class may be asked to prepare menus for one day's
meals, keeping in mind the following:
1. Daily balance of food substances
2. Appetizing appearance and flavour of the food
3. Economy of time, labour, and money in providing the food.
The preparation of menus may be continued, even while other work is
being studied, until the teacher feels satisfied with the ability of the
class to prepare menus intelligently.
The planning of menus should, if time permit, be extended to actual
practice in preparing and serving the meals called for by some of the
menus. In this Form there should be a limit set to the number of people
served and the cost of the food.
Since breakfast and luncheon were prepared in the Junior Form, a dinner
should be taken in this. The entire responsibility of the meal should be
given to the pupils, each being appointed to perform definite duties.
The teacher may advise while the class is planning the work, but not
assist while it is being carried out.
Each member of the class may be asked to prepare a menu to suit the
special conditions which have been made as to number and cost. These may
be planned at home and brought to the teacher for criticism. At the
first lesson, three or four of the best may be written on the
black-hoard for comparison and choice.
When the selection is made, members of the class should be chosen for
the following duties: (1) marketing, (2) preparation of food, (3) laying
the table, (4) serving, (5) representing members of the family to eat
the meal.
NOTE.--To prevent any suspicion of favouritism,
the duties may be written on slips of paper and
the pupils allowed to draw these.
At the second lesson the meal will be prepared, served, and eaten. In
schools lacking an equipment, the meal may be planned and selected in
the same way as above, but the entire responsibility of carrying it out
must rest on one pupil, as it will be necessary for each to prepare and
serve it in her own home.
CHAPTER XIII
FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
INFANT FEEDING
This subject is more suitable for older students than for those
attending the public and separate schools, but, because of its
importance and the fact that many girls never go beyond the Entrance
class, it is deemed wise to present, to the pupils of Form IV, the main
facts relating to the feeding of infants. Each teacher must however use
her judgment in the choice of these facts for her class and in the
method of presenting them. The instruction given may include the
following ideas:
The natural food of an infant is its mother's milk, and too much stress
cannot be placed on the necessity of nursing by the mother.
Even if the mother has but a small supply, the baby should not be
weaned; the supply should be supplemented by modified milk. In the rare
cases where a mother cannot nurse her baby, a physician should prescribe
the food. In such a case the best substitute is cow's milk.
If cow's milk be used, it will have to be changed or "modified" to make
it as far as possible like mother's milk. Cow's milk differs in the
following respects: It has (1) less water and therefore more solids; (2)
a larger proportion of protein and mineral compounds; (3) less sugar;
(4) a different combination of fats.
Cow's milk cannot be made like mother's milk, but it is better food for
a little baby if cream, milk sugar, and barley water, are added in
certain proportions, varying according to the age of the child.
RECIPE FOR MODIFIED MILK
Milk 7 ounces
Milk sugar 1/2 ounce
Cream (18%) 1 ounce, if ordinary milk be used or 1/2 ounce if Jersey
milk be used.
Barley water Dilute with barley water to make 20 ounces for the first
two or three weeks, then reduce to 16 ounces up to about three months of
age. The volume may then be reduced to 14 ounces, and at five or six
months to 12 ounces.
Mixed milk, and not one cow's milk, should be used, for the reason that
a better average of milk is secured from several cows than from one. The
supply should be fresh and clean. To make sure of the latter, scrupulous
care should be given to the cleanliness of the cows' bodies and stables,
the utensils, and the clothing and hands of the milkers. If there is any
doubt of the cleanliness, the milk should be pasteurized. The
pasteurization greatly reduces the bacterial life in the milk by a
temperature which does not change its composition and digestibility, as
is the case in sterilizing it.
DIRECTIONS FOR PASTEURIZING MILK
Sterilize bottles as for canning. Nearly fill the bottles with milk and
cork them with absorbent cotton which has been sterilized (by being
baked a delicate brown). Place the bottles on a rest in a deep kettle
and surround them with cold water as high as the milk. Heat the water
gradually to 155 degrees Fahrenheit, or until tiny bubbles show in the
milk next the glass. Remove the kettle and contents to where the
temperature of the milk will remain the same for half an hour. Then
cool the milk quickly by putting the bottles first in lukewarm water and
then in cold water. Keep in a cool place and do not remove the cotton
until ready to use. Pasteurized milk should not be kept more than a
couple of days.
The utmost care and cleanliness should be observed in preparing the
infant's food. All utensils which come in contact with the food should
be sterilized each time they are used. Bottles with rubber tubes should
_never_ be used, as they cannot be thoroughly cleaned. The bottle should
be plain and graduated without a neck, and the nipple should admit of
being turned inside out.
CARE OF BOTTLES
After the nursing, the bottles should at once be rinsed with cold water.
Later, the bottles and nipples should be carefully washed in hot, soapy
water, then rinsed in clear, hot water. They should then be sterilized
by boiling in water for twenty minutes, after which they may be placed
in boric acid solution (1 tsp. to 1 qt. water), or the bottles may be
emptied and plugged with sterilized absorbent cotton until again
required.
CARE OF FOOD
It saves much time to make sufficient food to last for twenty-four
hours. This may be put into a large bottle, or what is better, into the
several nursing bottles, and each plugged with sterilized absorbent
cotton. After cooling, the bottles should be put on the ice or in some
cool place until required. Where there is no refrigerator, an ice-box
made on the principle of the home-made fireless cooker will do
excellent service. When the food is to be used, it should be warmed
slightly above body heat by placing the bottle in warm water.
The following table is taken from _The Care and Feeding of Children_ by
L. Emmet Holt, M.D., of New York.
SCHEDULE FOR FEEDING A HEALTHY CHILD
DURING THE FIRST YEAR
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
|Interval| Night | Number | |
| between| feedings| of | Quantity | Quantity
Age | meals | (6 p.m. | feedings| for one | for 24
| by day | to | in 24 | feeding | hours
| | 6 a.m.) | hours | |
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
| Hours | | | Ounces | Ounces
2nd to 7th day | 3 | 2 | 7 | 1 2 | 7-14
------------------|--------|---------+---------+-----------+-----------
2nd and 3rd weeks | 3 | 2 | 7 | 2-3 1/2 | 14-24
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
4th to 6th week | 3 | 2 | 7 | 3-4 | 21-28
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
7th week to 3 mos.| 3 | 2 | 7 | 3 1/2-5 | 25-35
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
3 to 5 months | 3 | 1 | 6 | 4 1/2-6 | 27-36
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
5 to 7 months | 3 | 1 | 6 |5 1/2-6 1/2| 33-39
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
7 to 12 months | 4 | .. | 5 | 7-8 1/2 | 35-43
------------------+--------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------
CHAPTER XIV
FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)
HOUSEHOLD SANITATION
As the principles of sanitation are based on a knowledge of bacteria,
the facts concerning these microscopic plants, which were taught in the
lesson on the "Preservation of Food", have only to be reviewed and
extended.
The following topics should he quickly reviewed:
1. Description of bacteria
2. Occurrence of bacteria
3. Favourable conditions for bacteria
4. Multiplication of bacteria
5. Useful bacteria
6. Harmful bacteria.
It is with the harmful bacteria that our lesson on sanitation deals. The
pupils already know that some kinds belonging to this class cause the
decay of food, and now they are ready to be told that other harmful
kinds of microscopic plants gain entrance to our bodies and cause
disease. Concerning these, the following outline of facts should be
taken:
1. MEANS OF BACTERIA ENTERING THE BODY
(1) Through the respiratory organs
(2) Through the digestive tract
(3) Through the broken skin.
2. COMMON DISEASE-PRODUCING BACTERIA
(1) Those entering the respiratory
organs.--Mumps, scarlet fever, whooping-cough,
diphtheria, measles, pneumonia
(2) Those entering the digestive
tract.--Typhoid, cholera, tuberculosis
(3) Those coming through cuts, etc.--Skin
diseases like ringworm, blood poisoning,
lockjaw (tetanus).
[Illustration: Sink and sewer connection T--Trap. W--Waste Pipe.
H.D.--House drain. S.--Sewer.]
If housekeepers do not exercise care, these disease-producing bacteria
may enter the home, and finding there all the conditions which they
require, they will multiply, and become a menace to the family.
3. METHODS OF SANITATION
Since bacteria are too small to be seen, it is very hard to deal with
them. The housekeeper has the following ways of protecting the
household:
(1) By having all drain pipes trapped:
(2) By keeping the house free from lodging
places for bacteria:
(_a_) Keep the house clean and free of dust.
(_b_) Wash garbage pails and sinks daily and
scald them and drain pipes at least once a
week.
(_c_) Keep the refrigerators, cupboards, and
receptacles for food clean, and allow no
spoiled food to remain in them.
(_d_) Wash and sterilize the soiled clothing
once a week.
(_e_) Keep the cellar well aired and clean;
allow no decaying material to remain in it.
(_f_) Keep the door-yards clean; allow no
scraps of food, cleaning water, or sweepings to
be thrown near the house.
(3) By keeping the supply of food from disease-producing bacteria:
(_a_) Use screens to keep out flies, which
transfer bacteria from their bodies to food.
(_b_) Wash fresh fruit and vegetables before
using.
(_c_) Boil for twenty minutes water of doubtful
purity.
(4) By keeping the bodies of the family strong and healthy, so
that if bacteria gain an entrance they will be resisted and
overcome:
(_a_) Provide well-balanced, nutritious food.
(_b_) Supply suitable clothing to protect the
body.
(_c_) See that there is an abundant supply of
fresh air, night and day.
4. DISPOSAL OF WASTE IN VILLAGES AND RURAL DISTRICTS
(1) Burn all combustible material.
(2) Bury tins, broken dishes, etc.
(3) Feed refuse food to animals or empty it
into a pit dug for the purpose, and cover with
a layer of earth from time to time.
(4) Throw slop water at a distance from the
house and well, and plant stalky growths like
sunflowers, which absorb the waste.
5. METHODS OF DISINFECTING
Where bacterial disease is known to exist, the utmost care should be
taken to subject everything that has come in contact with the patient to
a process which will kill the disease-producing plants. Only two ways of
doing this are known:
(1) Subject the bacteria to extreme heat which
will kill them--
(_a_) Burn everything that can be burned.
(_b_) Boil bed and body linen.
(_c_) Scald dishes.
(_d_) Scald or bake utensils.
(2) Use chemicals to destroy the germs--
(_a_) Use chemical solutions to wash surfaces,
materials, or utensils.
(_b_) Seal the rooms and burn chemicals to
produce vapours which will destroy bacteria.
NOTE.--Directions for the use of chemicals are
given under the lesson on "Home Nursing".
HOME NURSING
This part of the work does not require a special equipment, though it is
an advantage to have one. An ingenious teacher, with the co-operation of
her pupils, will invent plans for providing whatever is necessary for
demonstration. Pupils living near the school can supply many of the
needed materials.
A doll and doll's bed may be used to teach bed making and the changing
of bed-clothing while the patient is in bed. The doll may also be used
to illustrate the method of giving a patient a bath in bed and of
changing the body clothing, if such information is desired.
In some cases, a manual training pupil might construct the bed, and the
sewing class the mattress, bed-clothing, and doll's underwear. If this
were the property of the school, the girls could take turns in making
the bed every day and in laundering the clothing at home once a week.
It is desirable that the instruction in home nursing be given in two
lessons. These may be outlined as follows:
LESSON I
THE SICK ROOM
1. Location.--The room should be on the sunny side of the house and be
as large and airy as possible. The top floor is quieter, but
necessitates many steps.
2. Furniture.--All furniture should admit of easy cleaning. Small rugs
are better than a carpet, as they can be easily removed for cleaning. In
infectious diseases, only bare necessities should be kept in the room.
The bed should be single and placed so as to be accessible from both
sides. It should be high enough to prevent the nurse stooping. The
bed-clothing should be of light weight and washable.
A bedside table should be provided, also a couch for the nurse. A screen
will be found useful to prevent draughts and to shade the light.
3. Ventilation.--A thermometer should be used, and the temperature kept
at 65 degrees to 68 degrees, or, in special diseases, according to the
doctor's orders.
An abundant supply of fresh air should be provided day and night. To
secure this, there must be two openings, one to admit pure, fresh air,
and the other to let out the impure air. These openings are preferably
on opposite sides of the room and at different heights. If there is only
one window, it should be made to open at both top and bottom. In extreme
cases, an adjoining room may be aired and, after the fresh air is warm,
it may be admitted to the sick room.
4. Care.--The room should be kept very clean and neat. All cleaning
should be quietly done, so as not to annoy or disturb the patient. The
floor, wood-work, and furniture should be dusted with a damp cloth.
Flowers should be removed at night and should have fresh water daily.
No food or medicine should he left in the room. Soiled dishes or
clothing should be removed as soon as possible and, in cases of
infectious diseases, placed in water containing a disinfectant.
All excreta should be taken away immediately and, if necessary,
disinfected before being emptied.
METHODS OF DISINFECTING
1. Dishes or clothing.--(1) Make a solution using one part of carbolic
acid to twenty parts of water (six teaspoonfuls to a pint of water) and
let it stand for half an hour. Soak the articles in this for two hours.
(2) Use formalin according to directions. (3) Use bichloride tablets
according to directions. (This turns clothes yellow.)
NOTE.--These solutions must be renewed every
twenty-four hours, if exposed to the air.
2. Excreta.--Cover the excreta with one of the above solutions and allow
it to stand for half an hour before emptying.
LESSON II
THE PATIENT
1. Care of the bed.--The bed of a sick person should be kept specially
clean and fresh. The linen should be changed every day, or oftener if
soiled. Where the supply of linen is limited, or where there is pressure
of work, a good airing and sunning may occasionally take the place of
laundering.
In making the bed, it should be kept in mind that the under sheet
requires unusual tucking in at the head, to prevent its slipping down
and becoming wrinkled. The upper sheet should receive extra attention at
the foot, as it is apt to pull up.
When changing the sheets with the patient in bed, work as deftly and
quietly as possible. Have the clean sheets warmed and the room
comfortably heated. Begin with the under sheet as follows:
(1) To change the under sheet.--Turn the
patient over on the side away from you and fold
the soiled sheet in flat folds close to the
body. Lay the clean sheet on the side of the
bed near you, tuck it in, and fold half of it
against the roll of soiled sheet, so that both
can be slipped under the body at once. Turn the
patient back to the opposite side, on the clean
sheet, pull out the soiled sheet, and tuck the
clean one smoothly in place.
(2) To change the upper sheet.--Loosen all the
clothes at the foot of the bed. Spread a clean
sheet and blanket, wrong side up, on top of the
other bedclothes. Pin the clean clothes at the
head of the bed or get the patient to hold
them. Gradually slip down and draw out the
soiled sheet and blanket. Tuck all in place.
2. Care of the diet.--Recovery from sickness in many cases depends more
upon the right kind of food than on medicine. The importance of proper
diet should have been impressed on the minds of the pupils by their
lessons on food, in the Junior Grade of Form IV. They may now be shown
that, in sickness, the responsibility of the choice of food is
transferred from the patient to the doctor or nurse. Hence it is most
important that a person acting as nurse should be trained in food values
and proper methods of cooking. She should also be capable of exercising
daintiness and artistic skill in serving, so that the appearance of the
food may tempt the patient to eat it.
[Illustration: Invalid's tray]
It should not be necessary to review the comparative values of the
well-known foods or the best methods of applying heat to make and keep
these foods digestible; it may be taken for granted that the class
remembers these facts. The time may be more profitably used in naming
and discussing special dishes which are included in invalid cookery.
Recipes may be given for any of these which the pupils desire or the
teacher chooses, and one or two of the dishes which require very little
time to make, may be prepared.
For the sake of convenience, diets for the sick may be classified as
_Milk_, _Liquid_, _Light_, and _Full_. These terms are an easy way of
indicating a certain range of foods.
Milk Diet.--Milk, butter-milk, koumyss, kephyr.
NOTE.--Lime-water may be given with sweet milk,
one part to three of milk.
Liquid Diet.--Milk diet, beef juice or beef-tea, broths, gruels, and
sometimes jelly.
Light Diet.--Soup, white meat of fowl, white fish, oysters, soft-cooked
eggs, custard, milk puddings, fruit, gelatine jellies.
Full Diet.--Any food that is not particularly hard to digest.
NOTE.--Plenty of water should be given in all
diets.
POULTICES
A poultice is used to reduce inflammation and should be as large as the
affected part.
The kinds in ordinary use are:
1. Mustard poultice, used as a counter irritant.
2. Linseed, bread, or potato poultice, used to soothe.
Directions for a mustard poultice:
1. For a very strong poultice, mix pure mustard to a paste with warm
water; spread on a piece of cheesecloth or muslin, leaving a margin of
an inch; fold over the margin, and cover with thicker cotton or paper.
2. For milder poultices use flour to reduce the mustard as follows:
(1) 1 part flour to 1 part mustard
(2) 2 parts flour to 1 part mustard
(3) 3 parts flour to 1 part mustard.
Directions for linseed, bread, or potato poultices:
Use boiling water to mix the above to the
consistency of thick porridge, and spread as in
the mustard poultice, excepting that the layer
of poultice is made much thicker, in order to
retain the moisture and heat.
FOMENTATIONS
These are much the same in their effects as poultices, but are sometimes
more convenient.
Directions for fomentations:
Spread a towel over a large basin, place a
flannel in the towel and pour boiling hot water
over it. Fold the towel over the flannel,
gather the dry ends of the towel in either
hand, and wring. Carry to the patient, shake
out the flannel, and apply.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following books are recommended for reference, the more useful being
marked with an asterisk:
THE HOME
Furnishing of a Modest Home. Daniels, $1.00. Atkinson, Mentzner & Co.,
New York.
Home Decoration. Priestman, $1.50. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston.
*Care of a House. Clark, $1.50. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd.,
Toronto.
SCIENCE AND SANITATION
*Elementary Household Chemistry. Snell, $1.25. The Macmillan Company of
Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Richards and Elliott, $1.00. Whitcomb
& Barrows, Boston.
Fuels of the Household. White, 75c. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston.
*Story of Germ Life. Conn, 35c. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston.
*Household Foes. Ravenhill, 75c. McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Ltd.,
Toronto.
*The Source, Chemistry, and Use of Food Products. Bailey, $1.75.
Blakiston, Son & Co., Philadelphia.
FOOD AND DIETETICS
*Food Products. Sherman, $2.00. The Macmillan Company of Canada, Ltd.,
Toronto.
Food Materials and their Adulterations. Richards, $1.00. Whitcomb &
Barrows, Boston.
*Food and Dietetics. Hutchison, $3.00. Wm. Wood & Co., 51 Fifth Avenue,
New York, N.Y.
Principles of Human Nutrition. Jordan, $1.75. The Macmillan Company of
Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
*Care and Feeding of Children. Dr. Emmet Holt, 75c. D. Appleton, N.Y.
(McAinsh, Toronto)
Care of the Baby. Dr. J. P. C. Griffith, $1.50. W. B. Saunders & Co.,
Philadelphia.
A Little Talk about the Baby. Helen MacMurchy, M.D. Free. The Provincial
Board of Health, Toronto.
Farmers' Bulletins. 5c each. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
U.S.A.
COOKING AND SERVING
*Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Farmer, $2.00. McClelland, Goodchild &
Stewart, Ltd., Toronto.
*Diet in Disease. Pattee, $1.00. Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston.
Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery. Williams & Fisher. The
Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd., Toronto.
*Girls' Home Manual. Annie B. Juniper. British Columbia Government,
Victoria, B.C.
Practical Cooking and Serving. Hill, $1.50. McClelland, Goodchild &
Stewart, Ltd., Toronto.
LAUNDRY WORK
The Art and Practice of Laundry Work. Rankin, 1s. 6d. Blackie & Son,
Limited, London, England.
The Expert Cleaner. Seaman, 75c. McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Ltd.,
Toronto.
*Bulletins on "The Laundry". 5c each. Department of Home Economics,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.
HOME NURSING
Emergencies. Gulick, 40c. Ginn & Company, New York.
*Home Nursing. Harrison, $1.00. The Macmillan Co. of Canada, Ltd.,
Toronto.
Hints and Helps for Home Nursing and Hygiene. Cosgrave, 40c. St. John
Ambulance Assn., Toronto.
ECONOMICS
Home Problems from a New Standpoint. Hunt, $1.00. Whitcomb & Barrows,
Boston.
*Household Management. Terrill. American School of Home Economics,
Chicago, Ill.
*The New Housekeeping. Frederick, $1.00. Musson Book Co., Toronto.
MAGAZINES
Good Housekeeping Magazine. $2.00 per year. 119 West Fortieth St., New
York.
*The Journal of Home Economics. $3.00 per year. 525 West 120th St., New
York.
* * * * *
Transcriber's Notes:
Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
Page viii, "Wood" changed to "Wool" (of Wool Fibre)
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