Home
  By Author [ A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  I  J  K  L  M  N  O  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z |  Other Symbols ]
  By Title [ A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  I  J  K  L  M  N  O  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  W  X  Y  Z |  Other Symbols ]
  By Language
all Classics books content using ISYS

Download this book: [ ASCII | HTML | PDF ]

Look for this book on Amazon


We have new books nearly every day.
If you would like a news letter once a week or once a month
fill out this form and we will give you a summary of the books for that week or month by email.

Title: The Travels of Marco Polo — Volume 2
Author: Polo, Marco, 1254-1324, Rustichello of Pisa
Language: English
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.


*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Travels of Marco Polo — Volume 2" ***

This book is indexed by ISYS Web Indexing system to allow the reader find any word or number within the document.

2***


THE TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO

THE COMPLETE YULE-CORDIER EDITION

Including the unabridged third edition (1903) of Henry Yule's annotated
translation, as revised by Henri Cordier; together with Cordier's later
volume of notes and addenda (1920)

IN TWO VOLUMES

VOLUME II

Containing the second volume of the 1903 edition and the 1920 volume of
addenda (two original volumes bound as one)



[Illustration: "MARCVS POLVS VENETVS TOTIVS ORBIS ET INDIE PEREGRATOR
PRIMVS"

Copied by permission from a painting bearing the above inscription in the
Gallery of Monsignore Padia in Rome]



CONTENTS OF VOL. II.


SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS

EXPLANATORY LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

THE BOOK OF MARCO POLO

APPENDICES

INDEX



SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.



BOOK SECOND--(Continued).


PART II.

Journey to the West and South-West of Cathay.


XXXV.--HERE BEGINS THE DESCRIPTION OF THE INTERIOR OF CATHAY; AND FIRST OF
THE RIVER PULISANGHIN

  NOTES.--1. Marco's Route. 2. The Bridge Pul-i-sangin, or Lu-ku-k'iao.

XXXVI.--ACCOUNT OF THE CITY OF JUJU

  NOTES.--1. The Silks called _Sendals_. 2. Chochau. 3. Bifurcation of Two
  Great Roads at this point.

XXXVII.--THE KINGDOM OF TAIANFU

  NOTES.--1. Acbaluc. 2. T'ai-yuan fu. 3. Grape-wine of that place.
  4. P'ing-yang fu.

XXXVIII.--CONCERNING THE CASTLE OF CAICHU. THE GOLDEN KING AND PRESTER JOHN

  NOTES.--1. The Story and Portrait of the _Roi d'Or_. 2. Effeminacy
  reviving in every Chinese Dynasty.

XXXIX.--HOW PRESTER JOHN TREATED THE GOLDEN KING HIS PRISONER

XL.--CONCERNING THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN AND THE CITY OF CACHANFU

  NOTES.--1. The Kará Muren. 2. Former growth of silk in Shan-si and
  Shen-si. 3. The _akché_ or _asper_.

XLI.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF KENJANFU

  NOTES.--1. Morus alba. 2. Geography of the Route since Chapter XXXVIII.
  3. Kenjanfu or Si-ngan fu; the Christian monument there. 4. Prince
  Mangala.

XLII.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUNCUN, WHICH IS RIGHT WEARISOME TO
TRAVEL THROUGH

  NOTE.--The Mountain Road to Southern Shen-si.

XLIII.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ACBALEC MANZI

  NOTES.--1. Geography, and doubts about Acbalec. 2. Further Journey into
  Sze-ch'wan.

XLIV.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF SINDAFU

  NOTES.--1. Ch'êng-tu fu. 2. The Great River or _Kiang_. 3. The word
  _Comereque_. 4. The Bridge-Tolls. 5. Correction of Text.

XLV.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF TEBET

  NOTES.--1. The Part of Tibet and events referred to. 2. Noise of burning
  bamboos. 3. Road retains its desolate character. 4. Persistence of
  eccentric manners illustrated. 5. Name of the Musk animal.

XLVI.--FURTHER DISCOURSE CONCERNING TEBET

  NOTES.--1. Explanatory. 2. "_Or de Paliolle_." 3. Cinnamon. 4. 5. Great
  Dogs, and _Beyamini_ oxen.

XLVII.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CAINDU

  NOTES.--1. Explanation from Ramusio. 2. Pearls of Inland Waters. 3. Lax
  manners. 4. Exchange of Salt for Gold. 5. Salt currency. 6. Spiced Wine.
  7. Plant like the Clove, spoken of by Polo. Tribes of this Tract.

XLVIII.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN

  NOTES.--1. Geography of the Route between Sindafu or Ch'êng-tu fu, and
  Carajan or Yun-nan. 2. Christians and Mahomedans in Yun-nan. 3. Wheat.
  4. Cowries. 5. Brine-spring. 6. Parallel.

XLIX.--CONCERNING A FURTHER PART OF THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN

  NOTES.--1. City of Talifu. 2. Gold. 3. Crocodiles. 4. Yun-nan horses
  and riders. Arms of the Aboriginal Tribes. 5. Strange superstition and
  parallels.

L.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ZARDANDAN

  NOTES.--1. Carajan and Zardandan. 2. The Gold-Teeth. 3. Male Indolence.
  4. The Couvade. (See App. L. 8.) 5. Abundance of Gold. Relation of Gold
  to Silver. 6. Worship of the Ancestor. 7. Unhealthiness of the climate.
  8. Tallies. 9.-12. Medicine-men or Devil-dancers; extraordinary identity
  of practice in various regions.

LI.--WHEREIN IS RELATED HOW THE KING OF MIEN AND BANGALA VOWED VENGEANCE
AGAINST THE GREAT KAAN

  NOTES.--1. Chronology. 2. Mien or Burma. Why the King may have been
  called King of Bengal also. 3. Numbers alleged to have been carried on
  elephants.

LII.--OF THE BATTLE THAT WAS FOUGHT BY THE GREAT KAAN'S HOST AND HIS
SENESCHAL AGAINST THE KING OF MIEN

  NOTES.--1. Nasruddin. 2. Cyrus's Camels. 3. Chinese Account of the
  Action. General Correspondence of the Chinese and Burmese Chronologies.

LIII.--OF THE GREAT DESCENT THAT LEADS TOWARDS THE KINGDOM OF MIEN

  NOTES.--1. Market-days. 2. Geographical difficulties.

LIV.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF MIEN, AND THE TWO TOWERS THAT ARE THEREIN, ONE
OF GOLD, AND THE OTHER OF SILVER

  NOTES.--1. Amien. 2. Chinese Account of the Invasion of Burma. Comparison
  with Burmese Annals. The City intended. The Pagodas. 3. Wild Oxen.

LV.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF BANGALA

  NOTES.--1. Polo's view of Bengal; and details of his account illustrated.
  2. Great Cattle.

LVI.--DISCOURSES OF THE PROVINCE OF CAUGIGU

  NOTE.--A Part of Laos. Papesifu. Chinese Geographical Etymologies.

LVII.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ANIN

  NOTES.--1. The Name. Probable identification of territory. 2. Textual.

LVIII.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF COLOMAN

  NOTES.--1. The Name. The Kolo-man. 2. Natural defences of Kwei-chau.

LIX.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUIJU

  NOTES.--1. Kwei-chau. Phungan-lu. 2. Grass-cloth. 3. Tigers. 4. Great
  Dogs. 5. Silk. 6. Geographical Review of the Route since Chapter LV.
  7. Return to Juju.



BOOK SECOND.

(Continued.)


PART III.

Journey Southward through Eastern Provinces of Cathay and Manzi.


LX.--CONCERNING THE CITIES OF CACANFU AND CHANGLU

  NOTES.--1. Pauthier's Identifications. 2. Changlu. The Burning of the
  Dead ascribed to the Chinese.

LXI.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF CHINANGLI, AND THAT OF TADINFU, AND THE
REBELLION OF LITAN

  NOTES.--1. T'si-nan fu. 2. Silk of Shan-tung. 3. Title _Sangon_. 4. Agul
  and Mangkutai. 5. History of Litan's Revolt.

LXII.--CONCERNING THE NOBLE CITY OF SINJUMATU

  NOTE.--The City intended. The Great Canal.

LXIII.--CONCERNING THE CITIES OF LINJU AND PIJU

  NOTES.--1. Linju. 2. Piju.

LXIV.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF SIJU, AND THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN

  NOTES.--1. Siju. 2. The Hwang-Ho and its changes. 3. Entrance to Manzi;
  that name for Southern China.

LXV.--HOW THE GREAT KAAN CONQUERED THE PROVINCE OF MANZI

  NOTES.--1. Meaning and application of the title _Faghfur_. 2. Chinese
  self-devotion. 3. Bayan the Great Captain. 4. His lines of Operation.
  5. The Juggling Prophecy. 6. The Fall of the Sung Dynasty. 7. Exposure of
  Infants, and Foundling Hospitals.

LXVI.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF COIGANJU

  NOTE.--Hwai-ngan fu.

LXVII.--OF THE CITIES OF PAUKIN AND CAYU

  NOTE.--Pao-yng and Kao-yu.

LXVIII.--OF THE CITIES OF TIJU, TINJU, AND YANJU

  NOTES.--1. Cities between the Canal and the Sea. 2. Yang-chau. 3. Marco
  Polo's Employment at this City.

LXIX.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF NANGHIN

  NOTE.--Ngan-king.

LXX.--CONCERNING THE VERY NOBLE CITY OF SAIANFU, AND HOW ITS CAPTURE WAS
EFFECTED

  NOTES.--1. and 2. Various Readings. 3. Digression on the Military Engines
  of the Middle Ages. 4. Mangonels of Coeur de Lion. 5. Difficulties
  connected with Polo's Account of this Siege.

LXXI.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF SINJU AND THE GREAT RIVER KIAN

  NOTES.--1. I-chin hien. 2. The Great Kiang. 3. Vast amount of tonnage
  on Chinese Waters. 4. Size of River Vessels. 5. Bamboo Tow-lines.
  6. Picturesque Island Monasteries.

LXXII.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIJU

  NOTES.--1. Kwa-chau. 2. The Grand Canal and Rice-Transport. 3. The Golden
  Island.

LXXIII.--OF THE CITY OF CHINGHIANFU

  NOTE.--Chin-kiang fu. Mar Sarghis, the Christian Governor.

LXXIV.--OF THE CITY OF CHINGINJU AND THE SLAUGHTER OF CERTAIN ALANS THERE

  NOTES.--1. Chang-chau. 2. Employment of Alans in the Mongol Service.
  3. The Chang-chau Massacre. Mongol Cruelties.

LXXV.--OF THE NOBLE CITY OF SUJU

  NOTES.--1. Su-chau. 2. Bridges of that part of China. 3. Rhubarb; its
  mention here seems erroneous. 4. The Cities of Heaven and Earth. Ancient
  incised Plan of Su-chau. 5. Hu-chau, Wu-kiang and Kya-hing.

LXXVI.--DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY, WHICH IS THE CAPITAL OF
THE WHOLE COUNTRY OF MANZI

  NOTES.--1. King-szé now Hang-chau. 2. The circuit ascribed to the City;
  the Bridges. 3. Hereditary Trades. 4. The Si-hu or Western Lake.
  5. Dressiness of the People. 6. Charitable Establishments. 7. Paved
  roads. 8. Hot and Cold Baths. 9. Kanpu, and the Hang-chau Estuary.
  10. The Nine Provinces of Manzi. 11. The Kaan's Garrisons in Manzi.
  12. Mourning costume. 13. 14. Tickets recording inmates of houses.

LXXVII.--[FURTHER PARTICULARS CONCERNING THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY.]
(From Ramusio only.)

  NOTES.--1. Remarks on these supplementary details. 2. Tides in the
  Hang-chau Estuary. 3. Want of a good Survey of Hang-chau. The Squares.
  4. Marco ignores pork. 5. Great Pears: Peaches. 6. Textual. 7. Chinese
  use of Pepper. 8. Chinese claims to a character for Good Faith.
  9. Pleasure-parties on the Lake. 10. Chinese Carriages. 11. The Sung
  Emperor. 12. The Sung Palace. Extracts regarding this Great City from
  other mediaeval writers, European and Asiatic. Martini's Description.

LXXVIII.--TREATING OF THE YEARLY REVENUE THAT THE GREAT KAAN HATH FROM
KINSAY

  NOTES.--1. Textual. 2. Calculations as to the values spoken of.

LXXIX.--OF THE CITY OF TANPIJU AND OTHERS

  NOTES.--1. Route from Hang-chau southward. 2. Bamboos. 3. Identification
  of places. Chang-shan the key to the route.

LXXX.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF FUJU

  NOTES.--1. "Fruit like Saffron." 2. 3. Cannibalism ascribed to Mountain
  Tribes on this route. 4 Kien-ning fu. 5. Galingale. 6. Fleecy Fowls.
  7. Details of the Journey in Fo-kien and various readings. 8. Unken.
  Introduction of Sugar-refining into China.

LXXXI.--CONCERNING THE GREATNESS OF THE CITY OF FUJU

  NOTES.--1. The name _Chonka_, applied to Fo-kien here. _Cayton_ or
  _Zayton_. 2. Objections that have been made to identity of _Fuju_ and
  Fu-chau. 3. The Min River.

LXXXII.--OF THE CITY AND GREAT HAVEN OF ZAYTON

  NOTES.--1. The Camphor Laurel. 2. The Port of Zayton or T'swan-chau;
  Recent objections to this identity. Probable origin of the word Satin.
  3. Chinese Consumption of Pepper. 4. Artists in Tattooing. 5. Position
  of the Porcelain manufacture spoken of. Notions regarding the _Great
  River_ of China. 6. Fo-kien dialects and variety of spoken language in
  China. 7. From Ramusio.



BOOK THIRD.

Japan, the Archipelago, Southern India, and the Coasts and Islands of the
Indian Sea.


I.--OF THE MERCHANT SHIPS OF MANZI THAT SAIL UPON THE INDIAN SEAS

  NOTES.--1. Pine Timber. 2. Rudder and Masts. 3. Watertight Compartments.
  4. Chinese substitute for Pitch. 5. Oars used by Junks. 6. Descriptions
  of Chinese Junks from other Mediaeval Writers.

II.--DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND OF CHIPANGU, AND THE GREAT KAAN'S DESPATCH
OF A HOST AGAINST IT.

  NOTES.--1. Chipangu or Japan. 2. Abundance of Gold. 3. The Golden Palace.
  4. Japanese Pearls. Red Pearls.

III.--WHAT FURTHER CAME OF THE GREAT KAAN'S EXPEDITION AGAINST CHIPANGU

  NOTES.--1. Kúblái's attempts against Japan. Japanese Narrative of the
  Expedition here spoken of. (See App. L. 9.) 2. Species of Torture.
  3. Devices to procure Invulnerability.

IV.--CONCERNING THE FASHION OF THE IDOLS

  NOTES.--1. Many-limbed Idols. 2. The Philippines and Moluccas. 3. The
  name _Chin_ or _China_. 4. The Gulf of Cheinan.

V.--OF THE GREAT COUNTRY CALLED CHAMBA

  NOTES.--1. Champa, and Kúblái's dealings with it. (See App. L. 10).
  2. Chronology. 3. Eagle-wood and Ebony. Polo's use of Persian words.

VI.--CONCERNING THE GREAT ISLAND OF JAVA

  NOTE.--Java; its supposed vast extent. Kúblái's expedition against it and
  failure.

VII.--WHEREIN THE ISLES OF SONDUR AND CONDUR ARE SPOKEN OF; AND THE KINGDOM
OF LOCAC

  NOTES.--1. Textual. 2. Pulo Condore. 3. The Kingdom of Locac, Southern
  Siam.

VIII.--OF THE ISLAND CALLED PENTAM, AND THE CITY MALAIUR

  NOTES.--1. Bintang. 2. The Straits of Singapore. 3. Remarks on the Malay
  Chronology. Malaiur probably Palembang.

IX.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF JAVA THE LESS. THE KINGDOMS OF FERLEC AND
BASMA

  NOTES.--1. The Island of Sumatra: application of the term _Java_.
  2. Products of Sumatra. The six kingdoms. 3. Ferlec or Parlák. The
  Battas. 4. Basma, Pacem, or Pasei. 5. The Elephant and the Rhinoceros.
  The Legend of Monoceros and the Virgin. 6. Black Falcon.

X.--THE KINGDOMS OF SAMARA AND DAGROIAN

  NOTES.--1. Samara, Sumatra Proper. 2. The Tramontaine and the Mestre.
  3. The Malay Toddy-Palm. 4. Dagroian. 5. Alleged custom of eating dead
  relatives.

XI.--OF THE KINGDOMS OF LAMBRI AND FANSUR

  NOTES.--1. Lambri. 2. Hairy and Tailed Men. 3. Fansur and Camphor
  Fansuri. Sumatran Camphor. 4. The Sago-Palm. 5. Remarks on Polo's
  Sumatran Kingdoms.

XII.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF NECUVERAN

  NOTE.--Gauenispola, and the Nicobar Islands.

XIII.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ANGAMANAIN

  NOTE.--The Andaman Islands.

XIV.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SEILAN

  NOTES.--1. Chinese Chart. 2. Exaggeration of Dimensions. The Name.
  3. Sovereigns then ruling Ceylon. 4. Brazil Wood and Cinnamon. 5. The
  Great Ruby.

XV.--THE SAME CONTINUED. THE HISTORY OF SAGAMONI BORCAN AND THE BEGINNING
OF IDOLATRY

  NOTES.--1. Adam's Peak, and the Foot thereon. 2. The Story of Sakya-Muni
  Buddha. The History of Saints Barlaam and Josaphat; a Christianised
  version thereof. 3. High Estimate of Buddha's Character. 4. Curious
  Parallel Passages. 5. Pilgrimages to the Peak. 6. The Pátra of Buddha,
  and the Tooth-Relic. 7. Miraculous endowments of the Pátra; it is the
  Holy Grail of Buddhism.

XVI.--CONCERNING THE GREAT PROVINCE OF MAABAR, WHICH IS CALLED INDIA THE
GREATER, AND IS ON THE MAINLAND

  NOTES.--1. Ma'bar, its definition, and notes on its Mediaeval History.
  2. The Pearl Fishery.

XVII.--CONTINUES TO SPEAK OF THE PROVINCE OF MAABAR

  NOTES.--1. Costume. 2. Hindu Royal Necklace. 3. Hindu use of the Rosary.
  4. The Saggio. 5. Companions in Death; the word _Amok_. 6. Accumulated
  Wealth of Southern India at this time. 7. Horse Importation from the
  Persian Gulf. 8. Religious Suicides. 9. Suttees. 10. Worship of the Ox.
  The Govis. 11. Verbal. 12. The Thomacides. 13. Ill-success of
  Horse-breeding in S. India. 14. Curious Mode of Arrest for Debt. 15. The
  Rainy Seasons. 16. Omens of the Hindus. 17. Strange treatment of Horses.
  18. The Devadásis. 19. Textual.

XVIII.--DISCOURSING OF THE PLACE WHERE LIETH THE BODY OF ST. THOMAS THE
APOSTLE; AND OF THE MIRACLES THEREOF

  NOTES.--1. Mailapúr. 2. The word _Avarian_. 3. Miraculous Earth. 4. The
  Traditions of St. Thomas in India. The ancient Church at his Tomb; the
  ancient Cross preserved on St. Thomas's Mount. 5. White Devils. 6. The
  Yak's Tail.

XIX.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MUTFILI

  NOTES.--1. Motapallé. The Widow Queen of Telingana. 2. The Diamond Mines,
  and the Legend of the Diamond Gathering. 3. Buckram.

XX.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF LAR WHENCE THE BRAHMANS COME

  NOTES.--1. Abraiaman. The Country of Lar. Hindu Character. 2. The Kingdom
  of Soli or Chola. 3. Lucky and Unlucky Days and Hours. The Canonical
  Hours of the Church. 4. Omens. 5. Jogis. The Ox-emblem. 6. Verbal.
  7. Recurrence of Human Eccentricities.

XXI.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIL

  NOTES.--1. Káyal; its true position. _Kolkhoi_ identified. 2. The King
  Ashar or As-char. 3. Correa, Note. 4. Betel-chewing. 5. Duels.

XXII.--OF THE KINGDOM OF COILUM

  NOTES.--1. Coilum, Coilon, Kaulam, Columbum, Quilon. Ancient Christian
  Churches. 2. Brazil Wood: notes on the name. 3. Columbine Ginger and
  other kinds. 4. Indigo. 5. Black Lions. 6. Marriage Customs.

XXIII.--OF THE COUNTRY CALLED COMARI

  NOTES.--1. Cape Comorin. 2. The word _Gat-paul_.

XXIV.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM ELI

  NOTES.--1. Mount D'Ely, and the City of Hili-Marawi. 2. Textual.
  3. Produce. 4. Piratical custom. 5. Wooden Anchors.

XXV.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MELIBAR

  NOTES.--1. Dislocation of Polo's Indian Geography. The name of Malabar.
  2. Verbal. 3. Pirates. 4. Cassia: Turbit: Cubebs. 5. Cessation of direct
  Chinese trade with Malabar.

XXVI.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF GOZURAT

  NOTES.--1. Topographical Confusion. 2. Tamarina. 3. Tall Cotton Trees.
  4. Embroidered Leather-work.

XXVII.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF TANA

  NOTES.--1. Tana, and the Konkan. 2. Incense of Western India.

XXVIII.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF CAMBAET

  NOTE.--Cambay.

XXIX.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF SEMENAT

  NOTE.--Somnath, and the so-called Gates of Somnath.

XXX.--CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF KESMACORAN

  NOTES.--1. Kij-Mekrán. Limit of India. 2. Recapitulation of Polo's Indian
  Kingdoms.

XXXI.--DISCOURSETH OF THE TWO ISLANDS CALLED MALE AND FEMALE, AND WHY THEY
ARE SO CALLED

  NOTE.--The Legend and its diffusion.

XXXII.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SCOTRA

  NOTES.--1. Whales of the Indian Seas. 2. Socotra and its former
  Christianity. 3. Piracy at Socotra. 4. Sorcerers.

XXXIII.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF MADEIGASCAR

  NOTES.--1. Madagascar; some confusion here with Magadoxo. 2. Sandalwood.
  3. Whale-killing. The _Capidoglio_ or Sperm-Whale. 4. The Currents
  towards the South. 5. The Rukh (and see Appendix L. 11). 6. More on the
  dimensions assigned thereto. 7. Hippopotamus Teeth.

XXXIV.--CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ZANGHIBAR. A WORD ON INDIA IN GENERAL

  NOTES.--1. Zangibar; Negroes. 2. Ethiopian Sheep. 3. Giraffes. 4. Ivory
  trade. 5. Error about Elephant-taming. 6. Number of Islands assigned to
  the Indian Sea. 7. The Three Indies, and various distributions thereof.
  Polo's Indian Geography.

XXXV.--TREATING OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OF ABASH, WHICH IS MIDDLE INDIA, AND
IS ON THE MAINLAND

  NOTES.--1. Habash or Abyssinia. Application of the name India to it.
  2. Fire Baptism ascribed to the Abyssinian Christians. 3. Polo's idea of
  the position of Aden. 4. Taming of the African Elephant for War.
  5. Marco's Story of the Abyssinian Invasion of the Mahomedan Low-Country,
  and Review of Abyssinian Chronology in connection therewith. 6. Textual.

XXXVI.--CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ADEN

  NOTES.--1. The Trade to Alexandria from India viâ Aden. 2. "_Roncins à
  deux selles_." 3. The Sultan of Aden. The City and its Great Tanks.
  4. The Loss of Acre.

XXXVII.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF ESHER

  NOTES.--1. Shihr. 2. Frankincense. 3. Four-horned Sheep. 4. Cattle fed on
  Fish. 5. Parallel passage.

XXXVIII.--CONCERNING THE CITY OF DUFAR

  NOTES.--1. Dhofar. 2. Notes on Frankincense.

XXXIX.--CONCERNING THE GULF OF CALATU, AND THE CITY SO CALLED

  NOTES.--1. Kalhát. 2. "_En fra terre_." 3. Maskat.

XL.--RETURNS TO THE CITY OF HORMOS WHEREOF WE SPOKE FORMERLY

  NOTES.--1. Polo's distances and bearings in these latter chapters.
  2. Persian _Bád-gírs_ or wind-catching chimneys. 3. Island of Kish.



BOOK FOURTH.

Wars among the Tartar Princes, and some Account of the Northern
Countries.


I.--CONCERNING GREAT TURKEY

  NOTES.--1. Kaidu Khan. 2. His frontier towards the Great Kaan.

II.--OF CERTAIN BATTLES THAT WERE FOUGHT BY KING CAIDU AGAINST THE ARMIES
OF HIS UNCLE THE GREAT KAAN

  NOTES.--1. Textual. 2. "_Araines_." 3. Chronology in connection with the
  events described.

III.--[1]WHAT THE GREAT KAAN SAID TO THE MISCHIEF DONE BY CAIDU HIS NEPHEW

IV.--OF THE EXPLOITS OF KING CAIDU'S VALIANT DAUGHTER

  NOTE.--Her name explained. Remarks on the story.

V.--HOW ABAGA SENT HIS SON ARGON IN COMMAND AGAINST KING CAIDU (Extract and
Substance.)

  NOTES.--1. Government of the Khorasan frontier. 2. The Historical Events.

VI.--HOW ARGON AFTER THE BATTLE HEARD THAT HIS FATHER WAS DEAD AND WENT TO
ASSUME THE SOVEREIGNTY AS WAS HIS RIGHT

  NOTES.--1. Death of Abaka. 2. Textual. 3. Ahmad Tigudar.

VII.--[1]HOW ACOMAT SOLDAN SET OUT WITH HIS HOST AGAINST HIS NEPHEW WHO WAS
COMING TO CLAIM THE THRONE THAT BELONGED TO HIM

VIII.--[1]HOW ARGON TOOK COUNSEL WITH HIS FOLLOWERS ABOUT ATTACKING HIS
UNCLE ACOMAT SOLDAN

IX.--[1]HOW THE BARONS OF ARGON ANSWERED HIS ADDRESS

X.--[1]THE MESSAGE SENT BY ARGON TO ACOMAT

XI.--HOW ACOMAT REPLIED TO ARGON'S MESSAGE

XII.--OF THE BATTLE BETWEEN ARGON AND ACOMAT, AND THE CAPTIVITY OF ARGON

  NOTES.--1. Verbal. 2. Historical.

XIII.--HOW ARGON WAS DELIVERED FROM PRISON

XIV.--HOW ARGON GOT THE SOVEREIGNTY AT LAST

XV.--[1]HOW ACOMAT WAS TAKEN PRISONER

XVI.--HOW ACOMAT WAS SLAIN BY ORDER OF HIS NEPHEW

XVII.--HOW ARGON WAS RECOGNISED AS SOVEREIGN

  NOTES.--1. The historical circumstances and persons named in these
  chapters. 2. Arghún's accession and death.

XVIII.--HOW KIACATU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER ARGON'S DEATH

  NOTE.--The reign and character of Kaikhátú.

XIX.--HOW BAIDU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER THE DEATH OF KIACATU

  NOTES.--1. Baidu's alleged Christianity. 2. Gházán Khan.

XX.--CONCERNING KING CONCHI WHO RULES THE FAR NORTH

  NOTES.--1. Kaunchi Khan. 2. Siberia. 3. Dog-sledges. 4. The animal here
  styled _Erculin_. The Vair. 5. Yugria.

XXI.--CONCERNING THE LAND OF DARKNESS

  NOTES.--1. The Land of Darkness. 2. The Legend of the Mares and their
  Foals. 3. Dumb Trade with the People of the Darkness.

XXII.--DESCRIPTION OF ROSIA AND ITS PEOPLE. PROVINCE OF LAC

  NOTES.--1. Old Accounts of Russia. Russian Silver and Rubles. 2. Lac, or
  Wallachia. 3. Oroech, Norway (?) or the Waraeg Country (?)

XXIII.--HE BEGINS TO SPEAK OF THE STRAITS OF CONSTANTINOPLE, BUT DECIDES TO
LEAVE THAT MATTER

XXIV.--CONCERNING THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT AND THEIR LORDS

  NOTES.--1. The Comanians; the Alans; Majar; Zic; the Goths of the Crimea;
  Gazaria. 2. The Khans of Kipchak or the Golden Horde; errors in Polo's
  list. Extent of their Empire.

XXV.--OF THE WAR THAT AROSE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA, AND THE BATTLES THAT
THEY FOUGHT (Extracts and Substance.)

  NOTES.--1. Verbal. 2. The Sea of Sarai. 3. The War here spoken of.
  Wassáf's rigmarole.

XXVI.--[1]HOW BARCA AND HIS ARMY ADVANCED TO MEET ALAU

XXVII.--[1]HOW ALAU ADDRESSED HIS FOLLOWERS

XXVIII.--[1]OF THE GREAT BATTLE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA

XXIX.--HOW TOTAMANGU WAS LORD OF THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT; AND AFTER HIM
TOCTAI

  NOTE.--Confusions in the Text. Historical circumstances connected with
  the Persons spoken of. Toctai and Noghai Khan. Symbolic Messages.

XXX.--[1]OF THE SECOND MESSAGE THAT TOCTAI SENT TO NOGAI

XXXI.--[1]HOW TOCTAI MARCHED AGAINST NOGAI

XXXII.--[1]HOW TOCTAI AND NOGAI ADDRESS THEIR PEOPLE, AND THE NEXT DAY JOIN
BATTLE

XXXIII.--[1]THE VALIANT FEATS AND VICTORY OF KING NOGAI

XXXIV. AND LAST. CONCLUSION


[1] Of chapters so marked nothing is given but the substance in brief.



APPENDICES.


A. Genealogy of the House of Chinghiz to the End of the Thirteenth Century

B. The Polo Families:--
  (I.) Genealogy of the Family of Marco Polo the Traveller
  (II.) The Polos of San Geremia

C. Calendar of Documents relating to Marco Polo and his Family

D. Comparative Specimens of the Different Recensions of Polo's Text

E. Preface to Pipino's Latin Version

F. Note of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book, so far as known:
  General Distribution of MSS.
  List of Miniatures in two of the finer MSS.
  List of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book, so far as they are known

G. Diagram showing Filiation of Chief MSS. and Editions of Marco Polo

H. Bibliography:--
  (I.) Principal Editions of Marco Polo's Book
  (II.) Bibliography of Printed Editions
  (III.) Titles of Sundry Books and Papers treating of Marco Polo and his
  Book

I. Titles of Works quoted by Abbreviated References in this Book

K. Values of Certain Moneys, Weights, and Measures occurring in this Book.

L. Supplementary Notes to the Book of Marco Polo
  1. The Polos at Acre.
  2. Sorcery in Kashmir.
  3. PAONANO PAO.
  4. Pamir.
  5. Number of Pamirs.
  6. Site of Pein.
  7. Fire-arms.
  8. La Couvade.
  9. Alacan
  10. Champa.
  11. Ruck Quills.
  12. A Spanish Marco Polo.
  13. Sir John Mandeville.

INDEX



EXPLANATORY LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO VOLUME II.


INSERTED PLATES AND MAPS.


Portrait bearing the inscription "MARCUS POLVS VENETVS TOTIVS ORBIS ET
INDIE PEREGRATOR PRIMVS." In the Gallery of Monsignor _Badia_ at Rome;
copied by Sign. GIUSEPPE GNOLI, Rome.

Medallion, representing Marco Polo in the PRISON of GENOA, dictating his
story to Master RUSTICIAN of PISA, drawn by Signor QUINTO CENNI from a
rough design by Sir HENRY YULE.

The celebrated CHRISTIAN INSCRIPTION OF SI-NGAN FU. Photolithographed by Mr
W. GRIGG, from a Rubbing of the original monument, given to the Editor by
the Baron F. von Richthofen.

  This rubbing is more complete than that used in the first edition, for
  which the Editor was indebted to the kindness of William Lockhart, Esq.

The LAKE of TALI (CARAJAN of Polo) from the Northern End. Woodcut after
Lieut. DELAPORTE, borrowed from Lieut. GARNIER'S Narrative in the _Tour du
Monde_.

Suspension Bridge, neighbourhood of TALI. From a photograph by M. Tannant.

The CITY of MIEN, with the Gold and Silver Towers. From a drawing by the
Editor, based upon his sketches of the remains of the City so called by
Marco Polo, viz., PAGÁN, the mediaeval capital of Burma.

Itineraries of Marco Polo. No. V. The INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES. With a small
sketch extracted from a Chinese Map in the possession of Baron von
Richthofen, showing the position of KIEN-CH'ANG, the _Caindu_ of Marco
Polo.

Sketch Map exhibiting the VARIATIONS of the TWO GREAT RIVERS of China,
within the Period of History.

The CITY of SU-CHAU. Reduced by the Editor from a Rubbing of a Plan incised
on Marble, and preserved in the Great Confucian Temple in the City.

  The date of the original set of Maps, of which this was one, is
  uncertain, owing to the partial illegibility of the Inscription; but it
  is subsequent to A.D. 1000. They were engraved on the Marble A.D. 1247.
  Many of the names have been obliterated, and a few of those given in the
  copy are filled up from modern information, as the Editor learns from
  Mr. Wylie, to whom he owes this valuable illustration.

Map of HANG-CHAU FU and its LAKE, from Chinese Sources.

  The Map as published in the former edition was based on a Chinese Map in
  the possession of Dr. W. Lockhart, with some particulars from Maps in a
  copy of the Local Topography, _Hang-Chau-fu-chi_, in the B. Museum
  Library. In the second edition the Map has been entirely redrawn by the
  Editor, with many corrections, and with the aid of new materials,
  supplied by the kindness of the Rev. G. Moule of the Church Mission at
  Hang-chau. These materials embrace a Paper read by Mr. Moule before the
  N. China Branch of the R. As. Soc. at Shang-hai; a modern engraved Map of
  the City on a large scale; and a large MS. Map of the City and Lake,
  compiled by John Shing, Tailor, a Chinese Christian and Catechist;

  The small Side-plan is the City of SI-NGAN FU, from a plan published
  during the Mongol rule, in the 14th century, a tracing of which was sent
  by Mr. Wylie. The following references could not be introduced in
  lettering for want of space:--

  1. Yuen-Tu-Kwan (Tauist Monastery).
  2. Chapel of Hien-ning Prince.
  3. Leih-Ching Square (Fang).
  4. Tauist Monastery.
  5. Kie-lin General Court.
  6. Ancestral Chapel of Yang-Wan-Kang.
  7. Chapel of the Mid-year Genius.
  8. Temple of the Martial Peaceful King.
  9. Stone where officers are selected.
  10. Mews.
  11. Jasper-Waves Square (Fang).
  12. Court of Enquiry.
  13. Gate of the Fang-Yuen Circuit.
  14. Bright Gate.
  15. Northern Tribunal.
  16. Refectory.
  17. Chapel of the Fang-Yuen Prince.
  18. Embroidery manufactory.
  19. Hwa-li Temple.
  20. Old Superintendency of Investigations.
  21. Superintendent of Works.
  22. Ka-yuen Monastery.
  23. Prefectural Confucian Temple.
  24. Benevolent Institution.
  25. Temple of Tu-Ke-King.
  26. Balustrade enclosure.
  27. Medicine-Bazar Street.
  28. Tsin and Ching States Chapel.
  29. Square of the Double Cassia Tree.

  N.B.--The shaded spaces are marked in the original _Min-Keu_
  "Dwellings of the People."

Plan of SOUTHERN PART of the CITY of KING-SZÉ (or Hang-chau), with the
PALACE of the SUNG EMPERORS. From a Chinese Plan forming part of a Reprint
of the official Topography of the City during the period _Hien-Shun_
(1265-1274) of the Sung Dynasty, i.e. the period terminated by the Mongol
conquest of the City and Empire. Mr. Moule, who possesses the Chinese plan
(with others of the same set), has come to the conclusion that it is a copy
at second-hand. Names that are underlined are such as are preserved in the
modern Map of Hang-chau. I am indebted for the use of the original plan to
Mr. Moule; for the photographic copy and rendering of the names to Mr.
Wylie.

Sketch Map of the GREAT PORTS of FO-KIEN, to illustrate the identity of
Marco Polo's ZAYTON. Besides the Admiralty Charts and other well-known
sources the Editor has used in forming this a "Missionary Map of Amoy and
the Neighbouring Country," on a large scale, sent him by the Rev.
Carstairs Douglas, LL.D., of Amoy. This contains some points not to be
found in the others.

Itineraries of MARCO POLO, No. VI. The Journey through KIANG-NAN,
CHE-KIANG, and FO-XIEN.

1. Map to illustrate Marco Polo's Chapters on the MALAY COUNTRIES.
2. Map to illustrate his Chapters on SOUTHERN INDIA.

1. Sketch showing the Position of KÁYAL in Tinnevelly.
2. Map showing the Position of the Kingdom of ELY in MALABAR.

ADEN, with the attempted Escalade under Alboquerque in 1513, being the
Reduced Facsimile of a large contemporary Wood Engraving in the Map
Department of the British Museum. (Size of the original 42-1/2 inches by
19-1/8 inches.) Photolithographic Reduction by Mr. G.B. PRAETORIUS,
through the assistance of R. H. Major, Esq.

Facsimile of the Letters sent to PHILIP the FAIR, King of France, by ARGHÚN
KHAN, in A.D. 1289, and by OLJAÏTU, in A.D. 1305, preserved in the Archives
of France, and reproduced from the _Recueil des Documents de l'Epoque
Mongole_ by kind permission of H.H. Prince ROLAND BONAPARTE.

Some of the objects found by Dr. M.A. Stein, in Central Asia. From a
photograph kindly lent by the Traveller.



WOODCUTS PRINTED WITH THE TEXT.

BOOK SECOND.--PART SECOND.


The BRIDGE of PULISANGHIN, the _Lu-ku-k'iao_ of the Chinese, reduced from a
large Chinese Engraving in the Geographical work called _Ki-fu-thung-chi_
in the Paris Library. I owe the indication of this, and of the Portrait of
Kúblái Kaan in vol. i. to notes in M. Pauthier's edition.

The BRIDGE of PULISANGHIN. From the _Livre des Merveilles_.

BRIDGE of LU-KU-K'IAO. From a photograph by Count de SEMALLÉ.

BRIDGE of LU-KU-K'IAO. From a photograph by Count de SEMALLÉ.

The ROI D'OR. Professed Portrait of the Last of the _Altun Khans_ or Kin
Emperors of Cathay, from the (fragmentary) Arabic Manuscript of
_Rashiduddin's History_ in the Library of the Royal Asiatic Society. This
Manuscript is supposed to have been transcribed under the eye of
Rashiduddin, and the drawings were probably derived from Chinese originals.

Plan of Ki-chau, after Duhalde.

The CROSS incised at the head of the GREAT CHRISTIAN INSCRIPTION of SI-NGAN
FU (A.D. 781); actual size, from copy of a pencil rubbing made on the
original by the Rev. J. Lees. Received from Mr. A. Wylie.

Diagram to elucidate the cities of Ch'êng-tu fu.

Plan of Ch'êng-tu. From MARCEL MONNIER'S _Tour d'Asie_, by kind permission
of M. PLON.

Bridge near Kwan-hsien (Ch'êng-tu). From MARCEL MONNIER'S _Tour d'Asie_, by
kind permission of M. PLON.

MOUNTAINEERS on the Borders of SZE-CH'WAN and TIBET, from one of the
illustrations to Lieut. Garnier's Narrative (see p. 48). From _Tour du
Monde_.

VILLAGE of EASTERN TIBET on Sze-ch'wan Frontier. From _Mr. Cooper's Travels
of a Pioneer of Commerce_.

Example of ROADS on the TIBETAN FRONTIER of China (being actually a view of
the Gorge of the Lan t'sang Kiang). From _Mr. Cooper's Travels of a Pioneer
of Commerce_.

The VALLEY of the KIN-SHA KIANG, near the lower end of the CAINDU of Marco
Polo. From Lieut. Garnier in the _Tour du Monde_.

SALT PANS in Yun-nan. From the same.

Black Lolo.

White Lolo. From DEVÉRIA'S _Frontière Sino-annamite_.

_Pa-y_ Script. From the _T'oung-Pao_.

Garden-House on the LAKE of YUN-NAN-FU, YACHI of Polo. _From_ Lieut.
Garnier in the _Tour du Monde_.

Road descending from the Table-Land of YUN-NAN into the VALLEY of the
KIN-SHA KIANG (the BRIUS of Polo). From the same.

"A SARACEN of CARAJAN," being the portrait of a Mahomedan Mullah in Western
Yun-nan. From the same.

The Canal at YUN-NAN FU. From a photograph by M. TANNANT.

"Riding long like FRENCHMEN," exemplified from the Bayeux Tapestry. After
Lacroix, _Vie Militaire du Moyen Age_.

The SANG-MIAU tribe of KWEI-CHAU, with the Cross-bow. From a coloured
drawing in a Chinese work on the Aboriginal Tribes, belonging to W.
Lockhart, Esq.

Portraits of a KAKHYEN man and woman. Drawn by Q. CENNI from a photograph
(anonymous).

Temple called GAUDAPALÉN in the city of MIEN (i.e. Pagán in Burma), erected
circa A.D. 1160. Engraving after a sketch by the first Editor, from
_Fergusson's History of Architecture_.

The PALACE of the KING of MIEN in modern times (viz., the Palace at
Amarapura). From the same, being partly from a sketch by the first
Editor.

Script _Pa-pe_. From the _T'oung-Pao_.

HO-NHI and other Tribes in the Department of Lin-ngan in S. Yun-nan,
supposed to be the _Anin_ country of Marco Polo. From Garnier in the
_Tour du Monde_.

The KOLOMAN tribe, on borders of Kwei-chau and Yun-nan. From coloured
drawing in Mr. Lockhart's book as above (under p. 83).

Script _thaï_ of Xieng-hung. From the _T'oung-Pao_.

Iron SUSPENSION BRIDGE at Lowatong. From Garnier in _Tour du Monde_.

FORTIFIED VILLAGES on Western Frontier of KWEI-CHAU. From the same.


BOOK SECOND.--PART THIRD.


YANG-CHAU: the three Cities under the Sung.

YANG-CHAU: the Great City under the Sung. From Chinese Plans kindly sent to
the present Editor by the late Father H. Havret, S.J., Zi-ka-wei.

MEDIAEVAL ARTILLERY ENGINES. Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, are CHINESE. The
first four are from the Encyclopaedia _San-Thsai-Thou-hoei_ (Paris
Library), the last from _Amyot_, vol. viii.

  Figs. 6, 7, 8 are SARACEN, 6 and 7 are taken from the work of Reinaud
  and Favé, Du Feu Grégeois, and by them from the Arabic MS. of Hassan al
  Raumah (_Arab Anc. Fonds_, No. 1127). Fig. 8 is from _Lord Munster's
  Arabic Catalogue_ of Military Works, and by him from a MS. of
  _Rashiduddin's History_.

  The remainder are EUROPEAN. Fig. 9 is from _Pertz, Scriptores_, vol.
  xviii., and by him from a figure of the Siege of Arbicella, 1227, in a
  MS. of _Genoese Annals_ (No. 773, _Supp. Lat._ of _Bib. Imp._). Fig. 10
  from _Shaw's Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages_, vol. i., No.
  21, after _B. Mus. MS. Reg._ 16, G. vi. Fig. 11 from Perts as above,
  under A.D. 1182. Fig. 12, from _Valturius de Re Militari_, Verona, 1483.
  Figs. 13 and 14 from the _Poliorceticon_ of Justus Lipsius. Fig. 15 is
  after the Bodleian MS. of the Romance of Alexander (A.D. 1338), but is
  taken from the _Gentleman's Magazine_, 3rd ser. vol. vii. p. 467. Fig. 16
  from Lacroix's _Art au Moyen Age_, after a miniature of 13th cent. in the
  Paris Library. Figs. 17 and 18 from the Emperor Napoleon's _Études de
  l'Artillerie_, and by him taken from the MS. of Paulus Santinus (Lat.
  MS. 7329 in Paris Library). Fig. 19 from Professor Moseley's restoration
  of a Trebuchet, after the data in the Mediaeval Note-book of Villars de
  Honcourt, in _Gentleman's Magazine_ as above. Figs. 20 and 21 from the
  Emperor's Book. Fig. 22 from a German MS. in the Bern Library, the
  _Chronicle of Justinger and Schilling_.

COIN from a treasure hidden during the siege of SIANG-YANG in 1268-73, and
lately discovered in that city.

Island MONASTERIES on the YANG-TZU KIANG; viz.:--

  1. _Uppermost_. The "Little Orphan Rock," after a cut in _Oliphant's
  Narrative_.

  2. _Middle_. The "Golden Island" near Chin-kiang fu, after _Fisher's
  China_. (This has been accidentally reversed in the drawing.)

  3. _Lower_. The "_Silver Island_," below the last, after Mr. Lindley's
  book on the T'ai-P'ings.

The West Gate of CHIN-KIANG FU. From an engraving in _Fisher's China_ after
a sketch made by Admiral Stoddart, R.N., in 1842.

South-West Gate and Water Gate of SU-CHAU; facsimile on half scale from the
incised Map of 1247. (See List of Inserted Plates preceding, under p. 182.)

The old LUH-HO-TA or Pagoda of Six Harmonies near HANG-CHAU, and anciently
marking the extreme S.W. angle of the city. Drawn by Q. CENNI from an
anonymous photograph received from the Rev. G. Moule.

Imperial City of HANG-CHAU in the 13th Century.

Metropolitan City of HANG-CHAU in the 13th Century. From the Notes of the
Right Rev. G.E. Moule.

_Fang_ of SI-NGAN FU. Communicated by A. Wylie.

Stone _Chwang_ or UMBRELLA COLUMN, one of two which still mark the site of
the ancient Buddhist Monastery called _Fan-T'ien-Sze_ or "Brahma's Temple"
at Hang-chau. Reduced from a pen-and-ink sketch by Mr. Moule.

Mr. PHILLIPS' Theory of Marco Polo's Route through Fo-Kien.

Scene in the BOHEA MOUNTAINS, on Polo's route between Kiang-Si and Fo-Kien.
From _Fortune's Three Years' Wanderings_.

Scene on the MIN RIVER below Fu-chau. From the same.

The KAAN'S FLEET leaving the Port of ZAYTON. The scenery is taken from an
engraving in _Fisher's China_, purporting to represent the mouth of the
Chinchew River (or River of Tswan-chau), after a sketch by Capt. (now
Adm.) Stoddart. But the Rev. Dr. Douglas, having pointed out that this
cut really supported _his_ view of the identity of Zayton, being a view of
the _Chang-chau_ River, reference was made to Admiral Stoddart, and Dr.
Douglas proves to be quite right. The View was really one of the Chang-chau
River; but the Editor has not been able to procure material for one of the
Tswan-chau River, and so he leaves it.


BOOK THIRD


The KAAN'S FLEET passing through the Indian ARCHIPELAGO. From a drawing by
the Editor.

Ancient JAPANESE EMPEROR, after a Native Drawing. From the _Tour du Monde_.

Ancient JAPANESE ARCHER, after a native drawing. From the same.

The JAPANESE engaged in combat with the CHINESE, after an ancient native
drawing. From Charton, _Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes_.

JAVA. A view in the interior. From a sketch of the slopes of the Gedéh
Volcano, taken by the Editor in 1860.

Bas Relief of one of the VESSELS frequenting the Ports of JAVA in the
Middle Ages. From one of the sculptures of the BORO BODOR, after a
photograph.

The three Asiatic RHINOCEROSES. Adapted from a proof of a woodcut given to
the Editor for the purpose by the late eminent zoologist, Edward Blyth.
It is not known to the Editor whether the cut appeared in any other
publication.

MONOCEROS and the MAIDEN. From a mediaeval drawing engraved in _Cahier et
Martin, Mélanges d'Archéologie_, II. Pl. 30.

The BORÚS. From a manuscript belonging to the late CHARLES SCHEFER, now in
the _Bibliothèque Nationale_, Paris.

The CYNOCEPHALI. From the _Livre des Merveilles_.

ADAM'S PEAK from the Sea.

SAKYA MUNI as a Saint of the Roman Martyrology. Facsimile from an old
German version of the story of Barlaam and Josaphat (circa 1477), printed
by Zainer at Augsburg, in the British Museum.

TOOTH Reliques of BUDDHA. 1. At Kandy, after Emerson Tennent. 2. At
Fu-chau, after Fortune.

"CHINESE PAGODA" (so called) at Negapatam. From a sketch taken by Sir
Walter Elliot, K.C.S.I., in 1846.

PAGODA at TANJORE. From _Fergusson's History of Architecture_.

Ancient CROSS with Pehlvi Inscription, preserved in the church on ST.
THOMAS'S MOUNT near Madras. From a photograph, the gift of A. Burnell,
Esq., of the Madras Civil Service, assisted by a lithographic drawing in
his unpublished pamphlet on Pehlvi Crosses in South India. N.B.--The
lithograph has now appeared in the _Indian Antiquary_, November, 1874.

The Little MOUNT of ST. THOMAS, near Madras. After Daniel.

Small Map of the ST. THOMAS localities at Madras.

Ancient Christian CHURCH at PARÚR or Palúr, on the Malabar Coast; from an
engraving in Pearson's _Life of Claudius Buchanan_, after a sketch by the
latter.

SYRIAN CHURCH at Karanyachirra, showing the quasi-Jesuit Façade generally
adopted in modern times. From the _Life of Bishop Daniel Wilson_.

INTERIOR of Syrian CHURCH at Kötteiyam. From the same.

CAPE COMORIN. From an original sketch by Mr. FOOTE of the Geological Survey
of India.

MOUNT D'ELY. From a _nautical sketch of last century_.

Mediaeval ARCHITECTURE in GUZERAT, being a view of Gateway at Jinjawára,
given in Forbes's _Ras Mala_. From _Fergusson's History of Architecture_.

The GATES of SOMNATH (so called), as preserved in the British Arsenal at
Agra. From a photograph by Messrs. SHEPHERD and BOURNE, converted into an
elevation.

The RUKH, after a Persian drawing. From _Lane's Arabian Nights_.

Frontispiece of A. Müller's _Marco Polo_, showing the Bird _Rukh_.

The ETHIOPIAN SHEEP. From a sketch by Miss Catherine Frere.

View of ADEN in 1840. From a sketch by Dr. R. KIRK in the Map-room of the
Royal Geographical Society.

The Harvest of FRANKINCENSE in Arabia. Facsimile of an engraving in
_Thevet's Cosmographie Universelle_ (1575). Reproduced from _Cassell's
Bible Educator_, by the courtesy of the publishers.

BOSWELLIA FREREANA, from a drawing by Mr. W.H. FITCH. The use of this
engraving is granted by the India Museum through the kindness of Sir
George Birdwood.

A Persian BÁD-GÍR, or Wind-Catcher. From a drawing in the Atlas to
_Hommaire de Hell's Persia_. Engraved by ADENEY.


BOOK FOURTH.


Tomb of OLJAITU KHAN, the brother of Polo's CASAN, at Sultaniah. From
_Fergusson's History of Architecture_.

The Siberian DOG-SLEDGE. From the _Tour du Monde_.

Mediaeval RUSSIAN Church. From _Fergusson's History of Architecture_.

Figure of a TARTAR under the Feet of Henry Duke of Silesia, Cracow, and
Poland, from the tomb at Breslau of that Prince, killed in battle with the
Tartar host, 9th April, 1241. After a plate in _Schlesische Fürstenbilder
des Mittelalters_, Breslau, 1868.

Asiatic WARRIORS of Polo's Age. From the MS. of Rashiduddin's History,
noticed under cut at p. 19. Engraved by ADENEY.


APPENDICES.


FIGURE of MARCO POLO, from the first printed edition of his Book, published
in German at Nuremberg 1477. Traced from a copy in the Berlin Library.
(This tracing was the gift of Mr. Samuel D. Horton, of Cincinnati,
through Mr. Marsh.)

Marco Polo's rectified Itinerary from Khotan to Nia.



THE BOOK OF MARCO POLO

[Illustration: MARCO POLO in the Prison of Genoa]



BOOK SECOND.--CONTINUED.



PART II.--JOURNEY TO THE WEST AND SOUTH-WEST OF CATHAY.



CHAPTER XXXV.

HERE BEGINS THE DESCRIPTION OF THE INTERIOR OF CATHAY, AND FIRST OF THE
RIVER PULISANGHIN.


Now you must know that the Emperor sent the aforesaid Messer Marco Polo,
who is the author of this whole story, on business of his into the Western
Provinces. On that occasion he travelled from Cambaluc a good four months'
journey towards the west.[NOTE 1] And so now I will tell you all that he
saw on his travels as he went and returned.

[Illustration: The Bridge of Pulisanghin. (Reduced from a Chinese
original.)

"--et desus cest flum a un mout biaus pont de pieres: car sachiez qe pont
n'a en tout le monde de si biaus ne son pareil."]

When you leave the City of Cambaluc and have ridden ten miles, you come to
a very large river which is called PULISANGHIN, and flows into the ocean,
so that merchants with their merchandise ascend it from the sea. Over this
River there is a very fine stone bridge, so fine indeed, that it has very
few equals. The fashion of it is this: it is 300 paces in length, and it
must have a good eight paces of width, for ten mounted men can ride across
it abreast. It has 24 arches and as many water-mills, and 'tis all of very
fine marble, well built and firmly founded. Along the top of the bridge
there is on either side a parapet of marble slabs and columns, made in this
way. At the beginning of the bridge there is a marble column, and under it
a marble lion, so that the column stands upon the lion's loins, whilst on
the top of the column there is a second marble lion, both being of great
size and beautifully executed sculpture. At the distance of a pace from
this column there is another precisely the same, also with its two lions,
and the space between them is closed with slabs of grey marble to prevent
people from falling over into the water. And thus the columns run from
space to space along either side of the bridge, so that altogether it is a
beautiful object.[NOTE 2]


NOTE 1.--[When Marco leaves the capital, he takes the main road, the
"Imperial Highway," from Peking to Si-ngan fu, via Pao-ting, Cheng-ting,
Hwai-luh, Taï-yuan, Ping-yang, and T'ung-kwan, on the Yellow River. Mr. G.
F. Eaton, writing from Han-chung (_Jour. China Br. R. As. Soc._ XXVIII.
No. 1) says it is a cart-road, except for six days between Taí-yuan and
Hwai-luh, and that it takes twenty-nine days to go from Peking to Si-ngan,
a figure which agrees well with Polo's distances; it is also the time
which Dr. Forke's journey lasted; he left Peking on the 1st May, 1892,
reached Taï-yuan on the 12th, and arrived at Si-ngan on the 30th (_Von
Peking nach Ch'ang-an_). Mr. Rockhill left Peking on the 17th December,
1888, reached T'aï-yuan on the 26th, crossed the Yellow River on the 5th
January, and arrived at Si-ngan fu on the 8th January, 1889, in twenty-two
days, a distance of 916 miles. (_Land of the Lamas_, pp. 372-374.) M.
Grenard left Si-ngan on the 10th November and reached Peking on the 16th
December, 1894 = thirty-six days; he reckons 1389 kilometres = 863 miles.
(See _Rev. C. Holcombe, Tour through Shan-hsi and Shen-hsi_ in _Jour.
North China Br.R.A.S.N.S._ X. pp. 54-70.)--H.C.]

[Illustration: The Bridge of Pulisanghin. (From the _Livre des
Merveilles_.)]

NOTE 2.--_Pul-i-Sangín_, the name which Marco gives the _River_, means in
Persian simply (as Marsden noticed) "The Stone Bridge." In a very different
region the same name often occurs in the history of Timur applied to a
certain bridge, in the country north of Badakhshan, over the Wakhsh branch
of the Oxus. And the Turkish admiral Sidi 'Ali, travelling that way from
India in the 16th century, applies the name, as it is applied here, to the
river; for his journal tells us that beyond Kulíb he crossed "the _River
Pulisangin_."

We may easily suppose, therefore, that near Cambaluc also, the Bridge,
first, and then the River, came to be known to the Persian-speaking
foreigners of the court and city by this name. This supposition is however
a little perplexed by the circumstance that Rashiduddin calls the _River_
the _Sangín_ and that _Sangkan_-Ho appears from the maps or citations of
Martini, Klaproth, Neumann, and Pauthier to have been one of the _Chinese_
names of the river, and indeed, Sankang is still the name of one of the
confluents forming the Hwan Ho.

[By _Sanghin_, Polo renders the Chinese _Sang-kan_, by which name the River
Hun-ho is already mentioned, in the 6th century of our era. _Hun-ho_ is
also an ancient name; and the same river in ancient books is often called
_Lu-Kou_ River also. All these names are in use up to the present time; but
on modern Chinese maps, only the upper part of the river is termed
_Sang-Kan ho_, whilst south of the inner Great Wall, and in the plain, the
name of _Hun-ho_ is applied to it. _Hun ho_ means "Muddy River," and the
term is quite suitable. In the last century, the Emperor K'ien-lung ordered
the Hun-ho to be named _Yung-ting ho_, a name found on modern maps, but the
people always call it _Hun ho_ (_Bretschneider, Peking_, p. 54.)--H.C.]

The River is that which appears in the maps as the Hwan Ho, Hun-ho, or
Yongting Ho, flowing about 7 miles west of Peking towards the south-east
and joining the Pe-Ho at Tientsin; and the Bridge is that which has been
known for ages as the _Lu-kou-Kiao_ or Bridge of Lukou, adjoining the town
which is called in the Russian map of Peking _Feuchen_, but in the official
Chinese Atlas _Kung-Keih-cheng_. (See Map at ch. xi. of Bk. II. in the
first Volume.) ["Before arriving at the bridge the small walled city of
_Kung-ki cheng_ is passed. This was founded in the first half of the 17th
century. The people generally call it _Fei-ch'eng_" (_Bretschneider,
Peking_, p. 50.)--H.C.] It is described both by Magaillans and Lecomte,
with some curious discrepancies, whilst each affords particulars
corroborative of Polo's account of the character of the bridge. The former
calls it the finest bridge in China. Lecomte's account says the bridge was
the finest he had yet seen. "It is above 170 geometrical paces (850 feet)
in length. The arches are small, but the rails or side-walls are made of
a hard whitish stone resembling marble. These stones are more than 5 feet
long, 3 feet high, and 7 or 8 inches thick; supported at each end by
pilasters adorned with mouldings and bearing the figures of lions.... The
bridge is paved with great flat stones, so well joined that it is even as
a floor."

Magaillans thinks Polo's memory partially misled him, and that his
description applies more correctly to another bridge on the same road, but
some distance further west, over the Lieu-li Ho. For the bridge over the
Hwan Ho had really but _thirteen_ arches, whereas that on the Lieu-li had,
as Polo specifies, twenty-four. The engraving which we give of the Lu-kou
K'iao from a Chinese work confirms this statement, for it shows but
thirteen arches. And what Polo says of the navigation of the river is
almost conclusive proof that Magaillans is right, and that our traveller's
memory confounded the two bridges. For the navigation of the Hwan Ho, even
when its channel is full, is said to be impracticable on account of rapids,
whilst the Lieu-li Ho, or "Glass River," is, as its name implies, smooth,
and navigable, and it is largely navigated by boats from the coal-mines of
Fang-shan. The road crosses the latter about two leagues from Cho-chau.
(See next chapter.)

[Illustration: Bridge of Lu-ku k'iao]

[The Rev. W.S. Ament (_M. Polo in Cambaluc_, p. 116-117) remarks regarding
Yule's quotation from Magaillans that "a glance at Chinese history would
have explained to these gentlemen that there was no stone bridge over the
Liu Li river till the days of Kia Tsing, the Ming Emperor, 1522 A.D., or
more than one hundred and fifty years after Polo was dead. Hence he could
not have confounded bridges, one of which he never saw. The Lu Kou Bridge
was first constructed of stone by She Tsung, fourth Emperor of the Kin, in
the period Ta Ting 1189 A.D., and was finished by Chang Tsung 1194 A.D.
Before that time it had been constructed of wood, and had been sometimes a
stationary and often a floating bridge. The oldest account [end of 16th
century] states that the bridge was pu 200 in length, and specifically
states that each pu was 5 feet, thus making the bridge 1000 feet long. It
was called the Kuan Li Bridge. The Emperor, Kia Tsing of the Ming, was a
great bridge builder. He reconstructed this bridge, adding strong
embankments to prevent injury by floods. He also built the fine bridge over
the Liu Li Ho, the Cho Chou Bridge over the Chü Ma Ho. What cannot be
explained is Polo's statement that the bridge had twenty-four arches, when
the oldest accounts give no more than thirteen, there being eleven at the
present time. The columns which supported the balustrade in Polo's time
rested upon the loins of sculptured lions. The account of the lions after
the bridge was repaired by Kia Tsing says that there are so many that it is
impossible to count them correctly, and gossip about the bridge says that
several persons have lost their minds in making the attempt. The little
walled city on the east end of the bridge, rightly called Kung Chi,
popularly called Fei Ch'eng, is a monument to Ts'ung Ch'êng, the last of
the Ming, who built it, hoping to check the advance of Li Tzu ch'eng, the
great robber chief who finally proved too strong for him."--H.C.]

The Bridge of Lu-kou is mentioned more than once in the history of the
conquest of North China by Chinghiz. It was the scene of a notable mutiny
of the troops of the _Kin_ Dynasty in 1215, which induced Chinghiz to break
a treaty just concluded, and led to his capture of Peking.

This bridge was begun, according to Klaproth, in 1189, and was five years
a-building. On the 17th August, 1688, as Magaillans tells us, a great flood
carried away two arches of the bridge, and the remainder soon fell. [Father
Intorcetta, quoted by Bretschneider (_Peking_, p. 53), gives the 25th of
July, 1668, as the date of the destruction of the bridge, which agrees well
with the Chinese accounts.--H.C.] The bridge was renewed, but with only
nine arches instead of thirteen, as appears from the following note of
personal observation with which Dr. Lockhart has favoured me:

"At 27 _li_ from Peking, by the western road leaving the gate of the
Chinese city called Kwang-'an-man, after passing the old walled town of
Feuchen, you reach the bridge of _Lo-Ku-Kiao_. As it now stands it is a
very long bridge of nine arches (real _arches_) spanning the valley of the
Hwan Ho, and surrounded by beautiful scenery. The bridge is built of green
sandstone, and has a good balustrade with short square pilasters crowned by
small lions. It is in very good repair, and has a ceaseless traffic, being
on the road to the coal-mines which supply the city. There is a pavilion at
each end of the bridge with inscriptions, the one recording that K'anghi
(1662-1723) _built_ the bridge, and the other that Kienlung (1736-1796)
_repaired_ it." These circumstances are strictly consistent with
Magaillans' account of the destruction of the mediaeval bridge. Williamson
describes the present bridge as about 700 feet long, and 12 feet wide in
the middle part.

[Dr. Bretschneider saw the bridge, and gives the following description of
it: "The bridge is 350 ordinary paces long and 18 broad. It is built of
sandstone, and has on either side a stone balustrade of square columns,
about 4 feet high, 140 on each side, each crowned by a sculptured lion over
a foot high. Beside these there are a number of smaller lions placed
irregularly on the necks, behind the legs, under the feet, or on the back
of the larger ones. The space between the columns is closed by stone slabs.
Four sculptured stone elephants lean with their foreheads against the edge
of the balustrades. The bridge is supported by eleven arches. At each end
of the bridge two pavilions with yellow roofs have been built, all with
large marble tablets in them; two with inscriptions made by order of the
Emperor K'ang-hi (1662-1723); and two with inscriptions of the time of
K'ien-lung (1736-1796). On these tablets the history of the bridge is
recorded." Dr. Bretschneider adds that Dr. Lockhart is also right in
counting nine arches, for he counts only the waterways, not the arches
resting upon the banks of the river. Dr. Forke (p. 5) counts 11 arches and
280 stone lions.--H.C.]

(_P. de la Croix_, II. 11, etc.; _Erskine's Baber_, p. xxxiii.; _Timour's
Institutes_, 70; _J. As._ IX. 205; _Cathay_, 260; _Magaillans_, 14-18, 35;
_Lecomte_ in _Astley_, III. 529; _J. As._ sér. II. tom. i. 97-98;
_D'Ohsson_, I. 144.)

[Illustration: Bridge of Lu ku Kiao]



CHAPTER XXXVI.

ACCOUNT OF THE CITY OF JUJU.


When you leave the Bridge, and ride towards the west, finding all the way
excellent hostelries for travellers, with fine vineyards, fields, and
gardens, and springs of water, you come after 30 miles to a fine large city
called JUJU, where there are many abbeys of idolaters, and the people live
by trade and manufactures. They weave cloths of silk and gold, and very
fine taffetas.[NOTE 1] Here too there are many hostelries for
travellers.[NOTE 2]

After riding a mile beyond this city you find two roads, one of which goes
west and the other south-east. The westerly road is that through Cathay,
and the south-easterly one goes towards the province of Manzi.[NOTE 3]

Taking the westerly one through Cathay, and travelling by it for ten days,
you find a constant succession of cities and boroughs, with numerous
thriving villages, all abounding with trade and manufactures, besides the
fine fields and vineyards and dwellings of civilized people; but nothing
occurs worthy of special mention; and so I will only speak of a kingdom
called TAIANFU.


NOTE 1.--The word _sendaus_ (Pauthier), pl. of _sendal_, and in G.T.
_sandal_. It does not seem perfectly known what this silk texture was, but
as banners were made of it, and linings for richer stuffs, it appears to
have been a light material, and is generally rendered _taffetas_. In
_Richard Coeur de Lion_ we find

  "Many a pencel of sykelatoun
  And of sendel of grene and broun,"

and also _pavilions_ of sendel; and in the Anglo-French ballad of the death
of William Earl of Salisbury in St. Lewis's battle on the Nile--

  "Le Meister du Temple brace les chivaux
   Et le Count Long-Espée depli les _sandaux_."

The oriflamme of France was made of _cendal_. Chaucer couples taffetas and
sendal. His "Doctor of Physic"

  "In sanguin and in persë clad was allë,
  Linëd with taffata and with sendallë."

[La Curne, _Dict., s.v. Sendaus_ has: Silk stuff: "Somme de la delivrance
des _sendaus_" (_Nouv. Compt. de l'Arg._ p. 19).--Godefroy, _Dict._, gives:
"_Sendain_, adj., made with the stuff called cendal: Drap d'or _sendains_
(1392, _Test. de Blanche. duch d'Orl._, Ste-Croix, Arch. Loiret)." He says
_s.v._ CENDAL, "_cendau, cendral, cendel, ... sendail_, ... étoffe légère
de soie unie qui parait avoir été analogue au taffetas." "'On faisait des
_cendaux_ forts ou faibles, et on leur donnait toute sorte de couleurs. On
s'en servait surtout pour vêtements et corsets, pour doublures de draps, de
fourrures et d'autres étoffes de soie plus précieuses, enfin pour tenture
d'appartements.' (_Bourquelot, Foir. de Champ._ I. 261)."

  "J'ay de toilles de mainte guise,
  De sidonnes et de _cendaulx_.
  Soyes, satins blancs et vermaulx."
      --_Greban, Mist. de la Pass._, 26826, _G. Paris_.--H.C.]

The origin of the word seems also somewhat doubtful. The word [Greek:
Sendès] occurs in _Constant. Porphyrog. de Ceremoniis_ (Bonn, ed. I. 468),
and this looks like a transfer of the Arabic _Sandas_ or _Sundus_, which is
applied by Bakui to the silk fabrics of Yezd. (_Not. et Ext._ II. 469.)
Reiske thinks this is the origin of the Frank word, and connects its
etymology with Sind. Others think that _sendal_ and the other forms are
modifications of the ancient _Sindon_, and this is Mr. Marsh's view. (See
also _Fr. Michel, Recherches, etc._ I. 212; _Dict. des Tissus_, II. 171
seqq.)

NOTE 2.--JÚJÚ is precisely the name given to this city by Rashiduddin, who
notices the vineyards. Juju is CHO-CHAU, just at the distance specified
from Peking, viz. 40 miles, and nearly 30 from Pulisanghin or Lu-kou K'iao.
The name of the town is printed _Tsochow_ by Mr. Williamson, and _Chechow_
in a late Report of a journey by Consul Oxenham. He calls it "a large town
of the second order, situated on the banks of a small river flowing towards
the south-east, viz. the Kiu-ma-Ho, a navigable stream. It had the
appearance of being a place of considerable trade, and the streets were
crowded with people." (_Reports of Journeys in China and Japan_, etc.
Presented to Parliament, 1869, p. 9.) The place is called _Jújú_ also in
the Persian itinerary given by 'Izzat Ullah in _J.R.A.S._ VII. 308; and in
one procured by Mr. Shaw. (_Proc.R.G.S._ XVI. p. 253.)

[The Rev. W.S. Ament (_Marco Polo_, 119-120) writes, "the historian of the
city of Cho-chau sounds the praises of the people for their religious
spirit". He says:--"It was the custom of the ancients to worship those who
were before them. Thus students worshipped their instructors, farmers
worshipped the first husbandman, workers in silk, the original silk-worker.
Thus when calamities come upon the land, the virtuous among the people make
offerings to the spirits of earth and heaven, the mountains, rivers,
streams, etc. All these things are profitable. These customs should never
be forgotten.' After such instruction, we are prepared to find fifty-eight
temples of every variety in this little city of about 20,000 inhabitants.
There is a temple to the spirits of Wind, Clouds, Thunder, and Rain, to the
god of silk-workers, to the Horse-god, to the god of locusts, and the eight
destructive insects, to the Five Dragons, to the King who quiets the waves.
Besides these, there are all the orthodox temples to the ancient worthies,
and some modern heroes. Liu Pei and Chang Fei, two of the three great
heroes of the _San Kuo Chih_, being natives of Cho Chou, are each honoured
with two temples, one in the native village, and one in the city. It is not
often that one locality can give to a great empire two of its three most
popular heroes: Liu Pei, Chang Fei, Kuan Yu."

"Judging from the condition of the country," writes the Rev. W.S. Ament
(p. 120), "one could hardly believe that this general region was the
original home of the silk-worm, and doubtless the people who once lived
here are the only people who ever saw the silk-worm in his wild state. The
historian of Cho-Chou honestly remarks that he knows of no reason why the
production of silk should have ceased there, except the fact that the worms
refused to live there.... The palmy days of the silk industry were in the
T'ang dynasty."--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--"About a _li_ from the southern suburbs of this town, the great
road to Shantung and the south-east diverged, causing an immediate
diminution in the number of carts and travellers" (_Oxenham_). [From Peking
"to Cheng-ting fu, says Colonel Bell (_Proc.R.G.S._, XII. 1890, p. 58), the
route followed is the Great Southern highway; here the Great Central Asian
highway leaves it." The Rev. W.S. Ament says (l.c., 121) about the
bifurcation of the road, one branch going on south-west to Pao-Ting fu and
Shan-si, and one branch to Shantung and Ho-nan: "The union of the two roads
at this point, bringing the travel and traffic of ten provinces, makes Cho
Chou one of the most important cities in the Empire. The magistrate of this
district is the only one, so far as we know, in the Empire who is relieved
of the duty of welcoming and escorting transient officers. It was the
multiplicity of such duties, so harassing, that persuaded Fang Kuan-ch'eng
to write the couplet on one of the city gateways: _Jih pien ch'ung yao, wu
shuang ti: T'ien hsia fan nan, ti yi Chou_. 'In all the world, there is no
place so public as this: for multiplied cares and trials, this is the first
Chou.' The people of Cho-Chou, of old celebrated for their religious
spirit, are now well known for their literary enterprise."--H.C.] This
bifurcation of the roads is a notable point in Polo's book. For after
following the western road through Cathay, i.e. the northern provinces of
China, to the borders of Tibet and the Indo-Chinese regions, our traveller
will return, whimsically enough, not to the capital to take a fresh
departure, but to this bifurcation outside of Chochau, and thence carry us
south with him to Manzi, or China south of the Yellow River.

Of a part of the road of which Polo speaks in the latter part of the
chapter Williamson says: "The drive was a very beautiful one. Not only were
the many villages almost hidden by foliage, but the road itself hereabouts
is lined with trees.... The effect was to make the journey like a ramble
through the avenues of some English park." Beyond Tingchau however the
country becomes more barren. (I. 268.)



CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE KINGDOM OF TAIANFU.


After riding then those ten days from the city of Juju, you find yourself
in a kingdom called TAIANFU, and the city at which you arrive, which is the
capital, is also called Taianfu, a very great and fine city. [But at the
end of five days' journey out of those ten, they say there is a city
unusually large and handsome called ACBALUC, whereat terminate in this
direction the hunting preserves of the Emperor, within which no one dares
to sport except the Emperor and his family, and those who are on the books
of the Grand Falconer. Beyond this limit any one is at liberty to sport, if
he be a gentleman. The Great Kaan, however, scarcely ever went hunting in
this direction, and hence the game, particularly the hares, had increased
and multiplied to such an extent that all the crops of the Province were
destroyed. The Great Kaan being informed of this, proceeded thither with
all his Court, and the game that was taken was past counting.][NOTE 1]

Taianfu[NOTE 2] is a place of great trade and great industry, for here they
manufacture a large quantity of the most necessary equipments for the army
of the Emperor. There grow here many excellent vines, supplying great
plenty of wine; and in all Cathay this is the only place where wine is
produced. It is carried hence all over the country.[NOTE 3] There is also a
great deal of silk here, for the people have great quantities of
mulberry-trees and silk-worms.

From this city of Taianfu you ride westward again for seven days, through
fine districts with plenty of towns and boroughs, all enjoying much trade
and practising various kinds of industry. Out of these districts go forth
not a few great merchants, who travel to India and other foreign regions,
buying and selling and getting gain. After those seven days' journey you
arrive at a city called PIANFU, a large and important place, with a number
of traders living by commerce and industry. It is a place too where silk is
largely produced.[NOTE 4]

So we will leave it and tell you of a great city called Cachanfu. But
stay--first let us tell you about the noble castle called Caichu.


NOTE 1.--Marsden translates the commencement of this passage, which is
peculiar to Ramusio, and runs "_E in capo di cinque giornate delle predette
dieci_," by the words "At the end of five days' journey _beyond_ the ten,"
but this is clearly wrong.[1] The place best suiting in position, as
halfway between Cho-chau and T'ai-yuan fu, would be CHENG-TING FU, and I
have little doubt that this is the place intended. The title of _Ak-Báligh_
in Turki,[2] or _Chaghán Balghásun_ in Mongol, meaning "White City," was
applied by the Tartars to Royal Residences; and possibly Cheng-ting fu may
have had such a claim, for I observe in the _Annales de la Prop. de la Foi_
(xxxiii. 387) that in 1862 the Chinese Government granted to the R.C.
Vicar-Apostolic of Chihli the ruined _Imperial Palace_ at Cheng-ting fu for
his cathedral and other mission establishments. Moreover, as a matter of
fact, Rashiduddin's account of Chinghiz's campaign in northern China in
1214, speaks of the city of "Chaghan Balghasun which the Chinese call
_Jintzinfu_." This is almost exactly the way in which the name of
Cheng-ting fu is represented in 'Izzat Ullah's Persian Itinerary
(_Jigdzinfu_, evidently a clerical error for _Jingdzinfu_), so I think
there can be little doubt that Cheng-ting fu is the place intended. The
name of Hwai-luh'ien (see Note 2), which is the first stage beyond
Cheng-ting fu, is said to mean the "Deer-lair," pointing apparently to the
old character of the tract as a game-preserve. The city of Cheng-ting is
described by Consul Oxenham as being now in a decayed and dilapidated
condition, consisting only of two long streets crossing at right angles. It
is noted for the manufacture of images of Buddha from Shan-si iron.
(_Consular Reports_, p. 10; _Erdmann_, 331.)

[The main road turns due west at Cheng-ting fu, and enters Shan-si through
what is known among Chinese travellers as the Ku-kwan, Customs'
Barrier.--H.C.]

Between Cheng-ting fu and T'ai-yuan fu the traveller first crosses a high
and rugged range of mountains, and then ascends by narrow defiles to the
plateau of Shan-si. But of these features Polo's excessive condensation
takes no notice.

The traveller who quits the great plain of Chihli [which terminates at
Fu-ch'eng-i, a small market-town, two days from Pao-ting.--H.C.] for "the
kingdom of Taianfu," i.e. Northern Shan-si, enters a tract in which
predominates that very remarkable formation called by the Chinese
_Hwang-tu_ and to which the German name _Löss_ has been attached. With this
formation are bound up the distinguishing characters of Northern Interior
China, not merely in scenery but in agricultural products, dwellings, and
means of transport. This _Löss_ is a brownish-yellow loam, highly porous,
spreading over low and high ground alike, smoothing over irregularities of
surface, and often more than 1000 feet in thickness. It has no
stratification, but tends to cleave vertically, and is traversed in every
direction by sudden crevices, almost glacier-like, narrow, with vertical
walls of great depth, and infinite ramification. Smooth as the löss basin
looks in a bird's-eye view, it is thus one of the most impracticable
countries conceivable for military movements, and secures extraordinary
value to fortresses in well-chosen sites, such as that of Tung-kwan
mentioned in Note 2 to chap. xli.

Agriculture may be said in N. China to be confined to the alluvial plains
and the löss; as in S. China to the alluvial plains and the terraced
hill-sides. The löss has some peculiar quality which renders its productive
power self-renewing without manure (unless it be in the form of a surface
coat of fresh löss), and unfailing in returns if there be sufficient rain.
This singular formation is supposed by Baron Richthofen, who has studied it
more extensively than any one, to be no subaqueous deposit, but to be the
accumulated residue of countless generations of herbaceous plants combined
with a large amount of material spread over the face of the ground by the
winds and surface waters.

[I do not agree with the theory of Baron von Richthofen, of the almost
exclusive Eolian formation of _loess_; water has something to do with it as
well as wind, and I think it is more exact to say that loess _in China_ is
due to a double action, Neptunian as well as Eolian. The climate was
different in former ages from what it is now, and rain was plentiful and to
its great quantity was due the fertility of this yellow soil. (Cf. _A. de
Lapparent, Leçons de Géographie Physique_, 2'e éd. 1898, p. 566.)--H.C.]

Though we do not expect to find Polo taking note of geological features, we
are surprised to find no mention of a characteristic of Shan-si and the
adjoining districts, which is due to the _löss_; viz. the practice of
forming cave dwellings in it; these in fact form the habitations of a
majority of the people in the löss country. Polo _has_ noticed a similar
usage in Badakhshan (I. p. 161), and it will be curious if a better
acquaintance with that region should disclose a surface formation analogous
to the _löss_. (_Richthofen's Letters_, VII. 13 _et passim_.)

NOTE 2.--Taianfu is, as Magaillans pointed out, T'AI-YUAN FU, the capital
of the Province of Shan-si, and Shan-si is the "Kingdom." The city was,
however, the capital of the great T'ang Dynasty for a time in the 8th
century, and is probably the _Tájah_ or _Taiyúnah_ of old Arab writers. Mr.
Williamson speaks of it as a very pleasant city at the north end of a most
fertile and beautiful plain, between two noble ranges of mountains. It was
a residence, he says, also of the Ming princes, and is laid out in Peking
fashion, even to mimicking the Coal-Hill and Lake of the Imperial Gardens.
It stands about 3000 feet above the sea [on the left bank of the
Fen-ho.--H.C.]. There is still an Imperial factory of artillery,
matchlocks, etc., as well as a powder mill; and fine carpets like those of
Turkey are also manufactured. The city is not, however, now, according to
Baron Richthofen, very populous, and conveys no impression of wealth or
commercial importance. [In an interesting article on this city, the Rev. G.
B. Farthing writes (_North China Herald_, 7th September, 1894): "The
configuration of the ground enclosed by T'ai-yuan fu city is that of a
'three times to stretch recumbent cow.' The site was chosen and described
by Li Chun-feng, a celebrated professor of geomancy in the days of the
T'angs, who lived during the reign of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of that ilk.
The city having been then founded, its history reaches back to that date.
Since that time the cow has stretched twice.... T'ai-yuan city is square,
and surrounded by a wall of earth, of which the outer face is bricked. The
height of the wall varies from thirty to fifty feet, and it is so broad
that two carriages could easily pass one another upon it. The natives would
tell you that each of the sides is three miles, thirteen paces in length,
but this, possibly, includes what it will be when the cow shall have
stretched for the third and last time. Two miles is the length of each
side; eight miles to tramp if you wish to go round the four of them."--H.
C.] The district used to be much noted for cutlery and hardware, iron as
well as coal being abundantly produced in Shan-si. Apparently the present
Birmingham of this region is a town called Hwai-lu, or Hwo-luh'ien, about
20 miles west of Cheng-ting fu, and just on the western verge of the great
plain of Chihli. [Regarding Hwai-lu, the Rev. C. Holcombe calls it "a
miserable town lying among the foot hills, and at the mouth of the valley,
up which the road into Shan-si lies." He writes (p. 59) that Ping-ting
chau, after the Customs' barrier (Ku Kwan) between Chih-li and Shan-si,
would, under any proper system of management, at no distant day become the
Pittsburg, or Birmingham, of China.--H.C.] (_Richthofen's Letters_, No.
VII. 20; _Cathay_, xcvii. cxiii. cxciv.; _Rennie_, II. 265; _Williamson's
Journeys in North China; Oxenham_, u.s. II; _Klaproth_ in _J. As._ sér. II.
tom. i. 100; _Izzat Ullah's Pers. Itin._ in _J.R.A.S._ VII. 307; _Forke,
Von Peking nach Ch'ang-an_, p. 23.)

["From Khavailu (Hwo-luh'ien), an important commercial centre supplying
Shansi, for 130 miles to Sze-tien, the road traverses the loess hills,
which extend from the Peking-Kalgan road in a south-west direction to the
Yellow River, and which are passable throughout this length only by the
Great Central Asian trade route to T'ai-yuan fu and by the Tung-Kwan,
Ho-nan, i.e. the Yellow River route. (_Colonel Bell, Proc.R.G.S._ XII.
1890, p. 59.) Colonel Bell reckons seven days (218 miles) from Peking to
Hwo-lu-h'ien and five days from this place to T'ai-yuan fu."--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--Martini observes that the grapes in Shan-si were very abundant and
the best in China. The Chinese used them only as raisins, but wine was made
there for the use of the early Jesuit Missions, and their successors
continue to make it. Klaproth, however, tells us that the wine of T'ai-yuan
fu was celebrated in the days of the T'ang Dynasty, and used to be sent in
tribute to the Emperors. Under the Mongols the use of this wine spread
greatly. The founder of the Ming accepted the offering of wine of the vine
from T'aiyuan in 1373, but prohibited its being presented again. The finest
grapes are produced in the district of Yukau-hien, where hills shield the
plain from north winds, and convert it into a garden many square miles in
extent. In the vintage season the best grapes sell for less than a farthing
a pound. [Mr. Theos. Sampson, in an article on "Grapes in China," writes
(_Notes and Queries on China and Japan_, April, 1869, p. 50): "The earliest
mention of the grape in Chinese literature appears to be contained in the
chapter on the nations of Central Asia, entitled _Ta Yuan Chwan_, or
description of Fergana, which forms part of the historical records
(_Sze-Ki_) of Sze-ma Tsien, dating from B.C. 100. Writing of the political
relations instituted shortly before this date by the Emperor Wu Ti with the
nations beyond the Western frontiers of China, the historian dwells at
considerable length, but unluckily with much obscurity, on the various
missions despatched westward under the leadership of Chang K'ien and
others, and mentions the grape vine in the following passage:--'Throughout
the country of Fergana, wine is made from grapes, and the wealthy lay up
stores of wine, many tens of thousands of _shih_ in amount, which may be
kept for scores of years without spoiling. Wine is the common beverage, and
for horses the _mu-su_ is the ordinary pasture. The envoys from China
brought back seeds with them, and hereupon the Emperor for the first time
cultivated the grape and the mu-su in the most productive soils.' In the
Description of Western regions, forming part of the History of the Han
Dynasty, it is stated that grapes are abundantly produced in the country of
K'i-pin (identified with Cophene, part of modern Afghanistan) and other
adjacent countries, and referring, if I mistake not, to the journeys of
Chang K'ien, the same work says, that the Emperor Wu-Ti despatched upwards
of ten envoys to the various countries westward of Fergana, to search for
novelties, and that they returned with grape and mu-su seeds. These
references appear beyond question to determine the fact that grapes were
introduced from Western- or, as we term it, Central-Asia, by Chang K'ien."

Dr. Bretschneider (_Botanicon Sinicum_, I. p. 25), relating the mission of
Chang K'ien (139 B.C. Emperor Wu-Ti), who died about B.C. 103, writes:--"He
is said to have introduced many useful plants from Western Asia into China.
Ancient Chinese authors ascribe to him the introduction of the Vine, the
Pomegranate, Safflower, the Common Bean, the Cucumber, Lucerne, Coriander,
the Walnut-tree, and other plants."--H.C.] The river that flows down from
Shan-si by Cheng-ting-fu is called "Putu-ho, or the Grape River." (_J. As._
u.s.; _Richthofen_, u.s.)

[Regarding the name of this river, the Rev. C. Holcombe (l.c. p. 56)
writes: "Williamson states in his _Journeys in North China_ that the name
of this stream is, properly _Poo-too Ho_--'Grape River,' but is sometimes
written Hu-t'ou River incorrectly. The above named author, however, is
himself in error, the name given above [_Hu-t'o_] being invariably found in
all Chinese authorities, as well as being the name by which the stream is
known all along its course."

West of the Fan River, along the western border of the Central Plain of
Shan-si, in the extreme northern point of which lies T'aï-yuan fu, the Rev.
C. Holcombe says (p. 61), "is a large area, close under the hills, almost
exclusively given up to the cultivation of the grape. The grapes are
unusually large, and of delicious flavour."--H.C.]

NOTE 4.--+In no part of China probably, says Richthofen, do the towns and
villages consist of houses so substantial and costly as in this. Pianfu is
undoubtedly, as Magaillans again notices, P'ING-YANG FU.[3] It is the
_Bikan_ of Shah Rukh's ambassadors. [Old P'ing yang, 5 _Lis_ to the south]
is said to have been the residence of the primitive and mythical Chinese
Emperor Yao. A great college for the education of the Mongols was
instituted at P'ing-yang, by Yeliu Chutsai, the enlightened minister of
Okkodai Khan. [Its dialect differs from the T'aï-yuan dialect, and is more
like Pekingese.] The city, lying in a broad valley covered with the yellow
löss, was destroyed by the T'ai-P'ing rebels, but it is reviving. [It is
known for its black pottery.] The vicinity is noted for large paper
factories. ["From T'ai-yuan fu to P'ing-yang fu is a journey of 185 miles,
down the valley of the Fuen-ho." (Colonel Bell, _Proc.R.G.S._ XII. 1890, p.
61.) By the way, Mr. Rockhill remarks (_Land of the Lamas_, p. 10):
"Richthofen has transcribed the name of this river _Fuen_. This spelling
has been adopted on most of the recent maps, both German and English, but
_Fuen_ is an impossible sound in Chinese." (Read _Fen ho_.)--H.C.]
(_Cathay_, ccxi.; _Ritter_, IV. 516; _D'Ohsson_, II. 70; _Williamson_, I.
336.)


[1] And I see Ritter understood the passage as I do (IV. 515).

[2] _Báligh_ is indeed properly Mongol.

[3] It seems to be called _Piyingfu_ (miswritten Piying_ku_) in Mr. Shaw's
    Itinerary from Yarkand (_Pr.R.G.S._ XVI. 253.) We often find the
    Western modifications of Chinese names very persistent.



CHAPTER XXXVIII.

CONCERNING THE CASTLE OF CAICHU.


On leaving Pianfu you ride two days westward, and come to the noble castle
of CAICHU, which was built in time past by a king of that country, whom
they used to call the GOLDEN KING, and who had there a great and beautiful
palace. There is a great hall of this palace, in which are pourtrayed all
the ancient kings of the country, done in gold and other beautiful colours,
and a very fine sight they make. Each king in succession as he reigned
added to those pictures.[NOTE 1]

[This Golden King was a great and potent Prince, and during his stay at
this place there used to be in his service none but beautiful girls, of
whom he had a great number in his Court. When he went to take the air about
the fortress, these girls used to draw him about in a little carriage which
they could easily move, and they would also be in attendance on the King
for everything pertaining to his convenience or pleasure.[NOTE 2]]

Now I will tell you a pretty passage that befell between the Golden King
and Prester John, as it was related by the people of the Castle.

It came to pass, as they told the tale, that this Golden King was at war
with Prester John. And the King held a position so strong that Prester
John was not able to get at him or to do him any scathe; wherefore he was
in great wrath. So seventeen gallants belonging to Prester John's Court
came to him in a body, and said that, an he would, they were ready to
bring him the Golden King alive. His answer was, that he desired nothing
better, and would be much bounden to them if they would do so.

So when they had taken leave of their Lord and Master Prester John, they
set off together, this goodly company of gallants, and went to the Golden
King, and presented themselves before him, saying that they had come from
foreign parts to enter his service. And he answered by telling them that
they were right welcome, and that he was glad to have their service, never
imagining that they had any ill intent. And so these mischievous squires
took service with the Golden King; and served him so well that he grew to
love them dearly.

And when they had abode with that King nearly two years, conducting
themselves like persons who thought of anything but treason, they one day
accompanied the King on a pleasure party when he had very few else along
with him: for in those gallants the King had perfect trust, and thus kept
them immediately about his person. So after they had crossed a certain
river that is about a mile from the castle, and saw that they were alone
with the King, they said one to another that now was the time to achieve
that they had come for. Then they all incontinently drew, and told the King
that he must go with them and make no resistance, or they would slay him.
The King at this was in alarm and great astonishment, and said: "How then,
good my sons, what thing is this ye say? and whither would ye have me go?"
They answered, and said: "You shall come with us, will ye: nill ye, to
Prester John our Lord."

[Illustration: The "Roi d'Or." (From a MS. in the Royal Asiatic Society's
Collection.)

"Et en ceste chastians ha un mout bians paleis en quel a une grandisme sale
là ou il sunt portrait à mont belles pointures tout les rois de celes
provences que furent ansienemant, et ce est mout belle viste à voir."]


NOTE 1.--The name of the castle is very doubtful. But of that and the
geography, which in this part is tangled, we shall speak further on.

Whilst the original French texts were unknown, the king here spoken of
figured in the old Latin versions as King _Darius_, and in Ramusio as _Re
Dor_. It was a most happy suggestion of Marsden's, in absence of all
knowledge of the fact that the original narrative was _French_, that this
Dor represented the Emperor of the _Kin_ or Golden Dynasty, called by the
Mongols _Altun Khán_, of which _Roi D'Or_ is a literal translation.

Of the legend itself I can find no trace. Rashiduddin relates a story of
the grandfather of Aung Khan (Polo's Prester John), Merghuz Boirúk Khan,
being treacherously made over to the King of the Churché (the Kin
sovereign), and put to death by being nailed to a wooden ass. But the same
author tells us that Aung Khan got his title of Aung (Ch. _Wang_) or king
from the Kin Emperor of his day, so that no hereditary feud seems
deducible.

Mr. Wylie, who is of opinion, like Baron Richthofen, that the _Caichu_
which Polo makes the scene of that story, is Kiai-chau (or Hiai-chau as it
seems to be pronounced), north of the Yellow River, has been good enough to
search the histories of the Liao and Kin Dynasties,[1] but without finding
any trace of such a story, or of the Kin Emperors having resided in that
neighbourhood.

On the other hand, he points out that the story has a strong resemblance to
a real event which occurred in Central Asia in the beginning of Polo's
century.

The Persian historians of the Mongols relate that when Chinghiz defeated
and slew Taiyang Khan, the king of the Naimans, Kushluk, the son of
Taiyang, fled to the Gur-Khan of Karakhitai and received both his
protection and the hand of his daughter (see i. 237); but afterwards rose
against his benefactor and usurped his throne. "In the Liao history I
read," Mr. Wylie says, "that Chih-lu-ku, the last monarch of the Karakhitai
line, ascended the throne in 1168, and in the 34th year of his reign, when
out hunting one day in autumn, Kushluk, who had 8000 troops in ambush, made
him prisoner, seized his throne and adopted the customs of the Liao, while
he conferred on Chih-lu-ku the honourable title of _Tai-shang-hwang_ 'the
old emperor.'"[2]

It is this Kushluk, to whom Rubruquis assigns the rôle of King (or Prester)
John, the subject of so many wonderful stories. And Mr. Wylie points out
that not only was his father Taiyang Khan, according to the Chinese
histories, a much more important prince than Aung Khan or Wang Khan the
Kerait, but his name _Tai-Yang-Khan_ is precisely "Great King John" as near
as John (or Yohana) can be expressed in Chinese. He thinks therefore that
Taiyang and his son Kushluk, the Naimans, and not Aung Khan and his
descendants, the Keraits, were the parties to whom the character of Prester
John properly belonged, and that it was probably this story of Kushluk's
capture of the Karakhitai monarch (_Roi de Fer_) which got converted into
the form in which he relates it of the _Roi d'Or_.

The suggestion seems to me, as regards the story, interesting and probable;
though I do not admit that the character of Prester John properly belonged
to any real person.

I may best explain my view of the matter by a geographical analogy.
Pre-Columbian maps of the Atlantic showed an Island of Brazil, an Island of
Antillia, founded--who knows on what?--whether on the real adventure of a
vessel driven in sight of the Azores or Bermudas, or on mere fancy and
fogbank. But when discovery really came to be undertaken, men looked for
such lands and found them accordingly. And there they are in our
geographies, Brazil and the Antilles!

The cut which we give is curious in connection with our traveller's notice
of the portrait-gallery of the Golden Kings. For it is taken from the
fragmentary MS. of Rashiduddin's History in the library of the Royal
Asiatic Society, a MS. believed to be one of those executed under the great
Vazír's own supervision, and is presented there as the portrait of the last
sovereign of the Dynasty in question, being one of a whole series of
similar figures. There can be little doubt, I think, that these were taken
from Chinese originals, though, it may be, not very exactly.

NOTE 2.--The history of the Tartar conquerors of China, whether Khitan,
Churché, Mongol, or Manchu, has always been the same. For one or two
generations the warlike character and manly habits were maintained; and
then the intruders, having adopted Chinese manners, ceremonies, literature,
and civilization, sank into more than Chinese effeminacy and degradation.
We see the custom of employing only female attendants ascribed in a later
chapter (lxxvii.) to the Sung Emperors at Kinsay; and the same was the
custom of the later Ming emperors, in whose time the imperial palace was
said to contain 5000 women. Indeed, the precise custom which this passage
describes was in our own day habitually reported of the T'ai-P'ing
sovereign during his reign at Nanking: "None but women are allowed in the
interior of the Palace, and _he is drawn to the audience-chamber in a
gilded sacred dragon-car by the ladies_" (_Blakiston_, p. 42; see also
_Wilson's Ever-Victorious Army_, p. 41.)


[1] [There is no trace of it in Harlez's French translation from the Manchu
    of the History of the Kin Empire, 1887.--H.C.]

[2] See also Oppert (p. 157), who cites this story from Visdelou, but does
    not notice its analogy to Polo's.



CHAPTER XXXIX.

HOW PRESTER JOHN TREATED THE GOLDEN KING HIS PRISONER.


And on this the Golden King was so sorely grieved that he was like to die.
And he said to them: "Good, my sons, for God's sake have pity and
compassion upon me. Ye wot well what honourable and kindly entertainment ye
have had in my house; and now ye would deliver me into the hands of mine
enemy! In sooth, if ye do what ye say, ye will do a very naughty and
disloyal deed, and a right villainous." But they answered only that so it
must be, and away they had him to Prester John their Lord.

And when Prester John beheld the King he was right glad, and greeted him
with something like a malison.[1] The King answered not a word, as if he
wist not what it behoved him to say. So Prester John ordered him to be
taken forth straightway, and to be put to look after cattle, but to be well
looked after himself also. So they took him and set him to keep cattle.
This did Prester John of the grudge he bore the King, to heap contumely on
him, and to show what a nothing he was, compared to himself.

And when the King had thus kept cattle for two years, Prester John sent for
him, and treated him with honour, and clothed him in rich robes, and said
to him: "Now Sir King, art thou satisfied that thou wast in no way a man to
stand against me?" "Truly, my good Lord, I know well and always did know
that I was in no way a man to stand against thee." And when he had said
this Prester John replied: "I ask no more; but henceforth thou shalt be
waited on and honourably treated." So he caused horses and harness of war
to be given him, with a goodly train, and sent him back to his own country.
And after that he remained ever friendly to Prester John, and held fast by
him.

So now I will say no more of this adventure of the Golden King, but I will
proceed with our subject.


[1] "Lui dist que il feust le mal venuz."



CHAPTER XL.

CONCERNING THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN AND THE CITY OF CACHANFU.


When you leave the castle, and travel about 20 miles westward, you come to
a river called CARAMORAN,[NOTE 1] so big that no bridge can be thrown
across it; for it is of immense width and depth, and reaches to the Great
Ocean that encircles the Universe,--I mean the whole earth. On this river
there are many cities and walled towns, and many merchants too therein,
for much traffic takes place upon the river, there being a great deal of
ginger and a great deal of silk produced in the country.[NOTE 2]

Game birds here are in wonderful abundance, insomuch that you may buy at
least three pheasants for a Venice groat of silver. I should say rather
for an _asper_, which is worth a little more.[NOTE 3]

[On the lands adjoining this river there grow vast quantities of great
canes, some of which are a foot or a foot and a half (in girth), and these
the natives employ for many useful purposes.]

After passing the river and travelling two days westward you come to the
noble city of CACHANFU, which we have already named. The inhabitants are
all Idolaters. And I may as well remind you again that all the people of
Cathay are Idolaters. It is a city of great trade and of work in
gold-tissues of many sorts, as well as other kinds of industry.

There is nothing else worth mentioning, and so we will proceed and tell
you of a noble city which is the capital of a kingdom, and is called
Kenjanfu.


NOTE 1.--_Kará-Muren_, or Black River, is one of the names applied by the
Mongols to the Hwang Ho, or Yellow River, of the Chinese, and is used by
all the mediaeval western writers, e.g. Odoric, John Marignolli,
Rashiduddin.

The River, where it skirts Shan-si, is for the most part difficult both of
access and of passage, and ill adapted to navigation, owing to the
violence of the stream. Whatever there is of navigation is confined to the
transport of coal down-stream from Western Shan-si, in large flats. Mr.
Elias, who has noted the River's level by aneroid at two points 920 miles
apart, calculated the fall over that distance, which includes the contour
of Shan-si, at 4 feet per mile. The best part for navigation is above
this, from Ning-hia to Chaghan Kuren (in about 110° E. long.), in which
Captain Prjevalski's observations give a fall of less than 6 inches per
mile. (_Richthofen_, _Letter_ VII. 25; _Williamson_, I. 69; _J.R.G.S._
XLIII. p. 115; _Petermann_, 1873, pp. 89-91.)

[On 5th January, 1889, Mr. Rockhill coming to the Yellow River from
P'ing-yang, found (_Land of the Lamas_, p. 17) that "the river was between
500 and 600 yards wide, a sluggish, muddy stream, then covered with
floating ice about a foot thick.... The Yellow River here is shallow, in
the main channel only is it four or five feet deep." The Rev. C. Holcombe,
who crossed in October, says (p. 65): that "it was nowhere more than 6 feet
deep, and on returning, three of the boatmen sprang into the water in
midstream and waded ashore, carrying a line from the ferry-boat to prevent
us from rapidly drifting down with the current. The water was just up to
their hips."--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--It is remarkable that the abundance of silk in Shan-si and
Shen-si is so distinctly mentioned in these chapters, whereas now there is
next to no silk at all grown in these districts. Is this the result of a
change of climate, or only a commercial change? Baron Richthofen, to whom I
have referred the question, believes it to be due to the former cause: "No
tract in China would appear to have suffered so much by a change of climate
as Shen-si and Southern Shan-si." [See pp. 11-12.]

NOTE 3.--The _asper_ or _akché_ (both meaning "white") of the Mongols at
Tana or Azov I have elsewhere calculated, from Pegolotti's data (_Cathay_,
p. 298), to have contained about 0_s._ 2.8_d._ worth of silver, which is
_less_ than the grosso; but the name may have had a loose application to
small silver coins in other countries of Asia. Possibly the money intended
may have been the 50 _tsien_ note. (See note 1, ch. xxiv. supra.)



CHAPTER XLI.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF KENJANFU.


And when you leave the city of Cachanfu of which I have spoken, and travel
eight days westward, you meet with cities and boroughs abounding in trade
and industry, and quantities of beautiful trees, and gardens, and fine
plains planted with mulberries, which are the trees on the leaves of which
the silkworms do feed.[NOTE 1] The people are all Idolaters. There is
also plenty of game of all sorts, both of beasts and birds.

And when you have travelled those eight days' journey, you come to that
great city which I mentioned, called KENJANFU.[NOTE 2] A very great and
fine city it is, and the capital of the kingdom of Kenjanfu, which in old
times was a noble, rich, and powerful realm, and had many great and
wealthy and puissant kings.[NOTE 3] But now the king thereof is a prince
called MANGALAI, the son of the Great Kaan, who hath given him this realm,
and crowned him king thereof.[NOTE 4] It is a city of great trade and
industry. They have great abundance of silk, from which they weave cloths
of silk and gold of divers kinds, and they also manufacture all sorts of
equipments for an army. They have every necessary of man's life very
cheap. The city lies towards the west; the people are Idolaters; and
outside the city is the palace of the Prince Mangalai, crowned king, and
son of the Great Kaan, as I told you before.

This is a fine palace and a great, as I will tell you. It stands in a
great plain abounding in lakes and streams and springs of water. Round
about it is a massive and lofty wall, five miles in compass, well built,
and all garnished with battlements. And within this wall is the king's
palace, so great and fine that no one could imagine a finer. There are in
it many great and splendid halls, and many chambers, all painted and
embellished with work in beaten gold. This Mangalai rules his realm right
well with justice and equity, and is much beloved by his people. The
troops are quartered round about the palace, and enjoy the sport (that the
royal demesne affords).

So now let us quit this kingdom, and I will tell you of a very mountainous
province called Cuncun, which you reach by a road right wearisome to
travel.


NOTE 1.--["_Morus alba_ is largely grown in North China for feeding
silkworms." (_Bretschneider, Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I. p. 4.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Having got to sure ground again at Kenjanfu, which is, as we shall
explain presently, the city of SI-NGAN FU, capital of Shen-si, let us look
back at the geography of the route from P'ing-yang fu. Its difficulties are
great.

The traveller carries us two days' journey from P'ing-yang fu to his castle
of the Golden King. This is called in the G. Text and most other MSS.
_Caicui_, _Caytui_, or the like, but in Ramusio alone _Thaigin_. He then
carries us 20 miles further to the Caramoran; he crosses this river,
travels two days further, and reaches the great city Cachanfu; eight days
more (or as in Ramusio _seven_) bring him to Si-ngan fu.

There seems scarcely room for doubt that CACHANFU is the HO-CHUNG FU [the
ancient capital of Emperor Shun--H.C.] of those days, now called P'U-CHAU
FU, close to the great elbow of the Hwang Ho (_Klaproth_). But this city,
instead of being _two days west_ of the great river, stands _near_ its
_eastern_ bank.

[The Rev. C. Holcombe writes (pp. 64-65): "P'u-chau fu lies on a level with
the Yellow River, and on the edge of a large extent of worthless marsh
land, full of pools of brackish, and in some places, positively salt
water.... The great road does not pass into the town, having succeeded in
maintaining its position on the high ground from which the town has
_backslided_.... The great road keeping to the bluff, runs on, turning
first south, and then a trifle to the east of south, until the road, the
bluff, and Shan-si, all end together, making a sudden plunge down a
precipice and being lost in the dirty waters of the Yellow River."--H.C.]

Not maintaining the infallibility of our traveller's memory, we may
conceive confusion here, between the recollections of his journey westward
and those of his return; but this does not remove all the difficulties.

The most notable fortress of the Kin sovereigns was that of T'ungkwan, on
the right bank of the river, 25 miles below P'u-chau fu, and closing the
passage between the river and the mountains, just where the boundaries of
Ho-nan, Shan-si, and Shen-si meet. It was constantly the turning-point of
the Mongol campaigns against that Dynasty, and held a prominent place in
the dying instructions of Chinghiz for the prosecution of the conquest of
Cathay. This fortress must have continued famous to Polo's time--indeed it
continues so still, the strategic position being one which nothing short of
a geological catastrophe could impair,--but I see no way of reconciling its
position with his narrative.

[Illustration: Plan of Ki-chau, after Duhalde.]

The _name_ in Ramusio's form might be merely that of the Dynasty, viz.
_Tai-Kin_= Great Golden. But we have seen that Thaigin is not the only
reading. That of the MSS. seems to point rather to some name like
_Kaichau_. A hypothesis which has seemed to me to call for least correction
in the text is that the castle was at the _Ki-chau_ of the maps, nearly due
west of P'ing-yang fu, and just about 20 miles from the Hwang Ho; that the
river was crossed in that vicinity, and that the traveller then descended
the valley to opposite P'u-chau fu, or possibly embarked and descended the
river itself to that point. This last hypothesis would mitigate the
apparent disproportion in the times assigned to the different parts of the
journey, and would, I think, clear the text of error. But it is only a
hypothesis. There is near Kichau one of the easiest crossing places of the
River, insomuch that since the Shen-si troubles a large garrison has been
kept up at Ki-chau to watch it.[1] And this is the only direction in which
two days' march, at Polo's rate, would bring him within 20 miles of the
Yellow River. Whether there is any historic castle at Ki-chau I know not;
the plan of that place in Duhalde, however, has the aspect of a strong
position. Baron v. Richthofen is unable to accept this suggestion, and has
favoured me with some valuable remarks on this difficult passage, which I
slightly abridge:--

"The difficulties are, (1) that for either reading, _Thaigin_ or _Caichu_,
a corresponding place can be found; (2) in the position of _Cachanfu_,
setting both at naught.

"_Thaigin_. There are two passages of the Yellow River near its great bend.
One is at T'ungkwan, where I crossed it; the other, and more convenient, is
at the fortress of Taiching-kwan, locally pronounced _Taigin_-kwan. This
fortress, or rather fortified camp, is a very well-known place, and to be
found on native maps; it is very close to the river, on the left bank,
about 6 m. S.W. of P'u-chau fu. The road runs hence to Tung-chau fu and
thence to Si-ngan fu. T'aiching-kwan could not possibly (at Polo's rate) be
reached in 2 days from P'ing-yang fu.

"_Caichu_. If this reading be adopted Marsden may be right in supposing
_Kiai-chau_, locally _Khaidju_, to be meant. This city dominates the
important salt marsh, whence Shan-si and Shen-si are supplied with salt. It
is 70 or 80 m. from P'ing-yang fu, but _could_ be reached in 2 days. It
commands a large and tolerably populous plain, and is quite fit to have
been an imperial residence.

"May not the striking fact that there is a place corresponding to either
name suggest that one of them was passed by Polo in going, the other in
returning? and that, this being the only locality between Ch'êng-tu fu and
Chu-chau where there was any deviation between the two journeys, his
geographical ideas may have become somewhat confused, as might now happen
to any one in like case and not provided with a map? Thus the traveller
himself might have put into Ramusio's text the name of _Thaigin_ instead of
_Caichu_. From Kiai-chau he would probably cross the River at T'ungkwan,
whilst in returning by way of Taiching-kwan he would pass through
P'uchau-fu (or _vice versâ_). The question as to Caichu may still be
settled, as it must be possible to ascertain where the Kin resided."[2]

[Mr. Rockhill writes (_Land of the Lamas_, p. 17): "One hundred and twenty
_li_ south-south-west of the city is Kiai Chou, with the largest salt
works in China." Richthofen has estimated that about 150,000 tons of salt
are produced annually from the marshes around it.--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--The eight days' journey through richly cultivated plains run up
the basin of the Wei River, the most important agricultural region of
North-West China, and the core of early Chinese History. The _löss_ is
here more than ever predominant, its yellow tinge affecting the whole
landscape, and even the atmosphere. Here, according to Baron v.
Richthofen, originated the use of the word _hwang_ "yellow," as the symbol
of the Earth, whence the primeval emperors were styled _Hwang-ti_, "Lord
of the Earth," but properly "Lord of the _Löss_."

[The Rev. C. Holcombe (l.c. p. 66) writes: "From T'ung-kwan to Si-ngan
fu, the road runs in a direction nearly due west, through a most lovely
section of country, having a range of high hills upon the south, and the
Wei River on the north. The road lies through one long orchard, and the
walled towns and cities lie thickly along, for the most part at a little
distance from the highway." Mr. Rockhill says (_Land of the Lamas_, pp.
19-20): "The road between T'ung-kwan and Si-ngan fu, a distance of 110
miles, is a fine highway--for China--with a ditch on either side, rows of
willow-trees here and there, and substantial stone bridges and culverts
over the little streams which cross it. The basin of the Wei ho, in which
this part of the province lies, has been for thousands of years one of the
granaries of China. It was the colour of its loess-covered soil, called
'yellow earth' by the Chinese, that suggested the use of yellow as the
colour sacred to imperial majesty. Wheat and sorghum are the principal
crops, but we saw also numerous paddy fields where flocks of flamingoes
were wading, and fruit-trees grew everywhere."--H.C.]

[Illustration: Reduced Facsimile of the celebrated Christian Inscription
of Singan fu in Chinese and Syrian Characters]

Kenjanfu, or, as Ramusio gives it, Quenzanfu, is SI-NGAN FU, or as it was
called in the days of its greatest fame, Chang-ngan, probably the most
celebrated city in Chinese history, and the capital of several of the most
potent dynasties. It was the metropolis of Shi Hwang-ti of the T'sin
Dynasty, properly the first emperor and whose conquests almost intersected
those of his contemporary Ptolemy Euergetes. It was, perhaps, the _Thinae_
of Claudius Ptolemy, as it was certainly the Khumdán[3] of the early
Mahomedans, and the site of flourishing Christian Churches in the 7th
century, as well as of the remarkable monument, the discovery of which a
thousand years later disclosed their forgotten existence.[4] _Kingchao-fu_
was the name which the city bore when the Mongol invasions brought China
into communication with the west, and Klaproth supposes that this was
modified by the Mongols into KENJANFU. Under the latter name it is
mentioned by Rashiduddin as the seat of one of the Twelve _Sings_ or great
provincial administrations, and we find it still known by this name in
Sharifuddin's history of Timur. The same name is traceable in the _Kansan_
of Odoric, which he calls the second best province in the world, and the
best populated Whatever may have been the origin of the name _Kenjanfu_,
Baron v. Richthofen was, on the spot, made aware of its conservation in
the exact form of the Ramusian Polo. The Roman Catholic missionaries there
emphatically denied that Marco could ever have been at Si-ngan fu, or that
the city had ever been known by such a name as Kenjan-fu. On this the
Baron called in one of the Chinese pupils of the Mission, and asked him
directly what had been the name of the city under the Yuen Dynasty. He
replied at once with remarkable clearness: "QUEN-ZAN-FU." Everybody
present was struck by the exact correspondence of the Chinaman's
pronunciation of the name with that which the German traveller had adopted
from Ritter.

[The vocabulary _Hweï Hwei_ (Mahomedan) of the College of Interpreters at
Peking transcribes King chao from the Persian Kin-chang, a name it gives
to the Shen-si province. King chao was called Ngan-si fu in 1277.
(_Devéria, Epigraphie_, p. 9.) Ken-jan comes from Kin-chang = King-chao =
Si-ngan fu.--H.C.]

Martini speaks, apparently from personal knowledge, of the splendour of
the city, as regards both its public edifices and its site, sloping
gradually up from the banks of the River Wei, so as to exhibit its walls
and palaces at one view like the interior of an amphitheatre. West of the
city was a sort of Water Park, enclosed by a wall 30 _li_ in
circumference, full of lakes, tanks, and canals from the Wei, and within
this park were seven fine palaces and a variety of theatres and other
places of public diversion. To the south-east of the city was an
artificial lake with palaces, gardens, park, etc., originally formed by
the Emperor Hiaowu (B.C. 100), and to the south of the city was another
considerable lake called _Fan_. This may be the Fanchan Lake, beside
which Rashid says that Ananda, the son of Mangalai, built his palace.

The adjoining districts were the seat of a large Musulman population,
which in 1861-1862 [and again in 1895 (See _Wellby, Tibet_, ch. XXV.)
--H.C.] rose in revolt against the Chinese authority, and for a time was
successful in resisting it. The capital itself held out, though invested
for two years; the rebels having no artillery. The movement originated at
Hwachau, some 60 miles east of Si-ngan fu, now totally destroyed. But the
chief seat of the Mahomedans is a place which they call _Salar_,
identified with Hochau in Kansuh, about 70 miles south-west of Lanchau-fu,
the capital of that province. [Mr. Rockhill (_Land of the Lamas_, p. 40)
writes: "Colonel Yule, quoting a Russian work, has it that the word Salar
is used to designate Ho-chou, but this is not absolutely accurate.
Prjevalsky (_Mongolia_, II. 149) makes the following complicated
statement: 'The Karatangutans outnumber the Mongols in Koko-nor, but their
chief habitations are near the sources of the Yellow River, where they are
called Salirs; they profess the Mohammedan religion, and have rebelled
against China.' I will only remark here that the Salar have absolutely no
connection with the so-called Kara-tangutans, who are Tibetans. In a note
by Archimandrite Palladius, in the same work (II. 70), he attempts to show
a connection between the Salar and a colony of Mohammedans who settled in
Western Kan-Suh in the last century, but the _Ming shih_ (History of the
Ming Dynasty) already makes mention of the Salar, remnants of various
Turkish tribes (_Hsi-ch'iang_) who had settled in the districts of
Ho-chou, Huang-chou, T'ao-chou, and Min-chou, and who were a source of
endless trouble to the Empire. (See _Wei Yuen, Sheng-wu-ki_, vii. 35; also
_Huang ch'ing shih kung t'u_, v. 7.) The Russian traveller, Potanin, found
the Salar living in twenty-four villages, near Hsün-hua t'ing, on the south
bank of the Yellow River. (See _Proc.R.G.S._ ix. 234.) The Annals of the
Ming Dynasty (_Ming Shíh_, ch. 330) say that An-ting wei, 1500 _li_
south-west of Kan-chou, was in old times known as _Sa-li Wei-wu-ehr_. These
Sari Uigurs are mentioned by Du Plan Carpin, as _Sari_ Huiur. Can _Sala_ be
the same as _Sari_?"

"Mohammedans," says Mr. Rockhill (Ibid. p. 39), "here are divided into two
sects, known as 'white-capped Hui-hui,' and 'black-capped Hui-hui.' One of
the questions which separate them is the hour at which fast can be broken
during the Ramadan. Another point which divides them is that the
white-capped burn incense, as do the ordinary Chinese; and the Salar
condemn this as Paganish. The usual way by which one finds out to which
sect a Mohammedan belongs is by asking him if he burns incense. The
black-capped Hui-hui are more frequently called _Salar_, and are much
the more devout and fanatical. They live in the vicinity of Ho-chou,
in and around Hsün-hua t'ing, their chief town being known as Salar
Pakun or Paken."

[Illustration: Cross on the Monument at Si-ngan fu (actual size). (From a
rubbing.)]

Ho-chou, in Western Kan-Suh, about 320 _li_ (107 miles) from Lan-chau, has
a population of about 30,000 nearly entirely Mahomedans with 24 mosques;
it is a "hot-bed of rebellion." _Salar-pa-kun_ means "the eight thousand
Salar families," or "the eight thousands of the Salar." The eight _kiun_
(Chinese _t'sun_? a village, a commune) constituting the Salar pa-kun are
Ka-tzu, the oldest and largest, said to have over 1300 families living in
it, Chang-chia, Némen, Ch'ing-shui, Munta, Tsu-chi, Antasu and Ch'a-chia.
Besides these Salar kiun there are five outer (_wai_) kiun: Ts'a-pa,
Ngan-ssu-to, Hei-ch'eng, Kan-tu and Kargan, inhabited by a few Salar and a
mixed population of Chinese and T'u-ssu: each of these wai-wu kiun has,
theoretically, fifteen villages in it. Tradition says that the first Salar
who came to China (from Rúm or Turkey) arrived in this valley in the third
year of Hung-wu of the Ming (1370). (_Rockhill, Land of the Lamas, Journey;
Grenard_, II. p. 457)--H.C.] (_Martini; Cathay_, 148, 269; _Pétis de la
Croix_, III. 218; _Russian paper on the Dungen_, see supra, vol. i. p. 291;
_Williamson's North China_, u.s.; _Richthofen's Letters_, and MS. Notes.)

NOTE 4.--_Mangalai_, Kúblái's third son, who governed the provinces of
Shen-si and Sze-ch'wan, with the title of _Wang_ or king (supra ch. ix.
note 2), died in 1280, a circumstance which limits the date of Polo's
journey to the west. It seems unlikely that Marco should have remained ten
years ignorant of his death, yet he seems to speak of him as still
governing.

[With reference to the translation of the oldest of the Chinese-Mongol
inscriptions known hitherto (1283) in the name of Ananda, King of Ngan-si,
Professor Devéria (_Notes d'Épigraphie Mongolo-Chinoise_, p. 9) writes: "In
1264, the Emperor Kúblái created in this region [Shen si] the department of
Ngan-si chau, occupied by ten hordes of Si-fan (foreigners from the west).
All this country became in 1272, the apanage of the Imperial Prince
Mangala; this prince, third son of Kúblái, had been invested with the title
of King of Ngan-si, a territory which included King-chao fu (modern Si-ngan
fu). His government extended hence over Ho-si (west of the Yellow River),
the T'u-po (Tibetans), and Sze-ch'wan. The following year (1273) Mangala
received from Kúblái a second investiture, this of the Kingdom of Tsin,
which added to his domain part of Kan-Suh; he established his royal
residence at K'ia-ch'eng (modern Ku-yuan) in the Liu-p'an shan, while
King-chao remained the centre of the command he exercised over the Mongol
garrisons. In 1277 this prince took part in military operations in the
north; he died in 1280 (17th year Che Yuan), leaving his principality of
Ngan-si to his eldest son Ananda, and this of Tsin to his second son
Ngan-tan Bu-hoa. Kúblái, immediately after the death of his son Mangala,
suppressed administrative autonomy in Ngan-si." (_Yuan-shi lei
pien_).--H.C.]


[1] I am indebted for this information to Baron Richthofen.

[2] See the small map attached to "Marco Polo's Itinerary Map, No. IV.,"
    at end of Vol. I.

[3] [It is supposed to come from _kang_ (king) _dang_.--H.C.]

[4] In the first edition I was able to present a reduced facsimile of a
    _rubbing_ in my possession from this famous inscription, which I owed
    to the generosity of Dr. Lockhart. To the Baron von Richthofen I am no
    less indebted for the more complete rubbing which has afforded the
    plate now published. A tolerably full account of this inscription is
    given in _Cathay_, p. xcii. seqq., and p. clxxxi. seqq., but the
    subject is so interesting that it seems well to introduce here the
    most important particulars:--

    The stone slab, about 7-1/2 feet high by 3 feet wide, and some 10
    inches in thickness,[A] which bears this inscription, was
    accidentally found in 1625 by some workmen who were digging in the
    Chang-ngan suburb of the city of Singanfu. The cross, which is
    engraved at p. 30, is incised at the top of the slab, and beneath this
    are 9 large characters in 3 columns, constituting the heading, which
    runs: "_Monument commemorating the introduction and propagation of the
    noble Law of_ Ta T'sin _in the Middle Kingdom;_" _Ta T'sin_ being the
    term applied in Chinese literature to the Roman Empire, of which the
    ancient Chinese had much such a shadowy conception as the Romans had,
    conversely, of the Chinese as _Sinae_ and _Seres_. Then follows the
    body of the inscription, of great length and beautiful execution,
    consisting of 1780 characters. Its chief contents are as follows:--
    1st. An abstract of Christian doctrine, of a vague and figurative
    kind; 2nd. An account of the arrival of the missionary OLOPAN
    (probably a Chinese form of _Rabban_ = Monk),[B] from Ta T'sin in the
    year equivalent to A.D. 635 bringing sacred books and images, of the
    _translation of the said books_, of the Imperial approval of the
    doctrine and permission to teach it publicly. There follows a decree
    of the Emperor (T'ai Tsung, a very famous prince) issued in 638 in
    favour of the new doctrine and ordering a church to be built in the
    Square of Peace and Justice (_I ning Fang_) at the capital. The
    Emperor's portrait was to be placed in the church. After this comes a
    description of Ta T'sin (here apparently implying Syria), and then some
    account of the fortunes of the Church in China. Kao Tsung (650-683 the
    devout patron also of the Buddhist traveller and Dr. Hiuen Tsang)
    continued to favour it. In the end of the century, Buddhism gets the
    upper hand, but under HIUAN TSUNG (713-755) the Church recovers its
    prestige, and KIHO, a new missionary, arrives. Under TE TSUNG (780-783)
    the monument was erected, and this part ends with the eulogy of ISSE,
    a statesman and benefactor of the Church. 3rd. There follows a
    recapitulation of the purport in octosyllabic verse.

    The Chinese inscription concludes with the date of erection, viz. the
    second year _Kienchung_ of the Great T'ang Dynasty, the seventh day of
    the month _Tait su_, the feast of the great _Yaosan_. This
    corresponds, according to Gaubil, to 4th February, 781, and _Yaosan_
    is supposed to stand for _Hosanna_ (i.e. Palm Sunday, but this
    apparently does not fit, see infra). There are added the name chief
    of the law, NINGCHU (presumed to be the Chinese name of the
    Metropolitan), the name of the writer, and the official sanction.

    The _Great Hosanna_ was, though ingenious, a misinterpretation of
    Gaubil's. Mr. Wylie has sent me a paper of his own (in _Chin. Recorder
    and Miss. Journal_, July, 1871, p. 45), which makes things perfectly
    clear. The expression transcribed by Pauthier, _Yao san wen_, and
    rendered "Hosanna," appears in a Chinese work, without reference to
    this inscription, as _Yao san wah_, and is in reality only a Chinese
    transcript of the Persian word for Sunday, "_Yak shambah_." Mr. Wylie
    verified this from the mouth of a Peking Mahomedan. The 4th of
    February, 781 _was_ Sunday, why _Great_ Sunday? Mr. Wylie suggests,
    possibly because the first Sunday of the (Chinese) year.

    The monument exhibits, in addition to the Chinese text, a series of
    short inscriptions in the Syriac language, and _Estranghelo_ character,
    containing the date of erection, viz. 1092 of the Greeks (= A.D. 781),
    the name of the reigning Patriarch of the Nestorian church MAR HANAN
    ISHUA (dead in 778, but the fact apparently had not reached China),
    that of ADAM, Bishop and Pope of Tzinisthán (i.e. China), and those of
    the clerical staff of the capital which here bears the name, given it
    by the early Arab Travellers, of _Kumdan_. There follow sixty-seven
    names of persons in Syriac characters, most of whom are characterised
    as priests (_Kashísha_), and sixty-one names of persons in Chinese, all
    priests save one.

    [It appears that Adam (_King tsing_), who erected the monument under
    Te Tsung was, under the same Emperor, with a Buddhist the translator
    of a Buddhist sûtra, the Satparamita from a Hu text. (See a curious
    paper by Mr. J. Takakusu in the _T'oung Pao_, VII pp. 589-591.)

    Mr. Rockhill (_Rubruck_, p. 157, _note_) makes the following remarks.
    "It is strange, however, that the two famous Uigur Nestorians, Mar
    Jabalaha and Rabban Cauma, when on their journey from Koshang in
    Southern Shan hsi to Western Asia in about 1276, while they mention
    'the city of Tangut, or Ning hsia on the Yellow River as an important
    Nestorian centre' do not once refer to Hsi anfu or Chang an. Had Chang
    an been at the time the Nestorian Episcopal see, one would think that
    these pilgrims would have visited it, or at least referred to it.
    (_Chabot, Mar Jabalaha_, 21)"--H.C.]

    Kircher gives a good many more Syriac names than appear on the rubbing,
    probably because some of these are on the edge of the slab now built
    in. We have no room to speak of the controversies raised by this stone.
    The most able defence of its genuine character, as well as a transcript
    with translation and commentary, a work of great interest, was
    published by the late M. Pauthier. The monument exists intact, and has
    been visited by the Rev. Mr. Williamson, Baron Richthofen, and other
    recent travellers. [The Rev. Moir Duncan wrote from Shen si regarding
    the present state of the stone. (_London and China Telegraph_, 5th
    June, 1893) "Of the covering rebuilt so recently, not a trace remains
    save the pedestals for the pillars and atoms of the tiling. In answer
    to a question as to when and how the covering was destroyed, the old
    priest replied, with a twinkle in his eye as if his conscience pinched,
    'There came a rushing wind and blew it down.' He could not say when,
    for he paid no attention to such mundane affairs. More than one
    outsider however, said it had been deliberately destroyed, because the
    priests are jealous of the interest manifested in it. The stone has
    evidently been recently tampered with, several characters are effaced
    and there are other signs of malicious hands."--H.C.] Pauthier's works
    on the subject are--_De l'Authenticité de l'Inscription Nestorienne_,
    etc., B. Duprat, 1857, and _l'Inscription Syro Chinoise de Si ngan
    fou_, etc., Firmin Didot, 1858. (See also _Kircher, China Illustrata_,
    and article by Mr. Wylie in _J. Am. Or. Soc._, V. 278.) [Father Havret,
    S.J., of Zi ka wei, near Shang hai, has undertaken to write a large
    work on this inscription with the title of _La Stele Chrétienne de Si
    ngan fou_, the first part giving the inscription in full size, and the
    second containing the history of the monument, have been published at
    Shang-hai in 1895 and 1897; the author died last year (29th September,
    1901), and the translation which was to form a third part has not yet
    appeared. The Rev. Dr. J. Legge has given a translation and the Chinese
    text of the monument, in 1888.--H.C.]

    Stone monuments of character strictly analogous are frequent in the
    precincts of Buddhist sanctuaries, and probably the idea of this one
    was taken from the Buddhists. It is reasonably supposed by Pauthier
    that the monument may have been buried in 845, when the Emperor
    Wu-Tsung issued an edict, still extant, against the vast multiplication
    of Buddhist convents, and ordering their destruction. A clause in the
    edict also orders the _foreign bonzes of Ta-T'sin_ and _Mubupa_
    (Christian and _Mobed_ or Magian?) _to return to secular life_.

        [A] [M. Grenard, who reproduces (III. p. 152) a good facsimile of
            the inscription, gives to the slab the following dimensions:
            high 2m. 36, wide 0m. 86, thick 0m. 25.--H.C.]

        [B] [Dr. F. Hirth (_China and the Roman Orient_, p. 323) writes:
            "O-LO-PÊN = Ruben, Rupen?" He adds (_Jour. China Br. R. As.
            Soc._ XXI. 1886, pp. 214-215): "Initial _r_ is also quite
            commonly represented by initial _l_. I am in doubt whether the
            two characters _o-lo_ in the Chinese name for Russia
            (_O-lo-ssu_) stand for foreign _ru_ or _ro_ alone. This word
            would bear comparison with a Chinese transcription of the
            Sanskrit word for silver, _rupya_ which in the _Pen ts ao kang
            mu_ (ch. 8, p. 9) is given as _o lu pa_. If we can find further
            analogies, this may help us to read that mysterious word in the
            Nestorian stone inscription, being the name of the first
            Christian missionary who carried the cross to China, _O lo
            pên_, as 'Ruben'. This was indeed a common name among the
            Nestorians, for which reason I would give it the preference
            over Pauthier's Syriac 'Alopeno'. But Father Havret (_Stele
            Chrétienne_, Leide, 1897, p. 26) objects to Dr. Hirth that the
            Chinese character _lo_, to which he gives the sound _ru_, is
            not to be found as a Sanskrit phonetic element in Chinese
            characters but that this phonetic element _ru_ is represented
            by the Chinese characters pronounced _lu_ and therefore, he,
            Father Havret, adopts Colonel Yule's opinion as the only one
            being fully satisfactory."--H.C.]



CHAPTER XLII.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUNCUN, WHICH IS RIGHT WEARISOME TO TRAVEL
THROUGH.


On leaving the Palace of Mangalai, you travel westward for three days,
finding a succession of cities and boroughs and beautiful plains,
inhabited by people who live by trade and industry, and have great plenty
of silk. At the end of those three days, you reach the great mountains and
valleys which belong to the province of CUNCUN.[NOTE 1] There are towns
and villages in the land, and the people live by tilling the earth, and by
hunting in the great woods; for the region abounds in forests, wherein are
many wild beasts, such as lions, bears, lynxes, bucks and roes, and sundry
other kinds, so that many are taken by the people of the country, who make
a great profit thereof. So this way we travel over mountains and valleys,
finding a succession of towns and villages, and many great hostelries for
the entertainment of travellers, interspersed among extensive forests.


NOTE 1.--The region intended must necessarily be some part of the southern
district of the province of Shen-si, called HAN-CHUNG, the axis of which
is the River Han, closed in by exceedingly mountainous and woody country
to north and south, dividing it on the former quarter from the rest of
Shen-si, and on the latter from Sze-ch'wan. Polo's C frequently expresses
an _H_, especially the Guttural _H_ of Chinese names, yet _Cuncun_ is not
satisfactory as the expression of _Hanchung_.

The country was so ragged that in ancient times travellers from Si-ngan fu
had to make a long circuit eastward by the frontier of Ho-nan to reach
Han-chung; but, at an early date, a road was made across the mountains for
military purposes; so long ago indeed that various eras and constructors
are assigned to it. Padre Martini's authorities ascribed it to a general
in the service of Liu Pang, the founder of the first Han Dynasty (B.C.
202), and this date is current in Shan-si, as Baron v. Richthofen tells
me. But in Sze-ch'wan the work is asserted to have been executed during
the 3rd century, when China was divided into several states, by Liu Pei,
of the Han family, who, about A.D. 226, established himself as Emperor
[Minor Han] of Western China at Ch'eng-tu fu.[1] This work, with its
difficulties and boldness, extending often for great distances on timber
corbels inserted in the rock, is vividly described by Martini. Villages
and rest-houses were established at convenient distances. It received from
the Chinese the name of _Chien-tao_, or the "Pillar Road." It
commenced on the west bank of the Wei, opposite Pao-ki h'ien, 100 miles
west of Si-ngan fu, and ended near the town of Paoching-h'ien, some 15 or
20 miles north-west from Han-chung.

We are told that Tului, the son of Chinghiz, when directing his march
against Ho-nan in 1231 by this very line from Paoki, had to _make_ a road
with great difficulty; but, as we shall see presently, this can only mean
that the ancient road had fallen into decay, and had to be repaired. The
same route was followed by Okkodai's son Kutan, in marching to attack the
Sung Empire in 1235, and again by Mangku Kaan on his last campaign in
1258. These circumstances show that the road from Paoki was in that age
the usual route into Han-chung and Sze-ch'wan; indeed there is no other
road in that direction that is more than a mere jungle-track, and we may
be certain that this was Polo's route.

This remarkable road was traversed by Baron v. Richthofen in 1872. To my
questions, he replies: "The entire route is a work of tremendous
engineering, and all of this was done by Liu Pei, who first ordered the
construction. The hardest work consisted in cutting out long portions of
the road from solid rock, chiefly where ledges project on the verge of a
river, as is frequently the case on the He-lung Kiang.... It had been done
so thoroughly from the first, that scarcely any additions had to be made
in after days. Another kind of work which generally strikes tourists like
Father Martini, or Chinese travellers, is the poling up of the road on the
sides of steep cliffs....[2] Extensive cliffs are frequently rounded in
this way, and imagination is much struck with the perils of walking on the
side of a precipice, with the foaming river below. When the timbers rot,
such passages of course become obstructed, and thus the road is said to
have been periodically in complete disuse. The repairs, which were chiefly
made in the time of the Ming, concerned especially passages of this sort."
Richthofen also notices the abundance of game; but inhabited places appear
to be rarer than in Polo's time. (See _Martini_ in _Blaeu_; _Chine
Ancienne_, p. 234; _Ritter_, IV. 520; _D'Ohsson_, II. 22, 80, 328;
_Lecomte_, II. 95; _Chin. Rep._ XIX. 225; _Richthofen_, _Letter_ VII. p.
42, and MS. Notes).


[1] The last is also stated by Klaproth. Ritter has overlooked the
    discrepancy of the dates (B.C. and A.D.) and has supposed Liu Pei and
    Liu Pang to be the same. The resemblance of the names, and the fact
    that both princes were founders of Han Dynasties, give ample room for
    confusion.

[2] See cut from Mr. Cooper's book at p. 51 below. This so exactly
    illustrates Baron R.'s description that I may omit the latter.



CHAPTER XLIII.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ACBALEC MANZI.


After you have travelled those 20 days through the mountains of CUNCUN
that I have mentioned, then you come to a province called ACBALEC MANZI,
which is all level country, with plenty of towns and villages, and belongs
to the Great Kaan. The people are Idolaters, and live by trade and
industry. I may tell you that in this province, there grows such a great
quantity of ginger, that it is carried all over the region of Cathay, and
it affords a maintenance to all the people of the province, who get great
gain thereby. They have also wheat and rice, and other kinds of corn, in
great plenty and cheapness; in fact the country abounds in all useful
products. The capital city is called ACBALEC MANZI [which signifies "the
White City of the Manzi Frontier"].[NOTE 1]

This plain extends for two days' journey, throughout which it is as fine
as I have told you, with towns and villages as numerous. After those two
days, you again come to great mountains and valleys, and extensive
forests, and you continue to travel westward through this kind of country
for 20 days, finding however numerous towns and villages. The people are
Idolaters, and live by agriculture, by cattle-keeping, and by the chase,
for there is much game. And among other kinds, there are the animals that
produce the musk, in great numbers.[NOTE 2]


NOTE 1.--Though the termini of the route, described in these two chapters,
are undoubtedly Si-ngan fu and Ch'êng-tu fu, there are serious
difficulties attending the determination of the line actually followed.

The time according to all the MSS., so far as I know, except those of one
type, is as follows:

  In the plain of Kenjanfu  .  .  .  .  .  3 days.
  In the mountains of Cuncun   .  .  .  . 20  "
  In the plain of Acbalec   .  .  .  .  .  2  "
  In mountains again     .  .  .  .  .  . 20  "
                                          --
                                          45 days.
                                          --

[From Si-ngan fu to Ch'êng-tu (Sze-ch'wan), the Chinese reckon 2300 _li_
(766 miles). (Cf. _Rockhill, Land of the Lamas_, p. 23.) Mr. G.F. Eaton,
writing from Han-chung (_Jour. China Br.R.A.S._ xxviii. p. 29) reckons:
"From Si-ngan Fu S.W. to Ch'êng-tu, via K'i-shan, Fung-sien, Mien,
Kwang-yuan and Chao-hwa, about 30 days, in chairs." He says (p. 24): "From
Ch'êng-tu via Si-ngan to Peking the road does not touch Han-chung, but
20 _li_ west of the city strikes north to Pao-ch'eng. The road from
Han-chung to Ch'êng-tu made by Ts'in Shi Hwang-ti to secure his conquest of
Sze-ch'wan, crosses the Ta-pa-shan."--H.C.]

It seems to me almost impossible to doubt that the Plain of Acbalec
represents some part of the river-valley of the Han, interposed between
the two ranges of mountains called by Richthofen _T'sing-Ling-Shan_ and
_Ta-pa-Shan_. But the time, as just stated, is extravagant for anything
like a direct journey between the two termini.

The distance from Si-ngan fu to Pao-ki is 450 _li_, which could be done in
3 days, but at Polo's rate would probably require 5. The distance by the
mountain road from Pao-ki to the Plain of Han-chung, could never have
occupied 20 days. It is really a 6 or 7 days' march.

But Pauthier's MS. C (and its double, the Bern MS.) has viii. marches
instead of xx., through the mountains of Cuncun. This reduces the time
between Kenjanfu and the Plain to 11 days, which is just about a proper
allowance for the whole journey, though not accurately distributed. Two
days, though ample, would not be excessive for the journey across the
Plain of Han-chung, especially if the traveller visited that city. And "20
days from Han-chung, to Ch'êng-tu fu would correspond with Marco Polo's
rate of travel." (_Richthofen_).

So far then, provided we admit the reading of the MS. C, there is no ground
for hesitating to adopt the usual route between the two cities,
via Han-chung.

But the key to the exact route is evidently the position of Acbalec Manzi,
and on this there is no satisfactory light.

For the name of the province, Pauthier's text has _Acbalec Manzi_, for the
name of the city _Acmalec_ simply. The G.T. has in the former case
_Acbalec Mangi_, in the latter "Acmelic Mangi _qe vaut dire_ le une _de le
confine dou Mangi_." This is followed literally by the Geographic Latin,
which has "_Acbalec Mangi et est dictum in lingua nostra_ unus _ex
confinibus Mangi_." So also the Crusca; whilst Ramusio has "_Achbaluch
Mangi, che vuol dire_ Città Bianca de' confini di Mangi." It is clear that
Ramusio alone has here preserved the genuine reading.

Klaproth identified Acbalec conjecturally with the town of _Pe-ma-ching_,
or "White-Horse-Town," a place now extinct, but which stood like Mien and
Han-chung on the extensive and populous Plain that here borders the Han.

It seems so likely that the latter part of the name _Pe_-MACHING ("_White_
Maching") might have been confounded by foreigners with _Máchín_ and
_Manzi_ (which in Persian parlance were identical), that I should be
disposed to overlook the difficulty that we have no evidence produced to
show that Pemaching was a place of any consequence.

It is possible, however, that the name _Acbalec_ may have been given by the
Tartars without any reference to Chinese etymologies. We have already twice
met with the name or its equivalent (_Acbaluc_ in ch. xxxvii. of this Book,
and _Chaghan Balghasun_ in note 3 to Book I. ch. lx.), whilst Strahlenberg
tells us that the Tartars call all great residences of princes by this name
(Amst. ed. 1757, I. p. 7). It may be that Han-chung itself was so named by
the Tartars; though its only claim that I can find is, that it was the
first residence of the Han Dynasty. Han-chung fu stands in a beautiful
plain, which forms a very striking object to the traveller who is leaving
the T'sing-ling mountains. Just before entering the plains, the Helung
Kiang passes through one of its wildest gorges, a mere crevice between
vertical walls several hundred feet high. The road winds to the top of one
of the cliffs in zigzags cut in the solid rock. From the temple of Kitau
Kwan, which stands at the top of the cliff, there is a magnificent view of
the Plain, and no traveller would omit this, the most notable feature
between the valley of the Wei and Ch'êng-tu-fu. It is, moreover, the only
piece of level ground, of any extent, that is passed through between those
two regions, whichever road or track be taken. (_Richthofen_, MS. Notes.)

[In the _China Review_ (xiv. p. 358) Mr. E.H. Parker, has an article on
_Acbalec Manzi_, but does not throw any new light on the subject.--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Polo's journey now continues through the lofty mountainous region
in the north of Sze-ch'wan.

The dividing range Ta-pa-shan is less in height than the T'sing-ling range,
but with gorges still more abrupt and deep; and it would be an entire
barrier to communication but for the care with which the road, here also,
has been formed. But this road, from Han-chung to Ch'êng-tu fu, is still
older than that to the north, having been constructed, it is said, in the
3rd century B.C. [See supra.] Before that time Sze-ch'wan was a closed
country, the only access from the north being the circuitous route down the
Han and up the Yang-tz'u. (Ibid.)

[Mr. G.G. Brown writes (_Jour. China Br. R. As. Soc._ xxviii. p. 53):
"Crossing the Ta-pa-shan from the valley of the Upper Han in Shen-si we
enter the province of Sze-ch'wan, and are now in a country as distinct as
possible from that that has been left. The climate which in the north was
at times almost Arctic, is now pluvial, and except on the summits of the
mountains no snow is to be seen. The people are ethnologically
different.... More even than the change of climate the geological aspect is
markedly different. The loess, which in Shen-si has settled like a pall
over the country, is here absent, and red sandstone rocks, filling the
valleys between the high-bounding and intermediate ridges of palaeozoic
formation, take its place. Sze-ch'wan is evidently a region of rivers
flowing in deeply eroded valleys, and as these find but one exit, the deep
gorges of Kwei-fu, their disposition takes the form of the innervations of
a leaf springing from a solitary stalk. The country between the branching
valleys is eminently hilly; the rivers flow with rapid currents in
well-defined valleys, and are for the most part navigable for boats, or in
their upper reaches for lumber-rafts.... The horse-cart, which in the
north and north-west of China is the principal means of conveyance, has
never succeeded in gaining an entrance into Sze-ch'wan with its steep
ascents and rapid unfordable streams; and is here represented for
passenger traffic by the sedan-chair, and for the carriage of goods,
with the exception of a limited number of wheel-barrows, by the backs of
men or animals, unless where the friendly water-courses afford the
cheapest and readiest means of intercourse."--H.C.]

Martini notes the musk-deer in northern Sze-ch'wan.



CHAPTER XLIV.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE AND CITY OF SINDAFU.


When you have travelled those 20 days westward through the mountains, as I
have told you, then you arrive at a plain belonging to a province called
Sindafu, which still is on the confines of Manzi, and the capital city of
which is (also) called SINDAFU. This city was in former days a rich and
noble one, and the Kings who reigned there were very great and wealthy. It
is a good twenty miles in compass, but it is divided in the way that I
shall tell you.

You see the King of this Province, in the days of old, when he found
himself drawing near to death, leaving three sons behind him, commanded
that the city should be divided into three parts, and that each of his
three sons should have one. So each of these three parts is separately
walled about, though all three are surrounded by the common wall of the
city. Each of the three sons was King, having his own part of the city, and
his own share of the kingdom, and each of them in fact was a great and
wealthy King. But the Great Kaan conquered the kingdom of these three
Kings, and stripped them of their inheritance.[NOTE 1]

Through the midst of this great city runs a large river, in which they
catch a great quantity of fish. It is a good half mile wide, and very deep
withal, and so long that it reaches all the way to the Ocean Sea,--a very
long way, equal to 80 or 100 days' journey. And the name of the River is
KIAN-SUY. The multitude of vessels that navigate this river is so vast,
that no one who should read or hear the tale would believe it. The
quantities of merchandize also which merchants carry up and down this river
are past all belief. In fact, it is so big, that it seems to be a Sea
rather than a River![NOTE 2]

Let us now speak of a great Bridge which crosses this River within the
city. This bridge is of stone; it is seven paces in width and half a mile
in length (the river being that much in width as I told you); and all
along its length on either side there are columns of marble to bear the
roof, for the bridge is roofed over from end to end with timber, and that
all richly painted. And on this bridge there are houses in which a great
deal of trade and industry is carried on. But these houses are all of wood
merely, and they are put up in the morning and taken down in the evening.
Also there stands upon the bridge the Great Kaan's _Comercque_, that
is to say, his custom-house, where his toll and tax are levied.[NOTE 3]
And I can tell you that the dues taken on this bridge bring to the Lord a
thousand pieces of fine gold every day and more. The people are all
Idolaters.[NOTE 4]

When you leave this city you travel for five days across a country of
plains and valleys, finding plenty of villages and hamlets, and the people
of which live by husbandry. There are numbers of wild beasts, lions, and
bears, and such like.

I should have mentioned that the people of Sindu itself live by
manufactures, for they make fine sendals and other stuffs.[NOTE 5]

After travelling those five days' march, you reach a province called Tebet,
which has been sadly laid waste; we will now say something of it.


NOTE 1.--We are on firm ground again, for SINDAFU is certainly CH'ÊNG-TU
FU, the capital of Sze-ch'wan. Probably the name used by Polo was
_Sindu-fu_, as we find _Sindu_ in the G.T. near the end of the chapter.
But the same city is, I observe, called _Thindafu_ by one of the Nepalese
embassies, whose itineraries Mr. Hodgson has given in the _J.A.S.B._ XXV.
488.

The modern French missions have a bishop in Ch'eng-tu fu, and the city has
been visited of late years by Mr. T.T. Cooper, by Mr. A. Wylie, by Baron
v. Richthofen, [Captain Gill, Mr. Baber, Mr. Hosie, and several other
travellers]. Mr. Wylie has kindly favoured me with the following
note:--"My notice all goes to corroborate Marco Polo. The covered bridge
with the stalls is still there, the only difference being the absence of
the toll-house. I did not see any traces of a tripartite division of the
city, nor did I make any enquiries on the subject during the 3 or 4 days I
spent there, as it was not an object with me at the time to verify Polo's
account. The city is indeed divided, but the division dates more than a
thousand years back. It is something like this, I should say [see
diagram]".[1]

[Illustration:
    |------------|
    |            |
|---|  |---|     |
| B |  | C |  A  |
|___|  |___|     |
    |            |
    |____________|

A. The Great City.
B. The Little City.
C. The Imperial City.]

"The Imperial City (_Hwang Ching_) was the residence of the monarch Lew Pé
(i.e. Liu Pei of p. 32) during the short period of the 'Three Kingdoms'
(3rd century), and some relics of the ancient edifice still remain. I was
much interested in looking over it. It is now occupied by the Public
Examination Hall and its dependencies."

I suspect Marco's story of the Three Kings arose from a misunderstanding
about this historical period of the _San-Kwé_ or Three Kingdoms (A.D.
222-264). And this tripartite division of the city may have been merely
that which we see to exist at present.

[Mr. Baber, leaving Ch'eng-tu, 26th July, 1877, writes (_Travels_, p. 28):
"We took ship outside the East Gate on a rapid narrow stream, apparently
the city moat, which soon joins the main river, a little below the An-shun
Bridge, an antiquated wooden structure some 90 yards long. This is in all
probability the bridge mentioned by Marco Polo. The too flattering
description he gives of it leads one to suppose that the present handsome
stone bridges of the province were unbuilt at the time of his journey."
Baber is here mistaken.

Captain Gill writes (l.c. II. p. 9): "As Mr. Wylie in recent days had
said that Polo's covered bridge was still in its place, we went one day on
an expedition in search of it. Polo, however, speaks of a bridge full half
a mile long, whilst the longest now is but 90 yards. On our way we passed
over a fine nine-arched stone bridge, called the Chin-Yen-Ch'iao. Near the
covered bridge there is a very pretty view down the river."--H.C.]

Baron Richthofen observes that Ch'eng-tu is among the largest of Chinese
cities, and is of all the finest and most refined. The population is
called 800,000. The walls form a square of about 3 miles to the side, and
there are suburbs besides. The streets are broad and straight, laid out at
right angles, with a pavement of square flags very perfectly laid,
slightly convex and drained at each side. The numerous commemorative
arches are sculptured with skill; there is much display of artistic
taste; and the people are remarkably civil to foreigners. This
characterizes the whole province; and an air of wealth and refinement
prevails even in the rural districts. The plain round Ch'eng-tu fu is
about 90 miles in length (S.E. to N.W.), by 40 miles in width, with a
copious irrigation and great fertility, so that in wealth and population
it stands almost unrivalled. (_Letter_ VII. pp. 48-66.)

[Illustration: PLAN OF CHENG-TU.

Eglises ou Etablissements français des "Missions etrangeres"
Reproduction d'une carte chinoise]

[Mr. Baber (_Travels_, p. 26) gives the following information regarding
the population of Ch'eng-tu: "The census of 1877 returned the number of
families at about 70,000, and the total population at 330,000--190,000
being males and 140,000 females; but probably the extensive suburb was not
included in the enumeration. Perhaps 350,000 would be a fair total
estimate." It is the seat of the Viceroy of the Sze-ch'wan province. Mr.
Hosie says (_Three Years in Western China_, p. 86): "It is without
exception the finest city I have seen in China; Peking and Canton will not
bear comparison with it." Captain Gill writes (_River of Golden Sand_, II.
p. 4): "The city of Ch'êng-Tu is still a rich and noble one, somewhat
irregular in shape, and surrounded by a strong wall, in a perfect state of
repair. In this there are eight bastions, four being pierced by gates."

"It is one of the largest of Chinese cities, having a circuit of about 12
miles." (_Baber_, p. 26.) "It is now three and a half miles long by about
two and a half miles broad, the longest side lying about east-south-east,
and west-north-west, so that its compass in the present day is about 12
miles." (_Captain Gill_, II. p. 4.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Ramusio is more particular: "Through the city flow many great
rivers, which come down from distant mountains, and run winding about
through many parts of the city. These rivers vary in width from half a
mile to 200 paces, and are very deep. Across them are built many bridges
of stone," etc. "And after passing the city these rivers unite and form
one immense river called Kian," etc. Here we have the Great River or
KIANG, Kian (Quian) as in Ramusio, or KIANG-SHUI, "Waters of the Kiang,"
as in the text. So Pauthier explains. [Mr. Baber remarks at Ch'êng-tu
(_Travels_, p. 28): "When all allowance is made for the diminution of
the river, one cannot help surmising that Marco Polo must have felt
reluctant to call it the _Chiang-Sui_ or 'Yangtzu waterway.' He was,
however, correct enough, as usual, for the Chinese consider it to be the
main upper stream of the Yangtzu."--H.C.] Though our Geographies give the
specific names of Wen and Min to the great branch which flows by Ch'êng-tu
fu, and treat the Tibetan branch which flows through northern Yunnan under
the name of Kin Sha or "Golden Sand," as the main river, the Chinese seem
always to have regarded the former as the true Kiang; as may be seen in
Ritter (IV. 650) and Martini. The latter describes the city as quite
insulated by the ramifications of the river, from which channels and
canals pass all about it, adorned with many quays and bridges of stone.

The numerous channels in reuniting form two rivers, one the Min, and the
other the To-Kiang, which also joins the Yangtzu at Lu-chau.

[In his _Introductory Essay to Captain Gill's River of Golden Sand_,
Colonel Yule (p. 37) writes: "Captain Gill has pointed out that, of the
many branches of the river which ramify through the plain of Ch'êng-tu, no
one now passes through the city at all corresponding in magnitude to that
which Marco Polo describes, about 1283, as running through the midst of
Sin-da-fu, 'a good half-mile wide, and very deep withal.' The largest
branch adjoining the city now runs on the south side, but does not exceed
a hundred yards in width; and though it is crossed by a covered bridge
with huxters' booths, more or less in the style described by Polo, it
necessarily falls far short of his great bridge of half a mile in length.
Captain Gill suggests that a change may have taken place in the last five
(this should be _six_) centuries, owing to the deepening of the
river-bed at its exit from the plain, and consequent draining of the
latter. But I should think it more probable that the ramification of
channels round Ch'êng-tu, which is so conspicuous even on a small general
map of China, like that which accompanies this work, is in great part due
to art; that the mass of the river has been drawn off to irrigate the
plain; and that thus the wide river, which in the 13th century may have
passed through the city, no unworthy representative of the mighty Kiang,
has long since ceased, on that scale, to flow. And I have pointed out
briefly that the fact, which Baron Richthofen attests, of an actual
bifurcation of waters on a large scale taking place in the plain of
Ch'êng-tu--one arm 'branching east to form the To' (as in the terse
indication of the Yü-Kung)--viz. the To Kiang or Chung-Kiang flowing
south-east to join the great river at Lu-chau, whilst another flows south
to Sü-chau or Swi-fu, does render change in the distribution of the waters
about the city highly credible."] [See _Irrigation of the Ch'eng-tu
Plain_, by _Joshua Vale_, China Inland Mission in _Jour. China
Br.R.A.S.Soc._ XXXIII. 1899-1900, pp. 22-36.--H.C.]

[Above Kwan Hsien, near Ch'êng-tu, there is a fine suspension bridge,
mentioned by Marcel Monnier (_Itinéraires_, p. 43), from whom I borrow the
cut reproduced on this page. This bridge is also spoken of by Captain Gill
(l.c. I. p. 335): "Six ropes, one above the other, are stretched very
tightly, and connected by vertical battens of wood laced in and out.
Another similar set of ropes is at the other side of the roadway, which is
laid across these, and follows the curve of the ropes. There are three or
four spans with stone piers."--H.C.]

[Illustration: Bridge near Kwan-hsien (Ch'êng-tu).]

NOTE 3.--(G.T.) "_Hi est le_ couiereque _dou Grant Sire, ce est cilz qe
recevent la rente dou Seignor_." Pauthier has _couvert_. Both are, I doubt
not, misreadings or misunderstandings of _comereque_ or _comerc_. This
word, founded on the Latin _commercium_, was widely spread over the East
with the meaning of _customs-duty_ or _custom-house_. In Low Greek it
appeared as [Greek: kommérkion] and [Greek: koumérkion], now [Greek:
komérki]; in Arabic and Turkish as [Arabic] and [Turkish] (_kumruk_ and
_gyumruk_), still in use; in Romance dialects as _comerchio, comerho,
comergio_, etc.

NOTE 4.--The word in Pauthier's text which I have rendered _pieces_ of
gold is _pois_, probably equivalent to _saggi_ or _miskáls_.[2] The G.T.
has "is well worth 1000 _bezants_ of gold," no doubt meaning _daily_,
though not saying so. Ramusio has "100 bezants daily." The term Bezant may
be taken as synonymous with _Dínár_, and the statement in the text would
make the daily receipt of custom upwards of 500_l._, that in Ramusio
upwards of 50_l._ only.

NOTE 5.--I have recast this passage, which has got muddled, probably in
the original dictation, for it runs in the G. text: "Et de ceste cité se
part l'en et chevauche cinq jornée por plain et por valée, et treve-l'en
castiaus et casaus assez. Les homes vivent dou profit qu'il traient de la
terre. Il hi a bestes sauvajes assez, lions et orses et autres bestes.
_Il vivent d'ars: car il hi se laborent des biaus sendal et autres dras.
Il sunt de Sindu meisme."_ I take it that in speaking of Ch'êng-tu fu,
Marco has forgotten to fill up his usual formula as to the occupation of
the inhabitants; he is reminded of this when he speaks of the occupation
of the peasantry on the way to Tibet, and reverts to the citizens in the
words which I have quoted in Italics. We see here _Sindu_ applied to
the city, suggesting _Sindu-fu_ for the reading at the beginning of
the chapter.

Silk is a large item in the produce and trade of Sze-ch'wan; and through
extensive quarters of Ch'êng-tu fu, in every house, the spinning, dying,
weaving, and embroidering of silk give occupation to the people. And
though a good deal is exported, much is consumed in the province, for the
people are very much given to costly apparel. Thus silk goods are very
conspicuous in the shops of the capital. (_Richthofen_.)


[1] My lamented friend Lieutenant F. Garnier had kindly undertaken to send
    me a plan of Ch'eng-tu fu from the place itself, but, as is well
    known, he fell on a daring enterprise elsewhere. [We hope that the
    plan from a Chinese map we give from _M. Marcel Monnier's
    Itinéraires_ will replace the promised one.

    It will be seen that Ch'eng-tu is divided into three cities: the Great
    City containing both the Imperial and Tartar cities.--H.C.

[2] I find the same expression applied to the miskál or dinár in a MS.
    letter written by Giovanni dell' Affaitado, Venetian Agent at Lisbon
    in 1503, communicated to me by Signor Berchet. The King of Melinda was
    to pay to Portugal a tribute of 1500 _pesi d'oro_, "che un peso
    val un ducato e un quarto."



CHAPTER XLV.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF TEBET.


After those five days' march that I spoke of, you enter a province which
has been sorely ravaged; and this was done in the wars of Mongu Kaan.
There are indeed towns and villages and hamlets, but all harried and
destroyed.[NOTE 1]

In this region you find quantities of canes, full three palms in girth and
fifteen paces in length, with some three palms' interval between the
joints. And let me tell you that merchants and other travellers through
that country are wont at nightfall to gather these canes and make fires of
them; for as they burn they make such loud reports that the lions and
bears and other wild beasts are greatly frightened, and make off as fast
as possible; in fact nothing will induce them to come nigh a fire of that
sort. So you see the travellers make those fires to protect themselves and
their cattle from the wild beasts which have so greatly multiplied since
the devastation of the country. And 'tis this great multiplication of the
wild beasts that prevents the country from being reoccupied. In fact but
for the help of these canes, which make such a noise in burning that the
beasts are terrified and kept at a distance, no one would be able even to
travel through the land.

I will tell you how it is that the canes make such a noise. The people cut
the green canes, of which there are vast numbers, and set fire to a heap
of them at once. After they have been awhile burning they burst asunder,
and this makes such a loud report that you might hear it ten miles off. In
fact, any one unused to this noise, who should hear it unexpectedly, might
easily go into a swound or die of fright. But those who are used to it
care nothing about it. Hence those who are not used to it stuff their ears
well with cotton, and wrap up their heads and faces with all the clothes
they can muster; and so they get along until they have become used to the
sound. 'Tis just the same with horses. Those which are unused to these
noises are so alarmed by them that they break away from their halters and
heel-ropes, and many a man has lost his beasts in this way. So those who
would avoid losing their horses take care to tie all four legs and peg the
ropes down strongly, and to wrap the heads and eyes and ears of the
animals closely, and so they save them. But horses also, when they have
heard the noise several times, cease to mind it. I tell you the truth,
however, when I say that the first time you hear it nothing can be more
alarming. And yet, in spite of all, the lions and bears and other wild
beasts will sometimes come and do much mischief; for their numbers are
great in those tracts.[NOTE 2]

You ride for 20 days without finding any inhabited spot, so that
travellers are obliged to carry all their provisions with them, and are
constantly falling in with those wild beasts which are so numerous and so
dangerous. After that you come at length to a tract where there are towns
and villages in considerable numbers.[NOTE 3] The people of those towns
have a strange custom in regard to marriage which I will now relate.

No man of that country would on any consideration take to wife a girl who
was a maid; for they say a wife is nothing worth unless she has been used
to consort with men. And their custom is this, that when travellers come
that way, the old women of the place get ready, and take their unmarried
daughters or other girls related to them, and go to the strangers who are
passing, and make over the young women to whomsoever will accept them; and
the travellers take them accordingly and do their pleasure; after which
the girls are restored to the old women who brought them, for they are not
allowed to follow the strangers away from their home. In this manner
people travelling that way, when they reach a village or hamlet or other
inhabited place, shall find perhaps 20 or 30 girls at their disposal. And
if the travellers lodge with those people they shall have as many young
women as they could wish coming to court them! You must know too that the
traveller is expected to give the girl who has been with him a ring or
some other trifle, something in fact that she can show as a lover's token
when she comes to be married. And it is for this in truth and for this
alone that they follow that custom; for every girl is expected to obtain
at least 20 such tokens in the way I have described before she can be
married. And those who have most tokens, and so can show they have been
most run after, are in the highest esteem, and most sought in marriage,
because they say the charms of such an one are greatest.[NOTE 4] But
after marriage these people hold their wives very dear, and would consider
it a great villainy for a man to meddle with another's wife; and thus
though the wives have before marriage acted as you have heard, they are
kept with great care from light conduct afterwards.

Now I have related to you this marriage custom as a good story to tell,
and to show what a fine country that is for young fellows to go to!

The people are Idolaters and an evil generation, holding it no sin to rob
and maltreat: in fact, they are the greatest brigands on earth. They live
by the chase, as well as on their cattle and the fruits of the earth.

I should tell you also that in this country there are many of the animals
that produce musk, which are called in the Tartar language _Gudderi_.
Those rascals have great numbers of large and fine dogs, which are of
great service in catching the musk-beasts, and so they procure great
abundance of musk. They have none of the Great Kaan's paper money, but use
salt instead of money. They are very poorly clad, for their clothes are
only of the skins of beasts, and of canvas, and of buckram.[NOTE 5] They
have a language of their own, and they are called Tebet. And this country
of TEBET forms a very great province, of which I will give you a brief
account.


NOTE 1.--The mountains that bound the splendid plain of Ch'êng-tu fu on
the west rise rapidly to a height of 12,000 feet and upwards. Just at the
skirt of this mountain region, where the great road to Lhása enters it,
lies the large and bustling city of Yachaufu, forming the key of the hill
country, and the great entrepôt of trade between Sze-ch'wan on the one
side, and Tibet and Western Yunnan on the other. The present political
boundary between China Proper and Tibet is to the west of Bathang and the
Kin-sha Kiang, but till the beginning of last century it lay much further
east, near _Ta-t'sien-lu_, or, as the Tibetans appear to call it,
_Tartsédo_ or _Tachindo_, which a Chinese Itinerary given by Ritter makes
to be 920 _li_, or 11 marches from Ch'êng-tu fu. In Marco's time we must
suppose that Tibet was considered to extend several marches further east
still, or to the vicinity of Yachau.[1] Mr. Cooper's Journal describes
the country entered _on the 5th march_ from Ch'êng-tu as very mountainous,
many of the neighbouring peaks being capped with snow. And he describes
the people as speaking a language mixed with Tibetan for some distance
before reaching Ta-t'sien-lu. Baron Richthofen also who, as we shall see,
has thrown an entirely new light upon this part of Marco's itinerary, was
exactly five days in travelling through a rich and populous country, from
Ch'eng-tu to Yachau. [Captain Gill left Ch'eng-tu on the 10th July, 1877,
and reached Ya-chau on the 14th, a distance of 75 miles.--H. C] (_Ritter_,
IV. 190 seqq.; _Cooper_, pp. 164-173; _Richthofen_ in _Verhandl. Ges. f.
Erdk. zu Berlin_, 1874, p. 35.)

Tibet was always reckoned as a part of the Empire of the Mongol Kaans in
the period of their greatness, but it is not very clear how it came under
subjection to them. No conquest of Tibet by their armies appears to be
related by either the Mahomedan or the Chinese historians. Yet it is
alluded to by Plano Carpini, who ascribes the achievement to an unnamed son
of Chinghiz, and narrated by Sanang Setzen, who says that the King of Tibet
submitted without fighting when Chinghiz invaded his country in the year of
the Panther (1206). During the reign of Mangku Kaan, indeed, Uriangkadai,
an eminent Mongol general [son of Subudai] who had accompanied Prince
Kúblái in 1253 against Yunnan, did in the following year direct his arms
against the Tibetans. But this campaign, that no doubt to which the text
alludes as "the wars of Mangu Kaan," appears to have occupied only a part
of one season, and was certainly confined to the parts of Tibet on the
frontiers of Yunnan and Sze-ch'wan. ["In the _Yuen-shi_, Tibet is mentioned
under different names. Sometimes the Chinese history of the Mongols uses
the ancient name _T'u-fan_. In the Annals, _s.a._ 1251, we read: 'Mangu
Khan entrusted _Ho-li-dan_ with the command of the troops against
_T'u-fan_." _Sub anno_ 1254 it is stated that Kúblái (who at that time was
still the heir-apparent), after subduing the tribes of Yun-nan, entered
_T'u-fan_, when _So-ho-to_, the ruler of the country, surrendered. Again,
_s.a._ 1275: 'The prince _Al-lu-chi_ (seventh son of Kúblái) led an
expedition to _T'u-fan_.' In chap, ccii., biography of _Ba-sz'-ba_, the
Lama priest who invented Kúblái's official alphabet, it is stated that this
Lama was a native of _Sa-sz'-kia_ in T'u-fan. (_Bretschneider, Med Res._
II. p. 23.)--H.C.] Koeppen seems to consider it certain that there was no
actual conquest of Tibet, and that Kúblái extended his authority over it
only by diplomacy and the politic handling of the spiritual potentates who
had for several generations in Tibet been the real rulers of the country.
It is certain that Chinese history attributes the organisation of civil
administration in Tibet to Kúblái. Mati Dhwaja, a young and able member of
the family which held the hereditary primacy of the Satya [Sakya] convent,
and occupied the most influential position in Tibet, was formerly
recognised by the Emperor as the head of the Lamaite Church and as the
tributary Ruler of Tibet. He is the same person that we have already (vol.
i. p. 28) mentioned as the Passepa or Bashpah Lama, the inventor of
Kúblái's official alphabet. (_Carpini_, 658, 709; _D'Avezac_, 564; _S.
Setzen_, 89; _D'Ohsson_, II. 317; _Koeppen_, II. 96; _Amyot_, XIV. 128.)

With the caution that Marco's Travels in Tibet were limited to the same
mountainous country on the frontier of Sze-ch'wan, we defer further
geographical comment till he brings us to Yunnan.

NOTE 2.--Marco exaggerates a little about the bamboos; but before
gunpowder became familiar, no sharp explosive sounds of this kind were
known to ordinary experience, and exaggeration was natural. I have been
close to a bamboo jungle on fire. There was a great deal of noise
comparable to musketry; but the bamboos were not of the large kind here
spoken of. The Hon. Robert Lindsay, describing his elephant-catching in
Silhet, says: "At night each man lights a fire at his post, and furnishes
himself with a dozen joints of the large bamboo, one of which he
occasionally throws into the fire, and the air it contains being rarefied
by the heat, it explodes with a report as loud as a musket." (_Lives of
the Lindsays_, III. 191.)

[Dr. Bretschneider (_Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I. p. 3) says: "In corroboration
of Polo's statement regarding the explosions produced when burning
bamboos, I may adduce Sir Joseph Hooker's Himalayan Journals (edition of
1891, p. 100), where in speaking of the fires in the jungles, he says:
'Their triumph is in reaching a great bamboo clump, when the noise of the
flames drowns that of the torrents, and as the great stem-joints burst,
from the expansion of the confined air, the report is as that of a salvo
from a park of artillery.'"--H. C]

[Illustration: Mountaineers on the Borders of Sze ch'wan and Yun-nan.]

Richthofen remarks that nowhere in China does the bamboo attain such a
size as in this region. Bamboos of three palms in girth (28 to 30 inches)
exist, but are not ordinary, I should suppose, even in Sze-ch'wan. In 1855
I took some pains to procure in Pegu a specimen of the largest attainable
bamboo. It was 10 inches in diameter.

NOTE 3.--M. Gabriel Durand, a missionary priest, thus describes his
journey in 1861 to Kiangka, via Ta-t'sien-lu, a line of country partly
coincident with that which Polo is traversing: "Every day we made a
journey of nine or ten leagues, and halted for the night in a _Kung-kuan_.
These are posts dotted at intervals of about ten leagues along the road to
Hlassa, and usually guarded by three soldiers, though the more important
posts have twenty. With the exception of some Tibetan houses, few and far
between, these are the only habitations to be seen on this silent and
deserted road.... Lytang was the first collection of houses that we had
seen in ten days' march." (_Ann. de la Propag. de la Foi_, XXXV. 352
seqq.)

NOTE 4.--Such practices are ascribed to many nations. Martini quotes
something similar from a Chinese author about tribes in Yunnan; and Garnier
says such loose practices are still ascribed to the Sifan near the
southern elbow of the Kin-sha Kiang. Even of the Mongols themselves and
kindred races, Pallas asserts that the young women regard a number of
intrigues rather as a credit and recommendation than otherwise. Japanese
ideas seem to be not very different. In old times Aelian gives much the
same account of the Lydian women. Herodotus's Gindanes of Lybia afford a
perfect parallel, "whose women wear on their legs anklets of leather. Each
lover that a woman has gives her one; and she who can show most is the
best esteemed, as she appears to have been loved by the greatest number of
men." (_Martini Garnier_, I. 520; _Pall. Samml._ II. 235; _Ael. Var. Hist._
III. 1; _Rawl. Herod._ Bk. IV. ch. clxxvi.)

["Among some uncivilised peoples, women having many gallants are esteemed
better than virgins, and are more anxiously desired in marriage. This is,
for instance, stated to be the case with the Indians of Quito, the
Laplanders in Regnard's days, and the Hill Tribes of North Aracan. But in
each of these cases we are expressly told that want of chastity is
considered a merit in the bride, because it is held to be the best
testimony to the value of her attractions." (_Westermarck, Human
Marriage_, p. 81.)--H.C.]

Mr. Cooper's Journal, when on the banks of the Kin-sha Kiang, west of
Bathang, affords a startling illustration of the persistence of manners in
this region: "At 12h. 30m. we arrived at a road-side house, near which was
a grove of walnut-trees; here we alighted, when to my surprise I was
surrounded by a group of young girls and two elderly women, who invited me
to partake of a repast spread under the trees.... I thought I had stumbled
on a pic-nic party, of which the Tibetans are so fond. Having finished, I
lighted my pipe and threw myself on the grass in a state of
castle-building. I had not lain thus many seconds when the maidens brought
a young girl about 15 years old, tall and very fair, placed her on the
grass beside me, and forming a ring round us, commenced to sing and dance.
The little maid beside me, however, was bathed in tears. All this, I must
confess, a little puzzled me, when Philip (the Chinese servant) with a long
face, came to my aid, saying, '_Well, Sir, this is a bad business ... they
are marrying you._' Good heavens! how startled I was." For the honourable
conclusion of this Anglo-Tibetan idyll I must refer to Mr. Cooper's
Journal. (See the now published _Travels_, ch. x.)

NOTE 5.--All this is clearly meant to apply only to the rude people
towards the Chinese frontier; nor would the Chinese (says Richthofen) at
this day think the description at all exaggerated, as applied to the Lolo
who occupy the mountains to the south of Yachaufu. The members of the
group at p. 47, from Lieutenant Garnier's book, are there termed Man-tzu;
but the context shows them to be of the race of these Lolos. (See below,
pp. 60, 61.) The passage about the musk animal, both in Pauthier and in
the G.T., ascribes the word _Gudderi_ to the language "of that people,"
i.e. of the Tibetans. The Geog. Latin, however, has "_linguâ Tartaricâ_,"
and this is the fact. Klaproth informs us that _Guderi_ is the Mongol
word. And it will be found (_Kuderi_) in Kovalevski's Dictionary, No.
2594. Musk is still the most valuable article that goes from Ta-t'sien-lu
to China. Much is smuggled, and single travellers will come all the way
from Canton or Si-ngan fu to take back a small load of it. (_Richthofen_.)


[1] Indeed Richthofen says that the boundary lay a few (German) miles west
    of Yachau. I see that Martini's map puts it (in the 17th century) 10
    German geographical miles, or about 46 statute miles, west of that
    city.



CHAPTER XLVI.

FURTHER DISCOURSE CONCERNING TEBET.


This province, called Tebet, is of very great extent. The people, as I
have told you, have a language of their own, and they are Idolaters, and
they border on Manzi and sundry other regions. Moreover, they are very
great thieves.

The country is, in fact, so great that it embraces eight kingdoms, and a
vast number of cities and villages.[NOTE 1] It contains in several
quarters rivers and lakes, in which gold-dust is found in great abundance.
[NOTE 2] Cinnamon also grows there in great plenty. Coral is in great
demand in this country and fetches a high price, for they delight to hang
it round the necks of their women and of their idols.[NOTE 3] They have
also in this country plenty of fine woollens and other stuffs, and many
kinds of spices are produced there which are never seen in our country.

Among this people, too, you find the best enchanters and astrologers that
exist in all that quarter of the world; they perform such extraordinary
marvels and sorceries by diabolic art, that it astounds one to see or even
hear of them. So I will relate none of them in this book of ours; people
would be amazed if they heard them, but it would serve no good purpose.
[NOTE 4]

These people of Tebet are an ill-conditioned race. They have mastiff dogs
as bigs as donkeys, which are capital at seizing wild beasts [and in
particular the wild oxen which are called _Beyamini_, very great and
fierce animals] They have also sundry other kinds of sporting dogs, and
excellent lanner falcons [and sakers], swift in flight and well-trained,
which are got in the mountains of the country.[NOTE 5]

Now I have told you in brief all that is to be said about Tebet, and so we
will leave it, and tell you about another province that is called Caindu.

[Illustration: Village of Eastern Tibet on Szechwan Frontier (From
Cooper)]

As regards Tebet, however, you should understand that it is subject to the
Great Kaan. So, likewise, all the other kingdoms, regions, and provinces
which are described in this book are subject to the Great Kaan, nay, even
those other kingdoms, regions, and provinces of which I had occasion to
speak at the beginning of the book as belonging to the son of Argon, the
Lord of the Levant, are also subject to the Emperor; for the former holds
his dominion of the Kaan, and is his liegeman and kinsman of the blood
Imperial. So you must know that from this province forward all the
provinces mentioned in our book are subject to the Great Kaan; and even if
this be not specially mentioned, you must understand that it is so.

[Illustration: Roads in Eastern Tibet. (Gorge of the Lan t'sang Kiang,
from Cooper.)]

Now let us have done with this matter, and I will tell you about the
Province of Caindu.


NOTE 1.--Here Marco at least shows that he knew Tibet to be much more
extensive than the small part of it that he had seen. But beyond this his
information amounts to little.

NOTE 2.--"_Or de paliolle_" "_Oro di pagliuola_" (_pagliuola_, "a
spangle") must have been the technical phrase for what we call gold-dust,
and the French now call _or en paillettes_, a phrase used by a French
missionary in speaking of this very region. (_Ann. de la Foi_, XXXVII.
427.) Yet the only example of this use of the word cited in the _Voc.
Ital. Universale_ is from this passage of the Crusca MS.; and Pipino seems
not to have understood it, translating "_aurum quod dicitur_ Deplaglola";
whilst Zurla says erroneously that _pajola_ is an old Italian word for
_gold_. Pegolotti uses _argento in pagliuola_ (p. 219). A Barcelona tariff
of 1271 sets so much on every mark of _Pallola_. And the old Portuguese
navigators seem always to have used the same expression for the gold-dust
of Africa, _ouro de pajola_. (See Major's Prince Henry, pp. 111, 112, 116;
_Capmany Memorias_, etc., II. App. p. 73; also "_Aurum_ de Pajola," in
Usodimare of Genoa, see _Graberg, Annali_, II. 290, quoted by Peschel, p.
178.)

NOTE 3.--The cinnamon must have been the coarser cassia produced in the
lower parts of this region (See note to next chapter.) We have already
(Book I. ch. xxxi.) quoted Tavernier's testimony to the rage for coral
among the Tibetans and kindred peoples. Mr. Cooper notices the eager
demand for coral at Bathang: (See also _Desgodins, La Mission du Thibet_,
310.)

NOTE 4.--See supra, Bk. I. ch. lxi. note 11.

NOTE 5.--The big Tibetan mastiffs are now well known. Mr. Cooper, at
Ta-t'sien lu, notes that the people of Tibetan race "keep very large dogs,
as large as Newfoundlands." And he mentions a pack of dogs of another
breed, tan and black, "fine animals of the size of setters." The missionary
M. Durand also, in a letter from the region in question, says, speaking of
a large leopard: "Our brave watch-dogs had several times beaten him off
gallantly, and one of them had even in single combat with him received a
blow of the paw which had laid his skull open." (_Ann. de la Prop de la
Foi_, XXXVII. 314.) On the title-page of vol. i. we have introduced one of
these big Tibetan dogs as brought home by the Polos to Venice.

The "wild oxen called _Beyamini_" are probably some such species as the
Gaur. _Beyamini_ I suspect to be no Oriental word, but to stand for
_Buemini_, i.e. Bohemian, a name which may have been given by the
Venetians to either the bison or urus. Polo's contemporary, Brunetto
Latini, seems to speak of one of these as still existing in his day in
Germany: "Autre buef naissent en Alemaigne qui ont grans cors, et sont
bons por sommier et por vin porter." (Paris ed., p. 228; see also
_Lubbock, Pre-historic Times_, 296-7.)

[Mr. Baber (_Travels_, pp. 39, 40) writes: "A special interest attaches to
the wild oxen, since they are unknown in any other part of China Proper.
From a Lolo chief and his followers, most enthusiastic hunters, I
afterwards learnt that the cattle are met with in herds of from seven to
twenty head in the recesses of the Wilderness, which may be defined as the
region between the T'ung River and Yachou, but that in general they are
rarely seen.... I was lucky enough to obtain a pair of horns and part of
the hide of one of these redoubtable animals, which seem to show that they
are a kind of bison." Sir H. Yule remarks in a footnote (Ibid. p. 40):
"It is not possible to say from what is stated here what the species is,
but probably it is a _gavoeus_, of which Jerdan describes three species.
(See _Mammals of India_, pp. 301-307.) Mr. Hodgson describes the Gaur
(_Gavoeus gaurus_ of Jerdan) of the forests below Nepaul as fierce and
revengeful."--H.C.]



CHAPTER XLVII.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CAINDU.


CAINDU is a province lying towards the west,[NOTE 1] and there is only
one king in it. The people are Idolaters, subject to the Great Kaan, and
they have plenty of towns and villages. [The chief city is also called
Caindu, and stands at the upper end of the province.] There is a lake
here,[1] in which are found pearls [which are white but not round]. But
the Great Kaan will not allow them to be fished, for if people were to
take as many as they could find there, the supply would be so vast that
pearls would lose their value, and come to be worth nothing. Only when it
is his pleasure they take from the lake so many as he may desire; but any
one attempting to take them on his own account would be incontinently put
to death.

There is also a mountain in this country wherein they find a kind of stone
called turquoise, in great abundance; and it is a very beautiful stone.
These also the Emperor does not allow to be extracted without his special
order.[NOTE 2]

I must tell you of a custom that they have in this country regarding their
women. No man considers himself wronged if a foreigner, or any other man,
dishonour his wife, or daughter, or sister, or any woman of his family,
but on the contrary he deems such intercourse a piece of good fortune. And
they say that it brings the favour of their gods and idols, and great
increase of temporal prosperity. For this reason they bestow their wives
on foreigners and other people as I will tell you.

When they fall in with any stranger in want of a lodging they are all
eager to take him in. And as soon as he has taken up his quarters the
master of the house goes forth, telling him to consider everything at his
disposal, and after saying so he proceeds to his vineyards or his fields,
and comes back no more till the stranger has departed. The latter abides
in the caitiffs house, be it three days or be it four, enjoying himself
with the fellow's wife or daughter or sister, or whatsoever woman of the
family it best likes him; and as long as he abides there he leaves his hat
or some other token hanging at the door, to let the master of the house
know that he is still there. As long as the wretched fellow sees that
token, he must not go in. And such is the custom over all that province.
[NOTE 3]

The money matters of the people are conducted in this way. They have gold
in rods which they weigh, and they reckon its value by its weight in
_saggi_, but they have no coined money. Their small change again is
made in this way. They have salt which they boil and set in a mould [flat
below and round above],[NOTE 4] and every piece from the mould weighs
about half a pound. Now, 80 moulds of this salt are worth one
_saggio_ of fine gold, which is a weight so called. So this salt
serves them for small change.[NOTE 5]

[Illustration: The Valley of the Kin-Sha Kiang, near the lower end of
Caindu, i.e. Kienchang. (From Garnier.)

"Et quant l'en est alés ceste dix jornée adonc treuve-l'en un grant fluv
qe est apéle Brius, auquel se fenist la provence de Cheindu."]

The musk animals are very abundant in that country, and thus of musk also
they have great store. They have likewise plenty of fish which they catch
in the lake in which the pearls are produced. Wild animals, such as lions,
bears, wolves, stags, bucks and roes, exist in great numbers; and there
are also vast quantities of fowl of every kind. Wine of the vine they have
none, but they make a wine of wheat and rice and sundry good spices, and
very good drink it is.[NOTE 6] There grows also in this country a quantity
of clove. The tree that bears it is a small one, with leaves like laurel
but longer and narrower, and with a small white flower like the
clove.[NOTE 7] They have also ginger and cinnamon in great plenty, besides
other spices which never reach our countries, so we need say nothing about
them.

Now we may leave this province, as we have told you all about it. But let
me tell you first of this same country of Caindu that you ride through it
ten days, constantly meeting with towns and villages, with people of the
same description that I have mentioned. After riding those ten days you
come to a river called Brius, which terminates the province of Caindu. In
this river is found much gold-dust, and there is also much cinnamon on its
banks. It flows to the Ocean Sea.

There is no more to be said about this river, so I will now tell you about
another province called Carajan, as you shall hear in what follows.


NOTE 1.--Ramusio's version here enlarges: "Don't suppose from my saying
_towards the west_ that these countries really lie in what we call the
_west_, but only that we have been travelling from regions in the
east-north-east _towards_ the west, and hence we speak of the countries we
come to as lying towards the west."

NOTE 2.--Chinese authorities quoted by Ritter mention _mother-o'-pearl_ as
a product of Lithang, and speak of turquoises as found in Djaya to the
west of Bathang. (_Ritter_, IV. 235-236.) Neither of these places is,
however, within the tract which we believe to be Caindu. Amyot states that
pearls are found in a certain river of Yun-nan. (See _Trans.R.A.Soc._
II. 91.)

NOTE 3.--This alleged practice, like that mentioned in the last chapter
but one, is ascribed to a variety of people in different parts of the
world. Both, indeed, have a curious double parallel in the story of two
remote districts of the Himalaya which was told to Bernier by an old
Kashmiri. (See Amst. ed. II. 304-305.) Polo has told nearly the same story
already of the people of Kamul. (Bk. I. ch. xli.) It is related by Strabo
of the Massagetae; by Eusebius of the Geli and the Bactrians; by
Elphinstone of the Hazaras; by Mendoza of the Ladrone Islanders; by other
authors of the Nairs of Malabar, and of some of the aborigines of the
Canary Islands. (_Caubul_, I. 209; _Mendoza_, II. 254; _Müller's Strabo_,
p. 439; _Euseb. Praep. Evan._ vi. 10; _Major's Pr. Henry_, p. 213.)

NOTE 4.--Ramusio has here: "as big as a twopenny loaf," and adds, "on the
money so made the Prince's mark is printed; and no one is allowed to make
it except the royal officers.... And merchants take this currency and go
to those tribes that dwell among the mountains of those parts in the
wildest and most unfrequented quarters; and there they get a _saggio_
of gold for 60, or 50, or 40 pieces of this salt money, in proportion as
the natives are more barbarous and more remote from towns and civilised
folk. For in such positions they cannot dispose at pleasure of their gold
and other things, such as musk and the like, for want of purchasers; and
so they give them cheap.... And the merchants travel also about the
mountains and districts of Tebet, disposing of this salt money in like
manner to their own great gain. For those people, besides buying
necessaries from the merchants, want this salt to use in their food;
whilst in the towns only broken fragments are used in food, the whole
cakes being kept to use as money." This exchange of salt cakes for gold
forms a curious parallel to the like exchange in the heart of Africa,
narrated by Cosmas in the 6th century, and by Aloisio Cadamosto in the
15th. (See _Cathay_, pp. clxx-clxxi.) Ritter also calls attention to
an analogous account in Alvarez's description of Ethiopia. "The salt,"
Alvarez says, "is current as money, not only in the kingdom of Prester
John, but also in those of the Moors and the pagans, and the people here
say that it passes right on to Manicongo upon the Western Sea. This salt
is dug from the mountain, it is said, in squared blocks.... At the place
where they are dug, 100 or 120 such pieces pass for a drachm of
gold ... equal to 3/4 of a ducat of gold. When they arrive at a certain
fair ... one day from the salt mine, these go 5 or 6 pieces fewer to the
drachm. And so, from fair to fair, fewer and fewer, so that when they
arrive at the capital there will be only 6 or 7 pieces to the drachm."
(_Ramusio_, I. 207.) Lieutenant Bower, in his account of Major Sladen's
mission, says that at Momein the salt, which was a government monopoly, was
"made up in rolls of one and two viss" (a Rangoon viss is 3 lbs. 5 oz.
5-1/2 drs.), "and stamped" (p. 120).

[At Hsia-Kuan, near Ta-li, Captain Gill remarked to a friend (II. p. 312)
"that the salt, instead of being in the usual great flat cakes about two
or two and a half feet in diameter, was made in cylinders eight inches in
diameter and nine inches high. 'Yes,' he said, 'they make them here in a
sort of loaves,' unconsciously using almost the words of old Polo, who
said the salt in Yun-Nan was in pieces 'as big as a twopenny loaf.'" (See
also p. 334.)--H.C.]

M. Desgodins, a missionary in this part of Tibet, gives some curious
details of the way in which the civilised traders still prey upon the
simple hill-folks of that quarter; exactly as the Hindu Banyas prey upon
the simple forest-tribes of India. He states one case in which the account
for a pig had with interest run up to 2127 bushels of corn! (_Ann. de la
Prop de la Foi_, XXXVI. 320.)

Gold is said still to be very plentiful in the mountains called Gulan
Sigong, to the N.W. of Yun-nan, adjoining the great eastern branch of the
Irawadi, and the Chinese traders go there to barter for it. (See _J.A.S.B._
VI. 272.)

NOTE 5.--Salt is still an object highly coveted by the wild Lolos already
alluded to, and to steal it is a chief aim of their constant raids on
Chinese villages. (_Richthofen_ in _Verhandlungen_, etc., u.s. p. 36.) On
the continued existence of the use of salt currency in regions of the same
frontier, I have been favoured with the following note by M. Francis
Garnier, the distinguished leader of the expedition of the great Kamboja
River in its latter part: "Salt currency has a very wide diffusion from
Muang Yong [in the Burman-Shan country, about lat. 21° 43'] to Sheu-pin [in
Yun-nan, about lat. 23° 43']. In the Shan markets, especially within the
limits named, all purchases are made with salt. At Sse-mao and Pou-erl
[_Esmok_ and _Puer_ of some of our maps], silver, weighed and cut in small
pieces, is in our day tending to drive out the custom, but in former days
it must have been universal in the tract of which I am speaking. The salt
itself, prime necessity as it is, has there to be extracted by condensation
from saline springs of great depth, a very difficult affair. The operation
consumes enormous quantities of fuel, and to this is partly due the
denudation of the country". Marco's somewhat rude description of the
process, '_Il prennent la sel e la font cuire, et puis la gitent en
forme_,' points to the manufacture spoken of in this note. The cut which we
give from M. Garnier's work illustrates the process, but the cakes are
vastly greater than Marco's. Instead of a half pound they weigh a _preul_,
i.e. 133-1/3 lbs. In Sze-ch'wan the brine wells are bored to a depth of 700
to 1000 feet, and the brine is drawn up in bamboo tubes by a gin. In
Yun-nan the wells are much less deep, and a succession of hand pumps is
used to raise the brine.

[Illustration: Salt pans in Yun-nan (From Garnier.)

"Il prennent la sel e la font cuire, et puis la gitent en forme."]

[Mr. Hosie has a chapter (_Three Years in W. China_, VII.) to which he
has given the title of _Through Caindu to Carajan_, regarding salt he
writes (p. 121). "The brine wells from which the salt is derived be at Pai
yen ching, 14 miles to the south west of the city [of Yen yuan] ... [they]
are only two in number, and comparatively shallow, being only 50 feet in
depth. Bamboo tubes, ropes and buffaloes are here dispensed with, and
small wooden tubs, with bamboos fixed to their sides as handles for
raising, are considered sufficient. At one of the wells a staging was
erected half way down, and from it the tubs of brine were passed up to the
workmen above. Passing from the wells to the evaporating sheds, we found a
series of mud furnaces with round holes at the top, into which cone shaped
pans, manufactured from iron obtained in the neighbourhood, and varying in
height from one to two and a half feet, were loosely fitted. When a pan
has been sufficiently heated, a ladleful of the brine is poured into it,
and, bubbling up to the surface, it sinks, leaving a saline deposit on the
inside of the pan. This process is repeated until a layer, some four
inches thick, and corresponding to the shape of the pan, is formed, when
the salt is removed as a hollow cone ready for market. Care must be taken
to keep the bottom of the pan moist; otherwise, the salt cone would crack,
and be rendered unfit for the rough carriage which it experiences on the
backs of pack animals. A soft coal, which is found just under the surface
of the yellow-soiled hills seven miles to the west of Pai-yen-ching, is
the fuel used in the furnaces. The total daily output of salt at these
wells does not exceed two tons a day, and the cost at the wells, including
the Government tax, amounts to about three half-pence a pound. The area of
supply, owing to the country being sparsely populated, is greater than the
output would lead one to expect."--H.C.]

NOTE 6.--The spiced wine of Kien-ch'ang (see note to next chapter) has
even now a high repute. (_Richthofen_.)

NOTE 7.--M. Pauthier will have it that Marco was here the discoverer of
Assam tea. Assam is, indeed, far out of our range, but his notice of this
plant, with the laurel-like leaf and white flower, was brought strongly to
my recollection in reading Mr. Cooper's repeated notices, almost in this
region, of the _large-leaved tea-tree, with its white flowers_; and,
again, of "the hills covered with _tea-oil_ trees, all white with
flowers." Still, one does not clearly see why Polo should give tea-trees
the name of cloves.

Failing explanation of this, I should suppose that the cloves of which the
text speaks were _cassia-buds_, an article once more prominent in commerce
(as indeed were all similar aromatics) than now, but still tolerably well
known. I was at once supplied with them at a _drogheria_, in the city where
I write (Palermo), on asking for _Fiori di Canella_, the name under which
they are mentioned repeatedly by Pegolotti and Uzzano, in the 14th and 15th
centuries. Friar Jordanus, in speaking of the cinnamon (or cassia) of
Malabar, says, "it is the bark of a large tree which has fruit and _flowers
like cloves_" (p. 28). The cassia-buds have indeed a general resemblance to
cloves, but they are shorter, lighter in colour, and not angular. The
cinnamon, mentioned in the next lines as abundantly produced in the same
region, was no doubt one of the inferior sorts, called cassia-bark.

Williams says: "Cassia grows in all the southern provinces of China,
especially Kwang-si and Yun-nan, also in Annam, Japan, and the Isles of the
Archipelago. The wood, bark, buds, seeds, twigs, pods, leaves, oil, are all
objects of commerce..... The buds (_kwei-tz'_) are the fleshy ovaries of
the seeds; they are pressed at one end, so that they bear some resemblance
to cloves in shape." Upwards of 500 _piculs_ (about 30 tons), valued at 30
dollars each, are annually exported to Europe and India. (_Chin. Commercial
Guide_, 113-114).

The only doubt as regards this explanation will probably be whether the
cassia would be found at such a height as we may suppose to be that of the
country in question above the sea-level. I know that cassia bark is
gathered in the Kasia Hills of Eastern Bengal up to a height of about 4000
feet above the sea, and at least the valleys of "Caindu" are probably not
too elevated for this product. Indeed, that of the Kin-sha or _Brius_, near
where I suppose Polo to cross it, is only 2600 feet. Positive evidence I
cannot adduce. No cassia or cinnamon was met with by M. Garnier's party
where they intersected this region.

But in this 2nd edition I am able to state on the authority of Baron
Richthofen that cassia is produced in the whole length of the valley of
Kien-ch'ang (which is, as we shall see in the notes on next chapter,
Caindu), though in no other part of Sze-ch'wan nor in Northern Yun-nan.

[Captain Gill (_River of Golden Sand_, II. p. 263) writes: "There were
chestnut trees..; and the Kwei-Hua, a tree 'with leaves like the laurel,
and with a small white flower, like the clove,' having a delicious, though
rather a luscious smell. This was the Cassia, and I can find no words more
suitable to describe it than those of Polo which I have just used."--H. C]

_Ethnology_.--The Chinese at Ch'êng-tu fu, according to Richthofen,
classify the aborigines of the Sze-ch'wan frontier as _Man-tzu, Lolo,
Si-fan_, and _Tibetan_. Of these the Si-fan are furthest north, and extend
far into Tibet. The Man-tzu (properly so called) are regarded as the
remnant of the ancient occupants of Sze-ch'wan, and now dwell in the
mountains about the parallel 30°, and along the Lhása road, Ta-t'sien lu
being about the centre of their tract. The Lolo are the wildest and most
independent, occupying the mountains on the left of the Kin-sha Kiang where
it runs northwards (see above p. 48, and below p. 69) and also to some
extent on its right. The Tibetan tribes lie to the west of the Man-tzu, and
to the west of Kien-ch'ang. (See next chapter.)

Towards the Lan-ts'ang Kiang is the quasi-Tibetan tribe called by the
Chinese _Mossos_, by the Tibetans _Guions_, and between the Lan-ts'ang and
the Lú-Kiang or Salwen are the _Lissús_, wild hill-robbers and great musk
hunters, like those described by Polo at p. 45. Garnier, who gives these
latter particulars, mentions that near the confluence of the Yalung and
Kin-sha Kiang there are tribes called _Pa-i_, as there are in the south of
Yun-nan, and, like the latter, of distinctly Shan or Laotian character. He
also speaks of _Si-fan_ tribes in the vicinity of Li-kiang fu, and coming
south of the Kin-sha Kiang even to the east of Ta-li. Of these are told
such loose tales as Polo tells of _Tebet_ and _Caindu_.

[In the _Topography of the Yun-nan Province_ (edition of 1836) there is a
catalogue of 141 classes of aborigines, each with a separate name and
illustration, without any attempt to arrive at a broader classification.
Mr. Bourne has been led to the conviction that exclusive of the Tibetans
(including Si-fan and Ku-tsung), there are but three great non-Chinese
races in Southern China: the Lolo, the Shan, and the Miao-tzu. (_Report,
China_, No. 1, 1888, p. 87.) This classification is adopted by Dr.
Deblenne. (_Mission Lyonnaise_.)

_Man-tzu, Man_, is a general name for "barbarian" (see my note in _Odoric
de Pordenone_, p. 248 seqq.); it is applied as well to the Lolo as to
the Si-fan.

Mr. Parker remarks (_China Review_, XX. p. 345) that the epithet of
_Man-tzu_, or "barbarians," dates from the time when the Shans, Annamese,
Miao-tzu, etc., occupied nearly all South China, for it is essentially to
the Indo-Chinese that the term Man-tzu belongs.

Mr. Hosie writes (_Three years in W. China_, 122): "At the time when Marco
Polo passed through Caindu, this country was in the possession of the
Si-fans.... At the present day, they occupy the country to the west, and
are known under the generic name of Man-tzu."

"It has already been remarked that _Si-fan_, convertible with _Man-tzu_, is
a loose Chinese expression of no ethnological value, meaning nothing more
than Western barbarians; but in a more restricted sense it is used to
designate a people (or peoples) which inhabits the valley of the Yalung
and the upper T'ung, with contiguous valleys and ranges, from about the
twenty-seventh parallel to the borders of Koko-nor. This people is
sub-divided into eighteen tribes." (_Baber_, p. 81.)

Si-fan or Pa-tsiu is the name by which the Chinese call the Tibetan tribes
which occupy part of Western China. (_Devéria_, p. 167.)

Dr. Bretschneider writes (_Med. Res._ II. p. 24): "The north-eastern part
of Tibet was sometimes designated by the Chinese name Si-fan, and Hyacinth
[Bitchurin] is of opinion that in ancient times this name was even applied
to the whole of Tibet. _Si-fan_ means, 'Western Barbarians.' The biographer
of Hiuen-Tsang reports that when this traveller, in 629, visited Liang-chau
(in the province of Kan-Suh), this city was the entrepôt for merchants from
_Si-fan_ and the countries east of the Ts'ung-ling mountains. In the
history of the Hia and Tangut Empire (in the _Sung-shi_) we read, _s.a._
1003, that the founder of this Empire invaded _Si-fan_ and then proceeded
to _Si-liang_ (Liang-chau). The _Yuen-shi_ reports, _s.a._ 1268: 'The
(Mongol) Emperor ordered _Meng-gu-dai_ to invade _Si-fan_ with 6000 men.'
The name Si-fan appears also in ch. ccii., biography of _Dan-ba_." It is
stated in the _Ming-shi_, "that the name _Si-fan_ is applied to the
territory situated beyond the frontiers of the Chinese provinces of Shen-si
(then including the eastern part of present Kan-Suh) and Sze-ch'wan, and
inhabited by various tribes of Tangut race, anciently known in Chinese
history under the name of _Si Kiang_.... The _Kuang yu ki_ notices that
_Si-fan_ comprises the territory of the south-west of Shen-si, west of
Sze-ch'wan and north-west of Yun-nan.... The tribute presented by the
Si-fan tribes to the Emperor used to be carried to the court at Peking by
way of Ya-chau in Sze-ch'wan." (_Bretschneider_, 203.) The Tangutans of
Prjevalsky, north-east of Tibet, in the country of Ku-ku nor, correspond to
the Si-fan.

"The Ta-tu River may be looked upon as the southern limit of the region
inhabited by Sifan tribes, and the northern boundary of the Lolo country
which stretches southwards to the Yang-tzu and east from the valley of
Kien-ch'ang towards the right bank of the Min." (_Hosie_, p. 102.)

[Illustration: Black Lolo.]

To Mr. E.C. Baber we owe the most valuable information regarding the Lolo
people:

"'Lolo' is itself a word of insult, of unknown Chinese origin, which
should not be used in their presence, although they excuse it and will
even sometimes employ it in the case of ignorant strangers. In the report
of Governor-General Lo Ping-chang, above quoted, they are called 'I,' the
term applied by Chinese to Europeans. They themselves have no objection to
being styled 'I-chia' (I families), but that word is not their native
name. Near Ma-pien they call themselves 'Lo-su'; in the neighbourhood of
Lui-po T'ing their name is 'No-su' or 'Ngo-su' (possibly a mere variant of
'Lo-su'); near Hui-li-chou the term is 'Lé-su'--the syllable Lé being
pronounced as in French. The subject tribes on the T'ung River, near Mount
Wa, also name themselves 'Ngo-su.' I have found the latter people speak
very disrespectfully of the Lé-su, which argues an internal distinction;
but there can be no doubt that they are the same race, and speak the same
language, though with minor differences of dialect." (_Baber, Travels_,
66-67.)

"With very rare exceptions the male Lolo, rich or poor, free or subject,
may be instantly known by his _horn_. All his hair is gathered into a knot
over his forehead and there twisted up in a cotton cloth so as to resemble
the horn of a unicorn. The horn with its wrapper is sometimes a good nine
inches long. They consider this _coiffure_ sacred, so at least I was told,
and even those who wear a short pig-tail for convenience in entering
Chinese territory still conserve the indigenous horn, concealed for the
occasion under the folds of the Sze-ch'wan turban." (_Baber_, p. 61.) See
these horns on figures, Bk. II. ch. lviii.

[Illustration: White Lolo.]

"The principal clothing of a Lolo is his mantle, a capacious sleeveless
garment of grey or black felt gathered round his neck by a string, and
reaching nearly to his heels. In the case of the better classes the mantle
is of fine felt--in great request among the Chinese--and has a fringe of
cotton-web round its lower border. For journeys on horseback they have a
similar cloak differing only in being slit half-way up the back; a wide
lappet covering the opening lies easily along the loins and croup of the
horse. The colour of the felt is originally grey, but becomes brown-black
or black, in process of time. It is said that the insects which haunt
humanity never infest these gabardines. The Lolo generally gathers this
garment closely round his shoulders and crosses his arms inside. His legs,
clothed in trousers of Chinese cotton, are swathed in felt bandages bound
on with strings, and he has not yet been super-civilised into the use of
foot-gear. In summer a cotton cloak is often substituted for the felt
mantle. The hat, serving equally for an umbrella, is woven of bamboo, in a
low conical shape, and is covered with felt. Crouching in his felt mantle
under this roof of felt the hardy Lolo is impervious to wind or rain."
(_Baber, Travels_, 61-62.)

"The word, 'Black-bone,' is generally used by the Chinese as a name for
the independent Lolos, but in the mouth of a Lolo it seems to mean a
'freeman' or 'noble,' in which sense it is not a whit more absurd than the
'blue-blood,' of Europeans. The 'White-bones,' an inferior class, but
still Lolo by birth, are, so far as I could understand, the vassals and
retainers of the patricians--the people, in fact. A third class consists
of Wa-tzu, or slaves, who are all captive Chinese. It does not appear
whether the servile class is sub-divided, but, at any rate, the slaves
born in Lolodom are treated with more consideration than those who have
been captured in slave-hunts." (_Baber, Travels_, 67.)

According to the French missionary, Paul Vial (_Les Lolos_, Shang-hai,
1898) the Lolos say that they come from the country situated between Tibet
and Burma. The proper manner to address a Lolo in Chinese is
_Lao-pen-kia_. The book of Father Vial contains a very valuable chapter on
the writing of the Lolos. Mr. F.S.A. Bourne writes (_Report, China_, No.
I. 1888, p. 88):--"The old Chinese name for this race was 'Ts'uan Man'--
'Ts'uan barbarians,' a name taken from one of their chiefs. The _Yun-nan
Topography_ says:--'The name of "Ts'uan Man" is a very ancient one, and
originally the tribes of Ts'uan were very numerous. There was that called
"Lu-lu Man," for instance, now improperly called "Lo-Lo."' These people
call themselves 'Nersu,' and the vocabularies show that they stretch in
scattered communities as far as Ssu-mao and along the whole southern border
of Yun-nan. It appears from the _Topography_ that they are found also on
the Burmese border."

The _Moso_ call themselves _Nashi_ and are called _Djiung_ by the
Tibetans; their ancient capital is Li-kiang fu which was taken by their
chief Meng-ts'u under the Sung Dynasty; the Mongols made of their country
the kingdom of Chaghan-djang. Li-kiang is the territory of Yuê-si Chao,
called also Mo-sie (Moso), one of the six Chao of Nan-Chao. The Moso of
Li-kiang call themselves _Ho_. They have an epic styled _Djiung-Ling_
(Moso Division) recounting the invasion of part of Tibet by the Moso. The
Moso were submitted during the 8th century, by the King of Nan-Chao. They
have a special hieroglyphic scrip, a specimen of which has been given by
Devéria. (_Frontière_, p. 166.) A manuscript was secured by Captain Gill,
on the frontier east of Li-t'ang, and presented by him to the British
Museum (_Add_ SS. Or. 2162); T. de Lacouperie gave a facsimile of it.
(Plates I., II. of _Beginnings of Writing_.) Prince Henri d'Orléans and M.
Bonin both brought home a Moso manuscript with a Chinese explanation.

Dr. Anderson (_Exped. to Yunnan_, Calcutta, p. 136) says the _Li-sus_, or
_Lissaus_ are "a small hill-people, with fair, round, flat faces, high
cheek bones, and some little obliquity of the eye." These Li-su or Li-siè,
are scattered throughout the Yunnanese prefectures of Yao-ngan, Li-kiang,
Ta-li and Yung-ch'ang; they were already in Yun-Nan in the 4th century
when the Chinese general Ch'u Chouang-kiao entered the country. (_Devéria,
Front._, p. 164.)

The _Pa-y_ or _P'o-y_ formed under the Han Dynasty the principality of
P'o-tsiu and under the T'ang Dynasty the tribes of Pu-hiung and of Si-ngo,
which were among the thirty-seven tribes dependent on the ancient state of
Nan-Chao and occupied the territory of the sub-prefectures of Kiang-Chuen
(Ch'êng-kiang fu) and of Si-ngo (Lin-ngan fu). They submitted to China at
the beginning of the Yuen Dynasty; their country bordered upon Burma
(Mien-tien) and Ch'ê-li or Kiang-Hung (Xieng-Hung), in Yun-Nan, on the
right bank of the Mekong River. According to Chinese tradition, the Pa-y
descended from Muong Tsiu-ch'u, ninth son of Ti Muong-tsiu, son of
Piao-tsiu-ti (Asôka). Devéria gives (p. 105) a specimen of the Pa-y writing
(16th century). (_Devéria, Front._, 99, 117; _Bourne, Report_, p. 88.)
Chapter iv. of the Chinese work, _Sze-i-kwan-k'ao_, is devoted to the
_Pa-y_, including the sub-divisions of Muong-Yang, Muong-Ting, Nan-tien,
Tsien-ngaï, Lung-chuen, Wei-yuan, Wan-tien, Chen-k'ang, Ta-how, Mang-shi,
Kin-tung, Ho-tsin, Cho-lo tien. (_Devéria, Mél. de Harlez_, p. 97.) I give
a specimen of Pa-yi writing from a Chinese work purchased by Father Amiot
at Peking, now in the Paris National Library (Fonds chinois, No. 986). (See
on this scrip, _F.W.K. Müller, T'oung-Pao_, III. p. 1, and V. p. 329;
_E.H. Parker, The Muong Language, China Review_, I. 1891, p. 267; _P.
Lefèvre-Pontalis, Etudes sur quelques alphabets et vocab. Thais, T'oung
Pao_, III. pp. 39-64.)--H.C.

[Illustration: Pa-y script.]

These ethnological matters have to be handled cautiously, for there is
great ambiguity in the nomenclature. Thus _Man-tzu_ is often used
generically for aborigines, and the _Lolos_ of Richthofen are called
Man-tzu by Garnier and Blakiston; whilst _Lolo_ again has in Yun-nan
apparently a very comprehensive generic meaning, and is so used by Garnier.
(_Richt. Letter_ VII. 67-68 and MS. notes; _Garnier_, I. 519 seqq. [_T.W.
Kingsmill, Han Wu-ti, China Review_, XXV. 103-109.])


[1] Ramusio alone has "a great _salt_ lake."



CHAPTER XLVIII.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN.


When you have passed that River you enter on the province of CARAJAN,
which is so large that it includes seven kingdoms. It lies towards the
west; the people are Idolaters, and they are subject to the Great Kaan. A
son of his, however, is there as King of the country, by name ESSENTIMUR;
a very great and rich and puissant Prince; and he well and justly rules
his dominion, for he is a wise man, and a valiant.

After leaving the river that I spoke of, you go five days' journey towards
the west, meeting with numerous towns and villages. The country is one in
which excellent horses are bred, and the people live by cattle and
agriculture. They have a language of their own which is passing hard to
understand. At the end of those five days' journey you come to the
capital, which is called YACHI, a very great and noble city, in which are
numerous merchants and craftsmen.[NOTE 1]

The people are of sundry kinds, for there are not only Saracens and
Idolaters, but also a few Nestorian Christians.[NOTE 2] They have wheat
and rice in plenty. Howbeit they never eat wheaten bread, because in that
country it is unwholesome.[NOTE 3] Rice they eat, and make of it sundry
messes, besides a kind of drink which is very clear and good, and makes a
man drunk just as wine does.

Their money is such as I will tell you. They use for the purpose certain
white porcelain shells that are found in the sea, such as are sometimes
put on dogs' collars; and 80 of these porcelain shells pass for a single
weight of silver, equivalent to two Venice groats, i.e. 24 piccoli.
Also eight such weights of silver count equal to one such weight of gold.
[NOTE 4]

They have brine-wells in this country from which they make salt, and all
the people of those parts make a living by this salt. The King, too, I can
assure you, gets a great revenue from this salt.[NOTE 5]

There is a lake in this country of a good hundred miles in compass, in
which are found great quantities of the best fish in the world; fish of
great size, and of all sorts.

They reckon it no matter for a man to have intimacy with another's wife,
provided the woman be willing.

Let me tell you also that the people of that country eat their meat raw,
whether it be of mutton, beef, buffalo, poultry, or any other kind. Thus
the poor people will go to the shambles, and take the raw liver as it
comes from the carcase and cut it small, and put it in a sauce of garlic
and spices, and so eat it; and other meat in like manner, raw, just as we
eat meat that is dressed.[NOTE 6]

Now I will tell you about a further part of the Province of Carajan, of
which I have been speaking.


NOTE 1.--We have now arrived at the great province of CARAJAN, the
KARÁJÁNG of the Mongols, which we know to be YUN-NAN, and at its capital
YACHI, which--I was about to add--we know to be YUN-NAN-FU. But I find
all the commentators make it something else. Rashiduddin, however, in his
detail of the twelve Sings or provincial governments of China under the
Mongols, thus speaks: "10th, KARÁJÁNG. This used to be an independent
kingdom, and the Sing is established at the great city of YÁCHI. All the
inhabitants are Mahomedans. The chiefs are Noyan Takin, and Yakub Beg, son
of 'Ali Beg, the Belúch." And turning to Pauthier's corrected account of
the same distribution of the empire from authentic Chinese sources (p.
334), we find: "8. The administrative province of Yun-nan.... Its capital,
chief town also of the canton of the same name, was called _Chung-khing_,
now YUN-NAN-FU," Hence Yachi was Yun-nan-fu. This is still a large city,
having a rectangular rampart with 6 gates, and a circuit of about 6 1/2
miles. The suburbs were destroyed by the Mahomedan rebels. The most
important trade there now is in the metallic produce of the Province.
[According to _Oxenham, Historical Atlas_, there were _ten_ provinces or
_sheng_ (Liao-yang, Chung-shu, Shen-si, Ho-nan, Sze-ch'wan, _Yun-nan_,
Hu-kwang, Kiang-che, Kiang-si and Kan-suh) and _twelve_ military
governorships.--H.C.]

_Yachi_ was perhaps an ancient corruption of the name _Yichau_, which the
territory bore (according to Martini and Biot) under the Han; but more
probably _Yichau_ was a Chinese transformation of the real name _Yachi_.
The Shans still call the city Muang _Chi_, which is perhaps another
modification of the same name.

We have thus got Ch'êng-tu fu as one fixed point, and Yun-nan-fu as
another, and we have to track the traveller's itinerary between the two,
through what Ritter called with reason a _terra incognita_. What
little was known till recently of this region came from the Catholic
missionaries. Of late the veil has begun to be lifted; the daring
excursion of Francis Garnier and his party in 1868 intersected the tract
towards the south; Mr. T.T. Cooper crossed it further north, by Ta-t'sien
lu, Lithang and Bathang; Baron v. Richthofen in 1872 had penetrated
several marches towards the heart of the mystery, when an unfortunate
mishap compelled his return, but he brought back with him much precious
information.

[Illustration: Garden-House on the Lake at Yun-nan-fu, Yachi of Polo.
(From Garnier).

"Je boz di q'il ont un lac qe gire environ bien cent miles."]

Five days forward from Ch'êng-tu fu brought us on Tibetan ground. Five
days backward from Yun-nan fu should bring us to the river Brius, with its
gold-dust and the frontier of Caindu. Wanting a local scale for a distance
of five days, I find that our next point in advance, Marco's city of
Carajan undisputably _Tali-fu_, is said by him to be ten days from Yachi.
The direct distance between the cities of Yun-nan and Ta-li I find by
measurement on Keith Johnston's map to be 133 Italian miles. [The distance
by road is 215 English miles. (See _Baber_, p. 191.)--H.C.] Taking half
this as radius, the compasses swept from Yun-nan-fu as centre, intersect
near its most southerly elbow the great upper branch of the Kiang, the
_Kin-sha Kiang_ of the Chinese, or "River of the Golden Sands," the MURUS
USSU and BRICHU of the Mongols and Tibetans, and manifestly the auriferous
BRIUS of our traveller.[1] Hence also the country north of this elbow is
CAINDU.

I leave the preceding paragraph as it stood in the first edition, because
it shows how _near_ the true position of Caindu these unaided deductions
from our author's data had carried me. That paragraph was followed by an
erroneous hypothesis as to the intermediate part of that journey, but,
thanks to the new light shed by Baron Richthofen, we are enabled now to
lay down the whole itinerary from Ch'eng-tu fu to Yun-nan fu with
confidence in its accuracy.

The Kin-sha Kiang or Upper course of the Great Yang-tzu, descending from
Tibet to Yun-nan, forms the great bight or elbow to which allusion has
just been made, and which has been a feature known to geographers ever
since the publication of D'Anville's atlas. The tract enclosed in this
elbow is cut in two by another great Tibetan River, the Yarlung, or
Yalung-Kiang, which joins the Kin-sha not far from the middle of the great
bight; and this Yalung, just before the confluence, receives on the left a
stream of inferior calibre, the Ngan-ning Ho, which also flows in a valley
parallel to the meridian, like all that singular _fascis_ of great rivers
between Assam and Sze-ch'wan.

This River Ngan-ning waters a valley called Kien-ch'ang, containing near
its northern end a city known by the same name, but in our modern maps
marked as Ning-yuan fu; this last being the name of a department of which
it is the capital, and which embraces much more than the valley of
Kien-ch'ang. The town appears, however, as Kien-ch'ang in the _Atlas
Sinensis_ of Martini, and as _Kienchang-ouei_ in D'Anville. This remarkable
valley, imbedded as it were in a wilderness of rugged highlands and wild
races, accessible only by two or three long and difficult routes, rejoices
in a warm climate, a most productive soil, scenery that seems to excite
enthusiasm even in Chinamen, and a population noted for amiable temper.
Towns and villages are numerous. The people are said to be descended from
Chinese immigrants, but their features have little of the Chinese type, and
they have probably a large infusion of aboriginal blood. [Kien-ch'ang,
"otherwise the Prefecture of Ning-yuan, is perhaps the least known of the
Eighteen Provinces," writes Mr. Baber. (_Travels_, p. 58.) "Two or three
sentences in the book of Ser Marco, to the effect that after crossing high
mountains, he reached a fertile country containing many towns and villages,
and inhabited by a very immoral population, constitute to this day the only
description we possess of _Cain-du_, as he calls the district." Baber adds
(p. 82): "Although the main valley of Kien-ch'ang is now principally
inhabited by Chinese, yet the Sifan or Menia people are frequently met
with, and most of the villages possess two names, one Chinese, and the
other indigenous. Probably in Marco Polo's time a Menia population
predominated, and the valley was regarded as part of Menia. If Marco had
heard that name, he would certainly have recorded it; but it is not one
which is likely to reach the ears of a stranger. The Chinese people and
officials never employ it, but use in its stead an alternative name,
_Chan-tu_ or _Chan-tui_, of precisely the same application, which I make
bold to offer as the original of Marco's Caindu, or preferably Ciandu."
--H.C.]

This valley is bounded on the east by the mountain country of the Lolos,
which extends north nearly to Yachau (supra, pp. 45, 48, 60), and which,
owing to the fierce intractable character of the race, forms throughout
its whole length an impenetrable barrier between East and West. [The Rev.
Gray Owen, of Ch'eng-tu, wrote (_Jour. China B.R.A.S._ xxviii.
1893-1894, p. 59): "The only great trade route infested by brigands is that
from Ya-chau to Ning-yuan fu, where Lo-lo brigands are numerous, especially
in the autumn. Last year I heard of a convoy of 18 mules with Shen-si goods
on the above-mentioned road captured by these brigands, muleteers and all
taken inside the Lo-lo country. It is very seldom that captives get out of
Lo-lo-dom, because the ransom asked is too high, and the Chinese officials
are not gallant enough to buy out their unfortunate countrymen. The Lo-los
hold thousands of Chinese in slavery; and more are added yearly to the
number."--H.C.] Two routes run from Ch'êng-tu fu to Yun-nan; these fork at
Ya-chau and thenceforward are entirely separated by this barrier. To the
east of it is the route which descends the Min River to Siu-chau, and then
passes by Chao-tong and Tong-chuan to Yun-nan fu: to the west of the
barrier is a route leading through Kien-ch'ang to Ta-li fu, but throwing
off a branch from Ning-yuan southward in the direction of Yun-nan fu.

This road from Ch'êng-tu fu to Ta-li by Ya-chau and Ning-yuan appears to
be that by which the greater part of the goods for Bhamó and Ava used to
travel before the recent Mahomedan rebellion; it is almost certainly the
road by which Kúblái, in 1253, during the reign of his brother Mangku
Kaan, advanced to the conquest of Ta-li, then the head of an independent
kingdom in Western Yun-nan. As far as Ts'ing-k'i hien, 3 marches beyond
Ya-chau, this route coincides with the great Tibet road by Ta-t'sien lu
and Bathang to L'hása, and then it diverges to the left.

We may now say without hesitation that by this road Marco travelled. His
_Tibet_ commences with the mountain region near Ya-chau; his 20 days'
journey through a devastated and dispeopled tract is the journey to
Ning-yuan fu. Even now, from Ts'ing-k'i onwards for several days, not a
single inhabited place is seen. The official route from Ya-chau to
Ning-yuan lays down 13 stages, but it generally takes from 15 to 18 days.
Polo, whose journeys seem often to have been shorter than the modern
average,[2] took 20. On descending from the highlands he comes once more
into a populated region, and enters the charming Valley of Kien-ch'ang.
This valley, with its capital near the upper extremity, its numerous towns
and villages, its cassia, its spiced wine, and its termination southward on
the River of the Golden Sands, is CAINDU. The traveller's road from
Ningyuan to Yunnanfu probably lay through Hwei-li, and the Kin-sha Kiang
would be crossed as already indicated, near its most southerly bend, and
almost due north of Yun-nan fu. (See _Richthofen_ as quoted at pp. 45-46.)

As regards the _name_ of CAINDU or GHEINDU (as in G.T.), I think we may
safely recognise in the last syllable the _do_ which is so frequent a
termination of Tibetan names (Amdo, Tsiamdo, etc.); whilst the _Cain_, as
Baron Richthofen has pointed out, probably survives in the first part of
the name _Kien_chang.

[Baber writes (pp. 80-81): "Colonel Yule sees in the word _Caindu_ a
variation of 'Chien-ch'ang,' and supposes the syllable 'du' to be the same
as the termination 'du,' 'do,' or 'tu,' so frequent in Tibetan names. In
such names, however, 'do' never means a district, but always a confluence,
or a town near a confluence, as might almost be guessed from a map of
Tibet.... Unsatisfied with Colonel Yule's identification, I cast about for
another, and thought for a while that a clue had been found in the term
'Chien-t'ou' (sharp-head), applied to certain Lolo tribes. But the idea
had to be abandoned, since Marco Polo's anecdote about the 'caitiff,' and
the loose manners of his family, could never have referred to the Lolos,
who are admitted even by their Chinese enemies to possess a very strict
code indeed of domestic regulations. The Lolos being eliminated, the
Si-fans remained; and before we had been many days in their neighbourhood,
stories were told us of their conduct which a polite pen refuses to record.
It is enough to say that Marco's account falls rather short of the truth,
and most obviously applies to the Si-fan."

[Illustration: Road descending from the Table-Land of Yun-nan into the
Valley of the Kin-sha Kiang (the _Brius_ of Polo).

(After Garnier.)]

Devéria (_Front._ p. 146 note) says that Kien-ch'ang is the ancient
territory of Kiung-tu which, under the Han Dynasty, fell into the hands of
the Tibetans, and was made by the Mongols the march of Kien-ch'ang
(_Che-Kong-t'u_); it is the _Caindu_ of Marco Polo; under the Han Dynasty
it was the Kiun or division of Yueh-sui or Yueh-hsi. Devéria quotes from
the _Yuen-shi-lei pien_ the following passage relating to the year 1284:
"The twelve tribes of the Barbarians to the south-west of _Kien-tou_ and
_Kin-Chi_ submitted; Kien-tou was administered by Mien (Burma); Kien-tou
submits because the Kingdom of Mien has been vanquished." Kien-tou is the
_Chien-t'ou_ of Baber, the Caindu of Marco Polo. (_Mélanges de Harlez_, p.
97.) According to Mr. E.H. Parker (_China Review_, xix. p. 69), Yueh-hsi
or Yueh-sui "is the modern Kien-ch'ang Valley, the Caindu of Marco Polo,
between the Yalung and Yang-tzu Rivers; the only non-Chinese races found
there now are the Si-fan and Lolos."--H.C.]

Turning to minor particulars, the Lake of Caindu in which the pearls were
found is doubtless one lying near Ning-yuan, whose beauty Richthofen heard
greatly extolled, though nothing of the pearls. [Mr. Hosie writes (_Three
Years_, 112-113): "If the former tradition be true (the old city of
Ning-yuan having given place to a large lake in the early years of the Ming
Dynasty), the lake had no existence when Marco Polo passed through Caindu,
and yet we find him mentioning a lake in the country in which pearls were
found. Curiously enough, although I had not then read the Venetian's
narrative, one of the many things told me regarding the lake was that
pearls are found in it, and specimens were brought to me for inspection."
The lake lies to the south-east of the present city.--H.C.] A small lake
is marked by D'Anville, close to Kien-ch'ang, under the name of
_Gechoui-tang_. The large quantities of gold derived from the Kin-sha
Kiang, and the abundance of musk in that vicinity, are testified to by
Martini. The Lake mentioned by Polo as existing in the territory of Yachi
is no doubt the _Tien-chi_, the Great Lake on the shore of which the city
of Yun-nan stands, and from which boats make their way by canals along the
walls and streets. Its circumference, according to Martini, is 500 _li_.
The cut (p. 68), from Garnier, shows this lake as seen from a villa on its
banks. [Devéria (p. 129) quotes this passage from the _Yuen-shi-lei pien_:
"Yachi, of which the _U-man_ or Black Barbarians made their capital, is
surrounded by Lake _Tien-chi_ on three sides." Tien-chi is one of the names
of Lake Kwen-ming, on the shore of which is built Yun-nan fu.--H.C.]

Returning now to the Karájang of the Mongols, or Carajan, as Polo writes
it, we shall find that the latter distinguishes this great province, which
formerly, he says, included seven kingdoms, into two Mongol Governments,
the seat of one being at Yachi, which we have seen to be Yun-nan fu, and
that of the other at a city to which he gives the name of the Province,
and which we shall find to be the existing Ta-li fu. Great confusion has
been created in most of the editions by a distinction in the form of the
name as applied to these two governments. Thus Ramusio prints the province
under Yachi as _Carajan_, and that under Ta-li as _Carazan_, whilst
Marsden, following out his system for the conversion of Ramusio's
orthography, makes the former _Karaian_ and the latter _Karazan_. Pauthier
prints _Caraian_ all through, a fact so far valuable as showing that his
texts make no distinction between the names of the two governments, but
the form impedes the recognition of the old Mongol nomenclature. I have no
doubt that the name all through should be read _Carajan_, and on this I
have acted. In the Geog. Text we find the name given at the end of ch.
xlvii. _Caragian_, in ch. xlviii. as _Carajan_, in ch. xlix. as _Caraian_,
thus just reversing the distinction made by Marsden. The Crusca has
_Charagia(n)_ all through.

The name then was _Kará-jáng_, in which the first element was the Mongol
or Turki _Kárá_, "Black." For we find in another passage of Rashid the
following information:[3]--"To the south-west of Cathay is the country
called by the Chinese _Dailiu_ or 'Great Realm,' and by the Mongols
_Karájáng_, in the language of India and Kashmir _Kandar_, and by us
_Kandahár_. This country, which is of vast extent, is bounded on one side
by Tibet and Tangut, and on others by Mongolia, Cathay, and the country of
the Gold-Teeth. The King of Karajang uses the title of _Mahárá_, i.e.
Great King. The capital is called Yachi, and there the Council of
Administration is established. Among the inhabitants of this country some
are black, and others are white; these latter are called by the Mongols
_Chaghán-Jáng_ ('White Jang')." _Jang_ has not been explained; but
probably it may have been a Tibetan term adopted by the Mongols, and the
colours may have applied to their clothing. The dominant race at the
Mongol invasion seems to have been Shans;[4] and black jackets are the
characteristic dress of the Shans whom one sees in Burma in modern times.
The Kara-jang and Chaghan-jang appear to correspond also to the _U-man_
and _Pe-man_, or Black Barbarians and White Barbarians, who are mentioned
by Chinese authorities as conquered by the Mongols. It would seem from one
of Pauthier's Chinese quotations (p. 388), that the Chaghan-jang were
found in the vicinity of Li-kiang fu. (_D'Ohsson_, II. 317; _J. R. Geog.
Soc._ III. 294.) [Dr. Bretschneider (_Med. Res._ I. p. 184) says that in
the description of Yun-nan, in the _Yuen-shi_, "_Cara-jang_ and
_Chagan-jang_ are rendered by _Wu-man_ and _Po-man_ (Black and White
Barbarians). But in the biographies of _Djao-a-k'o-p'an_, _A-r-szelan_
(_Yuen-shi_, ch. cxxiii.), and others, these tribes are mentioned under the
names of _Ha-la-djang_ and _Ch'a-han-djang_, as the Mongols used to call
them; and in the biography of _Wu-liang-ho t'ai_. [Uriang kadai], the
conqueror of Yun-nan, it is stated that the capital of the Black Barbarians
was called _Yach'i_. It is described there as a city surrounded by lakes
from three sides."--H.C.]

[Illustration: A Saracen of Carajan, being a portrait of a Mahomedan
Mullah in Western Yun-nan. (From Garnier's Work.)

"Les sunt des plosors maineres, car il hi a jens qe aorent Maomet." ]

Regarding Rashiduddin's application of the name _Kandahár_ or Gandhára to
Yun-nan, and curious points connected therewith, I must refer to a paper
of mine in the _J.R.A.Society_ (N.S. IV. 356). But I may mention that
in the ecclesiastical translation of the classical localities of Indian
Buddhism to Indo-China, which is current in Burma, Yun-nan represents
Gandhára,[5] and is still so styled in state documents (_Gandálarít_).

What has been said of the supposed name _Caraian_ disposes, I trust, of
the fancies which have connected the origin of the _Karens_ of Burma with
it. More groundless still is M. Pauthier's deduction of the _Talains_ of
Pegu (as the Burmese call them) from the people of Ta-li, who fled from
Kúblái's invasion.

NOTE 2.--The existence of Nestorians in this remote province is very
notable [see _Bonin, J. As._ XV. 1900, pp. 589-590.--H.C.] and also
the early prevalence of Mahomedanism, which Rashiduddin intimates in
stronger terms. "All the inhabitants of Yachi," he says, "are Mahomedans."
This was no doubt an exaggeration, but the Mahomedans seem always to have
continued to be an important body in Yun-nan up to our own day. In 1855
began their revolt against the imperial authority, which for a time
resulted in the establishment of their independence in Western Yun-nan
under a chief whom they called Sultan Suleiman. A proclamation in
remarkably good Arabic, announcing the inauguration of his reign, appears
to have been circulated to Mahomedans in foreign states, and a copy of it
some years ago found its way through the Nepalese agent at L'hasa, into
the hands of Colonel Ramsay, the British Resident at Katmandu.[6]

NOTE 3.--Wheat grows as low as Ava, but there also it is not used by
natives for bread, only for confectionery and the like. The same is the
case in Eastern China. (See ch. xxvi. note 4, and _Middle Kingdom_,
II. 43.)

NOTE 4.--The word _piccoli_ is supplied, doubtfully, in lieu of an unknown
symbol. If correct, then we should read "24 piccoli _each_" for this was
about the equivalent of a grosso. This is the first time Polo mentions
cowries, which he calls _porcellani_. This might have been rendered by the
corresponding vernacular name "_Pig-shells_," applied to certain shells of
that genus (_Cypraea_) in some parts of England. It is worthy of note that
as the name _porcellana_ has been transferred from these shells to
China-ware, so the word _pig_ has been in Scotland applied to crockery;
whether the process has been analogous, I cannot say.

Klaproth states that Yun-nan is the only country of China in which cowries
had continued in use, though in ancient times they were more generally
diffused. According to him 80 cowries were equivalent to 6 _cash_, or a
half-penny. About 1780 in Eastern Bengal 80 cowries were worth 3/8th of a
penny, and some 40 years ago, when Prinsep compiled his tables in Calcutta
(where cowries were still in use a few years ago, if they are not now), 80
cowries were worth 3/10 of a penny.

At the time of the Mahomedan conquest of Bengal, early in the 13th
century, they found the currency exclusively composed of cowries, aided
perhaps by bullion in large transactions, but with no coined money. In
remote districts this continued to modern times. When the Hon. Robert
Lindsay went as Resident and Collector to Silhet about 1778, cowries
constituted nearly the whole currency of the Province. The yearly revenue
amounted to 250,000 rupees, and this was entirely paid in cowries at the
rate of 5120 to the rupee. It required large warehouses to contain them,
and when the year's collection was complete a large fleet of boats to
transport them to Dacca. Before Lindsay's time it had been the custom to
_count_ the whole before embarking them! Down to 1801 the Silhet revenue
was entirely collected in cowries, but by 1813, the whole was realised in
specie. (_Thomas_, in _J.R.A.S._ N.S. II. 147; _Lives of the Lindsays_,
III. 169, 170.)

Klaproth's statement has ceased to be correct. Lieutenant Garnier found
cowries nowhere in use north of Luang Prabang; and among the Kakhyens in
Western Yun nan these shells are used only for ornament. [However, Mr. E.
H. Parker says (_China Review_, XXVI. p. 106) that the porcelain
money still circulates in the Shan States, and that he saw it there
himself.--H.C.]

[Illustration: The Canal at Yun nan fu.]

NOTE 5.--See ch. xlvii. note 4. Martini speaks of a great brine-well to
the N.E. of Yaogan (W.N.W. of the city of Yun-nan), which supplied the
whole country round.

NOTE 6.--Two particulars appearing in these latter paragraphs are alluded
to by Rashiduddin in giving a brief account of the overland route from
India to China, which is unfortunately very obscure: "Thence you arrive at
the borders of Tibet, where they _eat raw meat_ and worship images,
_and have no shame respecting their wives_." (Elliot, I. p. 73.)


[1] Baber writes (p. 107): "The river is never called locally by any other
    name than _Kin-ke_ or 'Gold River.'[A] The term _Kin-sha-Kiang_ should
    in strictness be confined to the Tibetan course of the stream; as
    applied to other parts it is a mere book name. There is no great
    objection to its adoption, except that it is unintelligible to the
    inhabitants of the banks, and is liable to mislead travellers in
    search of indigenous information, but at any rate it should not be
    supposed to asperse Marco Polo's accuracy. _Gold River_ is the local
    name from the junction of the Yalung to about P'ing-shan; below
    P'ing-shan it is known by various designations, but the Ssu-ch'uanese
    naturally call it 'the River,' or, by contrast with its affluents, the
    'Big River' (_Ta-ho_)." I imagine that Baber here makes a slight
    mistake, and that they use the name _kiang_, and not _ho_, for the
    river.--H.C.

    [Mr. Rockhill remarks (_Land of the Lamas_, p. 196 note) that "Marco
    Polo speaks of the Yang-tzu as the _Brius_, and Orazio della Penna
    calls it _Biciu_, both words representing the Tibetan _Dré ch'u_. This
    last name has been frequently translated 'Cow yak River,' but this is
    certainly not its meaning, as cow yak is _dri-mo_, never pronounced
    _dré_, and unintelligible without the suffix, _mo_. _Dré_ may mean
    either mule, dirty, or rice, but as I have never seen the word
    written, I cannot decide on any of these terms, all of which have
    exactly the same pronunciation. The Mongols call it _Murus osu_, and
    in books this is sometimes changed to _Murui osu_, 'Tortuous river.'
    The Chinese call it _Tung t'ien ho_, 'River of all Heaven.' The name
    _Kin-sha kiang_, 'River of Golden Sand,' is used for it from Bat'ang
    to Sui-fu, or thereabouts." The general name for the river is
    _Ta-Kiang_ (Great River), or simply _Kiang_, in contradistinction to
    _Ho_, for _Hwang-Ho_ (Yellow River) in Northern China.--H.C.]

        [A] Marco Polo nowhere calls the river "Gold River," the name he
            gives it is _Brius_.--H.Y.

[2] Baron Richthofen, who has travelled hundreds of miles in his
    footsteps, considers his allowance of time to be generally from 1/4 to
    1/9 greater than that now usual.

[3] See _Quatremère's Rashiduddin_, pp. lxxxvi.-xcvi. My quotation is
    made up from _two_ citations by Quatremère, one from his text of
    Rashiduddin, and the other from the History of Benakeli, which
    Quatremère shows to have been drawn from Rashiduddin, whilst it
    contains some particulars not existing in his own text of that author.

[4] The title _Chao_ in _Nan-Chao_ (infra, p. 79) is said by a Chinese
    author (Pauthier, p. 391) to signify _King_ in the language of those
    barbarians. This is evidently the _Chao_ which forms an essential part
    of the title of all Siamese and Shan princes.

    [Regarding the word _Nan-Chao_, Mr. Parker (_China Review_, XX. p.
    339) writes "In the barbarian tongue 'prince is _Chao_," says the
    Chinese author; and there were six _Chao_, of which the _Nan_ or
    Southern was the leading power. Hence the name Nan-Chao ... it is
    hardly necessary for me to say that _chao_ or _kyiao_ is still the
    Shan-Siamese word for 'prince.' Pallegoix (_Dict._ p. 85) has _Chào_,
    Princeps, rex.--H.C.]

[5] _Gandhára_, Arabicé _Kandahár_, is properly the country about
    Peshawar, _Gandaritis_ of Strabo.

[6] This is printed almost in full in the French _Voyage d'Exploration_,
    I. 564.



CHAPTER XLIX.

CONCERNING A FURTHER PART OF THE PROVINCE OF CARAJAN.


After leaving that city of Yachi of which I have been speaking, and
travelling ten days towards the west, you come to another capital city
which is still in the province of Carajan, and is itself called Carajan.
The people are Idolaters and subject to the Great Kaan; and the King is
COGACHIN, who is a son of the Great Kaan.[NOTE 1]

In this country gold-dust is found in great quantities; that is to say in
the rivers and lakes, whilst in the mountains gold is also found in pieces
of larger size. Gold is indeed so abundant that they give one _saggio_ of
gold for only six of the same weight in silver. And for small change they
use porcelain shells as I mentioned before. These are not found in the
country, however, but are brought from India.[NOTE 2]

In this province are found snakes and great serpents of such vast size as
to strike fear into those who see them, and so hideous that the very
account of them must excite the wonder of those to hear it. I will tell you
how long and big they are.

You may be assured that some of them are ten paces in length; some are
more and some less. And in bulk they are equal to a great cask, for the
bigger ones are about ten palms in girth. They have two forelegs near the
head, but for foot nothing but a claw like the claw of a hawk or that of a
lion. The head is very big, and the eyes are bigger than a great loaf of
bread. The mouth is large enough to swallow a man whole, and is garnished
with great [pointed] teeth. And in short they are so fierce-looking and so
hideously ugly, that every man and beast must stand in fear and trembling
of them. There are also smaller ones, such as of eight paces long, and of
five, and of one pace only.

The way in which they are caught is this. You must know that by day they
live underground because of the great heat, and in the night they go out
to feed, and devour every animal they can catch. They go also to drink at
the rivers and lakes and springs. And their weight is so great that when
they travel in search of food or drink, as they do by night, the tail
makes a great furrow in the soil as if a full ton of liquor had been
dragged along. Now the huntsmen who go after them take them by certain gyn
which they set in the track over which the serpent has past, knowing that
the beast will come back the same way. They plant a stake deep in the
ground and fix on the head of this a sharp blade of steel made like a
razor or a lance-point, and then they cover the whole with sand so that
the serpent cannot see it. Indeed the huntsman plants several such stakes
and blades on the track. On coming to the spot the beast strikes against
the iron blade with such force that it enters his breast and rives him up
to the navel, so that he dies on the spot [and the crows on seeing the
brute dead begin to caw, and then the huntsmen know that the serpent is
dead and come in search of him].

This then is the way these beasts are taken. Those who take them proceed
to extract the gall from the inside, and this sells at a great price; for
you must know it furnishes the material for a most precious medicine. Thus
if a person is bitten by a mad dog, and they give him but a small
pennyweight of this medicine to drink, he is cured in a moment. Again if a
woman is hard in labour they give her just such another dose and she is
delivered at once. Yet again if one has any disease like the itch, or it
may be worse, and applies a small quantity of this gall he shall speedily
be cured. So you see why it sells at such a high price.

They also sell the flesh of this serpent, for it is excellent eating, and
the people are very fond of it. And when these serpents are very hungry,
sometimes they will seek out the lairs of lions or bears or other large
wild beasts, and devour their cubs, without the sire and dam being able to
prevent it. Indeed if they catch the big ones themselves they devour them
too; they can make no resistance.[NOTE 3]

[Illustration: "Riding long like Frenchmen."

"Et encore sachié qe ceste gens chebauchent lonc come franchois."]

[Illustration: Suspension Bridge, neighbourhood of Tali]

In this province also are bred large and excellent horses which are taken
to India for sale. And you must know that the people dock two or three
joints of the tail from their horses, to prevent them from flipping their
riders, a thing which they consider very unseemly. They ride long like
Frenchmen, and wear armour of boiled leather, and carry spears and shields
and arblasts, and all their quarrels are poisoned.[NOTE 4] [And I was
told as a fact that many persons, especially those meditating mischief,
constantly carry this poison about with them, so that if by any chance
they should be taken, and be threatened with torture, to avoid this they
swallow the poison and so die speedily. But princes who are aware of this
keep ready dog's dung, which they cause the criminal instantly to swallow,
to make him vomit the poison. And thus they manage to cure those
scoundrels.]

I will tell you of a wicked thing they used to do before the Great Kaan
conquered them. If it chanced that a man of fine person or noble birth, or
some other quality that recommended him, came to lodge with those people,
then they would murder him by poison, or otherwise. And this they did, not
for the sake of plunder, but because they believed that in this way the
goodly favour and wisdom and repute of the murdered man would cleave to
the house where he was slain. And in this manner many were murdered before
the country was conquered by the Great Kaan. But since his conquest, some
35 years ago, these crimes and this evil practice have prevailed no more;
and this through dread of the Great Kaan who will not permit such
things.[NOTE 5]


NOTE 1.--There can be no doubt that this second chief city of Carajan is
TALI-FU, which was the capital of the Shan Kingdom called by the Chinese
Nan-Chao. This kingdom had subsisted in Yun-nan since 738, and probably
had embraced the upper part of the Irawadi Valley. For the Chinese tell us
it was also called _Maung_, and it probably was identical with the Shan
Kingdom of Muang Maorong or of _Pong_, of which Captain Pemberton procured
a Chronicle. [In A.D. 650, the Ai-Lao, the most ancient name by which the
Shans were known to the Chinese, became the Nan-Chao. The Mêng family
ruled the country from the 7th century; towards the middle of the 8th
century, P'i-lo-ko, who is the real founder of the Thai kingdom of
Nan-Chao, received from the Chinese the title of King of Yun-Nan and made
T'ai-ho, 15 _lis_ south of Ta-li, his residence; he died in 748. In A.D.
938, Twan Sze-ying, of an old Chinese family, took Ta-li and established
there an independent kingdom. In 1115 embassies with China were exchanged,
and the Emperor conferred (1119) upon Twan Ch'êng-ya the title of King of
Ta-li (_Ta-li Kwo Wang_). Twan Siang-hing was the last king of Ta-li
(1239-1251). In 1252 the Kingdom of Nan-Chao was destroyed by the Mongols;
the Emperor She Tsu (Kúblái) gave the title of Maháraja (_Mo-ho Lo-tso_) to
Twan Hing-che (son of Twan Siang-hing), who had fled to Yun-Nan fu and was
captured there. Afterwards (1261) the Twan are known as the eleven
_Tsung-Kwan_ (governors); the last of them, Twan Ming, was made a prisoner
by an army sent by the Ming Emperors, and sent to Nan-King (1381). (_E. H.
Parker, Early Laos and China, China Review_, XIX. and the _Old Thai or Shan
Empire of Western Yun-Nan_, Ibid., XX.; _E. Rocher, Hist. des Princes du
Yunnan, T'oung Pao_, 1899; _E. Chavannes, Une Inscription du roy de Nan
Tchao, J.A._, November-December, 1900; _M. Tchang, Tableau des Souverains
de Nan-Tchao, Bul. Ecole Franç. d'Ext. Orient_, I. No. 4.)--H.C.] The city
of Ta-li was taken by Kúblái in 1253-1254. The circumstance that it was
known to the invaders (as appeals from Polo's statement) by the name of the
province is an indication of the fact that it was the capital of Carajan
before the conquest. ["That _Yachi_ and _Carajan_ represent Yünnan-fu and
Tali, is proved by topographical and other evidence of an overwhelming
nature. I venture to add one more proof, which seems to have been
overlooked.

"If there is a natural feature which must strike any visitor to those two
cities, it is that they both lie on the shore of notable lakes, of so
large an extent as to be locally called seas; and for the comparison, it
should be remembered that the inhabitants of the Yünnan province have easy
access to the ocean by the Red River, or Sung Ka. Now, although Marco does
not circumstantially specify the fact of these cities lying on large
bodies of water, yet in both cases, two or three sentences further on,
will be found mention of lakes; in the case of Yachi, 'a lake of a good
hundred miles in compass'--by no means an unreasonable estimate.

"Tali-fu is renowned as the strongest hold of Western Yünnan, and it
certainly must have been impregnable to bow and spear. From the western
margin of its majestic lake, which lies approximately north and south,
rises a sloping plain of about three miles average breadth, closed in by
the huge wall of the Tien-tsang Mountains. In the midst of this plain
stands the city, the lake at its feet, the snowy summits at its back. On
either flank, at about twelve and six miles distance respectively, are
situated Shang-Kuan and Hsia-Kuan (upper and lower passes), two strongly
fortified towns guarding the confined strip between mountain and lake; for
the plain narrows at the two extremities, and is intersected by a river at
both points." (_Baber_, _Travels_ 155.)--H.C.]

The distance from Yachi to this city of Karajang is ten days, and this
corresponds well with the distance from Yun-nan fu to Tali-fu. For we find
that, of the three Burmese Embassies whose itineraries are given by
Burney, one makes 7 marches between those cities, specifying 2 of them as
double marches, therefore equal to 9, whilst the other two make 11
marches; Richthofen's information gives 12. Ta-li-fu is a small old city
overlooking its large lake (about 24 miles long by 6 wide), and an
extensive plain devoid of trees. Lofty mountains rise on the south side of
the city. The Lake appears to communicate with the Mekong, and the story
goes, no doubt fabulous, that boats have come up to Ta-li from the Ocean.
[Captain Gill (II. pp. 299-300) writes: "Ta-li fu is an ancient city ...
it is the Carajan of Marco Polo.... Marco's description of the lake of
Yun-Nan may be perfectly well applied to the Lake of Ta-li.... The fish
were particularly commended to our notice, though we were told that there
were no oysters in this lake, as there are said to be in that of Yun-Nan;
if the latter statement be true, it would illustrate Polo's account of
another lake somewhere in these regions in which are found pearls (which
are white but not round)."--H.C.]

Ta-li fu was recently the capital of Sultan Suleiman [Tu Wen-siu]. It was
reached by Lieutenant Garnier in a daring détour by the north of Yun-nan,
but his party were obliged to leave in haste on the second day after their
arrival. The city was captured by the Imperial officers in 1873, when a
horrid massacre of the Mussulmans took place [19th January]. The Sultan
took poison, but his head was cut off and sent to Peking. Momein fell soon
after [10th June], and the _Panthé_ kingdom is ended.

We see that Polo says the King ruling for Kúblái at this city was a son of
the Kaan, called COGACHIN, whilst he told us in the last chapter that the
King reigning at Yachi was also a son of the Kaan, called ESSENTIMUR. It
is probably a mere lapsus or error of dictation calling the latter a son
of the Kaan, for in ch. li. infra, this prince is correctly described as
the Kaan's grandson. Rashiduddin tells us that Kúblái had given his son
HUKÁJI (or perhaps _Hogáchi_, i.e. Cogachin) the government of
Karajang,[1] and that after the death of this Prince the government was
continued to his son ISENTIMUR. Klaproth gives the date of the latter's
nomination from the Chinese Annals as 1280. It is not easy to reconcile
Marco's statements perfectly with a knowledge of these facts; but we may
suppose that, in speaking of Cogachin as ruling at Karajang (or Tali-fu)
and Esentimur at Yachi, he describes things as they stood when his visit
occurred, whilst in the second reference to "Sentemur's" being King in the
province and his father dead, he speaks from later knowledge. This
interpretation would confirm what has been already deduced from other
circumstances, that his visit to Yun-nan was prior to 1280. (_Pemberton's
Report on the Eastern Frontier_, 108 seqq.; _Quat. Rashid._ pp.
lxxxix-xc.; _Journ. Asiat._ sér. II. vol. i.)

NOTE 2.--[Captain Gill writes (II. p. 302): "There are said to be very
rich gold and silver mines within a few days' journey of the city" (of
Ta-li). Dr. Anderson says (_Mandalay to Momien_, p. 203): "Gold is brought
to Momein from Yonephin and Sherg-wan villages, fifteen days' march to the
north-east; but no information could be obtained as to the quantity found.
It is also brought in leaf, which is sent to Burma, where it is in
extensive demand."--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--It cannot be doubted that Marco's serpents here are crocodiles,
in spite of his strange mistakes about their having only two feet and one
claw on each, and his imperfect knowledge of their aquatic habits. He may
have seen only a mutilated specimen. But there is no mistaking the hideous
ferocity of the countenance, and the "eyes bigger than a fourpenny loaf,"
as Ramusio has it. Though the actual _eye_ of the crocodile does not bear
this comparison, the prominent _orbits_ do, especially in the case of the
_Ghariyál_ of the Ganges, and form one of the most repulsive features of
the reptile's physiognomy. In fact, its presence on the surface of an
Indian river is often recognisable only by three dark knobs rising above
the surface, viz. the snout and the two orbits. And there is some
foundation for what our author says of the animal's habits, for the
crocodile does sometimes frequent holes at a distance from water, of which
a striking instance is within my own recollection (in which the deep
furrowed track also was a notable circumstance).

The Cochin Chinese are very fond of crocodile's flesh, and there is or was
a regular export of this dainty for their use from Kamboja. I have known
it eaten by certain classes in India. (_J.R.G.S._ XXX. 193.)

The term _serpent_ is applied by many old writers to crocodiles and the
like, e.g. by Odoric, and perhaps allusively by Shakspeare ("_Where's my
Serpent of Old Nile_?"). Mr. Fergusson tells me he was once much struck
with the _snake-like_ motion of a group of crocodiles hastily descending
to the water from a high sand-bank, without apparent use of the limbs,
when surprised by the approach of a boat.[2]

Matthioli says the gall of the crocodile surpasses all medicines for the
removal of pustules and the like from the eyes. Vincent of Beauvais
mentions the same, besides many other medical uses of the reptile's
carcass, including a very unsavoury cosmetic. (_Matt._ p. 245; _Spec.
Natur._ Lib. XVII. c. 106, 108.)

["According to Chinese notions, Han Yü, the St. Patrick of China, having
persuaded the alligators in China that he was all-powerful, induced the
stupid saurians to migrate to Ngo Hu or 'Alligators' Lake' in the
Kwang-tung province." (_North-China Herald_, 5th July, 1895, p. 5.)

Alligators have been found in 1878 at Wu-hu and at Chen-kiang (Ngan-hwei
and Kiang-Su). (See _A. A. Fauvel, Alligators in China_, in _Jour. N.
China B.R.A.S._ XIII. 1879, 1-36.)--H.C.]

NOTE 4.--I think the _great_ horses must be an error, though running
through all the texts, and that _grant quantité de chevaus_ was probably
intended. Valuable _ponies_ are produced in those regions, but I have
never heard of large horses, and Martini's testimony is to like effect (p.
141). Nor can I hear of any race in those regions in modern times that
uses what we should call long stirrups. It is true that the Tartars rode
_very short--"brevissimas habent strepas,"_ as Carpini says (643); and the
Kirghiz Kazaks now do the same. Both Burmese and Shans ride what we should
call short; and Major Sladen observes of the people on the western border
of Yun-nan: "Kachyens and Shans ride on ordinary Chinese saddles. The
stirrups are of the usual average length, but the saddles are so
constructed as to rise at least a foot above the pony's back." He adds
with reference to another point in the text: "I noticed a few Shan ponies
_with docked tails_. But the more general practice is to loop up the tail
in a knot, the object being to protect the rider, or rather his clothes,
from the dirt with which they would otherwise be spattered from the
flipping of the animal's tail." (_MS. Notes_.)

[After Yung-ch'ang, Captain Gill writes (II. p. 356): "The manes were
hogged and the tails cropped of a great many of the ponies these men were
riding; but there were none of the docked tails mentioned by Marco
Polo."--H.C.]

Armour of boiled leather--"_armes cuiracés de cuir bouilli_"; so
Pauthier's text; the material so often mentioned in mediaeval costume;
e.g. in the leggings of Sir Thopas:--

  "His jambeux were of cuirbouly,
   His swerdës sheth of ivory,
     His helme of latoun bright."

But the reading of the G. Text which is "_cuir de bufal_," is probably the
right one. Some of the Miau-tzu of Kweichau are described as wearing
armour of buffalo-leather overlaid with iron plates. (_Ritter_, IV.
768-776.) Arblasts or crossbows are still characteristic weapons of many of
the wilder tribes of this region; e.g. of some of the Singphos, of the
Mishmis of Upper Assam, of the Lu-tzu of the valley of the Lukiang, of
tribes of the hills of Laos, of the Stiens of Cambodia, and of several of
the Miau-tzu tribes of the interior of China. We give a cut copied from a
Chinese work on the Miau-tzu of Kweichau in Dr. Lockhart's possession,
which shows _three_ little men of the Sang-Miau tribe of Kweichau combining
to mend a crossbow, and a chief with _armes cuiracés_ and _jambeux_
also. [The cut (p. 83) is well explained by this passage of _Baber's
Travels_ among the Lolos (p. 71): "They make their own swords, three and a
half to five spans long, with square heads, and have bows which it takes
three men to draw, but no muskets."--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--I have nowhere met with a _precise_ parallel to this remarkable
superstition, but the following piece of Folk-Lore has a considerable
analogy to it. This extraordinary custom is ascribed by Ibn Fozlan to the
Bulgarians of the Volga: "If they find a man endowed with special
intelligence then they say: 'This man should serve our Lord God;' and so
they take him, run a noose round his neck and hang him on a tree, where
they leave him till the corpse falls to pieces." This is precisely what
Sir Charles Wood did with the Indian Corps of Engineers;--doubtless on the
same principle.

Archbishop Trench, in a fine figure, alludes to a belief prevalent among
the Polynesian Islanders, "that the strength and valour of the warriors
whom they have slain in battle passes into themselves, as their rightful
inheritance." (_Fraehn, Wolga-Bulgaren_, p. 50; _Studies in the Gospels_,
p. 22; see also _Lubbock_, 457.)

[Illustration: The Sangmiau Tribe of Kweichau, with the Crossbow. (From a
Chinese Drawing.)

"Ont armes corases de cuir de bufal, et ont lances et scuz et ont
balestres."]

There is some analogy also to the story Polo tells, in the curious Sindhi
tradition, related by Burton, of Bahá-ul-hakk, the famous saint of Multán.
When he visited his disciples at Tatta they plotted his death, in order to
secure the blessings of his perpetual presence. The people of Multán are
said to have murdered two celebrated saints with the same view, and the
Hazáras to "make a point of killing and burying in their own country any
stranger indiscreet enough to commit a miracle or show any particular sign
of sanctity." The like practice is ascribed to the rude Moslem of Gilghit;
and such allegations must have been current in Europe, for they are the
motive of _Southey's St. Romuald_:

      "'But,' quoth the Traveller, 'wherefore did he leave
  A flock that knew his saintly worth so well?'

      "'Why, Sir,' the Host replied,
  'We thought perhaps that he might one day leave us;
      And then, should strangers have
      The good man's grave,
  A loss like that would naturally grieve us;
      For he'll be made a saint of, to be sure.
      Therefore we thought it prudent to secure
    His relics while we might;
    And so we meant to strangle him one night.'"

(See _Sindh_, pp. 86, 388; _Ind. Antiq._ I. 13; _Southey's Ballads_,
etc., ed. Routledge, p. 330.)

[Captain Gill (I. p. 323) says that he had made up his mind to visit a
place called Li-fan Fu, near Ch'êng-tu. "I was told," he writes, "that
this place was inhabited by the Man-Tzu, or Barbarians, as the Chinese
call them; and Monseigneur Pinchon told me that, amongst other pleasing
theories, they were possessed of the belief that if they poisoned a rich
man, his wealth would accrue to the poisoner; that, therefore, the
hospitable custom prevailed amongst them of administering poison to rich
or noble guests; that this poison took no effect for some time, but that
in the course of two or three months it produced a disease akin to
dysentery, ending in certain death."--H.C.]


[1] Mr. E.H. Parker writes (_China Review_, XXIV. p. 106): "Polo's
    Kogatin is _Hukoch'ih_, who was made King of Yun-nan in 1267,
    with military command over Ta-li, Shen-shen, Chagan Chang,
    Golden-Teeth, etc."--H.C.

[2] Though the bellowing of certain American crocodiles is often spoken
    of, I have nowhere seen allusion to the roaring of the
    _ghariyál_, nor does it seem to be commonly known. I have once
    only heard it, whilst on the bank of the Ganges near Rampúr Boliah,
    waiting for a ferry-boat. It was like a loud prolonged snore; and
    though it seemed to come distinctly from a crocodile on the surface of
    the river, I made sure by asking a boatman who stood by: "It is the
    ghariyál speaking," he answered.



CHAPTER L.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ZARDANDAN.


When you have left Carajan and have travelled five days westward, you find
a province called ZARDANDAN. The people are Idolaters and subject to the
Great Kaan. The capital city is called VOCHAN.[NOTE 1]

The people of this country all have their teeth gilt; or rather every man
covers his teeth with a sort of golden case made to fit them, both the
upper teeth and the under. The men do this, but not the women[NOTE 2]
[The men also are wont to gird their arms and legs with bands or fillets
pricked in black, and it is done thus; they take five needles joined
together, and with these they prick the flesh till the blood comes, and
then they rub in a certain black colouring stuff, and this is perfectly
indelible. It is considered a piece of elegance and the sign of gentility
to have this black band.] The men are all gentlemen in their fashion, and
do nothing but go to the wars, or go hunting and hawking. The ladies do
all the business, aided by the slaves who have been taken in war.[NOTE 3]

And when one of their wives has been delivered of a child, the infant is
washed and swathed, and then the woman gets up and goes about her
household affairs, whilst the husband takes to bed with the child by his
side, and so keeps his bed for 40 days; and all the kith and kin come to
visit him and keep up a great festivity. They do this because, say they,
the woman has had a hard bout of it, and 'tis but fair the man should have
his share of suffering.[NOTE 4]

They eat all kinds of meat, both raw and cooked, and they eat rice with
their cooked meat as their fashion is. Their drink is wine made of rice
and spices, and excellent it is. Their money is gold, and for small change
they use pig-shells. And I can tell you they give one weight of gold for
only five of silver; for there is no silver-mine within five months'
journey. And this induces merchants to go thither carrying a large supply
of silver to change among that people. And as they have only five weights
of silver to give for one of fine gold, they make immense profits by their
exchange business in that country.[NOTE 5]

These people have neither idols nor churches, but worship the progenitor
of their family, "for 'tis he," say they, "from whom we have all sprung."
[NOTE 6] They have no letters or writing; and 'tis no wonder, for the
country is wild and hard of access, full of great woods and mountains
which 'tis impossible to pass, the air in summer is so impure and bad; and
any foreigners attempting it would die for certain.[NOTE 7] When these
people have any business transactions with one another, they take a piece
of stick, round or square, and split it, each taking half. And on either
half they cut two or three notches. And when the account is settled the
debtor receives back the other half of the stick from the creditor.
[NOTE 8]

And let me tell you that in all those three provinces that I have been
speaking of, to wit Carajan, Vochan, and Yachi, there is never a leech.
But when any one is ill they send for their magicians, that is to say the
Devil-conjurors and those who are the keepers of the idols. When these are
come the sick man tells what ails him, and then the conjurors
incontinently begin playing on their instruments and singing and dancing;
and the conjurors dance to such a pitch that at last one of them shall
fall to the ground lifeless, like a dead man. And then the devil entereth
into his body. And when his comrades see him in this plight they begin to
put questions to him about the sick man's ailment. And he will reply:
"Such or such a spirit hath been meddling with the man,[NOTE 9] for that
he hath angered the spirit and done it some despite." Then they say: "We
pray thee to pardon him, and to take of his blood or of his goods what
thou wilt in consideration of thus restoring him to health." And when they
have so prayed, the malignant spirit that is in the body of the prostrate
man will (mayhap) answer: "The sick man hath also done great despite unto
such another spirit, and that one is so ill-disposed that it will not
pardon him on any account;"--this at least is the answer they get, an the
patient be like to die. But if he is to get better the answer will be that
they are to bring two sheep, or may be three; and to brew ten or twelve
jars of drink, very costly and abundantly spiced.[NOTE 10] Moreover it
shall be announced that the sheep must be all black-faced, or of some
other particular colour as it may hap; and then all those things are to be
offered in sacrifice to such and such a spirit whose name is given.
[NOTE 11] And they are to bring so many conjurors, and so many ladies, and
the business is to be done with a great singing of lauds, and with many
lights, and store of good perfumes. That is the sort of answer they get if
the patient is to get well. And then the kinsfolk of the sick man go and
procure all that has been commanded, and do as has been bidden, and the
conjuror who had uttered all that gets on his legs again.

So they fetch the sheep of the colour prescribed, and slaughter them, and
sprinkle the blood over such places as have been enjoined, in honour and
propitiation of the spirit. And the conjurors come, and the ladies, in the
number that was ordered, and when all are assembled and everything is
ready, they begin to dance and play and sing in honour of the spirit. And
they take flesh-broth and drink and lign-aloes, and a great number of
lights, and go about hither and thither, scattering the broth and the
drink and the meat also. And when they have done this for a while, again
shall one of the conjurors fall flat and wallow there foaming at the
mouth, and then the others will ask if he have yet pardoned the sick man?
And sometimes he shall answer yea! and sometimes he shall answer no! And
if the answer be _no_, they shall be told that something or other has
to be done all over again, and then he will be pardoned; so this they do.
And when all that the spirit has commanded has been done with great
ceremony, then it shall be announced that the man is pardoned and shall be
speedily cured. So when they at length receive such a reply, they announce
that it is all made up with the spirit, and that he is propitiated, and
they fall to eating and drinking with great joy and mirth, and he who had
been lying lifeless on the ground gets up and takes his share. So when
they have all eaten and drunken, every man departs home. And presently the
sick man gets sound and well.[NOTE 12]

Now that I have told you of the customs and naughty ways of that people,
we will have done talking of them and their province, and I will tell you
about others, all in regular order and succession.


NOTE 1.--[Baber writes (_Travels_, p. 171) when arriving to the
Lan-tsang kiang (Mekong River): "We were now on the border-line between
Carajan and Zardandan: 'When you have travelled five days you find a
province called Zardandan,' says Messer Marco, precisely the actual number
of stages from Tali-fu to the present boundary of Yung-ch'ang. That this
river must have been the demarcation between the two provinces is obvious;
one glance into that deep rift, the only exit from which is by painful
worked artificial zigzags which, under the most favourable conditions,
cannot be called safe, will satisfy the most sceptical geographer. The
exact statement of distance is a proof that Marco entered the territory of
Yung-ch'ang." Captain Gill says (II. p. 343-344) that the five marches of
Marco Polo "would be very long ones. Our journey was eight days, but it
might easily have been done in seven, as the first march to Hsia-Kuan was
not worthy of the name. The Grosvenor expedition made eleven marches with
one day's halt--twelve days altogether, and Mr. Margary was nine or ten
days on the journey. It is true that, by camping out every night, the
marches might be longer; and, as Polo refers to the crackling of the
bamboos in the fires, it is highly probable that he found no '_fine
hostelries_' on this route. This is the way the traders still travel in
Tibet; they march until they are tired, or until they find a nice grassy
spot; they then off saddles, turn their animals loose, light a fire under
some adjacent tree, and halt for the night; thus the longest possible
distance can be performed every day, and the five days from Ta-li to
Yung-Ch'ang would not be by any means an impossibility."--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Ramusio says that both men and women use this gold case. There
can be no better instance of the accuracy with which Polo is generally
found to have represented Oriental names, when we recover his _real_
representation of them, than this name _Zardandan_. In the old Latin
editions the name appeared as _Ardandan_, _Ardadam_, etc.; in
Ramusio as _Cardandan_, correctly enough, only the first letter
should have been printed Ç. Marsden, carrying out his systematic
conversion of the Ramusian spelling, made this into _Kardandan_, and
thus the name became irrecognizable. Klaproth, I believe, first showed
that the word was simply the Persian ZAR-DANDÁN, "Gold-Teeth," and
produced quotations from Rashiduddin mentioning the people in question by
that identical name. Indeed that historian mentions them several times.
Thus: "North-west of China is the frontier of Tibet, and of the ZARDANDAN,
who lie between Tibet and Karájáng. These people cover their teeth with a
gold case, which they take off when they eat." They are also frequently
mentioned in the Chinese annals about this period under the same name,
viz. _Kin-Chi_, "Gold-Teeth," and some years after Polo's departure
from the East they originated a revolt against the Mongol yoke, in which a
great number of the imperial troops were massacred. (_De Mailla_, IX.
478-479.)

[Baber writes (p. 159): "In Western Yünnan the betel-nut is chewed with
prepared lime, colouring the teeth red, and causing a profuse
expectoration. We first met with the practice near Tali-fu.

"Is it not possible that the red colour imparted to the teeth by the
practice of chewing betel with lime may go some way to account for the
ancient name of this region, 'Zar-dandan,' 'Chin-Ch'ih,' or
'Golden-Teeth'? Betel-chewing is, of course, common all over China; but
the use of lime is almost unknown and the teeth are not necessarily
discoloured.

"In the neighbourhood of Tali, one comes suddenly upon a lime-chewing
people, and is at once struck with the strange red hue of their teeth and
gums. That some of the natives used formerly to cover their teeth with
plates of gold (from which practice, mentioned by Marco Polo, and
confirmed elsewhere, the name is generally derived) can scarcely be
considered a myth; but the peculiarity remarked by ourselves would have
been equally noticeable by the early Chinese invaders, and seems not
altogether unworthy of consideration. It is interesting to find the name
'Chin-Ch'ih' still in use.

"When Tu Wên-hsiu sent his 'Panthay' mission to England with tributary
boxes of rock from the Tali Mountains, he described himself in his letter
'as a humble native of the golden-teeth country.'"--H.C.]

_Vochan_ seems undoubtedly to be, as Martini pointed out, the city called
by the Chinese YUNG-CH'ANG-FU. Some of the old printed editions read
_Unciam_, i.e. Uncham or Unchan, and it is probable that either this or
_Vocian_, i.e. VONCHAN, was the true reading, coming very close to the
proper name, which is WUNCHEN. (See _J.A.S.B._ VI. 547.) [In an itinerary
from Ava to Peking, we read on the 10th September, 1833: "Slept at the city
Wun-tsheng (Chinese Yongtchang fú and Burmese _Wun-zen_)." (_Chin. Rep._
IX. p. 474):--Mr. F.W.K. Müller in a study on the Pa-yi language from a
Chinese manuscript entitled _Hwa-i-yi-yü_ found by Dr. F. Hirth in China,
and belonging now to the Berlin Royal Library, says the proper orthography
of the word is _Wan-chang_ in Pa-yi. (_T'oung Pao_, III. p. 20.) This helps
to find the origin of the name _Vochan_.--H.C.] This city has been a
Chinese one for several centuries, and previous to the late Mahomedan
revolt its population was almost exclusively Chinese, with only a small
mixture of Shans. It is now noted for the remarkable beauty and fairness of
the women. But it is mentioned by Chinese authors as having been in the
Middle Ages the capital of the Gold-Teeth. These people, according to
Martini, dwelt chiefly to the north of the city. They used to go to worship
a huge stone, 100 feet high, at Nan-ngan, and cover it annually with
gold-leaf. Some additional particulars about the Kin-Chi, in the time of
the Mongols, will be found in Pauthier's notes (p. 398).

[In 1274, the Burmese attacked Yung ch'ang, whose inhabitants were known
under the name of _Kin-Chi_ (Golden-Teeth). (_E. Rocher, Princes du
Yun-nan_, p. 71.) From the Annals of Momein, translated by Mr. E.H. Parker
(_China Review_, XX. p. 345), we learn that: "In the year 1271, the General
of Ta-li was sent on a mission to procure the submission of the Burmese,
and managed to bring a Burmese envoy named Kiai-poh back with him. Four
years later Fu A-pih, Chief of the Golden-Teeth, was utilised as a guide,
which so angered the Burmese that they detained Fu A-pih and attacked
Golden-Teeth: but he managed to bribe himself free. A-ho, Governor of the
Golden-Teeth, was now sent as a spy, which caused the Burmese to advance to
the attack once more, but they were driven back by Twan Sin-cha-jih. These
events led to the Burmese war," which lasted till 1301.

According to the _Hwang-tsing Chi-kung t'u_ (quoted by Devéria, _Front._ p.
130), the _Pei-jen_ were _Kin-chi_ of Pa-y race, and were surnamed
Min-kia-tzu; the Min-kia, according to F. Garnier, say that they come from
Nan-king, but this is certainly an error for the Pei-jen. From another
Chinese work, Devéeria (p. 169) gives this information: The Piao are the
Kin-Chi; they submitted to the Mongols in the 13th century; they are
descended from the people of Chu-po or Piao Kwo (Kingdom of Piao), ancient
Pegu; P'u-p'iao, in a little valley between the Mekong and the Salwen
Rivers, was the place through which the P'u and the Piao entered China.

The Chinese geographical work _Fang-yu-ki-yao_ mentions the name of
Kin-Chi Ch'eng, or city of Kin-Chi, as the ancient denomination of
Yung-ch'ang. A Chinese Pa-y vocabulary, belonging to Professor Devéria,
translates Kin-Chi by Wan-Chang (Yung-ch'ang). (_Devéria, Front._ p.
128.)--H.C.]

It has not been determined who are the representatives of these
Gold-Teeth, who were evidently distinct from the Shans, not Buddhist, and
without literature. I should think it probable that they were _Kakhyens_ or
_Singphos_, who, excluding Shans, appear to form the greatest body in that
quarter, and are closely akin to each other, indeed essentially identical
in race.[1] The Singphos have now extended widely to the west of the Upper
Irawadi and northward into Assam, but their traditions bring them from the
borders of Yunnan. The original and still most populous seat of the Kakhyen
or Singpho race is pointed out by Colonel Hannay in the Gulansigung
Mountains and the valley of the eastern source of the Irawadi. This agrees
with Martini's indication of the seat of the Kin-Chi as north of
Yung-ch'ang. One of Hannay's notices of Singpho customs should also be
compared with the interpolation from Ramusio about tattooing: "The men
tattoo their limbs slightly, and all married females are tattooed on both
legs from the ankle to the knee, in broad horizontal circular bands. Both
sexes also wear rings below the knee of fine shreds of rattan varnished
black" (p. 18). These rings appear on the Kakhyen woman in our cut.

[Illustration: Kakhyens. (From a Photograph.)]

The only other wild tribe spoken of by Major Sladen as attending the
markets on the frontier is that of the _Lissus_ already mentioned by
Lieutenant Garnier (supra, ch. xlvii. note 6), and who are said to
be the most savage and indomitable of the tribes in that quarter. Garnier
also mentions the Mossos, who are alleged once to have formed an
independent kingdom about Li-kiang fu. Possibly, however, the Gold-Teeth
may have become entirely absorbed in the Chinese and Shan population.

The characteristic of casing the teeth in gold should identify the tribe
did it still exist. But I can learn nothing of the continued existence of
such a custom among any tribe of the Indo-Chinese continent. The insertion
of gold studs or spots, which Bürck confounds with it, is common enough
among Indo-Chinese races, but that is quite a different thing. The actual
practice of the Zardandan is, however, followed by some of the people of
Sumatra, as both Marsden and Raffles testify: "The great men sometimes set
their teeth in gold, by casing with a plate of that metal the under
row ... it is sometimes indented to the shape of the teeth, but more
usually quite plain. They do not remove it either to eat or sleep." The
like custom is mentioned by old travellers at Macassar, and with the
substitution of _silver_ for gold by a modern traveller as existing in
Timor; but in both, probably, it was a practice of Malay tribes, as in
Sumatra. (_Marsden's Sumatra_, 3rd ed., p. 52; _Raffles's Java_, I. 105;
_Bickmore's Ind. Archipelago_.)

[In his second volume of _The River of Golden Sand_, Captain Gill has two
chapters (viii. and ix.) with the title: _In the footsteps of Marco Polo
and of Augustus Margary_ devoted to _The Land of the Gold-Teeth_ and _The
Marches of the Kingdom of Mien_.--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--This is precisely the account which Lieutenant Garnier gives of
the people of Laos: "The Laos people are very indolent, and when they are
not rich enough to possess slaves they make over to their women the
greatest part of the business of the day; and 'tis these latter who not
only do all the work of the house, but who husk the rice, work in the
fields, and paddle the canoes. Hunting and fishing are almost the only
occupations which pertain exclusively to the stronger sex." (_Notice sur
le Voyage d'Exploration_, etc., p. 34.)

NOTE 4.--This highly eccentric practice has been ably illustrated and
explained by Mr. Tylor, under the name of the _Couvade_, or "Hatching," by
which it is known in some of the Béarn districts of the Pyrenees, where it
formerly existed, as it does still or did recently, in some Basque
districts of Spain. [In a paper on _La Couvade chez les Basques_,
published in the _République Française_, of 19th January, 1877, and
reprinted in _Etudes de Linguistique et a' Ethnographie par A. Hovelacque
et Julien Vinson_, Paris, 1878, Prof. Vinson quotes the following curious
passage from the poem in ten cantos, _Luciniade_, by Sacombe, of
Carcassonne (Paris and Nîmes, 1790):

  "En Amérique, en Corse, et chez l'Ibérien,
  En France même encor chez le Vénarnien,
  Au pays Navarrois, lorsqu'une femme accouche,
  L'épouse sort du lit et le mari se couche;
  Et, quoiqu'il soit très sain et d'esprit et de corps,
  Contre un mal qu'il n'a point l'art unit ses efforts.
  On le met au régime, et notre faux malade,
  Soigné par l'accouchée, en son lit fait _couvade_:
  On ferme avec grand soin portes, volets, rideaux;
  Immobile, on l'oblige à rester sur le dos,
  Pour étouffer son lait, qui gêné dans sa course,
  Pourrait en l'étouffant remonter vers sa source.
  Un mari, dans sa couche, au médecin soumis,
  Reçoit, en cet état, parents, voisins, amis,
  Qui viennent l'exhorter à prendre patience
  Et font des voeux au ciel pour sa convalescence."

Professor Vinson, who is an authority on the subject, comes to the
conclusion that it is not possible to ascribe to the Basques the custom of
the _couvade_.

Mr. Tylor writes to me that he "did not quite begin the use of this good
French word in the sense of the 'man-child-bed' as they call it in
Germany. It occurs in Rochefort, _Iles Antilles_, and though Dr.
Murray, of the English Dictionary, maintains that it is spurious, if so,
it is better than any genuine word I know of."--H.C.] "In certain valleys
of Biscay," says Francisque-Michel, "in which the popular usages carry us
back to the infancy of society, the woman immediately after her delivery
gets up and attends to the cares of the household, whilst the husband
takes to bed with the tender fledgeling in his arms, and so receives the
compliments of his neighbours."

The nearest people to the Zardandan of whom I find this custom elsewhere
recorded, is one called _Langszi_,[2] a small tribe of aborigines in
the department of Wei-ning, in Kweichau, but close to the border of
Yun-nan: "Their manners and customs are very extraordinary. For example,
when the wife has given birth to a child, the husband remains in the house
and holds it in his arms for a whole month, not once going out of doors.
The wife in the mean time does all the work in doors and out, and provides
and serves up both food and drink for the husband, she only giving suck to
the child." I am informed also that, among the Miris on the Upper Assam
border, the husband on such occasions confines himself strictly to the
house for forty days after the event.

The custom of the Couvade has especially and widely prevailed in South
America, not only among the Carib races of Guiana, of the Spanish Main,
and (where still surviving) of the West Indies, but among many tribes of
Brazil and its borders from the Amazons to the Plate, and among the
Abipones of Paraguay; it also exists or has existed among the aborigines
of California, in West Africa, in Bouro, one of the Moluccas, and among a
wandering tribe of the Telugu-speaking districts of Southern India.
According to Diodorus it prevailed in ancient Corsica, according to Strabo
among the Iberians of Northern Spain (where we have seen it has lingered
to recent times), according to Apollonius Rhodius among the Tibareni of
Pontus. Modified traces of a like practice, not carried to the same extent
of oddity, are also found in a variety of countries besides those that
have been named, as in Borneo, in Kamtchatka, and in Greenland. In nearly
all cases some particular diet, or abstinence from certain kinds of food
and drink, and from exertion, is prescribed to the father; in some, more
positive and trying penances are inflicted.

Butler had no doubt our Traveller's story in his head when he made the
widow in _Hudibras_ allude in a ribald speech to the supposed fact
that

    --"Chineses go to bed
  And lie in, in their ladies' stead."

The custom is humorously introduced, as Pauthier has noticed, in the
Mediaeval Fabliau of _Aucasin and Nicolete_. Aucasin arriving at the
castle of Torelore asks for the king and is told he is in child-bed. Where
then is his wife? She is gone to the wars and has taken all the people
with her. Aucasin, greatly astonished, enters the palace, and wanders
through it till he comes to the chamber where the king lay:--

  "En le canbre entre Aucasins
  Li cortois et li gentis;
  Il est venus dusqu'au lit
  Alec ú li Rois se gist.
  Pardevant lui s'arestit
  Si parla, Oès que dist;
  Diva fau, que fais-tu ci?
  Dist le Rois, Je gis d'un fil,
  Quant mes mois sera complis,
  Et ge serai bien garis,
  Dont irai le messe oïr
  Si comme mes ancessor fist," etc.

Aucasin pulls all the clothes off him, and cudgels him soundly, making him
promise that never a man shall lie in again in his country.

This strange custom, if it were unique, would look like a coarse practical
joke, but appearing as it does among so many different races and in every
quarter of the world, it must have its root somewhere deep in the
psychology of the uncivilised man. I must refer to Mr. Tylor's interesting
remarks on the rationale of the custom, for they do not bear abridgment.
Professor Max Müller humorously suggests that "the treatment which a
husband receives among ourselves at the time of his wife's confinement,
not only from mothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, and other female relations,
but from nurses, and from every consequential maid-servant in the house,"
is but a "survival," as Mr. Tylor would call it, of the _couvade_; or
at least represents the same feeling which among those many uncivilised
nations thus drove the husband to his bed, and sometimes (as among the
Caribs) put him when there to systematic torture.

(_Tylor Researches_, 288-296; _Michel, Le Pays Basque_, p. 201;
_Sketches of the Meau-tsze_, transl. by _Bridgman_ in _J. of North China
Br. of R. As. Soc._, p. 277; _Hudibras_, Pt. III., canto I. 707; _Fabliaus
et Contes par Barbazan, éd. Méon_, I. 408-409; _Indian Antiq._ III. 151;
_Müller's Chips_, II. 227 seqq.; many other references in TYLOR, and in a
capital monograph by Dr. H.H. Ploss of Leipzig, received during revision
of this sheet: '_Das Mannerkindbett_.' What a notable example of the
German power of compounding is that title!)

[This custom seems to be considered generally as a survival of the
matriarchate in a society with a patriarchal régime. We may add to the
list of authorities on this subject: _E. Westermarck, Hist. of Human
Marriage_, 106, seqq.; _G. A. Wilken, De Couvade bij de Volken v.d.
Indischen Archipel, Bijdr. Ind. Inst._, 5th ser., iv. p. 250. Dr. Ernest
Martin, late physician of the French Legation at Peking, in an article on
_La Couvade en Chine_ (_Revue Scientifique_, 24th March, 1894), gave a
drawing representing the couvade from a sketch by a native artist.

In the _China Review_ (XI. pp. 401-402), "Lao Kwang-tung" notes these
interesting facts: "The Chinese believe that certain actions performed by
the husband during the pregnancy of his wife will affect the child. If a
dish of food on the table is raised by putting another dish, or anything
else below it, it is not considered proper for a husband, who is expecting
the birth of a child, to partake of it, for fear the two dishes should
cause the child to have two tongues. It is extraordinary that the caution
thus exercised by the Chinese has not prevented many of them from being
double-tongued. This result, it is supposed, however, will only happen if
the food so raised is eaten in the house in which the future mother
happens to be. It is thought that the pasting up of the red papers
containing antithetical and felicitous sentences on them, as at New Year's
time, by a man under similar circumstances, and this whether the future
mother sees the action performed or not, will cause the child to have red
marks on the face or any part of the body. The causes producing _naevi
materni_ have probably been the origin of such marks, rather than the idea
entertained by the Chinese that the father, having performed an action by
some occult mode, influences the child yet unborn. A case is said to have
occurred in which ill effects were obviated, or rather obliterated, by the
red papers being torn down, after the birth of the infant, and soaked in
water, when as the red disappeared from the paper, so the child's face
assumed a natural hue. Lord Avebury also speaks of _la couvade_ as
existing among the Chinese of West Yun-Nan. (_Origin of Civilisation and
Primitive Condition of Man_, p. 18)."

Dr. J.A.H. Murray, editor of the _New English Dictionary_, wrote, in
_The Academy_, of 29th October, 1892, a letter with the heading of
_Couvade, The Genesis of an Anthropological Term_, which elicited an
answer from Dr. E.B. Tylor (_Academy_, 5th November): "Wanting a general
term for such customs," writes Dr. Tylor, "and finding statements in books
that this male lying-in lasted on till modern times, in the south of
France, and was there called _couvade_, that is brooding or hatching
(_couver_), I adopted this word for the set of customs, and it has since
become established in English." The discussion was carried on in _The
Academy_, 12th and 19th November, 10th and 17th December; Mr. A.L. Mayhew
wrote (12th November): "There is no doubt whatever that Dr. Tylor and
Professor Max Müller (in a review of Dr. Tylor's book) share the glory of
having given a new technical sense to an old provincial French word, and
of seeing it accepted in France, and safely enshrined in the great
Dictionary of Littré."

Now as to the origin of the word; we have seen above that Rochefort was
the first to use the expression _faire la couvade_. This author, or at
least the author (see _Barbier, Ouvrages anonymes_) of the _Histoire
naturelle ... des Iles Antilles_, which was published for the first time
at Rotterdam, in 1658, 4to., writes: "C'est qu'au méme tems que la femme
est delivrée le mary se met au lit, pour s'y plaindre et y faire
l'acouchée: coutume, qui bien que Sauvage et ridicule, se trouve
neantmoins à ce que l'on dit, parmy les paysans d'vne certaine Province de
France. Et ils appellent cela _faire la couvade_. Mais ce qui est de
fâcheus pour le pauvre Caraïbe, qui s'est mis au lit au lieu de
l'acouchée, c'est qu'on luy fait faire diéte dix on douze jours de suite,
ne luy donnant rien par jour qu'vn petit morceau de Cassave, et un peu
d'eau dans la quelle on a aussi fait boüillir un peu de ce pain de
racine.... Mais ils ne font ce grand jeusne qu'à la naissance de leur
premier enfant ..." (II. pp. 607-608).

Lafitau (_Maeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_, I. pp. 49-50) says on the
authority of Rochefort: "Je la trouve chez les Ibériens ou les premiers
Peuples d'Espagne ... elle est aujourd'hui dans quelques unes de nos
Provinces d'Espagne."

The word _couvade_, forgotten in the sense of lying-in bed, recalled by
Sacombe, has been renovated in a happy manner by Dr. Tylor.

As to the custom itself, there can be no doubt of its existence, in spite
of some denials. Dr. Tylor, in the third edition of his valuable _Early
History of Mankind_, published in 1878 (Murray), since the last edition of
_The Book of Ser Marco Polo_, has added (pp. 291 seqq.) many more proofs
to support what he had already said on the subject.

There may be some strong doubts as to the _couvade_ in the south of
France, and the authors who speak of it in Bèarn and the Basque Countries
seem to have copied one another, but there is not the slightest doubt of
its having been and of its being actually practised in South America.
There is a very curious account of it in the _Voyage dans le Nord du
Brésil_ made by Father Yves d'Evreux in 1613 and 1614 (see pp. 88-89 of
the reprint, Paris, 1864, and the note of the learned Ferdinand Denis, pp.
411-412). Compare with _Durch Central-Brasilien ... im Jahre_ 1884 _von
K.v. den Steinen_. But the following extract from _Among the Indians of
Guiana_.... _By Everard im Thurn_ (1883), will settle, I think, the
question:

"Turning from the story of the day to the story of the life, we may begin
at the beginning, that is, at the birth of the children. And here, at
once, we meet with, perhaps, the most curious point in the habits of the
Indians; the _couvade_ or male child-bed. This custom, which is common to
the uncivilized people of many parts of the world, is probably among the
strangest ever invented by the human brain. Even before the child is born,
the father abstains for a time from certain kinds of animal food. The
woman works as usual up to a few hours before the birth of the child. At
last she retires alone, or accompanied only by some other women, to the
forest, where she ties up her hammock; and then the child is born. Then in
a few hours--often less than a day--the woman, who, like all women living
in a very unartificial condition, suffers but little, gets up and resumes
her ordinary work. According to Schomburgk, the mother, at any rate among
the Macusis, remains in her hammock for some time, and the father hangs
his hammock, and lies in it, by her side; but in all cases where the
matter came under my notice, the mother left her hammock almost at once.
In any case, no sooner is the child born than the father takes to his
hammock and, abstaining from every sort of work, from meat and all other
food, except weak gruel of cassava meal, from smoking, from washing
himself, and, above all, from touching weapons of any sort, is nursed and
cared for by all the women of the place. One other regulation, mentioned
by Schomburgk, is certainly quaint; the interesting father may not scratch
himself with his finger-nails, but he may use for this purpose a splinter,
specially provided, from the mid-rib of a cokerite palm. This continues
for many days, and sometimes even weeks. _Couvade_ is such a wide-spread
institution, that I had often read and wondered at it; but it was not
until I saw it practised around me, and found that I was often suddenly
deprived of the services of my best hunters or boat-hands, by the
necessity which they felt, and which nothing could persuade them to
disregard, of observing _couvade_, that I realized its full strangeness.
No satisfactory explanation of its origin seems attainable. It appears
based on a belief in the existence of a mysterious connection between the
child and its father-far closer than that which exists between the child
and its mother,--and of such a nature that if the father infringes any of
the rules of the _couvade_, for a time after the birth of the child, the
latter suffers. For instance, if he eats the flesh of a water-haas
(_Capybara_), a large rodent with very protruding teeth, the teeth of the
child will grow as those of the animal; or if he eats the flesh of the
spotted-skinned labba, the child's skin will become spotted. Apparently
there is also some idea that for the father to eat strong food, to wash,
to smoke, or to handle weapons, would have the same result as if the
new-born babe ate such food, washed, smoked, or played with edged tools"
(pp. 217-219.)

I have to thank Dr. Edward B. Tylor for the valuable notes he kindly sent
me.--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--"The abundance of gold in Yun-nan is proverbial in China, so
that if a man lives very extravagantly they ask if his father is governor
of Yun-nan." (_Martini_, p. 140.)

Polo has told us that in Eastern Yun-nan the exchange was 8 of silver for
one of gold (ch. xlviii.); in the Western division of the province 6 of
silver for one of gold (ch. xlix.); and now, still nearer the borders of
Ava, only 5 of silver for one of gold. Such discrepancies within 15 days'
journey would be inconceivable, but that in both the latter instances at
least he appears to speak of the rates at which the gold was purchased
from secluded, ignorant, and uncivilised tribes. It is difficult to
reconcile with other facts the reason which he assigns for the high value
put on silver at Vochan, viz., that there was no silver-mine within five
months' journey. In later days, at least, Martini speaks of many
silver-mines in Yun-nan, and the "Great Silver Mine" (_Bau-dwen gyi_ of the
Burmese) or group of mines, which affords a chief supply to Burma in modern
times, is not far from the territory of our Traveller's Zardandan.
Garnier's map shows several argentiferous sites in the Valley of the
Lan-t'sang.

In another work[3] I have remarked at some length on the relative values
of gold and silver about this time. In Western Europe these seem to have
been as 12 to 1, and I have shown grounds for believing that in India, and
generally over civilised Asia, the ratio was 10 to 1. In Pauthier's
extracts from the _Yuen-shi_ or Annals of the Mongol Dynasty, there is an
incidental but precise confirmation of this, of which I was not then
aware. This states (p. 321) that on the issue of the paper currency of
1287 the official instructions to the local treasuries were to issue notes
of the nominal value of two strings, i.e. 2000 _wen_ or cash, for every
ounce of flowered silver, and 20,000 cash for every ounce of gold. Ten to
1 must have continued to be the relation in China down to about the end of
the 17th century if we may believe Lecomte; but when Milburne states the
same value in the beginning of the 19th he must have fallen into some
great error. In 1781 Sonnerat tells us that _formerly_ gold had been
exported from China with a profit of 25 per cent., but at that time a
profit of 18 to 20 per cent, was made by _importing_ it. At present[4]
the relative values are about the same as in Europe, viz. 1 to 15-1/2 or 1
to 16; but in Canton, in 1844, they were 1 to 17; and Timkowski states
that at Peking in 1821 the finest gold was valued at 18 to 1. And as
regards the precise territory of which this chapter speaks I find in
Lieutenant Bower's Commercial Report on Sladen's Mission that the price of
pure gold at Momein in 1868 was 13 times its weight in silver (p. 122);
whilst M. Garnier mentions that the exchange at Ta-li in 1869 was 12 to 1
(I. 522).

Does not Shakspeare indicate at least a memory of 10 to 1 as the
traditional relation of gold to silver when he makes the Prince of
Morocco, balancing over Portia's caskets, argue:

  "Or shall I think in silver she's immured,
  Being ten times undervalued to tried gold?
  O sinful thought."

In Japan, at the time trade was opened, we know from Sir R. Alcock's work
the extraordinary fact that the proportionate value set upon gold and
silver currency by authority was as 3 to 1.

(_Cathay_, etc., p. ccl. and p. 442; _Lecomte_, II. 91; _Milburne's
Oriental Commerce_, II. 510; _Sonnerat_, II. 17; _Hedde, Etude, Pratique_,
etc., p. 14; _Williams, Chinese Commercial Guide_, p. 129; _Timkowski_,
II. 202; _Alcock_, I. 281; II. 411, etc.)

NOTE 6.--Mr. Lay cites from a Chinese authority a notice of a tribe of
"Western Miautsze," who "in the middle of autumn sacrifice to the Great
Ancestor or Founder of their Race." (_The Chinese as they are_, p. 321.)

NOTE 7.--Dr. Anderson confirms the depressing and unhealthy character of
the summer climate at Momein, though standing between 5000 and 6000 feet
above the sea (p. 41).

NOTE 8.--"Whereas before," says Jack Cade to Lord Say, "our forefathers
had no books but score and tally, thou hast caused printing to be used."
The use of such tallies for the record of contracts among the aboriginal
tribes of Kweichau is mentioned by Chinese authorities, and the French
missionaries of Bonga speak of the same as in use among the simple tribes
in that vicinity. But, as Marsden notes, the use of such rude records was
to be found in his day in higher places and much nearer home. They
continued to be employed as records of receipts in the British Exchequer
till 1834, "and it is worthy of recollection that the fire by which the
Houses of Parliament were destroyed was supposed to have originated in the
over-heating of the flues in which the discarded tallies were being
burnt." I remember often, when a child, to have seen the tallies of the
colliers in Scotland, and possibly among that class they may survive. They
appear to be still used by bakers in various parts of England and France,
in the Canterbury hop-gardens, and locally in some other trades.
(_Martini_, 135; _Bridgman_, 259, 262; _Eng. Cyclop._ sub v. _Tally; Notes
and Queries_, 1st ser. X. 485.)

[According to Father Crabouillet (_Missions Cath._ 1873, p. 105), the
Lolos use tallies for their contracts; Dr. Harmand mentions (_Tour du
Monde_, 1877, No. VII.) the same fact among the Khas of Central Laos; and
M. Pierre Lefèvre-Pontalis _Populations du nord de l'Indo-Chine_, 1892,
p. 22, from the _J. As._ says he saw these tallies among the Khas of
Luang-Prabang.--H.C.]

"In Illustration of this custom I have to relate what follows. In the
year 1863 the Tsaubwa (or Prince) of a Shan Province adjoining Yun-nan was
in rebellion against the Burmese Government. He wished to enter into
communication with the British Government. He sent a messenger to a
British Officer with a letter tendering his allegiance, and accompanying
this letter was a piece of bamboo about five inches long. This had been
split down the middle, so that the two pieces fitted closely together,
forming a tube in the original shape of the bamboo. A notch at one end
included the edges of both pieces, showing that they were a pair. The
messenger said that if the reply were favourable one of the pieces was to
be returned and the other kept. I need hardly say the messenger received
no written reply, and both pieces of bamboo were retained." (_MS. Note
by Sir Arthur Phayre_.)

NOTE 9.--Compare Mr. Hodgson's account of the sub-Himalayan Bodos and
Dhimals: "All diseases are ascribed to supernatural agency. The sick man
is supposed to be possessed by one of the deities, who racks him with pain
as a punishment for impiety or neglect of the god in question. Hence not
the mediciner, but the exorcist, is summoned to the sick man's aid."
(_J.A.S.B._ XVIII. 728.)

NOTE 10.--Mr. Hodgson again: "Libations of fermented liquor always
accompany sacrifice--because, to confess the whole truth, sacrifice and
feast are commutable words, and feasts need to be crowned with copious
potations." (Ibid.)

NOTE 11.--And again: "The god in question is asked what sacrifice he
requires? a buffalo, a hog, a fowl, or a duck, to spare the sufferer; ...
anxious as I am fully to illustrate the topic, I will not try the patience
of my readers by describing all that vast variety of black victims and
white, of red victims and blue, which each particular deity is alleged to
prefer." (Ibid. and p. 732.)

NOTE 12.--The same system of devil-dancing is prevalent among the tribes
on the Lu-kiang, as described by the R.C. Missionaries. The conjurors are
there called _Mumos_. (_Ann. de la Prop. de la Foi_, XXXVI. 323, and
XXXVII. 312-313.)

"Marco's account of the exorcism of evil spirits in cases of obstinate
illness exactly resembles what is done in similar cases by the Burmese,
except that I never saw animals sacrificed on such occasions." (_Sir A.
Phayre._)

Mouhot says of the wild people of Cambodia called _Stiens_: "When any one
is ill they say that the Evil Spirit torments him; and to deliver him they
set up about the patient a dreadful din which does not cease night or day,
until some one among the bystanders falls down as if in a syncope, crying
out, 'I have him,--he is in me,--he is strangling me!' Then they question
the person who has thus become possessed. They ask him what remedies will
save the patient; what remedies does the Evil Spirit require that he may
give up his prey? Sometimes it is an ox or a pig; but too often it is a
human victim." (_J.R.G.S._ XXXII. 147.)

See also the account of the Samoyede _Tadibeï_ or Devil-dancer in
Klaproth's _Magasin Asiatique_ (II. 83).

In fact these strange rites of Shamanism, devil-dancing, or what not, are
found with wonderful identity of character among the non-Caucasian races
over parts of the earth most remote from one another, not only among the
vast variety of Indo-Chinese Tribes, but among the Tamulian tribes of
India, the Veddahs of Ceylon, the races of Siberia, and the red nations of
North and South America. Hinduism has assimilated these "prior
superstitions of the sons of Tur" as Mr. Hodgson calls them, in the form
of Tantrika mysteries, whilst, in the wild performance of the Dancing
Dervishes at Constantinople, we see perhaps again the infection of
Turanian blood breaking out from the very heart of Mussulman orthodoxy.

Dr. Caldwell has given a striking account of the practice of devil-dancing
among the Shanars of Tinnevelly, which forms a perfect parallel in modern
language to our Traveller's description of a scene of which he also had
manifestly been an eye-witness: "When the preparations are completed and
the devil-dance is about to commence, the music is at first comparatively
slow; the dancer seems impassive and sullen, and he either stands still or
moves about in gloomy silence. Gradually, as the music becomes quicker and
louder, his excitement begins to rise. Sometimes, to help him to work
himself up into a frenzy, he uses medicated draughts, cuts and lacerates
himself till the blood flows, lashes himself with a huge whip, presses a
burning torch to his breast, drinks the blood which flows from his own
wounds, or drains the blood of the sacrifice, putting the throat of the
decapitated goat to his mouth. Then, as if he had acquired new life, he
begins to brandish his staff of bells, and to dance with a quick but wild
unsteady step. Suddenly the afflatus descends; there is no mistaking that
glare, or those frantic leaps. He snorts, he stares, he gyrates. The demon
has now taken bodily possession of him, and though he retains the power of
utterance and motion, both are under the demon's control, and his separate
consciousness is in abeyance. The bystanders signalise the event by
raising a long shout, attended with a peculiar vibratory noise, caused by
the motion of the hand and tongue, or the tongue alone. The devil-dancer
is now worshipped as a present deity, and every bystander consults him
respecting his diseases, his wants, the welfare of his absent relatives,
the offerings to be made for the accomplishment of his wishes, and in
short everything for which superhuman knowledge is supposed to be
available." (_Hodgson, J.R.As.Soc._ XVIII. 397; _The Tinnevelly
Shanars_, by the _Rev. R. Caldwell, B.A._, Madras, 1849, pp. 19-20.)


[1] "_Singpho_," says Colonel Hannay, "signifies in the Kakhyen
    language 'a man,' and all of this race who have settled in Hookong or
    Assam are thus designated; the reason of their change of name I could
    not ascertain, but so much importance seems to be attached to it, that
    the Singphos, in talking of their eastern and southern neighbours,
    call them Kakhyens or Kakoos, and consider it an insult to be called
    so themselves." (_Sketch of the Singphos, or the Kakhyens of
    Burma_, Calcutta, 1847, pp. 3-4.) If, however, the Kakhyens, or
    _Kachyens_ (as Major Sladen calls them), are represented by the
    _Go-tchang_ of Pauthier's Chinese extracts, these seem to be
    distinguished from the Kin-Chi, though associated with them. (See pp.
    397, 411.)

[2] [Mr. E.H. Parker (_China Review_, XIV. p. 359) says that Colonel
    Yule's _Langszi_ are evidently the _Szilang_, one of the six
    _Chao_, but turned upside down.--H.C.]

[3] _Cathay_, etc., pp. ccl. seqq. and p. 441.

[4] Written in 1870.



CHAPTER LI.

WHEREIN IS RELATED HOW THE KING OF MIEN AND BANGALA VOWED VENGEANCE
AGAINST THE GREAT KAAN.


But I was forgetting to tell you of a famous battle that was fought in the
kingdom of Vochan in the Province of Zardandan, and that ought not to be
omitted from our Book. So we will relate all the particulars.

You see, in the year of Christ, 1272,[NOTE 1] the Great Kaan sent a large
force into the kingdoms of Carajan and Vochan, to protect them from the
ravages of ill-disposed people; and this was before he had sent any of his
sons to rule the country, as he did afterwards when he made Sentemur king
there, the son of a son of his who was deceased.

Now there was a certain king, called the king of Mien and of Bangala, who
was a very puissant prince, with much territory and treasure and people;
and he was not as yet subject to the Great Kaan, though it was not long
after that the latter conquered him and took from him both the kingdoms
that I have named.[NOTE 2] And it came to pass that when this king of Mien
and Bangala heard that the host of the Great Kaan was at Vochan, he said
to himself that it behoved him to go against them with so great a force as
should insure his cutting off the whole of them, insomuch that the Great
Kaan would be very sorry ever to send an army again thither [to his
frontier].

So this king prepared a great force and munitions of war; and he had, let
me tell you, 2000 great elephants, on each of which was set a tower of
timber, well framed and strong, and carrying from twelve to sixteen
well-armed fighting men.[NOTE 3] And besides these, he had of horsemen and
of footmen good 60,000 men. In short, he equipped a fine force, as well
befitted such a puissant prince. It was indeed a host capable of doing
great things.

And what shall I tell you? When the king had completed these great
preparations to fight the Tartars, he tarried not, but straightway marched
against them. And after advancing without meeting with anything worth
mentioning, they arrived within three days of the Great Kaan's host, which
was then at Vochan in the territory of Zardandan, of which I have already
spoken. So there the king pitched his camp, and halted to refresh his
army.


NOTE 1.--This date is no doubt corrupt. (See note 3, ch. lii.)

NOTE 2.--MIEN is the name by which the kingdom of Burma or Ava was and is
known to the Chinese. M. Garnier informs me that _Mien-Kwé_ or
_Mien-tisong_ is the name always given in Yun-nan to that kingdom, whilst
the Shans at Kiang Hung call the Burmese _Man_ (pronounced like the English
word).

The title given to the sovereign in question of King of BENGAL, as well as
of Mien, is very remarkable. We shall see reason hereafter to conceive
that Polo did more or less confound Bengal with _Pegu_, which was subject
to the Burmese monarchy up to the time of the Mongol invasion. But apart
from any such misapprehension, there is not only evidence of rather close
relations between Burma and Gangetic India in the ages immediately
preceding that of our author, but also some ground for believing that he
may be right in his representation, and that the King of Burma may have at
this time arrogated the title of "King of Bengal," which is attributed to
him in the text.

Anaurahta, one of the most powerful kings in Burmese history (1017-1059),
extended his conquests to the frontiers of India, and is stated to have
set up images within that country. He also married an Indian princess, the
daughter of the King of _Wethali_ (i. e, _Vaiçali_ in Tirhút).

There is also in the _Burmese Chronicle_ a somewhat confused story
regarding a succeeding king, Kyan-tsittha (A.D. 1064), who desired to
marry his daughter to the son of the King of _Patteik-Kará_, a part of
Bengal.[1] The marriage was objected to by the Burmese nobles, but the
princess was already with child by the Bengal prince; and their son
eventually succeeded to the Burmese throne under the name of
Alaungtsi-thu. When king, he travelled all over his dominions, and visited
the images which Anaurahta had set up in India. He also maintained
intercourse with the King of Patteik Kara and married his daughter.
Alaungtsi-thu is stated to have lived to the age of 101 years, and to have
reigned 75. Even then his death was hastened by his son Narathu, who
smothered him in the temple called Shwé-Ku ("Golden Cave"), at Pagán, and
also put to death his Bengali step-mother. The father of the latter sent
eight brave men, disguised as Brahmans, to avenge his daughter's death.
Having got access to the royal presence through their sacred character,
they slew King Narathu and then themselves. Hence King Narathu is known in
the Burmese history as the _Kalá-Kya Meng_ or "King slain by the Hindus."
He was building the great Temple at Pagán called _Dhammayangyi_, at the
time of his death, which occurred about the year 1171. The great-grandson
of this king was Narathihapade (presumably _Narasinha-pati_), the king
reigning at the time of the Mongol invasion.

All these circumstances show tolerably close relations between Burma and
Bengal, and also _that the dynasty then reigning in Burma was descended
from a Bengal stock_. Sir Arthur Phayre, after noting these points,
remarks: "From all these circumstances, and from the conquests attributed
to Anaurahta, it is very probable that, after the conquest of Bengal by
the Mahomedans in the 13th century, the kings of Burma would assume the
title of _Kings of Bengal_. This is nowhere expressly stated in the
Burmese history, but the course of events renders it very probable. We
know that the claim to Bengal was asserted by the kings of Burma in long
after years. In the Journal of the Marquis of Hastings, under the date of
6th September, 1818, is the following passage: 'The king of Burma
favoured us early this year with the obliging requisition that we should
cede to him Moorshedabad and the provinces to the east of it, which he
deigned to say were all natural dependencies of his throne.' And at the
time of the disputes on the frontier of Arakan, in 1823-1824, which led to
the war of the two following years, the Governor of Arakan made a similar
demand. We may therefore reasonably conclude that at the close of the 13th
century of the Christian era the kings of Pagán called themselves kings of
Burma and of Bengala." (_MS. Note by Sir Arthur Phayre_; see also his
paper in _J.A.S.B._ vol. XXXVII. part I.)

NOTE 3.--It is very difficult to know what to make of the repeated
assertions of old writers as to the numbers of men carried by
war-elephants, or, if we could admit those numbers, to conceive how the
animal could have carried the enormous structure necessary to give them
space to use their weapons. The Third Book of Maccabees is the most
astounding in this way, alleging that a single elephant carried 32 stout
men, besides the Indian _Mahaut_. Bochart indeed supposes the number here
to be a clerical error for 12, but this would even be extravagant. Friar
Jordanus is, no doubt, building on the Maccabees rather than on his own
Oriental experience when he says that the elephant "carrieth easily more
than 30 men." Philostratus, in his _Life of Apollonius_, speaks of 10 to
15; Ibn Batuta of about 20; and a great elephant sent by Timur to the
Sultan of Egypt is said to have carried 20 drummers. Christopher Borri says
that in Cochin China the elephant did ordinarily carry 13 or 14 persons, 6
on each side in two tiers of 3 each, and 2 behind. On the other hand, among
the ancients, Strabo and Aelian speak of _three_ soldiers only in addition
to the driver, and Livy, describing the Battle of Magnesia, of _four_.
These last are reasonable statements.

(_Bochart_, _Hierozoicon_, ed. 3rd, p. 266; _Jord._, p. 26; _Philost._
trad. par _A. Chassaing_, liv. II. c. ii.; _Ibn Bat._ II. 223; _N. and
E._ XIV. 510; _Cochin China_, etc., London, 1633, ed. 3; _Armandi, Hist.
Militaire des Eléphants_, 259 seqq. 442.)


[1] Sir A. Phayre thinks this may have been _Vikrampúr_, for some
    time the capital of Eastern Bengal before the Mahomedan conquest.
    Vikrampúr was some miles east of Dacca, and the dynasty in question
    was that called _Vaidya_. (See _Lassen_, III. 749.)
    _Patteik-Kará_ is apparently an attempt to represent some Hindi
    name such as _Patthargarh_, "The Stone-Fort."



CHAPTER LII.

OF THE BATTLE THAT WAS FOUGHT BY THE GREAT KAAN'S HOST AND HIS SENESCHAL,
AGAINST THE KING OF MIEN.


And when the Captain of the Tartar host had certain news that the king
aforesaid was coming against him with so great a force, he waxed uneasy,
seeing that he had with him but 12,000 horsemen. Natheless he was a most
valiant and able soldier, of great experience in arms and an excellent
Captain; and his name was NESCRADIN.[NOTE 1] His troops too were very
good, and he gave them very particular orders and cautions how to act, and
took every measure for his own defence and that of his army. And why
should I make a long story of it? The whole force of the Tartars,
consisting of 12,000 well-mounted horsemen, advanced to receive the enemy
in the Plain of Vochan, and there they waited to give them battle. And
this they did through the good judgment of the excellent Captain who led
them; for hard by that plain was a great wood, thick with trees. And so
there in the plain the Tartars awaited their foe. Let us then leave
discoursing of them a while; we shall come back to them presently; but
meantime let us speak of the enemy.

After the King of Mien had halted long enough to refresh his troops, he
resumed his march, and came to the Plain of Vochan, where the Tartars were
already in order of battle. And when the king's army had arrived in the
plain, and was within a mile of the enemy, he caused all the castles that
were on the elephants to be ordered for battle, and the fighting-men to
take up their posts on them, and he arrayed his horse and his foot with
all skill, like a wise king as he was. And when he had completed all his
arrangements he began to advance to engage the enemy. The Tartars, seeing
the foe advance, showed no dismay, but came on likewise with good order
and discipline to meet them. And when they were near and nought remained
but to begin the fight, the horses of the Tartars took such fright at the
sight of the elephants that they could not be got to face the foe, but
always swerved and turned back; whilst all the time the king and his
forces, and all his elephants, continued to advance upon them.[NOTE 2]

And when the Tartars perceived how the case stood, they were in great
wrath, and wist not what to say or do; for well enough they saw that unless
they could get their horses to advance, all would be lost. But their
Captain acted like a wise leader who had considered everything beforehand.
He immediately gave orders that every man should dismount and tie his horse
to the trees of the forest that stood hard by, and that then they should
take to their bows, a weapon that they know how to handle better than any
troops in the world. They did as he bade them, and plied their bows
stoutly, shooting so many shafts at the advancing elephants that in a short
space they had wounded or slain the greater part of them as well as of the
men they carried. The enemy also shot at the Tartars, but the Tartars had
the better weapons, and were the better archers to boot.

And what shall I tell you? Understand that when the elephants felt the
smart of those arrows that pelted them like rain, they turned tail and
fled, and nothing on earth would have induced them to turn and face the
Tartars. So off they sped with such a noise and uproar that you would have
trowed the world was coming to an end! And then too they plunged into the
wood and rushed this way and that, dashing their castles against the trees,
bursting their harness and smashing and destroying everything that was on
them.

So when the Tartars saw that the elephants had turned tail and could not
be brought to face the fight again, they got to horse at once and charged
the enemy. And then the battle began to rage furiously with sword and
mace. Right fiercely did the two hosts rush together, and deadly were the
blows exchanged. The king's troops were far more in number than the
Tartars, but they were not of such metal, nor so inured to war; otherwise
the Tartars who were so few in number could never have stood against them.
Then might you see swashing blows dealt and taken from sword and mace;
then might you see knights and horses and men-at-arms go down; then might
you see arms and hands and legs and heads hewn off: and besides the dead
that fell, many a wounded man, that never rose again, for the sore press
there was. The din and uproar were so great from this side and from that,
that God might have thundered and no man would have heard it! Great was
the medley, and dire and parlous was the fight that was fought on both
sides; but the Tartars had the best of it.[NOTE 3]

In an ill hour indeed, for the king and his people, was that battle begun,
so many of them were slain therein. And when they had continued fighting
till midday the king's troops could stand against the Tartars no longer;
but felt that they were defeated, and turned and fled. And when the
Tartars saw them routed they gave chase, and hacked and slew so
mercilessly that it was a piteous sight to see. But after pursuing a while
they gave up, and returned to the wood to catch the elephants that had run
away, and to manage this they had to cut down great trees to bar their
passage. Even then they would not have been able to take them without the
help of the king's own men who had been taken, and who knew better how to
deal with the beasts than the Tartars did. The elephant is an animal that
hath more wit than any other; but in this way at last they were caught,
more than 200 of them. And it was from this time forth that the Great Kaan
began to keep numbers of elephants.

So thus it was that the king aforesaid was defeated by the sagacity and
superior skill of the Tartars as you have heard.


NOTE 1.--_Nescradin_ for Nesradin, as we had _Bascra_ for Basra.

This NÁSRUDDIN was apparently an officer of whom Rashiduddin speaks, and
whom he calls governor (or perhaps commander) in Karájáng. He describes
him as having succeeded in that command to his father the Sayad Ajil of
Bokhara, one of the best of Kúblái's chief Ministers. Nasr-uddin retained
his position in Yun-nan till his death, which Rashid, writing about 1300,
says occurred five or six years before. His son Bayan, who also bore the
grandfather's title of Sayad Ajil, was Minister of Finance under Kúblái's
successor; and another son, Hálá, is also mentioned as one of the
governors of the province of Fu-chau. (See _Cathay_, pp. 265, 268, and
_D'Ohsson_, II. 507-508.)

Nasr-uddin (_Nasulating_) is also frequently mentioned as employed on this
frontier by the Chinese authorities whom Pauthier cites.

[Na-su-la-ding [Nasr-uddin] was the eldest of the five sons of the
Mohammedan Sai-dien-ch'i shan-sze-ding, Sayad Ajil, a native of Bokhara,
who died in Yun-nan, where he had been governor when Kúblái, in the reign
of Mangu, entered the country. Nasr-uddin "has a separate biography in ch.
cxxv of the _Yuen-shi_. He was governor of the province of Yun-nan, and
distinguished himself in the war against the southern tribes of _Kiao-chi_
(Cochin-China) and _Mien_ (Burma). He died in 1292, the father of twelve
sons, the names of five of which are given in the biography, viz.
_Bo-yen-ch'a-rh_ [Bayan], who held a high office, Omar, Djafar, Hussein,
and Saadi." (_Bretschneider, Med. Res._ I. 270-271). Mr. E.H. Parker
writes in the _China Review_, February-March, 1901, pp. 196-197, that the
Mongol history states that amongst the reforms of Nasr-uddin's father in
Yun-nan, was the introduction of coffins for the dead, instead of burning
them.--H.C.]

[NOTE 2.--In his battle near Sardis, Cyrus "collected together all the
camels that had come in the train of his army to carry the provisions and
the baggage, and taking off their loads, he mounted riders upon them
accoutred as horsemen. These he commanded to advance in front of his other
troops against the Lydian horse.... The reason why Cyrus opposed his
camels to the enemy's horse was, because the horse has a natural dread of
the camel, and cannot abide either the sight or the smell of that
animal.... The two armies then joined battle, and immediately the Lydian
warhorses, seeing and smelling the camels, turned round and galloped off."
(_Herodotus_, Bk. I. i. p. 220, _Rawlinson's_ ed.)--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--We are indebted to Pauthier for very interesting illustrations of
this narrative from the Chinese Annalists (p. 410 seqq.). These latter
fix the date to the year 1277, and it is probable that the 1272 or
MCCLXXII of the Texts was a clerical error for MCCLXXVII. The Annalists
describe the people of Mien as irritated at calls upon them to submit to
the Mongols (whose power they probably did not appreciate, as their
descendants did not appreciate the British power in 1824), and as crossing
the frontier of Yung-ch'ang to establish fortified posts. The force of
Mien, they say, amounted to 50,000 men, with 800 elephants and 10,000
horses, whilst the Mongol Chief had but _seven hundred_ men. "When the
elephants felt the arrows (of the Mongols) they turned tail and fled with
the platforms on their backs into a place that was set thickly with sharp
bamboo-stakes, and these their riders laid hold of to prick them with."
This threw the Burmese army into confusion; they fled, and were pursued
with great slaughter.

The Chinese author does not mention Nasr-uddin in connection with this
battle. He names as the chief of the Mongol force _Huthukh_ (Kutuka?),
commandant of Ta-li fu. Nasr-uddin is mentioned as advancing, a few months
later (about December, 1277), with nearly 4000 men to Kiangtheu (which
appears to have been on the Irawadi, somewhere near Bhamó, and is perhaps
the Kaungtaung of the Burmese), but effecting little (p. 415).

[I have published in the _Rev. Ext. Orient_, II. 72-88, from the British
Museum _Add. MS._ 16913, the translation by Mgr. Visdelou, of Chinese
documents relating to the Kingdom of Mien and the wars of Kúblái; the
battle won by _Hu-tu_, commandant of Ta-li, was fought during the 3rd
month of the 14th year (1277). (Cf. Pauthier, supra.)--H.C.]

These affairs of the battle in the Yung-ch'ang territory, and the advance
of Nasr-uddin to the Irawadi are, as Polo clearly implies in the beginning
of ch. li., quite distinct from the invasion and conquest of Mien some
years later, of which he speaks in ch. liv. They are not mentioned in the
Burmese Annals at all.

Sir Arthur Phayre is inclined to reject altogether the story of the battle
near Yung-ch'ang in consequence of this absence from the _Burmese
Chronicle_, and of its inconsistency with the purely defensive character
which that record assigns to the action of the Burmese Government in
regard to China at this time. With the strongest respect for my friend's
opinion I feel it impossible to assent to this. We have not only the
concurrent testimony of Marco and of the Chinese Official Annals of the
Mongol Dynasty to the facts of the Burmese provocation and of the
engagement within the Yung-ch'ang or Vochan territory, but we have in the
Chinese narrative a consistent chronology and tolerably full detail of the
relations between the two countries.

[Baber writes (p. 173): "Biot has it that Yung-ch'ang was first
established by the Mings, long subsequent to the time of Marco's visit,
but the name was well known much earlier. The mention by Marco of the
Plain of Vochan (Unciam would be a perfect reading), as if it were a plain
_par excellence_, is strikingly consistent with the position of the
city on the verge of the largest plain west of Yünnan-fu. Hereabouts was
fought the great battle between the 'valiant soldier and the excellent
captain Nescradin,' with his 12,000 well-mounted Tartars, against the King
of Burmah and a large army, whose strength lay in 2000 elephants, on each
of which was set a tower of timber full of well-armed fighting men.

"There is no reason to suppose this 'dire and parlous fight' to be
mythical, apart from the consistency of annals adduced by Colonel Yule;
the local details of the narrative, particularly the prominent importance
of the wood as an element of the Tartar success, are convincing. It seems
to have been the first occasion on which the Mongols engaged a large body
of elephants, and this, no doubt, made the victory memorable.

"Marco informs us that 'from this time forth the Great Khan began to keep
numbers of elephants.' It is obvious that cavalry could not manoeuvre in a
morass such as fronts the city. Let us refer to the account of the battle.

"'The Great Khan's host was at Yung-ch'ang, from which they advanced into
the plain, and there waited to give battle. This they did through the good
judgment of the captain, for hard by that plain was a great wood thick
with trees.' The general's purpose was more probably to occupy the dry
undulating slopes near the south end of the valley. An advance of about
five miles would have brought him to that position. The statement that
'the King's army arrived in the plain, and was within a mile of the
enemy,' would then accord perfectly with the conditions of the ground. The
Burmese would have found themselves at about that distance from their foes
as soon as they were fairly in the plain.

"The trees 'hard by the plain,' to which the Tartars tied their horses,
and in which the elephants were entangled, were in all probability in the
corner below the 'rolling hills' marked in the chart. Very few trees
remain, but in any case the grove would long ago have been cut down by the
Chinese, as everywhere on inhabited plains. A short distance up the hill,
however, groves of exceptionally fine trees are passed. The army, as it
seems to us, must have entered the plain from its southernmost point. The
route by which we departed on our way to Burmah would be very
embarrassing, though perhaps not utterly impossible, for so great a number
of elephants."--H.C.]

Between 1277 and the end of the century the Chinese Annals record three
campaigns or expeditions against MIEN; viz. (1) that which Marco has
related in this chapter; (2) that which he relates in ch. liv.; and (3)
one undertaken in 1300 at the request of the son of the legitimate Burmese
King, who had been put to death by an usurper. The Burmese Annals mention
only the two latest, but, concerning both the date and the main
circumstances of these two, Chinese and Burmese Annals are in almost
entire agreement. Surely then it can scarcely be doubted that the Chinese
authority is amply trustworthy for the _first_ campaign also,
respecting which the Burmese book is silent; even were the former not
corroborated by the independent authority of Marco.

Indeed the mutual correspondence of these Annals, especially as to
chronology, is very remarkable, and is an argument for greater respect to
the chronological value of the Burmese Chronicle and other Indo-Chinese
records of like character than we should otherwise be apt to entertain.
Compare the story of the expedition of 1300 as told after the Chinese
Annals by De Mailla, and after the Burmese Chronicle by Burney and Phayre.
(See _De Mailla_, IX. 476 seqq.; and _J.A.S.B._ vol. vi. pp. 121-122,
and vol. xxxvii. Pt. I. pp. 102 and 110.)



CHAPTER LIII.

OF THE GREAT DESCENT THAT LEADS TOWARDS THE KINGDOM OF MIEN.


After leaving the Province of which I have been speaking you come to a
great Descent. In fact you ride for two days and a half continually down
hill. On all this descent there is nothing worthy of mention except only
that there is a large place there where occasionally a great market is
held; for all the people of the country round come thither on fixed days,
three times a week, and hold a market there. They exchange gold for
silver; for they have gold in abundance; and they give one weight of fine
gold for five weights of fine silver; so this induces merchants to come
from various quarters bringing silver which they exchange for gold with
these people; and in this way the merchants make great gain. As regards
those people of the country who dispose of gold so cheaply, you must
understand that nobody is acquainted with their places of abode, for they
dwell in inaccessible positions, in sites so wild and strong that no one
can get at them to meddle with them. Nor will they allow anybody to
accompany them so as to gain a knowledge of their abodes.[NOTE 1]

After you have ridden those two days and a half down hill, you find
yourself in a province towards the south which is pretty near to India,
and this province is called AMIEN. You travel therein for fifteen days
through a very unfrequented country, and through great woods abounding in
elephants and unicorns and numbers of other wild beasts. There are no
dwellings and no people, so we need say no more of this wild country, for
in sooth there is nothing to tell. But I have a story to relate which you
shall now hear[NOTE 2].


NOTE 1.--In all the Shan towns visited by Major Sladen on this frontier he
found markets held _every fifth day_. This custom, he says, is borrowed
from China, and is general throughout Western Yun-nan. There seem to be
traces of this five-day week over Indo-China, and it is found in Java; as
it is in Mexico. The Kakhyens attend in great crowds. They do _not_ now
bring gold for sale to Momein, though it is found to some extent in their
hills, more especially in the direction of Mogaung, whence it is exported
towards Assam.

Major Sladen saw a small quantity of nuggets in the possession of a
Kakhyen who had brought them from a hill two days north of Bhamó. (_MS.
Notes by Major Sladen_.)

NOTE 2.--I confess that the indications in this and the beginning of the
following chapter are, to me, full of difficulty. According to the general
style of Polo's itinerary, the 2-1/2 days should be reckoned from
Yung-ch'ang; the distance therefore to the capital city of Mien would be
17-1/2 days. The real capital of Mien or Burma at this time was, however,
Pagán, in lat. 21° 13', and that city could hardly have been reached by a
land traveller in any such time. We shall see that something may be said in
behalf of the supposition that the point reached was _Tagaung_ or _Old
Pagán_, on the upper Irawadi, in lat. 23° 28'; and there was perhaps some
confusion in the traveller's mind between this and the great city. The
descent might then be from Yung-ch'ang to the valley of the Shwéli, and
that valley then followed to the Irawadi. Taking as a scale Polo's 5
marches from Tali to Yung-ch'ang, I find we should by this route make just
about 17 marches from Yung-ch'ang to Tagaung. We have no detailed knowledge
of the route, but there is a road that way, and by no other does the plain
country approach so near to Yung-ch'ang. (See _Anderson's Report on
Expedition to Western Yunnan_, p. 160.)

Dr. Anderson's remarks on the present question do not in my opinion remove
the difficulties. He supposes the long descent to be the descent into the
plains of the Irawadi near Bhamo; and from that point the land journey to
Great Pagán could, he conceives, "easily be accomplished in 15 days." I
greatly doubt the latter assumption. By the scale I have just referred to
it would take at least 20 days. And to calculate the 2-1/2 days with which
the journey commences from an indefinite point seems scarcely admissible.
Polo is giving us a continuous _itinerary_; it would be ruptured if he
left an indefinite distance between his last station and his "long
descent." And if the same principle were applied to the 5 days between
Carajan (or Tali) and Vochan (Yung-ch'ang), the result would be nonsense.

[Illustration: Temple of Gaudapalén (in the city of Mien), erected circa
A.D. 1160.]

[_Mien-tien_, to which is devoted ch. vii. of the Chinese work
_Sze-i-kwan-k'ao_, appears to have included much more than Burma proper.
(See the passage supra, pp. 70-71, quoted by Devéria from the _Yuen-shi
lei pien_ regarding _Kien-tou_ and _Kin-Chi_.)--H.C.]

The hypothesis that I have suggested would suit better with the
traveller's representation of the country traversed as wild and
uninhabited. In a journey to Great Pagán the most populous and fertile
part of Burma would be passed through.

[Baber writes (p. 180): "The generally received theory that 'the great
descent which leads towards the Kingdom of Mien,' on which 'you ride for
two days and a half continually downhill,' was the route from Yung-ch'ang
to T'eng-Yueh, must be at once abandoned. Marco was, no doubt, speaking
from hearsay, or rather, from a recollection of hearsay, as it does not
appear that he possessed any notes; but there is good reason for supposing
that he had personally visited Yung-ch'ang. Weary of the interminable
mountain-paths, and encumbered with much baggage--for a magnate of Marco's
court influence could never, in the East, have travelled without a
considerable state--impeded, in addition, by a certain quantity of
merchandise, for he was 'discreet and prudent in every way,' he would have
listened longingly to the report of an easy ride of two and a half days
downhill, and would never have forgotten it. That such a route exists I am
well satisfied. Where is it? The stream which drains the Yung-ch'ang plain
communicates with the Salwen by a river called the 'Nan-tien,' not to be
confounded with the 'Nan-ting,' about 45 miles south of that city, a fair
journey of two and a half days. Knowing, as we now do, that it must
descend some 3500 feet in that distance, does it not seem reasonable to
suppose that the valley of this rivulet is the route alluded to? The great
battle on the Yung-ch'ang plain, moreover, was fought only a few years
before Marco's visit, and seeing that the king and his host of elephants
in all probability entered the valley from the south, travellers to Burma
would naturally have quitted it by the same route.

"But again, our mediaeval Herodotus reports that 'the country is wild and
hard of access, full of great woods and mountains which 'tis impossible to
pass, the air is so impure and unwholesome; and any foreigners attempting
it would die for certain.'

"This is exactly and literally the description given us of the district in
which we crossed the Salwen.

"To insist on the theory of the descent by this route is to make the
traveller ride downhill, 'over mountains it is impossible to pass.'

"The fifteen days' subsequent journey described by Marco need not present
much difficulty. The distance from the junction of the Nan-tien with the
Salwen to the capital of Burma (Pagán) would be something over 300 miles;
fifteen days seems a fair estimate for the distance, seeing that a great
part of the journey would doubtless be by boat."

Regarding this last paragraph, Captain Gill says (II. 345): "An objection
may be raised that no such route as this is known to exist; but it must be
remembered that the Burmese capital changes its position every now and
then, and it is obvious that the trade routes would be directed to the
capital, and would change with it. Altogether, with the knowledge at
present available, this certainly seems the most satisfactory
interpretation of the old traveller's story."--H.C.]



CHAPTER LIV.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF MIEN, AND THE TWO TOWERS THAT ARE THEREIN, ONE OF
GOLD AND THE OTHER OF SILVER.


And when you have travelled those 15 days through such a difficult country
as I have described, in which travellers have to carry provisions for the
road because there are no inhabitants, then you arrive at the capital city
of this Province of Mien, and it also is called AMIEN, and is a very great
and noble city.[NOTE 1] The people are Idolaters and have a peculiar
language, and are subject to the Great Kaan.

And in this city there is a thing so rich and rare that I must tell you
about it. You see there was in former days a rich and puissant king in
this city, and when he was about to die he commanded that by his tomb they
should erect two towers [one at either end], one of gold and the other of
silver, in such fashion as I shall tell you. The towers are built of fine
stone; and then one of them has been covered with gold a good finger in
thickness, so that the tower looks as if it were all of solid gold; and
the other is covered with silver in like manner so that it seems to be all
of solid silver. Each tower is a good ten paces in height and of breadth
in proportion. The upper part of these towers is round, and girt all about
with bells, the top of the gold tower with gilded bells and the silver
tower with silvered bells, insomuch that whenever the wind blows among
these bells they tinkle. [The tomb likewise was plated partly with gold,
and partly with silver.] The King caused these towers to be erected to
commemorate his magnificence and for the good of his soul; and really they
do form one of the finest sights in the world; so exquisitely finished are
they, so splendid and costly. And when they are lighted up by the sun they
shine most brilliantly and are visible from a vast distance.

Now you must know that the Great Kaan conquered the country in this
fashion.

[Illustration: THE CITY OF MIEN WITH THE GOLD AND SILVER TOWERS]

You see at the Court of the Great Kaan there was a great number of gleemen
and jugglers; and he said to them one day that he wanted them to go and
conquer the aforesaid province of Mien, and that he would give them a good
Captain to lead them and other good aid. And they replied that they would
be delighted. So the Emperor caused them to be fitted out with all that an
army requires, and gave them a Captain and a body of men-at-arms to help
them; and so they set out, and marched until they came to the country and
province of Mien. And they did conquer the whole of it! And when they
found in the city the two towers of gold and silver of which I have been
telling you, they were greatly astonished, and sent word thereof to the
Great Kaan, asking what he would have them do with the two towers, seeing
what a great quantity of wealth there was upon them. And the Great Kaan,
being well aware that the King had caused these towers to be made for the
good of his soul, and to preserve his memory after his death, said that he
would not have them injured, but would have them left precisely as they
were. And that was no wonder either, for you must know that no Tartar in
the world will ever, if he can help it, lay hand on anything appertaining
to the dead.[NOTE 2]

They have in this province numbers of elephants and wild oxen;[NOTE 3]
also beautiful stags and deer and roe, and other kinds of large game in
plenty.

Now having told you about the province of Mien, I will tell you about
another province which is called Bangala, as you shall hear presently.


NOTE 1.--The name of the city appears as _Amien_ both in Pauthier's text
here, and in the G. Text in the preceding chapter. In the Bern MS. it is
_Aamien_. Perhaps some form like _Amien_ was that used by the Mongols and
Persians. I fancy it may be traced in the _Arman_ or _Uman_ of
Rashiduddin, probably corrupt readings (in _Elliot_ I. 72).

NOTE 2.--M. Pauthier's extracts are here again very valuable. We gather
from them that the first Mongol communication with the King of Mien or
Burma took place in 1271, when the Commandant of Tali-fu sent a deputation
to that sovereign to demand an acknowledgment of the supremacy of the
Emperor. This was followed by various negotiations and acts of offence on
both sides, which led to the campaign of 1277, already spoken of. For a
few years no further events appear to be recorded, but in 1282, in
consequence of a report from Násruddin of the ease with which Mien could
be conquered, an invasion was ordered under a Prince of the Blood called
Siangtaur [called _Siam-ghu-talh_, by Visdelou.--H.C.]. This was probably
_Singtur_, great-grandson of one of the brothers of Chinghiz, who a few
years later took part in the insurrection of Nayan. (See _D'Ohsson_, II.
461.) The army started from Yun-nan fu, then called Chung-khing (and the
_Yachi_ of Polo) in the autumn of 1283. We are told that the army made use
of boats to descend the River _Oho_ to the fortified city of Kiangtheu
(see supra, note 3, ch. lii.), which they took and sacked; and as the
King still refused to submit, they then advanced to the "primitive
capital," _Taikung_, which they captured. Here Pauthier's details stop.
(Pp. 405, 416; see also _D'Ohsson_, II. 444 [and _Visdelou_].)

[Illustration: The Palace of the King of Mien in modern times]

It is curious to compare these narratives with that from the Burmese Royal
Annals given by Colonel Burney, and again by Sir A. Phayre in the
_J.A.S.B._ (IV. 401, and XXXVII. Pt. I. p. 101.) Those annals afford no
mention of transactions with the Mongols previous to 1281. In that year
they relate that a mission of ten nobles and 1000 horse came from the
Emperor to demand gold and silver vessels as symbols of homage on the
ground of an old precedent. The envoys conducted themselves disrespectfully
(the tradition was that they refused to take off their boots, an old
grievance at the Burmese court), and the King put them all to death. The
Emperor of course was very wroth, and sent an army of 6,000,000 of horse
and 20,000,000 of foot(!) to invade Burma. The Burmese generals had their
_point d'appui_ at the city of _Nga tshaung gyan_, apparently somewhere
near the mouth of the Bhamó River, and after a protracted resistance on
that river, they were obliged to retire. They took up a new point of
defence on the Hill of Malé, which they had fortified. Here a decisive
battle was fought, and the Burmese were entirely routed. The King, on
hearing of their retreat from Bhamó, at first took measures for fortifying
his capital Pagán, and destroyed 6000 temples of various sizes to furnish
material. But after all he lost heart, and embarking with his treasure and
establishments on the Irawadi, fled down that river to Bassein in the
Delta. The Chinese continued the pursuit long past Pagán till they reached
the place now called _Tarokmau_ or "Chinese Point," 30 miles below Prome.
Here they were forced by want of provisions to return. The Burmese Annals
place the abandonment of Pagán by the King in 1284, a most satisfactory
synchronism with the Chinese record. It is a notable point in Burmese
history, for it marked the fall of an ancient Dynasty which was speedily
followed by its extinction, and the abandonment of the capital. The King is
known in the Burmese Annals as _Tarok-pyé-Meng_, "The King who fled from
the _Tarok_."[1]

In Dr. Mason's abstract of the Pegu Chronicle we find the notable
statement with reference to this period that "the Emperor of China, having
subjugated Pagán, his troops with the Burmese entered Pegu and invested
several cities."

We see that the Chinese Annals, as quoted, mention only the "capitale
primitive" _Taikung_, which I have little doubt Pauthier is right in
identifying with _Tagaung_, traditionally the most ancient royal city of
Burma, and the remains of which stand side by side with those of _Old_
Pagán, a later but still very ancient capital, on the east bank of the
Irawadi, in about lat. 23° 28'. The Chinese extracts give no idea of the
temporary completeness of the conquest, nor do they mention Great Pagán
(lat. 21° 13'), a city whose vast remains I have endeavoured partially to
describe.[2] Sir Arthur Phayre, from a careful perusal of the Burmese
Chronicle, assures me that there can be no doubt that _this_ was at the
time in question the Burmese Royal Residence, and the city alluded to in
the Burmese narrative. M. Pauthier is mistaken in supposing that
Tarok-Mau, the turning-point of the Chinese Invasion, lay north of this
city: he has not unnaturally confounded it with Tarok-_Myo_ or
"China-Town," a district not far below Ava. Moreover Malé, the position of
the decisive victory of the Chinese, is itself much to the south of Tagaung
(about 22° 55').

Both Pagán and Malé are mentioned in a remarkable Chinese notice extracted
in _Amyot's Mémoires_ (XIV. 292): "Mien-Tien ... had five chief towns, of
which the first was _Kiangtheu_ (supra, pp. 105, 111), the second
_Taikung_, the third _Malai_, the fourth Ngan-cheng-kwé (? perhaps the
_Nga-tshaung gyan_ of the Burmese Annals), the fifth PUKAN MIEN-WANG
(Pagán of the Mien King?). The Yuen carried war into this country,
particularly during the reign of Shun-Ti, the last Mongol Emperor
[1333-1368], who, after subjugating it, erected at Pukan Mien-Wang a
tribunal styled _Hwen-wei-she-sé_, the authority of which extended over
Pang-ya and all its dependencies." This is evidently founded on actual
documents, for Panya or Pengya, otherwise styled Vijáyapúra, was the
capital of Burma during part of the 14th century, between the decay of
Pagán and the building of Ava. But none of the translated extracts from the
Burmese Chronicle afford corroboration. From Sangermano's abstract,
however, we learn that the King of Panya from 1323 to 1343 was the _son of
a daughter of the Emperor of China_ (p. 42). I may also refer to
Pemberton's abstract of the Chronicle of the Shan State of Pong in the
Upper Irawadi valley, which relates that about the middle of the 14th
century the Chinese invaded Pong and took Maung Maorong, the capital.[3]
The Shan King and his son fled to the King of Burma for protection, but
_the Burmese surrendered them_ and they were carried to China. (_Report on
E. Frontier of Bengal_, p. 112.)

I see no sufficient evidence as to whether Marco himself visited the "city
of Mien." I think it is quite clear that his account of the _conquest_ is
from the merest hearsay, not to say gossip. Of the absurd story of the
jugglers we find no suggestion in the Chinese extracts. We learn from them
that Násruddin had represented the conquest of Mien as a very easy task,
and Kúblái may have in jest asked his gleemen if they would undertake it.
The haziness of Polo's account of the conquest contrasts strongly with his
graphic description of the rout of the elephants at Vochan. Of the latter
he heard the particulars on the spot (I conceive) shortly after the event;
whilst the conquest took place some years later than his mission to that
frontier. His description of the gold and silver pagodas with their
canopies of tinkling bells (the Burmese _Hti_), certainly looks like a
sketch from the life;[4] and it is quite possible that some negotiations
between 1277 and 1281 may have given him the opportunity of visiting
Burma, though he may not have reached the capital. Indeed he would in that
case surely have given a distincter account of so important a city, the
aspect of which in its glory we have attempted to realize in the plate of
"the city of Mien."

It is worthy of note that the unfortunate King then reigning in Pagán, had
in 1274 finished a magnificent Pagoda called _Mengala-dzedi (Mangala
Chaitya)_ respecting which ominous prophecies had been diffused. In this
pagoda were deposited, besides holy relics, golden images of the Disciples
of Buddha, golden models of the holy places, golden images of the King's
fifty-one predecessors in Pagán, and of the King and his Family. It is
easy to suspect a connection of this with Marco's story. "It is possible
that the King's ashes may have been intended to be buried near those
relics, though such is not now the custom; and Marco appears to have
confounded the custom of depositing relics of Buddha and ancient holy men
in pagodas with the _supposed_ custom of the burial of the dead. Still,
even now, monuments are occasionally erected over the dead in Burma,
although the practice is considered a vain folly. I have known a miniature
pagoda with a _hti_ complete, erected over the ashes of a favourite
disciple by a _P'hungyi_ or Buddhist monk." The latter practice is common
in China. (_Notes by Sir A. Phayre; J.A.S.B._ IV. _u.s._, also V. 164,
VI. 251; _Mason's Burmah_, 2nd ed. p. 26; _Milne's Life in China_, pp.
288, 450.)

NOTE 3.--The Gaur--_Bos Gaurus_, or _B. (Bibos) Cavifrons_ of
Hodgson--exists in certain forests of the Burmese territory; and, in the
south at least, a wild ox nearer the domestic species, _Bos Sondaicus_. Mr.
Gouger, in his book _The Prisoner in Burma_, describes the rare spectacle
which he once enjoyed in the Tenasserim forests of a herd of wild cows at
graze. He speaks of them as small and elegant, without hump, and of a light
reddish dun colour (pp. 326-327).


[1] This is the name now applied in Burma to the Chinese. Sir A. Phayre
    supposes it to be _Túrk_, in which case its use probably began at
    this time.

[2] In the Narrative of Phayre's Mission, ch. ii.

[3] Dr. Anderson has here hastily assumed a discrepancy of sixty years
    between the chronology of the Shan document and that of the Chinese
    Annals. But this is merely because he arbitrarily identifies the
    Chinese invasion here recorded with that of Kúblái in the preceding
    century. (See _Anderson's Western Yunnan_, p. 8.) We see in the
    quotation above from Amyot that the Chinese Annals also contain an
    obscure indication of the later invasion.

[4] Compare the old Chinese Pilgrims Hwui Seng and Seng Yun, in their
    admiration of a vast pagoda erected by the great King Kanishka in
    Gandhára (at Peshawur in fact): "At sunrise the gilded disks of the
    vane are lit up with dazzling glory, whilst the gentle breeze of
    morning causes the precious bells to tinkle with a pleasing sound."
    (_Beal_, p. 204.)



CHAPTER LV.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF BANGALA.


Bangala is a Province towards the south, which up to the year 1290, when
the aforesaid Messer Marco Polo was still at the Court of the Great Kaan,
had not yet been conquered; but his armies had gone thither to make the
conquest. You must know that this province has a peculiar language, and
that the people are wretched Idolaters. They are tolerably close to India.
There are numbers of eunuchs there, insomuch that all the Barons who keep
them get them from that Province.[NOTE 1]

The people have oxen as tall as elephants, but not so big.[NOTE 2] They
live on flesh and milk and rice. They grow cotton, in which they drive a
great trade, and also spices such as spikenard, galingale, ginger, sugar,
and many other sorts. And the people of India also come thither in search
of the eunuchs that I mentioned, and of slaves, male and female, of which
there are great numbers, taken from other provinces with which those of
the country are at war; and these eunuchs and slaves are sold to the
Indian and other merchants who carry them thence for sale about the world.

There is nothing more to mention about this country, so we will quit it,
and I will tell you of another province called Caugigu.


NOTE 1.--I do not think it probable that Marco even touched at any port of
Bengal on that mission to the Indian Seas of which we hear in the
prologue; but he certainly never reached it from the Yun-nan side, and he
had, as we shall presently see (infra, ch. lix. note 6), a wrong
notion as to its position. Indeed, if he had visited it at all, he would
have been aware that it was essentially a part of India, whilst in fact he
evidently regarded it as an _Indo-Chinese_ region, like Zardandan,
Mien, and Caugigu.

There is no notice, I believe, in any history, Indian or Chinese, of an
attempt by Kúblái to conquer Bengal. The only such attempt by the Mongols
that we hear of is one mentioned by Firishta, as made by way of Cathay and
Tibet, during the reign of Aláuddin Masa'úd, king of Delhi, in 1244, and
stated to have been defeated by the local officers in Bengal. But Mr.
Edward Thomas tells me he has most distinctly ascertained that this
statement, which has misled every historian "from Badauni and Firishtah to
Briggs and Elphinstone, is founded purely on an erroneous reading" (and
see a note in Mr. Thomas's _Pathan Kings of Dehli_, p. 121).

The date 1290 in the text would fix the period of Polo's final departure
from Peking, if the dates were not so generally corrupt.

The subject of the last part of this paragraph, recurred to in the next,
has been misunderstood and corrupted in Pauthier's text, and partially in
Ramusio's. These make the _escuillés_ or _escoilliez_ (vide _Ducange_ in
v. _Escodatus_, and _Raynouard, Lex. Rom._ VI. 11) into _scholars_ and
what not. But on comparison of the passages in those two editions with the
Geographic Text one cannot doubt the correct reading. As to the fact that
Bengal had an evil notoriety for this traffic, especially the province of
Silhet, see the _Ayeen Akbery_, II. 9-11, _Barbosa's _chapter on Bengal,
and _De Barros_ (_Ramusio_ I. 316 and 391).

On the cheapness of slaves in Bengal, see _Ibn Batuta_, IV. 211-212. He
says people from Persia used to call Bengal _Dúzakh pur-i ni'amat_, "a
hell crammed with good things," an appellation perhaps provoked by the
official style often applied to it of _Jannat-ul-balád_ or "Paradise of
countries."

Professor H. Blochmann, who is, in admirable essays, redeeming the long
neglect of the history and archaeology of Bengal Proper by our own
countrymen, says that one of the earliest passages, in which the name
_Bangálah_ occurs, is in a poem of Hafiz, sent from Shiraz to Sultan
Gbiássuddín, who reigned in Bengal from 1367 to 1373. Its occurrence in
our text, however, shows that the name was in use among the Mahomedan
foreigners (from whom Polo derived his nomenclature) nearly a century
earlier. And in fact it occurs (though corruptly in some MSS.) in the
history of Rashiduddin, our author's contemporary. (See _Elliot_, I. p.
72.)

NOTE 2.--"Big as elephants" is only a _façon de parler_, but Marsden
quotes modern exaggerations as to the height of the _Arna_ or wild
buffalo, more specific and extravagant. The unimpeachable authority of Mr.
Hodgson tells us that the Arna in the Nepal Tarai sometimes does reach a
height of 6 ft. 6 in. at the shoulder, with a length of 10 ft. 6 in.
(excluding tail), and horns of 6 ft. 6 in. (_J.A.S.B._, XVI. 710.)
Marco, however, seems to be speaking of _domestic_ cattle. Some of the
breeds of Upper India are very tall and noble animals, far surpassing in
height any European oxen known to me; but in modern times these are rarely
seen in Bengal, where the cattle are poor and stunted. The _Aín Akbari_,
however, speaks of Sharífábád in Bengal, which appears to have
corresponded to modern Bardwán, as producing very beautiful white oxen, of
great size, and capable of carrying a load of 15 _mans_, which at
Prinsep's estimate of Akbar's _man_ would be about 600 lbs.



CHAPTER LVI.

DISCOURSES OF THE PROVINCE OF CAUGIGU.


Caugigu is a province towards the east, which has a king.[NOTE 1] The
people are Idolaters, and have a language of their own. They have made
their submission to the Great Kaan, and send him tribute every year. And
let me tell you their king is so given to luxury that he hath at the least
300 wives; for whenever he hears of any beautiful woman in the land, he
takes and marries her.

They find in this country a good deal of gold, and they also have great
abundance of spices. But they are such a long way from the sea that the
products are of little value, and thus their price is low. They have
elephants in great numbers, and other cattle of sundry kinds, and plenty
of game. They live on flesh and milk and rice, and have wine made of rice
and good spices. The whole of the people, or nearly so, have their skin
marked with the needle in patterns representing lions, dragons, birds, and
what not, done in such a way that it can never be obliterated. This work
they cause to be wrought over face and neck and chest, arms and hands, and
belly, and, in short, the whole body; and they look on it as a token of
elegance, so that those who have the largest amount of this embroidery are
regarded with the greatest admiration.


NOTE 1.--No province mentioned by Marco has given rise to wider and wilder
conjectures than this, _Cangigu_ as it has been generally printed.

M. Pauthier, who sees in it Laos, or rather one of the states of Laos
called in the Chinese histories _Papesifu_, seems to have formed the most
probable opinion hitherto propounded by any editor of Polo. I have no
doubt that Laos or some part of that region is meant to be _described_,
and that Pauthier is right regarding the general direction of the course
here taken as being through the regions east of Burma, in a north-easterly
direction up into Kwei-chau. But we shall be able to review the geography
of this tract better, as a whole, at a point more advanced. I shall then
speak of the name CAUGIGU, and why I prefer this reading of it.

I do not believe, for reasons which will also appear further on, that Polo
is now following a route which he had traced in person, unless it be in
the latter part of it.

M. Pauthier, from certain indications in a Chinese work, fixes on
Chiangmai or Kiang-mai, the Zimmé of the Burmese (in about latitude 18°
48' and long. 99° 30') as the capital of the Papesifu and of the Caugigu
of our text. It can scarcely however be the latter, unless we throw over
entirely all the intervals stated in Polo's itinerary; and M. Garnier
informs me that he has evidence that the capital of the Papesifu at this
time was _Muang-Yong_, a little to the south-east of Kiang-Tung, where he
has seen its ruins.[1] That the people called by the Chinese Papesifu were
of the great race of Laotians, Sháns, or _Thai_, is very certain, from the
vocabulary of their language published by Klaproth.

[Illustration: Script _Pa-pe_.]

Pauthier's Chinese authority gives a puerile interpretation of _Papesifu_
as signifying "the kingdom of the 800 wives," and says it was called so
because the Prince maintained that establishment. This may be an
indication that there were popular stories about the numerous wives of the
King of Laos, such as Polo had heard; but the interpretation is doubtless
rubbish, like most of the so-called etymologies of proper names applied by
the Chinese to foreign regions. At best these seem to be merely a kind of
_Memoria Technica_, and often probably bear no more relation to the name
in its real meaning than Swift's _All-eggs-under-the-grate_ bears to
Alexander Magnus. How such "etymologies" arise is obvious from the nature
of the Chinese system of writing. If we also had to express proper names
by combining monosyllabic words already existing in English, we should in
fact be obliged to write the name of the Macedonian hero much as Swift
travestied it. As an example we may give the Chinese name of Java,
_Kwawa_, which signifies "gourd-sound," and was given to that Island, we
are told, because the voice of its inhabitants is very like that of a dry
gourd rolled upon the ground! It is usually stated that Tungking was
called _Kiao-chi_ meaning "crossed-toes," because the people often exhibit
that malformation (which is a fact), but we may be certain that the
syllables were originally a phonetic representation of an indigenous name
which has no such meaning. As another example, less ridiculous but not
more true, _Chin-tan_, representing the Indian name of China,
_Chínasthána_, is explained to mean "Eastern-Dawn" (_Aurore Orientale_).
(_Amyot_, XIV. 101; _Klapr. Mém._ III. 268.)

The states of Laos are shut out from the sea in the manner indicated; they
abound in domestic elephants to an extraordinary extent; and the people do
tattoo themselves in various degrees, most of all (as M. Garnier tells me)
about Kiang Hung. The _style_ of tattooing which the text describes is
quite that of the Burmese, in speaking of whom Polo has omitted to mention
the custom: "Every male Burman is tattooed in his boyhood from the middle
to his knees; in fact he has a pair of breeches tattooed on him. The
pattern is a fanciful medley of animals and arabesques, but it is scarcely
distinguishable, save as a general tint, except on a fair skin." (_Mission
to Ava_, 151.)


[1] Indeed documents in Klaproth's _Asia Polyglotta_ show that the
    _Papé_ state was also called _Muang-Yong_ (pp. 364-365). I observe
    that the river running to the east of Pu-eul and Ssemao (Puer and
    Esmok) is called _Papien_-Kiang, the name of which is perhaps a
    memorial of the Papé.

    [The old Laocian kingdom of _Xieng-mai_ [Kiang-mai], called
    _Muong-Yong_ by the Pa-y, was inhabited by the _Pa-pe Si-fu_ or Bát-bá
    T'úc-phu; the inhabitants called themselves Thai-niai or great Thai.
    (_Devéria, Frontière_, p. 100. Ch. ix. of the Chinese work
    _Sze-i-kwan-kao_ is devoted to Xieng-mai _Pa-pe_), which includes the
    subdivisions of Laos, Xieng Hung [Kiang Hung] and Muong-Ken.
    (_Devéria, Mél. de Harlez_, p. 97.)--H.C.]



CHAPTER LVII.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ANIN.


Anin is a Province towards the east, the people of which are subject to
the Great Kaan, and are Idolaters. They live by cattle and tillage, and
have a peculiar language. The women wear on the legs and arms bracelets of
gold and silver of great value, and the men wear such as are even yet more
costly. They have plenty of horses which they sell in great numbers to the
Indians, making a great profit thereby. And they have also vast herds of
buffaloes and oxen, having excellent pastures for these. They have
likewise all the necessaries of life in abundance.[NOTE 1]

Now you must know that between Anin and Caugigu, which we have left behind
us, there is a distance of [25] days' journey;[NOTE 2] and from Caugigu to
Bangala, the third province in our rear, is 30 days' journey. We shall now
leave Anin and proceed to another province which is some 8 days' journey
further, always going eastward.


NOTE 1.--Ramusio, the printed text of the Soc. de Géographie, and most
editions have _Amu_; Pauthier reads _Aniu_ and considers the name to
represent Tungking or Annam, called also _Nan-yué_. The latter word he
supposes to be converted into _Anyué_, _Aniu_. And accordingly he carries
the traveller to the capital of Tungking.

Leaving the name for the present, according to the scheme of the route as
I shall try to explain it below, I should seek for Amu or Aniu or _Anin_
in the extreme south-east of Yun-nan. A part of this region was for the
first time traversed by the officers of the French expedition up the
Mekong, who in 1867 visited Sheu-ping, Lin-ngan and the upper valley of
the River of Tungking on their way to Yun-nan-fu. To my question whether
the description in the text, of Aniu or Anin and its fine pastures,
applied to the tract just indicated, Lieut. Garnier replied on the whole
favourably (see further on), proceeding: "The population about Sheu-ping
is excessively mixt. On market days at that town one sees a gathering of
wild people in great number and variety, and whose costumes are highly
picturesque, as well as often very rich. There are the _Pa-is_, who are
also found again higher up, the _Ho-nhi_, the _Khato_, the _Lopé_, the
_Shentseu_. These tribes appear to be allied in part to the Laotians, in
part to the Kakhyens.... The wilder races about Sheuping are remarkably
handsome, and you see there types of women exhibiting an extraordinary
regularity of feature, and at the same time a complexion surprisingly
_white_. The Chinese look quite an inferior race beside them.... I may
add that all these tribes, especially the Ho-nhi and the Pa-ï, wear large
amounts of silver ornament; great collars of silver round the neck, as
well as on the legs and arms."

Though the _whiteness_ of the people of Anin is not noticed by Polo, the
distinctive manner in which he speaks in the next chapter of the _dark_
complexion of the tribes described therein seems to indicate the probable
omission of the opposite trait here.

The prominent position assigned in M. Garnier's remarks to a race called
_Ho-nhi_ first suggested to me that the reading of the text might be ANIN
instead of _Aniu_. And as a matter of fact this seems to my eyes to be
clearly the reading of the Paris _Livre des Merveilles_ (Pauthier's MS.
B), while the Paris No. 5631 (Pauthier's A) has _Auin_, and what may be
either _Aniu_ or _Anin_. _Anyn_ is also found in the Latin Brandenburg MS.
of Pipino's version collated by Andrew Müller, to which, however, we
cannot ascribe much weight. But the two words are so nearly identical in
mediaeval writing, and so little likely to be discriminated by scribes who
had nothing to guide their discrimination, that one need not hesitate to
adopt that which is supported by argument. In reference to the suggested
identity of _Anin_ and _Ho-nhi_, M. Garnier writes again: "All that Polo
has said regarding the country of Aniu, though not containing anything
_very_ characteristic, may apply perfectly to the different indigenous
tribes, at present subject to the Chinese, which are dispersed over the
country from Talan to Sheuping and Lin-ngan. These tribes bearing the
names (given above) relate that they in other days formed an independent
state, to which they give the name of _Muang Shung_. Where this Muang was
situated there is no knowing. These tribes have _langage par euls_, as
Marco Polo says, and silver ornaments are worn by them to this day in
extraordinary profusion; more, however, by the women than the men. They
have plenty of horses, buffaloes and oxen, and of sheep as well. It was
the first locality in which the latter were seen. The plateau of Lin-ngan
affords pasture-grounds which are exceptionally good for that part of the
world.

[Illustration: Ho-nhi and other Tribes in the Department of Lin-ngan in S.
Yun-nan (supposed to be the Anin country of Marco Polo). (From Garnier's
Work)]

"Beyond Lin-ngan we find the Ho-nhi, properly so called, no longer. But
ought one to lay much stress on mere names which have undergone so many
changes, and of which so many have been borne in succession by all those
places and peoples?.. I will content myself with reminding you that the
town of _Homi-cheu_ near Lin-ngan in the days of the Yuen bore the
name of _Ngo-ning_."

Notwithstanding M. Garnier's caution, I am strongly inclined to believe
that ANIN represents either HO-NHI or NGO-NING, if indeed these names be
not identical. For on reference to Biot I see that the first syllable of
the modern name of the town which M. Garnier writes Ho_mi_, is
expressed by the same character as the first syllable of NGO_ning_.

[The Wo-nhi are also called Ngo-ni, Kan-ni, Ho-ni, Lou-mi, No-pi, Ko-ni
and Wa-heh; they descend from the southern barbarians called Ho-nhi. At
the time of the kingdom of Nan-Chao, the Ho-nhi, called In-yuen, tribes
were a dependence of the Kiang (Xieng) of Wei-yuen (Prefecture of
P'u-erh). They are now to be found in the Yunnanese prefectures of
Lin-ngan, King-tung, Chen-yuen, Yuen-kiang and Yun-nan. (See _Devéria_, p.
135.)--H.C.]

We give one of M. Garnier's woodcuts representing some of the races in
this vicinity. Their dress, as he notices, has, in some cases, a curious
resemblance to costumes of Switzerland, or of Brittany, popular at fancy
balls.[1] Coloured figures of some of these races will be found in the
Atlas to Garnier's work; see especially Plate 35.

NOTE 2.--All the French MSS. and other texts except Ramusio's read 15. We
adopt Ramusio's reading, 25, for reasons which will appear below.


[1] There is a little uncertainty in the adjustment of names and figures
    of some of these tribes, between the illustrations and the incidental
    notices in Lieutenant Garnier's work. But all the figures in the
    present cut certainly belong to the tract to which we point as Anin;
    and the two middle figures answer best to what is said of the
    _Ho-nhi_.



CHAPTER LVIII.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF COLOMAN.


Coloman is a province towards the east, the people of which are Idolaters
and have a peculiar language, and are subject to the Great Kaan. They are
a [tall and] very handsome people, though in complexion brown rather than
white, and are good soldiers.[NOTE 1] They have a good many towns, and a
vast number of villages, among great mountains, and in strong
positions.[NOTE 2]

When any of them die, the bodies are burnt, and then they take the bones
and put them in little chests.

These are carried high up the mountains, and placed in great caverns,
where they are hung up in such wise that neither man nor beast can come at
them.

A good deal of gold is found in the country, and for petty traffic they
use porcelain shells such as I have told you of before. All these
provinces that I have been speaking of, to wit Bangala and Caugigu and
Anin, employ for currency porcelain shells and gold. There are merchants
in this country who are very rich and dispose of large quantities of
goods. The people live on flesh and rice and milk, and brew their wine
from rice and excellent spices.


NOTE 1.--The only MSS. that afford the reading _Coloman_ or _Choloman_
instead of _Toloman_ or _Tholoman_, are the Bern MS., which has _Coloman_
in the initial word of the chapter, Paris MS. 5649 (Pauthier's C) which
has _Coloman_ in the Table of Chapters, but not in the text, the Bodleian,
and the Brandenburg MS. quoted in the last note. These variations in
themselves have little weight. But the confusion between _c_ and _t_ in
mediaeval MSS., when dealing with strange names, is so constant that I
have ventured to make the correction, in strong conviction that it is the
right reading. M. Pauthier indeed, after speaking of tribes called _Lo_ on
the south-west of China, adds, "on les nommait _To-lo-man_ ('les nombreux
Barbares Lo')." Were this latter statement founded on actual evidence we
might retain that form which is the usual reading. But I apprehend from
the manner in which M. Pauthier produces it, without corroborative
quotation, that he is rather hazarding a conjecture than speaking with
authority. Be that as it may, it is impossible that Polo's Toloman or
Coloman should have been in the south of Kwangsi, where Pauthier locates
it.

On the other hand, we find tribes of both _Kolo_ and _Kihlau_ Barbarians
(i.e. _Mán_, whence KOLO-MÁN or _Kihlau-mán_) very numerous on the
frontier of Kweichau. (See _Bridgman's transl. of Tract on Meautsze_, pp.
265, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274, 275, 278, 279, 280.) Among these the _Kolo_,
described as No. 38 in that Tract, appear to me from various particulars
to be the most probable representatives of the Coloman of Polo,
notwithstanding the sentence with which the description opens: "_Kolo_
originally called _Luluh_; the modern designation _Kolo_ is incorrect."[1]
They are at present found in the prefecture of Tating (one of the
departments of Kweichau towards the Yun-nan side). "They are _tall, of a
dark complexion_, with sunken eyes, aquiline nose, wear long whiskers, and
have the beard shaved off above the mouth. They pay great deference to
demons, and on that account are sometimes called 'Dragons of Lo.' ... At
the present time these Kolo are divided into 48 clans, the elders of which
are called Chieftains (lit. 'Head-and-Eyes') and are of nine grades....
The men bind their hair into a tuft with blue cloth and make it fast on
the forehead like a horn. Their upper dresses are short, with large
sleeves, and their lower garments are fine blue. When one of the
chieftains dies, all that were under him are assembled together clad in
armour and on horseback. Having dressed his corpse in silk and woollen
robes, they burn it in the open country; then, invoking the departed
spirit, they inter the ashes. Their attachment to him as their sole master
is such that nothing can drive or tempt them from their allegiance. Their
large bows, long spears, and sharp swords, are strong and well-wrought.
They train excellent horses, love archery and hunting; and so expert are
they in tactics that _their soldiers rank as the best among all the
uncivilized tribes_. There is this proverb: 'The Lo Dragons of Shwui-si
rap the head and strike the tail,' which is intended to indicate their
celerity in defence." (_Bridgman_, pp. 272-273.)

The character _Lo_, here applied in the Chinese Tract to these people, is
the same as that in the name of the Kwangsi _Lo_ of M. Pauthier.

I append a cut (opposite page) from the drawing representing these
Kolo-man in the original work from which Bridgman translated, and which is
in the possession of Dr. Lockhart.

[I believe we must read _To-lo-man. Man_, barbarian, _T'u-lao_ or
_Shan-tzu_ (mountaineers) who live in the Yunnanese prefectures of
Lin-ngan, Cheng-kiang, etc. T'u-la-Man or T'u-la barbarians of the Mongol
Annals. (_Yuen-shi lei-pien_, quoted by Devéria, p. 115.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Magaillans, speaking of the semi-independent tribes of Kwei-chau
and Kwang-si, says: "Their towns are usually so girt by high mountains
and scarped rocks that it seems as if nature had taken a pleasure in
fortifying them" (p. 43). (See cut at p. 131.)


[1] On the other hand, M. Garnier writes: "I do not know any name at all
    like _Kolo_, except _Lolo_, the generic name given by the
    Chinese to the wild tribes of Yun-nan." Does not this look as if
    _Kolo_ were really the old name, _Luluh_ or Lolo the later?



CHAPTER LIX.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF CUIJU.


Cuiju is a province towards the East.[NOTE 1] After leaving Coloman you
travel along a river for 12 days, meeting with a good number of towns and
villages, but nothing worthy of particular mention. After you have
travelled those twelve days along the river you come to a great and noble
city which is called FUNGUL.

The people are Idolaters and subject to the Great Kaan, and live by trade
and handicrafts. You must know they manufacture stuffs of the bark of
certain trees which form very fine summer clothing.[NOTE 2] They are good
soldiers, and have paper-money. For you must understand that henceforward
we are in the countries where the Great Kaan's paper-money is current.

[Illustration: The Koloman after a Chinese drawing

  "Coloman est une provence vers levant
  El sunt mult belles jens et ne
  sunt mie bien blances mes biunz
  El sunt bien homes d'armes"]

The country swarms with lions to that degree that no man can venture to
sleep outside his house at night.[NOTE 3] Moreover, when you travel on
that river, and come to a halt at night, unless you keep a good way from
the bank the lions will spring on the boat and snatch one of the crew and
make off with him and devour him. And but for a certain help that the
inhabitants enjoy, no one could venture to travel in that province,
because of the multitude of those lions, and because of their strength and
ferocity.

But you see they have in this province a large breed of dogs, so fierce
and bold that two of them together will attack a lion.[NOTE 4] So every
man who goes a journey takes with him a couple of those dogs, and when a
lion appears they have at him with the greatest boldness, and the lion
turns on them, but can't touch them for they are very deft at eschewing
his blows. So they follow him, perpetually giving tongue, and watching
their chance to give him a bite in the rump or in the thigh, or wherever
they may. The lion makes no reprisal except now and then to turn fiercely
on them, and then indeed were he to catch the dogs it would be all over
with them, but they take good care that he shall not. So, to escape the
dogs' din, the lion makes off, and gets into the wood, where mayhap he
stands at bay against a tree to have his rear protected from their
annoyance. And when the travellers see the lion in this plight they take
to their bows, for they are capital archers, and shoot their arrows at him
till he falls dead. And 'tis thus that travellers in those parts do
deliver themselves from those lions.

They have a good deal of silk and other products which are carried up and
down, by the river of which we spoke, into various quarters.[NOTE 5]

You travel along the river for twelve days more, finding a good many towns
all along, and the people always Idolaters, and subject to the Great Kaan,
with paper-money current, and living by trade and handicrafts. There are
also plenty of fighting men. And after travelling those twelve days you
arrive at the city of Sindafu of which we spoke in this book some time
ago.[NOTE 6]

From Sindafu you set out again and travel some 70 days through the
provinces and cities and towns which we have already visited, and all
which have been already particularly spoken of in our Book. At the end of
those 70 days you come to Juju where we were before.[NOTE 7]

From Juju you set out again and travel four days towards the south,
finding many towns and villages. The people are great traders and
craftsmen, are all Idolaters, and use the paper-money of the Great Kaan
their Sovereign. At the end of those four days you come to the city of
Cacanfu belonging to the province of Cathay, and of it I shall now speak.


NOTE 1.--In spite of difficulties which beset the subject (see Note 6
below) the view of Pauthier, suggested doubtingly by Marsden, that the
Cuiju of the text is KWEI-CHAU, seems the most probable one. As the latter
observes, the reappearance of paper money shows that we have got back into
a province of China Proper. Such, Yun nan, recently conquered from a Shan
prince, could not be considered. But, according to the best view we can
form, the traveller could only have passed through the extreme west of the
province of Kwei-chau.

The name of _Fungul_, if that be a true reading, is suggestive of
_Phungan_, which under the Mongols was the head of a district called
PHUNGAN-LU. It was founded by that dynasty, and was regarded as an
important position for the command of the three provinces Kwei-chau,
Kwang-si, and Yun-nan. (_Biot_, p. 168; _Martini_, p. 137.) But
we shall explain presently the serious difficulties that beset the
interpretation of the itinerary as it stands.

NOTE 2.--Several Chinese plants afford a fibre from the bark, and some of
these are manufactured into what we call _grass-cloths_. The light
smooth textures so called are termed by the Chinese _Hiapu_ or
"summer cloths." Kwei-chau produces such. But perhaps that specially
intended is a species of hemp (_Urtica Nivea?_) of which M. Perny of
the R.C. Missions says, in his notes on Kwei-chau: "It affords a texture
which may be compared to _batiste_. This has the notable property of
keeping so cool that many people cannot wear it even in the hot weather.
Generally it is used only for summer clothing." (_Dict. des Tissus_,
VII. 404; _Chin. Repos._ XVIII. 217 and 529; _Ann. de la Prop. de
la Foi_, XXXI. 137.)

NOTE 3.--Tigers of course are meant. (See supra, vol. i. p. 399.)
M. Perny speaks of tigers in the mountainous parts of Kwei-chau. (Op.
cit. 139.)

NOTE 4.--These great dogs were noticed by Lieutenant (now General)
Macleod, in his journey to Kiang Hung on the great River Mekong, as
accompanying the caravans of Chinese traders on their way to the Siamese
territory. (See _Macleod's Journal_, p. 66.)

NOTE 5.--The trade in wild silk (i.e. from the oak-leaf silkworm) is in
truth an important branch of commerce in Kwei-chau. But the chief seat of
this is at Tsuni-fu, and I do not think that Polo's route can be sought so
far to the eastward. (_Ann. de la Prop._ XXXI. 136; _Richthofen_, Letter
VII. 81.)

NOTE 6.--We have now got back to Sindafu, i.e. Ch'êng-tu fu in
Sze-çh'wan, and are better able to review the geography of the track we
have been following. I do not find it possible to solve all its
difficulties.

The different provinces treated of in the chapters from lv. to lix. are
strung by Marco upon an easterly, or, as we must interpret,
_north-easterly_ line of travel, real or hypothetical. Their names and
intervals are as follows: (1) Bangala; whence 30 marches to (2) Caugigu; 25
marches to (3) Anin; 8 marches to (4) Toloman or Coloman; 12 days in Cuiju
along a river to the city of (5) Fungul, Sinugul (or what not); 12 days
further, on or along the same river, to (6) Ch'êng-tu fu. Total from
Bangala to Ch'êng-tu fu 87 days.

I have said that the line of travel is real _or hypothetical_, for no
doubt a large part of it was only founded on hearsay. We last left our
traveller at Mien, or on the frontier of Yun-nan and Mien. _Bangala_ is
reached _per sallum_ with no indication of interval, and its position is
entirely misapprehended. Marco conceives of it, not as in India, but as
being, like Mien, a province _on the confines_ of India, as being under
the same king as Mien, as lying to the south of that kingdom, and as being
at the (south) western extremity of a great traverse line which runs
(north) east into Kwei-chau and Sze-ch'wan. All these conditions point
consistently to one locality; that, however, is not Bengal but _Pegu_. On
the other hand, the circumstances of manners and products, so far as they
go, _do_ belong to Bengal. I conceive that Polo's information regarding
these was derived from persons who had really visited Bengal by sea, but
that he had confounded what he so heard of the Delta of the Ganges with
what he heard on the Yun-nan frontier of the Delta of the Irawadi. It is
just the same kind of error that is made about those great Eastern Rivers
by Fra Mauro in his Map. And possibly the name of Pegu (in Burmese
_Bagóh_) may have contributed to his error, as well as the probable fact
that the Kings of Burma did at this time _claim_ to be Kings of Bengal,
whilst they actually _were_ Kings of Pegu.

_Caugigu_.--We have seen reason to agree with M. Pauthier that the
description of this region points to Laos, though we cannot with him
assign it to Kiang-mai. Even if it be identical with the Papesifu of the
Chinese, we have seen that the centre of that state may be placed at Muang
Yong not far from the Mekong; whilst I believe that the limits of Caugigu
must be drawn much nearer the Chinese and Tungking territory, so as to
embrace Kiang Hung, and probably the _Papien_ River. (See note at p. 117.)

As regards the name, it is _possible_ that it may represent some specific
name of the Upper Laos territory. But I am inclined to believe that we are
dealing with a case of erroneous geographical perspective like that of
Bangala; and that whilst the _circumstances_ belong to Upper Laos, the
_name_, read as I read it, _Caugigu_ (or Cavgigu), is no other than the
_Kafchikúe_ of Rashiduddin, the name applied by him to Tungking, and
representing the KIAOCHI-KWÊ of the Chinese. D'Anville's Atlas brings
Kiaochi up to the Mekong in immediate contact with Che-li or Kiang Hung. I
had come to the conclusion that Caugigu was _probably_ the correct reading
before I was aware that it is an _actual_ reading of the Geog. Text more
than once, of Pauthier's A more than once, of Pauthier's C _at least_ once
and possibly twice, and of the Bern MS.; all which I have ascertained from
personal examination of those manuscripts.[1]

_Anin_ or _Aniu_.--I have already pointed out that I seek this in the
territory about Lin-ngan and Homi. In relation to this M. Garnier writes:
"In starting from Muang Yong, or even if you prefer it, from Xieng Hung
(Kiang Hung of our maps), ... it would be physically impossible in 25 days
to get beyond the arc which I have laid down on your map (viz. extending a
few miles north-east of Homi). There are scarcely any roads in those
mountains, and easy lines of communication begin only _after_ you have got
to the Lin-ngan territory. In Marco Polo's days things were certainly not
better, but the reverse. All that has been done of consequence in the way
of roads, posts, and organisation in the part of Yun-nan between Lin-ngan
and Xieng Hung, dates in some degree from the Yuen, but in a far greater
degree from K'ang-hi." Hence, even with the Ramusian reading of the
itinerary, we cannot place _Anin_ much beyond the position indicated
already.

[Illustration: Script _thaï_ of Xieng-hung.]

_Koloman_.--We have seen that the position of this region is probably near
the western frontier of Kwei-chau. Adhering to _Homi_ as the
representative of Anin, and to the 8 days' journey of the text, the most
probable position of Koloman would be about _Lo-ping_ which lies about 100
English miles in a straight line north-east from Homi. The first character
of the name here is again the same as the _Lo_ of the Kolo tribes.

Beyond this point the difficulties of devising an interpretation,
consistent at once with facts and with the text as it stands, become
insuperable.

The narrative demands that from Koloman we should reach _Fungul_, a great
and noble city, by travelling 12 days along a river, and that Fungul
should be within twelve days' journey of Ch'êng-tu fu, along the same
river, or at least along rivers connected with it.

In advancing from the south-west guided by the data afforded by the texts,
we have not been able to carry the position of Fungul (_Sinugul_, or what
not of G.T. and other MSS.) further north than Phungan. But it is
impossible that Ch'êng-tu fu should have been reached in 12 days from this
point. Nor is it possible that a new post in a secluded position, like
Phungan, could have merited to be described as "a great and noble city."

Baron v. Richthofen has favoured me with a note in which he shows that in
reality the only place answering the more essential conditions of Fungul
is Siu-chau fu at the union of the two great branches of the Yang-tzu,
viz. the Kin-sha Kiang, and the Min-Kiang from Ch'eng-tu fu. (1) The
distance from Siu-chau to Ch'eng-tu by land travelling is just about 12
days, and the road is along a river. (2) In approaching "Fungul" from the
south Polo met with a good many towns and villages. This would be the case
along either of the navigable rivers that join the Yang-tzu below Siu-chau
(or along that which joins above Siu-chau, mentioned further on). (3) The
large trade in silk up and down the river is a characteristic that could
only apply to the Yang-tzu.

These reasons are very strong, though some little doubt must subsist until
we can explain the name (Fungul, or Sinugul) as applicable to Siu-chau.[2]
And assuming Siu-chau to be the city we must needs carry the position
of _Coloman_ considerably further north than Lo-ping, and must presume the
interval between _Anin_ and _Coloman_ to be greatly understated, through
clerical or other error. With these assumptions we should place Polo's
Coloman in the vicinity of Wei-ning, one of the localities of Kolo tribes.

From a position near Wei-ning it would be quite possible to reach Siu-chau
in 12 days, making use of the facilities afforded by one or other of the
partially navigable rivers to which allusion has just been made.

"That one," says M. Garnier in a letter, "which enters the Kiang a little
above Siu-chau fu, the River of _Lowa-tong_, which was descended by our
party, has a branch to the eastward which is navigable up to about the
latitude of Chao-tong. Is not this probably Marco Polo's route? It is to
this day a line much frequented, and one on which great works have been
executed; among others two iron suspension bridges, works truly gigantic
for the country in which we find them."

[Illustration: Iron Suspension Bridge at Lowatong. (From Garnier.)]

An extract from a Chinese Itinerary of this route, which M. Garnier has
since communicated to me, shows that at a point 4 days from Wei-ning the
traveller may embark and continue his voyage to any point on the great
Kiang.

We are obliged, indeed, to give up the attempt to keep to a line of
communicating rivers throughout the whole 24 days. Nor do I see how it is
possible to adhere to that condition literally without taking more
material liberties with the text.

[Illustration: MARCO POLO'S ITINERARIES No. V.

Indo Chinese Regions (Book II, Chaps. 44-59)]

My theory of Polo's actual journey would be that he returned from Yun-nan
fu to Ch'êng-tu fu through some part of the province of Kwei-chau, perhaps
only its western extremity, but that he spoke of Caugigu, and probably of
Anin, as he did of Bangala, from report only. And, in recapitulation, I
would identify provisionally the localities spoken of in this difficult
itinerary as follows: _Caugigu_ with Kiang Hung; _Anin_ with Homi;
_Coloman_ with the country about Wei-ning in Western Kwei-chau; _Fungul_
or Sinugul with Siu-chau.

[This itinerary is difficult, as Sir Henry Yule says. It takes Marco Polo
24 days to go from Coloman or Toloman to Ch'êng-tu. The land route is 22
days from Yun-nan fu to Swi-fu, via Tung-ch'wan and Chao-t'ung. (_J.
China B.R.A.S._ XXVIII. 74-75.) From the Toloman province, which I
place about Lin-ngan and Cheng-kiang, south of Yun-nan fu, Polo must have
passed a second time through this city, which is indeed at the end of all
the routes of this part of South-Western China. He might go back to
Sze-ch'wan by the western route, via Tung-ch'wan and Chao-t'ung to Swi-fu,
or, by the eastern, easier and shorter route by Siuen-wei chau, crossing a
corner of the Kwei-chau province (Wei-ning), and passing by Yun-ning hien
to the Kiang, this is the route followed by Mr. A. Hosie in 1883 and by Mr.
F.S.A. Bourne in 1885, and with great likelihood by Marco Polo; he may
have taken the Yun-ning River to the district city of Na-ch'i hien, which
lies on the right bank both of this river and of the Kiang; the Kiang up to
Swi-fu and thence to Ch'êng-tu. I do not attempt to explain the difficulty
about Fungul.

I fully agree with Sir H. Yule when he says that Polo spoke of Caugigu and
of Bangala, probably of Anin, from report only. However, I believe that
Caugigu is the _Kiao-Chi kwé_ of the Chinese, that Ani_n_ must be read
Ani_u_, that Aniu is but a transcription of _Nan-yué_ that both Nan-yué
and Kiao-Chi represent Northern Annam, i.e. the portion of Annam which
we call Tung-king. Regarding the tattooed inhabitants of Caugigu, let it
be remembered that tattooing existed in Annam till it was prohibited by
the Chinese during the occupation of Tung-king at the beginning of the
15th century.--H.C.]

NOTE 7.--Here the traveller gets back to the road-bifurcation near Juju,
i.e. Chochau (_ante_ p. 11), and thence commences to travel southward.

[Illustration: Fortified Villages on Western frontier of Kweichau. (From
Garnier.)

"Chastians ont-il grant quantité en grandismes montagnes et fortres."]


[1] A passing suggestion of the identity of Kafchi Kué and Caugigu is made
    by D'Ohsson, and I formerly objected. (See _Cathay_, p. 272.)

[2] Cuiju might be read _Ciuju_--representing _Siuchau_, but the
    difficulty about Fungul would remain.



BOOK II.--_Continued_.



PART III.--JOURNEY SOUTHWARD THROUGH EASTERN PROVINCES OF CATHAY AND MANZI.



CHAPTER LX.

CONCERNING THE CITIES OF CACANFU AND OF CHANGLU.


Cacanfu is a noble city. The people are Idolaters and burn their dead;
they have paper-money, and live by trade and handicrafts. For they have
plenty of silk from which they weave stuffs of silk and gold, and sendals
in large quantities. [There are also certain Christians at this place, who
have a church.] And the city is at the head of an important territory
containing numerous towns and villages. [A great river passes through it,
on which much merchandise is carried to the city of Cambaluc, for by many
channels and canals it is connected therewith.[NOTE 1]]

We will now set forth again, and travel three days towards the south, and
then we come to a town called CHANGLU. This is another great city
belonging to the Great Kaan, and to the province of Cathay. The people
have paper-money, and are Idolaters and burn their dead. And you must know
they make salt in great quantities at this place; I will tell you how 'tis
done.[NOTE 2]

A kind of earth is found there which is exceedingly salt. This they dig up
and pile in great heaps. Upon these heaps they pour water in quantities
till it runs out at the bottom; and then they take up this water and boil
it well in great iron cauldrons, and as it cools it deposits a fine white
salt in very small grains. This salt they then carry about for sale to
many neighbouring districts, and get great profit thereby.

There is nothing else worth mentioning, so let us go forward five days'
journey, and we shall come to a city called Chinangli.


NOTE 1.--In the greater part of the journey which occupies the remainder
of Book II., Pauthier is a chief authority, owing to his industrious
Chinese reading and citation. Most of his identifications seem well
founded, though sometimes we shall be constrained to dissent from them
widely. A considerable number have been anticipated by former editors, but
even in such cases he is often able to bring forward new grounds.

CACANFU is HO-KIEN FU in Pe Chih-li, 52 miles in a direct line south by
east of Chochau. It was the head of one of the _Lu_ or circuits into which
the Mongols divided China. (_Pauthier_.)

NOTE 2.--Marsden and Murray have identified Changlu with T'SANG-CHAU in Pe
Chih-li, about 30 miles east by south of Ho-kien fu. This seems
substantially right, but Pauthier shows that there was an old town
actually called CH'ANGLU, separated from T'sang-chau only by the great
canal. [Ch'ang-lu was the name of T'sang-chau under the T'ang and the Kin.
(See _Playfair, Dict._, p. 34.)--H.C.]

The manner of obtaining salt, described in the text, is substantially the
same as one described by Duhalde, and by one of the missionaries, as being
employed near the mouth of the Yang-tzu kiang. There is a town of the
third order some miles south-east of T'sang-chau, called _Yen-shan_ or
"salt-hill," and, according to Pauthier, T'sang-chau is the mart for salt
produced there. (_Duhalde_ in _Astley_, IV. 310; _Lettres Edif._ XI. 267
seqq.; _Biot._ p. 283.)

Polo here introduces a remark about the practice of burning the dead,
which, with the notice of the idolatry of the people, and their use of
paper-money, constitutes a formula which he repeats all through the
Chinese provinces with wearisome iteration. It is, in fact, his definition
of the Chinese people, for whom he seems to lack a comprehensive name.

A great change seems to have come over Chinese custom, since the Middle
Ages, in regard to the disposal of the dead. Cremation is now entirely
disused, except in two cases; one, that of the obsequies of a Buddhist
priest, and the other that in which the coffin instead of being buried has
been exposed in the fields, and in the lapse of time has become decayed.
But it is impossible to reject the evidence that it was a common practice
in Polo's age. He repeats the assertion that it was _the_ custom at every
stage of his journey through Eastern China; though perhaps his taking
absolutely no notice of the practice of burial is an instance of that
imperfect knowledge of strictly Chinese peculiarities which has been
elsewhere ascribed to him. It is the case, however, that the author of the
Book of the Estate of the Great Kaan (circa 1330) also speaks of
cremation as the usual Chinese practice, and that Ibn Batuta says
positively: "The Chinese are infidels and idolaters, and they burn their
dead after the manner of the Hindus." This is all the more curious,
because the Arab _Relations_ of the 9th century say distinctly that the
Chinese bury their dead, though they often kept the body long (as they do
still) before burial; and there is no mistaking the description which
Conti (15th century) gives of the Chinese mode of sepulture. Mendoza, in
the 16th century, alludes to no disposal of the dead except by burial, but
Semedo in the early part of the 17th says that bodies were occasionally
burnt, especially in Sze-ch'wan.

I am greatly indebted to the kindness of an eminent Chinese scholar, Mr.
W.F. Mayers, of Her Majesty's Legation at Peking, who, in a letter, dated
Peking, 18th September, 1874, sends me the following memorandum on the
subject:--

"_Colonel Yule's Marco Polo_, II. 97 [First Edition], _Burning of the
Dead_.

"On this subject compare the article entitled _Huo Tsang_, or 'Cremation
Burials,' in Bk. XV of the _Jih Che Luh_, or 'Daily Jottings,' a great
collection of miscellaneous notes on classical, historical, and
antiquarian subjects, by Ku Yen-wu, a celebrated author of the 17th
century. The article is as follows:--

"'The practice of burning the dead flourished (or flourishes) most
extensively in Kiang-nan, and was in vogue already in the period of the
Sung Dynasty. According to the history of the Sung Dynasty, in the 27th
year of the reign Shao-hing (A.D. 1157), the practice was animadverted
upon by a public official.' Here follows a long extract, in which the
burning of the dead is reprehended, and it is stated that cemeteries were
set apart by Government on behalf of the poorer classes.

"In A.D. 1261, Hwang Chên, governor of the district of Wu, in a memorial
praying that the erection of cremation furnaces might thenceforth be
prohibited, dwelt upon the impropriety of burning the remains of the
deceased, for whose obsequies a multitude of observances were prescribed
by the religious rites. He further exposed the fallacy of the excuse
alleged for the practice, to wit, that burning the dead was a fulfilment
of the precepts of Buddha, and accused the priests of a certain monastery
of converting into a source of illicit gain the practice of cremation."

[As an illustration of the cremation of a Buddhist priest, I note the
following passage from an article published in the _North-China Herald_,
20th May, 1887, p. 556, on Kwei Hua Ch'eng, Mongolia: "Several Lamas are
on visiting terms with me and they are very friendly. There are seven
large and eight small Lamaseries, in care of from ten to two hundred
Lamas. The principal Lamas at death are cremated. A short time ago, a
friendly Lama took me to see a cremation. The furnace was roughly made of
mud bricks, with four fire-holes at the base, with an opening in which to
place the body. The whole was about 6 feet high, and about 5 feet in
circumference. Greased fuel was arranged within and covered with glazed
foreign calico, on which were written some Tibetan characters. A tent was
erected and mats arranged for the Lamas. About 11:30 A.M. a scarlet
covered bier appeared in sight carried by thirty-two beggars. A box 2 feet
square and 2-1/2 feet high was taken out and placed near the furnace. The
Lamas arrived and attired themselves in gorgeous robes and sat
cross-legged. During the preparations to chant, some butter was being
melted in a corner of the tent. A screen of calico was drawn round the
furnace in which the cremator placed the body, and filled up the opening.
Then a dozen Lamas began chanting the burial litany in Tibetan in deep bass
voices. Then the head priest blessed the torches and when the fires were
lit he blessed a fan to fan the flames, and lastly some melted butter,
which was poured in at the top to make the whole blaze. This was frequently
repeated. When fairly ablaze, a few pieces of Tibetan grass were thrown in
at the top. After three days the whole cooled, and a priest with one gold
and one silver chopstick collects the bones, which are placed in a bag for
burial. If the bones are white it is a sign that his sin is purged, if
black that perfection has not been attained."--H.C.]

And it is very worthy of note that the Chinese envoy to Chinla (Kamboja)
in 1295, an individual who may have personally known Marco Polo, in
speaking of the custom prevalent there of exposing the dead, adds: "There
are some, however, who burn their dead. _These are all descendants of
Chinese immigrants._"

[Professor J.J.M. de Groot remarks that "being of religious origin,
cremation is mostly denoted in China by clerical terms, expressive of the
metamorphosis the funeral pyre is intended to effect, viz. 'transformation
of man'; 'transformation of the body'; 'metamorphosis by fire.' Without
the clerical sphere it bears no such high-sounding names, being simply
called 'incineration of corpses.' A term of illogical composition, and
nevertheless very common in the books, is 'fire burial.'" It appears that
during the Sung Dynasty cremation was especially common in the provinces
of Shan-si, Cheh-kiang, and Kiang-su. During the Mongol Dynasty, the
instances of cremation which are mentioned in Chinese books are,
relatively speaking, numerous. Professor de Groot says also that "there
exists evidence that during the Mongol domination cremation also throve in
Fuhkien." (_Religious System of China_, vol. iii. pp. 1391, 1409, 1410.)
--H.C.]

(_Doolittle_, 190; _Deguignes_, I. 69; _Cathay_, pp. 247, 479; _Reinaud_,
I. 56; _India in the XVth Century_, p. 23; _Semedo_, p. 95; _Rém. Mél.
Asiat._ I. 128.)



CHAPTER LXI.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF CHINANGLI, AND THAT OF TADINFU, AND THE REBELLION
OF LITAN.


Chinangli is a city of Cathay as you go south, and it belongs to the Great
Kaan; the people are Idolaters, and have paper-money. There runs through
the city a great and wide river, on which a large traffic in silk goods
and spices and other costly merchandize passes up and down.

When you travel south from Chinangli for five days, you meet everywhere
with fine towns and villages, the people of which are all Idolaters, and
burn their dead, and are subject to the Great Kaan, and have paper-money,
and live by trade and handicrafts, and have all the necessaries of life in
great abundance. But there is nothing particular to mention on the way
till you come, at the end of those five days, to TADINFU.[NOTE 1]

This, you must know, is a very great city, and in old times was the seat
of a great kingdom; but the Great Kaan conquered it by force of arms.
Nevertheless it is still the noblest city in all those provinces. There
are very great merchants here, who trade on a great scale, and the
abundance of silk is something marvellous. They have, moreover, most
charming gardens abounding with fruit of large size. The city of Tadinfu
hath also under its rule eleven imperial cities of great importance, all
of which enjoy a large and profitable trade, owing to that immense produce
of silk.[NOTE 2]

Now, you must know, that in the year of Christ, 1273, the Great Kaan had
sent a certain Baron called LIYTAN SANGON,[NOTE 3] with some 80,000
horse, to this province and city, to garrison them. And after the said
captain had tarried there a while, he formed a disloyal and traitorous
plot, and stirred up the great men of the province to rebel against the
Great Kaan. And so they did; for they broke into revolt against their
sovereign lord, and refused all obedience to him, and made this Liytan,
whom their sovereign had sent thither for their protection, to be the
chief of their revolt.

When the Great Kaan heard thereof he straightway despatched two of his
Barons, one of whom was called AGUIL and the other MONGOTAY;[NOTE 4]
giving them 100,000 horse and a great force of infantry. But the affair
was a serious one, for the Barons were met by the rebel Liytan with all
those whom he had collected from the province, mustering more than 100,000
horse and a large force of foot. Nevertheless in the battle Liytan and his
party were utterly routed, and the two Barons whom the Emperor had sent
won the victory. When the news came to the Great Kaan he was right well
pleased, and ordered that all the chiefs who had rebelled, or excited
others to rebel, should be put to a cruel death, but that those of lower
rank should receive a pardon. And so it was done. The two Barons had all
the leaders of the enterprise put to a cruel death, and all those of lower
rank were pardoned. And thenceforward they conducted themselves with
loyalty towards their lord.[NOTE 5]

Now having told you all about this affair, let us have done with it, and I
will tell you of another place that you come to in going south, which is
called SINJU-MATU.


NOTE 1.--There seems to be no solution to the difficulties attaching to
the account of these two cities (Chinangli and Tadinfu) except that the
two have been confounded, either by a lapse of memory on the traveller's
part or by a misunderstanding on that of Rusticiano.

The position and name of CHINANGLI point, as Pauthier has shown, to
T'SI-NAN FU, the chief city of Shan-tung. The second city is called in the
G. Text and Pauthier's MSS. _Candinfu_, _Condinfu_, and _Cundinfu_, names
which it has not been found possible to elucidate. But adopting the reading
_Tadinfu_ of some of the old printed editions (supported by the _Tudinfu_
of Ramusio and the _Tandifu_ of the Riccardian MS.), Pauthier shows that
the city now called _Yen-chau_ bore under the Kin the name of TAI-TING FU,
which may fairly thus be recognised. [Under the Sung Dynasty Yen-chau was
named T'ai-ning and Lung-k'ing. (_Playfair's Dict._ p. 388.)--H.C.]

It was not, however, Yen-chau, but _T'si-nan fu_, which was "the noblest
city in all those provinces," and had been "in old times the seat of a
kingdom," as well as recently the scene of the episode of Litan's
rebellion. T'si-nan fu lies in a direct line 86 miles south of T'sang-chau
(_Changlu_), near the banks of the Ta-t'singho, a large river which
communicates with the great canal near T'si-ning chau, and which was, no
doubt, of greater importance in Polo's time than in the last six
centuries. For up nearly to the origin of the Mongol power it appears to
have been one of the main discharges of the Hwang-Ho. The recent changes
in that river have again brought its main stream into the same channel,
and the "New Yellow River" passes three or four miles to the north of the
city. T'si-nan fu has frequently of late been visited by European
travellers, who report it as still a place of importance, with much life
and bustle, numerous book-shops, several fine temples, two mosques, and
all the furniture of a provincial capital. It has also a Roman Catholic
Cathedral of Gothic architecture. (_Williamson_, I. 102.)

[Tsi-nan "is a populous and rich city; and by means of the river (Ta Tsing
ho, Great Clear River) carries on an extensive commerce. The soil is
fertile, and produces grain and fruits in abundance. Silk of an excellent
quality is manufactured, and commands a high price. The lakes and rivers
are well stored with fish." (_Chin. Rep._ XI. p. 562.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--The Chinese Annals, more than 2000 years B.C., speak of silk as
an article of tribute from Shan-tung; and evidently it was one of the
provinces most noted in the Middle Ages for that article. Compare the
quotation in note on next chapter from Friar Odoric. Yet the older modern
accounts speak only of the _wild_ silk of Shan-tung. Mr. Williamson,
however, points out that there is an extensive produce from the genuine
mulberry silkworm, and anticipates a very important trade in Shan-tung
silk. Silk fabrics are also largely produced, and some of extraordinary
quality. (_Williamson_, I. 112, 131.)

The expressions of Padre Martini, in speaking of the wild silk of
Shan-tung, strongly remind one of the talk of the ancients about the origin
of silk, and suggest the possibility that this may not have been mere
groundless fancy: "Non in globum aut ovum ductum, sed in longissimum filum
paulatim ex ore emissum, albi coloris, quae arbustis dumisque, adhaerentia,
atque a vento huc illucque agitata colliguntur," etc. Compare this with
Pliny's "Seres lanitia silvarum nobiles, perfusam aqua depectentes frondium
caniciem," or Claudian's "Stamine, quod molli tondent de stipite Seres,
Frondea lanigerae carpentes vellera silvae; Et longum tenues tractus
producit in aurum."

NOTE 3.--The title _Sangon_ is, as Pauthier points out, the Chinese
_Tsiang-kiun_, a "general of division", [or better "Military Governor".
--H.C.] John Bell calls an officer, bearing the same title, "Merin
_Sanguin_" I suspect _T'siang-kiun_ is the _Jang-Jang_ of Baber.

NOTE 4.--AGUL was the name of a distant cousin of Kúblái, who was the
father of Nayan (supra, ch. ii. and Genealogy of the House of Chinghiz in
Appendix A). MANGKUTAI, under Kúblái, held the command of the third Hazara
(Thousand) of the right wing, in which he had succeeded his father Jedi
Noyan. lie was greatly distinguished in the invasion of South China under
Bayan. (_Erdmann's Temudschin_, pp. 220, 455; _Gaubil_, p. 160.)

NOTE 5.--LITAN, a Chinese of high military position and reputation under
the Mongols, in the early part of Kúblái's reign, commanded the troops in
Shan-tung and the conquered parts of Kiang-nan. In the beginning of 1262
he carried out a design that he had entertained since Kúblái's accession,
declared for the Sung Emperor, to whom he gave up several important
places, put detached Mongol garrisons to the sword, and fortified T'si-nan
and T'sing-chau. Kúblái despatched Prince Apiché and the General
Ssetienché against him. Litan, after some partial success, was beaten and
driven into T'si-nan, which the Mongols immediately invested. After a
blockade of four months, the garrison was reduced to extremities. Litan,
in despair, put his women to death and threw himself into a lake adjoining
the city; but he was taken out alive and executed. T'sing-chau then
surrendered. (_Gaubil_, 139-140; _De Mailla_, IX. 298 seqq.; _D'Ohsson_,
II. 381.)

Pauthier gives greater detail from the Chinese Annals, which confirm the
amnesty granted to all but the chiefs of the rebellion.

The date in the text is wrong or corrupt, as is generally the case.



CHAPTER LXII.

CONCERNING THE NOBLE CITY OF SINJUMATU.


On leaving Tadinfu you travel three days towards the south, always finding
numbers of noble and populous towns and villages flourishing with trade
and manufactures. There is also abundance of game in the country, and
everything in profusion.

When you have travelled those three days you come to the noble city of
SINJUMATU, a rich and fine place, with great trade and manufactures. The
people are Idolaters and subjects of the Great Kaan, and have paper-money,
and they have a river which I can assure you brings them great gain, and I
will tell you about it.

You see the river in question flows from the South to this city of
Sinjumatu. And the people of the city have divided this larger river in
two, making one half of it flow east and the other half flow west; that is
to say, the one branch flows towards Manzi and the other towards Cathay.
And it is a fact that the number of vessels at this city is what no one
would believe without seeing them. The quantity of merchandize also which
these vessels transport to Manzi and Cathay is something marvellous; and
then they return loaded with other merchandize, so that the amount of
goods borne to and fro on those two rivers is quite astonishing.[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--Friar Odoric, proceeding by water northward to Cambaluc about
1324-1325, says: "As I travelled by that river towards the east, and
passed many towns and cities, I came to a certain city which is called
SUNZUMATU, which hath a greater plenty of silk than perhaps any place on
earth, for when silk is at the dearest you can still have 40 lbs. for less
than eight groats. There is in the place likewise great store of
merchandise," etc. When commenting on Odoric, I was inclined to identify
this city with Lin-t'sing chau, but its position with respect to the two
last cities in Polo's itinerary renders this inadmissible; and Murray and
Pauthier seem to be right in identifying it with T'SI-NING CHAU. The affix
_Matu_ (_Ma-t'eu_, a jetty, a place of river trade) might easily
attach itself to the name of such a great depôt of commerce on the canal
as Marco here describes, though no Chinese authority has been produced for
its being so styled. The only objection to the identification with
T'si-ning chau is the difficulty of making 3 days' journey of the short
distance between Yen-chau and that city.

Polo, according to the route supposed, comes first upon the artificial
part of the Great Canal here. The rivers _Wen_ and _Sse_ (from near
Yen-chau) flowing from the side of Shan-tung, and striking the canal line
at right angles near T'si-ning chau, have been thence diverted north-west
and south-east, so as to form the canal; the point of their original
confluence at Nan-wang forming, apparently, the summit level of the canal.
There is a little confusion in Polo's account, owing to his describing the
river as coming from the _south_, which, according to his orientation,
would be the side towards Hunan. In this respect his words would apply more
accurately to the _Wei_ River at Lin-t'sing (see _Biot_ in _J. As._ sér.
III. tom. xiv. 194, and _J.N.C.B.R.A.S._, 1866, p. ii; also the map with
ch. lxiv.) [Father Gandar (_Canal Impérial_, p. 22, note) says that the
remark of Marco Polo: "The river flows from the south to this city of
Sinjumatu," cannot be applied to the _Wen-ho_ nor to the _Sse-ho_, which
are rivers of little importance and running from the east, whilst the
_Wei-ho_, coming from the south-east, waters Lin-ts'ing, and answers well
to our traveller's text.--H.C.] Duhalde calls T'si-ning chau "one of the
most considerable cities of the empire"; and Nieuhoff speaks of its large
trade and population. [Sir John F. Davis writes that Tsi-ning chau is a
town of considerable dimensions.... "The _ma-tow_, or platforms, before the
principal boats had ornamental gateways over them.... The canal seems to
render this an opulent and flourishing place, to judge by the gilded and
carved shops, temples, and public offices, along the eastern banks."
(Sketches of China, I. pp. 255-257.)--H.C.]



CHAPTER LXIII.

CONCERNING THE CITIES OF LINJU AND PIJU.


On leaving the city of Sinju-matu you travel for eight days towards the
south, always coming to great and rich towns and villages flourishing with
trade and manufactures. The people are all subjects of the Great Kaan, use
paper-money, and burn their dead. At the end of those eight days you come
to the city of LINJU, in the province of the same name of which it is the
capital. It is a rich and noble city, and the men are good soldiers,
natheless they carry on great trade and manufactures. There is great
abundance of game in both beasts and birds, and all the necessaries of
life are in profusion. The place stands on the river of which I told you
above. And they have here great numbers of vessels, even greater than
those of which I spoke before, and these transport a great amount of
costly merchandize[NOTE 1].

So, quitting this province and city of Linju, you travel three days more
towards the south, constantly finding numbers of rich towns and villages.
These still belong to Cathay; and the people are all Idolaters, burning
their dead, and using paper-money, that I mean of their Lord the Great
Kaan, whose subjects they are. This is the finest country for game,
whether in beasts or birds, that is anywhere to be found, and all the
necessaries of life are in profusion.

At the end of those three days you find the city of PIJU, a great, rich,
and noble city, with large trade and manufactures, and a great production
of silk. This city stands at the entrance to the great province of Manzi,
and there reside at it a great number of merchants who despatch carts from
this place loaded with great quantities of goods to the different towns of
Manzi. The city brings in a great revenue to the Great Kaan.[NOTE 2]


NOTE 1.--Murray suggests that Lingiu is a place which appears in
D'Anville's Map of Shan-tung as _Lintching-y_ and in Arrowsmith's Map of
China (also in those of Berghaus and Keith Johnston) as _Lingchinghien_.
The position assigned to it, however, on the west bank of the canal,
nearly under the 35th degree of latitude, would agree fairly with Polo's
data. [_Lin-ch'ing, Lin-tsing_, lat. 37° 03', _Playfair's Dict._ No. 4276;
_Biot_, p. 107.--H.C.]

In any case, I imagine Lingiu (of which, perhaps, _Lingin_ may be the
correct reading) to be the _Lenzin_ of Odoric, which he reached in
travelling by water from the south, before arriving at Sinjumatu.
(_Cathay_, p. 125.)

NOTE 2.--There can be no doubt that this is PEI-CHAU on the east bank of
the canal. The abundance of game about here is noticed by Nieuhoff (in
_Astley_, III. 417). [See _D. Gandar, Canal Impérial_, 1894.--H.C.]



CHAPTER LXIV.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF SIJU, AND THE GREAT RIVER CARAMORAN.


When you leave Piju you travel towards the south for two days, through
beautiful districts abounding in everything, and in which you find
quantities of all kinds of game. At the end of those two days you reach
the city of SIJU, a great, rich, and noble city, flourishing with trade
and manufactures. The people are Idolaters, burn their dead, use
paper-money, and are subjects of the Great Kaan. They possess extensive and
fertile plains producing abundance of wheat and other grain.[NOTE 1] But
there is nothing else to mention, so let us proceed and tell you of the
countries further on.

On leaving Siju you ride south for three days, constantly falling in with
fine towns and villages and hamlets and farms, with their cultivated lands.
There is plenty of wheat and other corn, and of game also; and the people
are all Idolaters and subjects of the Great Kaan.

At the end of those three days you reach the great river CARAMORAN, which
flows hither from Prester John's country. It is a great river, and more
than a mile in width, and so deep that great ships can navigate it. It
abounds in fish, and very big ones too. You must know that in this river
there are some 15,000 vessels, all belonging to the Great Kaan, and kept
to transport his troops to the Indian Isles whenever there may be
occasion; for the sea is only one day distant from the place we are
speaking of. And each of these vessels, taking one with another, will
require 20 mariners, and will carry 15 horses with the men belonging to
them, and their provisions, arms, and equipments.[NOTE 2]

Hither and thither, on either bank of the river, stands a town; the one
facing the other. The one is called COIGANJU and the other CAIJU; the
former is a large place, and the latter a little one. And when you pass
this river you enter the great province of MANZI. So now I must tell you
how this province of Manzi was conquered by the Great Kaan.[NOTE 3]


NOTE 1.--SIJU can scarcely be other than Su-t'sien (_Sootsin_ of Keith
Johnston's map) as Murray and Pauthier have said. The latter states that
one of the old names of the place was _Si-chau_, which corresponds to that
given by Marco. Biot does not give this name.

The town stands on the flat alluvial of the Hwang-Ho, and is approached by
high embanked roads. (_Astley_, III. 524-525.)

[Sir J.F. Davis writes: "From _Sootsien Hien_ to the point of junction
with the Yellow River, a length of about fifty miles, that great stream
and the canal run nearly parallel with each other, at an average distance
of four or five miles, and sometimes much nearer." (_Sketches of China_,
I. p. 265.)--H.C.]

[Illustration: Sketch Map, exhibiting the VARIATIONS of the TWO GREAT
RIVERS OF CHINA Within the Period of History]

NOTE 2.--We have again arrived on the banks of the Hwang-Ho, which was
crossed higher up on our traveller's route to Karájang.

No accounts, since China became known to modern Europe, attribute to the
Hwang-Ho the great utility for navigation which Polo here and elsewhere
ascribes to it. Indeed, we are told that its current is so rapid that its
navigation is scarcely practicable, and the only traffic of the kind that
we hear of is a transport of coal in Shan-si for a certain distance down
stream. This rapidity also, bringing down vast quantities of soil, has so
raised the bed that in recent times the tide has not entered the river, as
it probably did in our traveller's time, when, as it would appear from his
account, seagoing craft used to ascend to the ferry north of Hwai-ngan fu,
or thereabouts. Another indication of change is his statement that the
passage just mentioned was only one day's journey from the sea, whereas it
is now about 50 miles in a direct line. But the river has of late years
undergone changes much more material.

In the remotest times of which the Chinese have any record, the Hwang-Ho
discharged its waters into the Gulf of Chih-li, by two branches, the most
northerly of which appears to have followed the present course of the
Pei-ho below Tien-tsing. In the time of the Shang Dynasty (ending B.C.
1078) a branch more southerly than either of the above flowed towards
T'si-ning, and combined with the _T'si_ River, which flowed by T'si-nan fu,
the same in fact that was till recently called the Ta-t'sing. In the time
of Confucius we first hear of a branch being thrown off south-east towards
the Hwai, flowing north of Hwai-ngan, in fact towards the embouchure which
our maps still display as that of the Hwang-Ho. But, about the 3rd and 4th
centuries of our era, the river discharged exclusively by the T'si; and up
to the Mongol age, or nearly so, the mass of the waters of this great river
continued to flow into the Gulf of Chih-li. They then changed their course
bodily towards the Hwai, and followed that general direction to the sea;
this they had adopted before the time of our traveller, and they retained
it till a very recent period. The mass of Shan-tung thus forms a
mountainous island rising out of the vast alluvium of the Hwang-Ho, whose
discharge into the sea has alternated between the north and the south of
that mountainous tract. (_See Map opposite_.)

During the reign of the last Mongol emperor, a project was adopted for
restoring the Hwang-Ho to its former channel, discharging into the Gulf of
Chih-li; and discontents connected with this scheme promoted the movement
for the expulsion of the dynasty (1368).

A river whose regimen was liable to such vast changes was necessarily a
constant source of danger, insomuch that the Emperor Kia-K'ing in his will
speaks of it as having been "from the remotest ages China's sorrow." Some
idea of the enormous works maintained for the control of the river may be
obtained from the following description of their character on the north
bank, some distance to the west of Kai-fung fu:

"In a village, apparently bounded by an earthen wall as large as that of
the Tartar city of Peking, was reached the first of the outworks erected
to resist the Hwang-Ho, and on arriving at the top that river and the
gigantic earthworks rendered necessary by its outbreaks burst on the view.
On a level with the spot on which I was standing stretched a series of
embankments, each one about 70 feet high, and of breadth sufficient for
four railway trucks to run abreast on them. The mode of their arrangement
was on this wise: one long bank ran parallel to the direction of the
stream; half a mile distant from it ran a similar one; these two
embankments were then connected by another series exactly similar in size,
height, and breadth, and running at right angles to them right down to the
edge of the water."

In 1851, the Hwang-Ho burst its northern embankment nearly 30 miles east
of Kai-fung fu; the floods of the two following years enlarged the breach;
and in 1853 the river, after six centuries, resumed the ancient direction
of its discharge into the Gulf of Chih-li. Soon after leaving its late
channel, it at present spreads, without defined banks, over the very low
lands of South-Western Shan-tung, till it reaches the Great Canal, and
then enters the Ta-t'sing channel, passing north of T'si-nan to the sea.
The old channel crossed by Polo in the present journey is quite deserted.
The greater part of the bed is there cultivated; it is dotted with
numerous villages; and the vast trading town of Tsing-kiang pu was in 1868
extending so rapidly from the southern bank that a traveller in that year
says he expected that in two years it would reach the northern bank.

The same change has destroyed the Grand Canal as a navigable channel for
many miles south of Lin-t'sing chau. (_J.R.G.S._ XXVIII. 294-295;
_Escayrac de Lauture, Mém. sur la Chine; Cathay_, p. 125; _Reports of
Journeys in China_, etc. [by Consuls Alabaster, Oxenham, etc., Parl. Blue
Book], 1869, pp. 4-5, 14; _Mr. Elias_ in _J.R.G.S._ XL. p. 1 seqq.)

[Since the exploration of the Hwang-Ho in 1868 by Mr. Ney Elias and by Mr.
H.G. Hollingworth, an inspection of this river was made in 1889 and a
report published in 1891 by the Dutch Engineers J.G.W. Fijnje van
Salverda, Captain P.G. van Schermbeek and A. Visser, for the improvement
of the Yellow River.--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--Coiganju will be noticed below. _Caiju_ does not seem to be
traceable, having probably been carried away by the changes in the river.
But it would seem to have been at the mouth of the canal on the north side
of the Hwang-Ho, and the name is the same as that given below (ch. lxxii.)
to the town (_Kwachau_) occupying the corresponding position on the Kiang.

"Khatai," says Rashiduddin, "is bounded on one side by the country of
Máchín, which the Chinese call MANZI.... In the Indian language Southern
China is called Mahá-chín, i.e. 'Great China,' and hence we derive the
word _Machin_. The Mongols call the same country _Nangiass_. It is
separated from Khatai by the river called KARAMORAN, which comes from the
mountains of Tibet and Kashmir, and which is never fordable. The capital
of this kingdom is the city of _Khingsai_, which is forty days' journey
from Khanbalik." (_Quat. Rashid._, xci.-xciii.)

MANZI (or Mangi) is a name used for Southern China, or more properly for
the territory which constituted the dominion of the Sung Dynasty at the
time when the Mongols conquered Cathay or Northern China from the Kin, not
only by Marco, but by Odoric and John Marignolli, as well as by the
Persian writers, who, however, more commonly call it _Máchín_. I imagine
that some confusion between the two words led to the appropriation of the
latter name, also to _Southern_ China. The term _Man-tzu_ or _Man-tze_
signifies "Barbarians" ("Sons of Barbarians"), and was applied, it is
said, by the Northern Chinese to their neighbours on the south, whose
civilisation was of later date.[1] The name is now specifically applied
to a wild race on the banks of the Upper Kiang. But it retains its
mediaeval application in Manchuria, where _Mantszi_ is the name given to
the Chinese immigrants, and in that use is said to date from the time of
Kúblái. (_Palladius_ in _J.R.G.S._ vol. xlii. p. 154.) And Mr. Moule
has found the word, apparently used in Marco's exact sense, in a Chinese
extract of the period, contained in the topography of the famous Lake of
Hang-chau (infra, ch. lxxvi.-lxxvii.)

Though both Polo and Rashiduddin call the Karamoran the boundary between
Cathay and Manzi, it was not so for any great distance. Ho-nan belonged
essentially to Cathay.


[1] Magaillans says the Southerns, in return, called the Northerns
    _Pe-tai_, "Fools of the North"!



CHAPTER LXV.

HOW THE GREAT KAAN CONQUERED THE PROVINCE OF MANZI.


You must know that there was a King and Sovereign lord of the great
territory of Manzi who was styled FACFUR, so great and puissant a prince,
that for vastness of wealth and number of subjects and extent of dominion,
there was hardly a greater in all the earth except the Great Kaan himself.
[NOTE 1] But the people of his land were anything rather than warriors;
all their delight was in women, and nought but women; and so it was above
all with the King himself, for he took thought of nothing else but women,
unless it were of charity to the poor.

In all his dominion there were no horses; nor were the people ever inured
to battle or arms, or military service of any kind. Yet the province of
Manzi is very strong by nature, and all the cities are encompassed by
sheets of water of great depth, and more than an arblast-shot in width; so
that the country never would have been lost, had the people but been
soldiers. But that is just what they were not; so lost it was.[NOTE 2]

Now it came to pass, in the year of Christ's incarnation, 1268, that the
Great Kaan, the same that now reigneth, despatched thither a Baron of his
whose name was BAYAN CHINCSAN, which is as much as to say "Bayan Hundred
Eyes." And you must know that the King of Manzi had found in his horoscope
that he never should lose his Kingdom except through a man that had an
hundred eyes; so he held himself assured in his position, for he could not
believe that any man in existence could have an hundred eyes. There,
however, he deluded himself, in his ignorance of the name of Bayan.[NOTE 3]

This Bayan had an immense force of horse and foot entrusted to him by the
Great Kaan, and with these he entered Manzi, and he had also a great
number of boats to carry both horse and food when need should be. And when
he, with all his host, entered the territory of Manzi and arrived at this
city of COIGANJU--whither we now are got, and of which we shall speak
presently--he summoned the people thereof to surrender to the Great Kaan;
but this they flatly refused. On this Bayan went on to another city, with
the same result, and then still went forward; acting thus because he was
aware that the Great Kaan was despatching another great host to follow him
up.[NOTE 4]

What shall I say then? He advanced to five cities in succession, but got
possession of none of them; for he did not wish to engage in besieging
them and they would not give themselves up. But when he came to the sixth
city he took that by storm, and so with a second, and a third, and a
fourth, until he had taken twelve cities in succession. And when he had
taken all these he advanced straight against the capital city of the
kingdom, which was called KINSAY, and which was the residence of the King
and Queen.

And when the King beheld Bayan coming with all his host, he was in great
dismay, as one unused to see such sights. So he and a great company of his
people got on board a thousand ships and fled to the islands of the Ocean
Sea, whilst the Queen who remained behind in the city took all measures in
her power for its defence, like a valiant lady.

Now it came to pass that the Queen asked what was the name of the captain
of the host, and they told her that it was Bayan Hundred-Eyes. So when she
wist that he was styled Hundred-Eyes, she called to mind how their
astrologers had foretold that a man of an hundred eyes should strip them
of the kingdom.[NOTE 5] Wherefore she gave herself up to Bayan, and
surrendered to him the whole kingdom and all the other cities and
fortresses, so that no resistance was made. And in sooth this was a goodly
conquest, for there was no realm on earth half so wealthy.[NOTE 6] The
amount that the King used to expend was perfectly marvellous; and as an
example I will tell you somewhat of his liberal acts.

In those provinces they are wont to expose their newborn babes; I speak of
the poor, who have not the means of bringing them up. But the King used to
have all those foundlings taken charge of, and had note made of the signs
and planets under which each was born, and then put them out to nurse
about the country. And when any rich man was childless he would go to the
King and obtain from him as many of these children as he desired. Or, when
the children grew up, the King would make up marriages among them, and
provide for the couples from his own purse. In this manner he used to
provide for some 20,000 boys and girls every year.[NOTE 7]

I will tell you another thing this King used to do. If he was taking a
ride through the city and chanced to see a house that was very small and
poor standing among other houses that were fine and large, he would ask
why it was so, and they would tell him it belonged to a poor man who had
not the means to enlarge it. Then the King would himself supply the means.
And thus it came to pass that in all the capital of the kingdom of Manzi,
Kinsay by name, you should not see any but fine houses.

This King used to be waited on by more than a thousand young gentlemen and
ladies, all clothed in the richest fashion. And he ruled his realm with
such justice that no malefactors were to be found therein. The city in
fact was so secure that no man closed his doors at night, not even in
houses and shops that were full of all sorts of rich merchandize. No one
could do justice in the telling to the great riches of that country, and
to the good disposition of the people. Now that I have told you about the
kingdom, I will go back to the Queen.

You must know that she was conducted to the Great Kaan, who gave her an
honourable reception, and caused her to be served with all state, like a
great lady as she was. But as for the King her husband, he never more did
quit the isles of the sea to which he had fled, but died there. So leave
we him and his wife and all their concerns, and let us return to our
story, and go on regularly with our account of the great province of Manzi
and of the manners and customs of its people. And, to begin at the
beginning, we must go back to the city of Coiganju, from which we
digressed to tell you about the conquest of Manzi.


NOTE 1.--_Faghfúr_ or _Baghbúr_ was a title applied by old Persian and
Arabic writers to the Emperor of China, much in the way that we used to
speak of the _Great Mogul_, and our fathers of the _Sophy_. It is, as
Neumann points out, an old Persian translation of the Chinese title
_Tien-tzu_, "Son of Heaven"; _Bagh-Púr_ = "The Son of the Divinity," as
Sapor or _Sháh-Púr_ = "The Son of the King." _Faghfur_ seems to have been
used as a proper name in Turkestan. (See _Baber_, 423.)

There is a word, _Takfúr_, applied similarly by the Mahomedans to the
Greek emperors of both Byzantium and Trebizond (and also to the Kings of
Cilician Armenia), which was perhaps adopted as a jingling match to the
former term; Faghfur, the great infidel king in the East; Takfur, the
great infidel king in the West. Defréméry says this is Armenian,
_Tagavor_, "a king." (_I.B._, II. 393, 427.)

["The last of the Sung Emperors (1276) 'Facfur' (i.e. the Arabic for
_Tien Tzu_) was freed by Kúblái from the (ancient Kotan) indignity of
surrendering with a rope round his neck, leading a sheep, and he received
the title of Duke: In 1288 he went to Tibet to study Buddhism, and in 1296
he and his mother, Ts'iuen T'aï How, became a bonze and a nun, and were
allowed to hold 360 _k'ing_ (say 5000 acres) of land free of taxes under
the then existing laws." (_E. H. Parker, China Review_, February, March
1901, p. 195.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Nevertheless the history of the conquest shows instances of
extraordinary courage and self-devotion on the part of Chinese officers,
especially in the defence of fortresses--virtues often shown in like
degree, under like circumstances, by the same class, in the modern history
of China.

NOTE 3.--Bayan (signifying "great" or "noble") is a name of very old
renown among the Nomad nations, for we find it as that of the Khagan of
the Avars in the 6th century. The present BAYAN, Kúblái's most famous
lieutenant, was of princely birth, in the Mongol tribe called Barin. In
his youth he served in the West of Asia under Hulaku. According to
Rashiduddin, about 1265 he was sent to Cathay with certain ambassadors of
the Kaan's who were returning thither. He was received with great
distinction by Kúblái, who was greatly taken with his prepossessing
appearance and ability, and a command was assigned him. In 1273, after the
capture of Siang-Yang (infra, ch. lxx.) the Kaan named him to the chief
command in the prosecution of the war against the Sung Dynasty. Whilst
Bayan was in the full tide of success, Kúblái, alarmed by the ravages of
Kaidu on the Mongolian frontier, recalled him to take the command there,
but, on the general's remonstrance, he gave way, and made him a minister
of state (CHINGSIANG). The essential part of his task was completed by the
surrender of the capital _King-szé_ (Lin-ngan, now Hang-chau) to his arms
in the beginning of 1276. He was then recalled to court, and immediately
despatched to Mongolia, where he continued in command for seventeen years,
his great business being to keep down the restless Kaidu. ["The biography
of this valiant captain is found in the _Yuen-shi_ (ch. cxxvii.). It is
quite in accordance with the biographical notices Rashid gives of the same
personage. He calls him _Bayan_." (_Bretschneider, Med. Res._ I. p. 271,
note).]

["The inventory, records, etc., of Kinsai, mentioned by Marco Polo, as
also the letter from the old empress, are undoubted facts: complete stock
was taken, and 5,692,656 souls were added to the population (in the two
Chên alone). The Emperor surrendered in person to Bayan a few days after
his official surrender, which took place on the 18th day of the 1st moon
in 1276. Bayan took the Emperor to see Kúblái." (_E. H. Parker, China
Review_, XXIV. p. 105.)--H.C.]

In 1293, enemies tried to poison the emperor's ear against Bayan, and they
seemed to have succeeded; for Kúblái despatched his heir, the Prince
Teimur, to supersede him in the frontier command. Bayan beat Kaidu once
more, and then made over his command with characteristic dignity. On his
arrival at court, Kúblái received him with the greatest honour, and named
him chief minister of state and commandant of his guards and the troops
about Cambaluc. The emperor died in the beginning of the next year (1294),
and Bayan's high position enabled him to take decisive measures for
preserving order, and maintaining Kúblái's disposition of the succession.
Bayan was raised to still higher dignities, but died at the age of 59,
within less than a year of the master whom he had served so well for 30
years (about January, 1295). After his death, according to the peculiar
Chinese fashion, he received yet further accessions of dignity.

The language of Chinese historians in speaking of this great man is thus
rendered by De Mailla; it is a noble eulogy of a Tartar warrior:--

"He was endowed with a lofty genius, and possessed in the highest measure
the art of handling great bodies of troops. When he marched against the
Sung, he directed the movements of 200,000 men with as much ease and
coolness as if there had been but one man under his orders. All his
officers looked up to him as a prodigy; and having absolute trust in his
capacity, they obeyed him with entire submission. Nobody knew better how
to deal with soldiers, or to moderate their ardour when it carried them
too far. He was never seen sad except when forced to shed blood, for he
was sparing even of the blood of his enemy.... His modesty was not
inferior to his ability.... He would attribute all the honour to the
conduct of his officers, and he was ever ready to extol their smallest
feats. He merited the praises of Chinese as well as Mongols, and both
nations long regretted the loss of this great man." De Mailla gives a
different account from Rashiduddin and Gaubil, of the manner in which
Bayan first entered the Kaan's service. (_Gaubil_, 145, 159, 169, 179,
183, 221, 223-224; _Erdmann_, 222-223; _De Mailla_, IX. 335, 458,
461-463.)

NOTE 4.--As regards Bayan personally, and the main body under his command,
this seems to be incorrect. His advance took place from Siang-yang along
the lines of the Han River and of the Great Kiang. Another force indeed
marched direct upon Yang-chau, and therefore probably by Hwai-ngan chau
(infra, p. 152); and it is noted that Bayan's orders to the generals of
this force were to spare bloodshed. (_Gaubil_, 159; _D'Ohsson_, II. 398.)

NOTE 5.--So in our own age ran the Hindu prophecy that Bhartpúr should
never fall till there came a great alligator against it; and when it fell
to the English assault, the Brahmans found that the name of the leader was
Combermere = _Kumhír-Mír_, the Crocodile Lord!

  --"Be those juggling fiends no more believed
  That palter with us in a double sense;
  That keep the word of promise to our ear
  And break it to our hope!"

It would seem from the expression, both in Pauthier's text and in the G.
T., as if Polo intended to say that _Chincsan_ (Cinqsan) meant "One
Hundred Eyes"; and if so we could have no stronger proof of his ignorance
of Chinese. It is _Pe-yen_, the Chinese form of _Bayan_, that means, or
rather may be punningly rendered, "One Hundred Eyes." Chincsan, i.e.
_Ching-siang_, was the title of the superior ministers of state at
Khanbaligh, as we have already seen. The title occurs pretty frequently in
the Persian histories of the Mongols, and frequently as a Mongol title in
Sanang Setzen. We find it also disguised as _Chyansam_ in a letter from
certain Christian nobles at Khanbaligh, which Wadding quotes from the
Papal archives. (See _Cathay_, pp. 314-315.)

But it is right to observe that in the Ramusian version the mistranslation
which we have noticed is not so undubitable: "Volendo sapere come avea
nome il Capitano nemico, le fu detto, _Chinsambaian_, cioè _Cent'occhi_."

A kind of corroboration of Marco's story, but giving a different form to
the pun, has been found by Mr. W.F. Mayers, of the Diplomatic Department
in China, in a Chinese compilation dating from the latter part of the 14th
century. Under the heading, "_A Kiang-nan Prophecy_," this book states
that prior to the fall of the Sung a prediction ran through Kiang-nan: "If
Kiang-nan fall, a hundred wild geese (_Pê-yen_) will make their
appearance." This, it is added, was not understood till the generalissimo
_Peyen Chingsiang_ made his appearance on the scene. "Punning prophecies
of this kind are so common in Chinese history, that the above is only
worth noticing in connection with Marco Polo's story." (_N. and Q., China
and Japan_, vol. ii. p. 162.)

But I should suppose that the Persian historian Wassáf had also heard a
bungled version of the same story, which he tells in a pointless manner of
the fortress of _Sináfúr_ (evidently a clerical error for _Saianfu_, see
below, ch. lxx.): "Payan ordered this fortress to be assaulted. The
garrison had heard how the capital of China had fallen, and the army of
Payan was drawing near. The commandant was an experienced veteran who had
tasted all the sweets and bitters of fortune, and had borne the day's heat
and the night's cold; he had, as the saw goes, milked the world's cow dry.
So he sent word to Payan: 'In my youth' (here we abridge Wassáf's
rigmarole) 'I heard my father tell that this fortress should be taken by a
man called _Payan_, and that all fencing and trenching, fighting and
smiting, would be of no avail. You need not, therefore, bring an army
hither; we give in; we surrender the fortress and all that is therein.' So
they opened the gates and came down." (_Wassáf_, Hammer's ed., p. 41).

NOTE 6.--There continues in this narrative, with a general truth as to the
course of events, a greater amount of error as to particulars than we
should have expected. The Sung Emperor Tu Tsong, a debauched and
effeminate prince, to whom Polo seems to refer, had died in 1274, leaving
young children only. Chaohien, the second son, a boy of four years of age,
was put on the throne, with his grandmother Siechi, as regent. The
approach of Bayan caused the greatest alarm; the Sung Court made humble
propositions, but they were not listened to. The brothers of the young
emperor were sent off by sea into the southern provinces; the empress
regent was also pressed to make her escape with the young emperor, but,
after consenting, she changed her mind and would not move. The Mongols
arrived before King-szé, and the empress sent the great seal of the empire
to Bayan. He entered the city without resistance in the third month (say
April), 1276, riding at the head of his whole staff with the standard of
the general-in-chief before him. It is remarked that he went to look at
the tide in the River Tsien Tang, which is noted for its bore. He declined
to meet the regent and her grandson, pleading that he was ignorant of the
etiquettes proper to such an interview. Before his entrance Bayan had
nominated a joint-commission of Mongol and Chinese officers to the
government of the city, and appointed a committee to take charge of all
the public documents, maps, drawings, records of courts, and seals of all
public offices, and to plant sentinels at necessary points. The emperor,
his mother, and the rest of the Sung princes and princesses, were
despatched to the Mongol capital. A desperate attempt was made, at
Kwa-chau (infra, ch. lxxii.) to recapture the young emperor, but it failed.
On their arrival at Ta-tu, Kúblái's chief queen, Jamui Khatun, treated them
with delicate consideration. This amiable lady, on being shown the spoils
that came from Lin-ngan, only wept, and said to her husband, "So also shall
it be with the Mongol empire one day!" The eldest of the two boys who had
escaped was proclaimed emperor by his adherents at Fu-chau, in Fo-kien, but
they were speedily driven from that province (where the local histories, as
Mr. G. Phillips informs me, preserve traces of their adventures in the
Islands of Amoy Harbour), and the young emperor died on a desert island off
the Canton coast in 1278. His younger brother took his place, but a battle,
in the beginning of 1279 finally extinguished these efforts of the expiring
dynasty, and the minister jumped with his young lord into the sea. It is
curious that Rashiduddin, with all his opportunities of knowledge, writing
at least twenty years later, was not aware of this, for he speaks of the
Prince of Manzi as still a fugitive in the forests between Zayton and
Canton. (_Gaubil; D'Ohsson; De Mailla; Cathay_, p. 272.) [See _Parker_,
supra, p. 148 and 149.--H.C.]

There is a curious account in the _Lettres Édifiantes_ (xxiv. 45 seqq.)
by P. Parrenin of a kind of _Pariah_ caste at Shao-hing (see ch. lxxix.
note 1), who were popularly believed to be the descendants of the great
lords of the Sung Court, condemned to that degraded condition for
obstinately resisting the Mongols. Another notice, however, makes the
degraded body rebels against the Sung. (_Milne_, p. 218.)

NOTE 7.--There is much about the exposure of children, and about Chinese
foundling hospitals, in the _Lettres Édifiantes_, especially in Recueil
xv. 83, seqq. It is there stated that frequently a person not in
circumstances to _pay_ for a wife for his son, would visit the foundling
hospital to seek one. The childless rich also would sometimes get children
there to pass off as their own; _adopted_ children being excluded from
certain valuable privileges.

Mr. Milne (_Life in China_), and again Mr. Medhurst (_Foreigner in Far
Cathay_), have discredited the great prevalence of infant exposure in
China; but since the last work was published, I have seen the translation
of a recent strong remonstrance against the practice by a Chinese writer,
which certainly implied that it was _very_ prevalent in the writer's own
province. Unfortunately, I have lost the reference. [See _Father G.
Palatre, L'Infanticide et l'Oeuvre de la Ste. Enfance en Chine_, 1878.
--H.C.]



CHAPTER LXVI.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF COIGANJU.


Coiganju is, as I have told you already, a very large city standing at the
entrance to Manzi. The people are Idolaters and burn their dead, and are
subject to the Great Kaan. They have a vast amount of shipping, as I
mentioned before in speaking of the River Caramoran. And an immense
quantity of merchandize comes hither, for the city is the seat of
government for this part of the country. Owing to its being on the river,
many cities send their produce thither to be again thence distributed in
every direction. A great amount of salt also is made here, furnishing some
forty other cities with that article, and bringing in a large revenue to
the Great Kaan.[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--Coiganju is HWAI-NGAN CHAU, now _-Fu_ on the canal, some
miles south of the channel of the Hwang-Ho; but apparently in Polo's time
the great river passed close to it. Indeed, the city takes its name from
the River _Hwai_, into which the Hwang-Ho sent a branch when first
seeking a discharge south of Shantung. The city extends for about 3 miles
along the canal and much below its level. [According to Sir J.F. Davis,
the situation of Hwai-ngan "is in every respect remarkable. A part of the
town was so much below the level of the canal, that only the tops of the
walls (at least 25 feet high) could be seen from our boats.... It proved
to be, next to Tien-tsin, by far the largest and most populous place we
had yet seen, the capital itself excepted." (_Sketches of China_, I.
pp. 277-278.)--H.C.]

The headquarters of the salt manufacture of Hwai-ngan is a place called
Yen-ching ("Salt-Town"), some distance to the S. of the former city
(_Pauthier_).



CHAPTER LXVII.

OF THE CITIES OF PAUKIN AND CAYU.


When you leave Coiganju you ride south-east for a day along a causeway
laid with fine stone, which you find at this entrance to Manzi. On either
hand there is a great expanse of water, so that you cannot enter the
province except along this causeway. At the end of the day's journey you
reach the fine city of PAUKIN. The people are Idolaters, burn their dead,
are subject to the Great Kaan, and use paper-money. They live by trade and
manufactures and have great abundance of silk, whereof they weave a great
variety of fine stuffs of silk and gold. Of all the necessaries of life
there is great store.

When you leave Paukin you ride another day to the south-east, and then you
arrive at the city of CAYU. The people are Idolaters (and so forth). They
live by trade and manufactures and have great store of all necessaries,
including fish in great abundance. There is also much game, both beast and
bird, insomuch that for a Venice groat you can have three good pheasants.
[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--Paukin is PAO-YING-Hien [a populous place, considerably below the
level of the canal (_Davis, Sketches_, I. pp. 279-280)]; Caya is
KAO-YU-chan, both cities on the east side of the canal. At Kao-yu, the
country east of the canal lies some 20 feet below the canal level; so low
indeed that the walls of the city are not visible from the further bank of
the canal. To the west is the Kao-yu Lake, one of the expanses of water
spoken of by Marco, and which threatens great danger to the low country on
the east. (See _Alabaster's Journey_ in _Consular Reports_ above quoted, p.
5 [and _Gandar, Canal Impérial_, p. 17.--H.C.])

There is a fine drawing of Pao-ying, by Alexander, in the Staunton
collection, British Museum.



CHAPTER LXVIII.

OF THE CITIES OF TIJU, TINJU, AND YANJU.


When you leave Cayu, you ride another day to the south-east through a
constant succession of villages and fields and fine farms until you come
to TIJU, which is a city of no great size but abounding in everything. The
people are Idolaters (and so forth). There is a great amount of trade, and
they have many vessels. And you must know that on your left hand, that is
towards the east, and three days' journey distant, is the Ocean Sea. At
every place between the sea and the city salt is made in great quantities.
And there is a rich and noble city called TINJU, at which there is
produced salt enough to supply the whole province, and I can tell you it
brings the Great Kaan an incredible revenue. The people are Idolaters and
subject to the Kaan. Let us quit this, however, and go back to Tiju.
[NOTE 1]

Again, leaving Tiju, you ride another day towards the south-east, and at
the end of your journey you arrive at the very great and noble city of
YANJU, which has seven-and-twenty other wealthy cities under its
administration; so that this Yanju is, you see, a city of great
importance.[NOTE 2] It is the seat of one of the Great Kaan's Twelve
Barons, for it has been chosen to be one of the Twelve _Sings_. The
people are Idolaters and use paper-money, and are subject to the Great
Kaan. And Messer Marco Polo himself, of whom this book speaks, did govern
this city for three full years, by the order of the Great Kaan.[NOTE 3]
The people live by trade and manufactures, for a great amount of harness
for knights and men-at-arms is made there. And in this city and its
neighbourhood a large number of troops are stationed by the Kaan's orders.

There is no more to say about it. So now I will tell you about two great
provinces of Manzi which lie towards the west. And first of that called
Nanghin.


NOTE 1.--Though the text would lead us to look for _Tiju_ on the direct
line between Kao-yu and Yang-chau, and like them on the canal bank (indeed
one MS., C. of Pauthier, specifies its standing on the same river as the
cities already passed, i.e. on the canal), we seem constrained to admit
the general opinion that this is TAI-CHAU, a town lying some 25 miles at
least to the eastward of the canal, but apparently connected with it by a
navigable channel.

_Tinju_ or _Chinju_ (for both the G.T. and Ramusio read _Cingui_) cannot
be identified with certainty. But I should think it likely, from Polo's
"geographical style," that when he spoke of the sea as three days distant
he had this city in view, and that it is probably TUNG-CHAU, near the
northern shore of the estuary of the Yang-tzu, which might be fairly
described as three days from Tai-chau. Mr. Kingsmill identifies it with
I-chin hien, the great port on the Kiang for the export of the Yang-chau
salt. This is possible; but I-chin lies _west_ of the canal, and though the
form _Chinju_ would really represent I-chin as then named, such a position
seems scarcely compatible with the way, vague as it is, in which Tinju or
Chinju is introduced. Moreover, we shall see that I-chin is spoken of
hereafter. (_Kingsmill_ in _N. and Q. Ch. and Japan_, I. 53.)

NOTE 2.--Happily, there is no doubt that this is YANG-CHAU, one of the
oldest and most famous great cities of China. [Abulfeda (_Guyard_, II. ii.
122) says that Yang-chau is the capital of the Faghfûr of China, and that
he is called Tamghâdj-khan.--H.C.] Some five-and-thirty years after
Polo's departure from China, Friar Odoric found at this city a House of
his own Order (Franciscans), and three Nestorian churches. The city also
appears in the Catalan Map as _Iangio_. Yang-chau suffered greatly in the
T'aï-P'ing rebellion, but its position is an "obligatory point" for
commerce, and it appears to be rapidly recovering its prosperity. It is
the headquarters of the salt manufacture, and it is also now noted for a
great manufacture of sweetmeats (See _Alabaster's Report_, as above, p 6)

[Illustration: Yang chau: the three Cities Under the Sung]

[Through the kindness of the late Father H. Havret, S J, of Zi ka wei, I
am enabled to give two plans from the Chronicles of Yang chau, _Yang chau
fu ché_ (ed. 1733); one bears the title "The Three Cities under the Sung,"
and the other. "The Great City under the Sung" The three cities are _Pao
yew cheng_, built in 1256, _Sin Pao cheng_ or _Kia cheng_, built after
1256, and _Tacheng_, the "Great City," built in 1175; in 1357, Ta cheng
was rebuilt, and in 1557 it was augmented, taking the place of the three
cities; from 553 B.C. until the 12th century, Yang-chau had no less than
five enclosures; the governor's yamen stood where a cross is marked in the
Great City. Since Yang-chau has been laid in ruins by the T'aï-P'ing
insurgents, these plans offer now a new interest.--H.C.]

[Illustration: Yang-chau: the Great City under the Sung.]

NOTE 3.--What I have rendered "Twelve _Sings_" is in the G.T. "douze
_sajes_," and in Pauthier's text "_sieges_." It seems to me a reasonable
conclusion that the original word was _Sings_ (see I. 432, supra);
anyhow that was the proper term for the thing meant.

In his note on this chapter, Pauthier produces evidence that Yang-chau was
the seat of a _Lu_ or circuit[1] from 1277, and also of a _Sing_ or
Government-General, but only for the first year after the conquest, viz.
1276-1277, and he seems (for his argument is obscure) to make from this
the unreasonable deduction that at this period Kúblái placed Marco
Polo--who could not be more than twenty-three years of age, and had been
but two years in Cathay--in charge either of the general government, or of
an important district government in the most important province of the
empire.

In a later note M. Pauthier speaks of 1284 as the date at which the _Sing_
of the province of Kiang-ché was transferred from Yang-chau to Hang-chau;
this is probably to be taken as a correction of the former citations, and
it better justifies Polo's statement. (_Pauthier_, pp. 467, 492.)

I do not think that we are to regard Marco as having held at any time the
important post of Governor-General of Kiang-ché. The expressions in the G.
T. are: "_Meser Marc Pol meisme, celui de cui trate ceste livre,
seingneurie ceste cité por trois anz._" Pauthier's MS. A. appears to read:
"_Et ot seigneurie, Marc Pol, en ceste cité, trois ans._" These
expressions probably point to the government of the _Lu_ or circuit of
Yang-chau, just as we find in ch. lxxiii. another Christian, Mar Sarghis,
mentioned as Governor of Chin-kiang fu for the same term of years, that
city being also the head of a _Lu_. It is remarkable that in Pauthier's
MS. C., which often contains readings of peculiar value, the passage runs
(and also in the Bern MS.): "_Et si vous dy que ledit Messire Marc Pol,
cellui meisme de qui nostre livre parle_, sejourna, _en ceste cité de
Janguy. iii. ans accompliz, par le commandement du Grant Kaan,_" in which
the nature of his employment is not indicated at all (though _séjourna_
may be an error for _seigneura_). The impression of his having been
Governor-General is mainly due to the Ramusian version, which says
distinctly indeed that "_M. Marco Polo di commissione del Gran Can n' ebbe
il governo tre anni continui_ in luogo di un dei detti Baroni," but it is
very probable that this is a gloss of the translator. I should conjecture
his rule at Yang-chau to have been between 1282, when we know he was at
the capital (vol. i. p. 422), and 1287-1288, when he must have gone on his
first expedition to the Indian Seas.


[1] The _Lu_ or Circuit was an administrative division under the Mongols,
    intermediate between the _Sing_ and the _Fu_, or department. There were
    185 _lu_ in all China under Kúblái. (_Pauth._ 333). [_Mr. E.L.
    Oxenham, Hist. Atlas Chin. Emp._, reckons 10 provinces or _sheng_, 39
    _fu_ cities, 316 _chau_, 88 _lu_, 12 military governorships.--H.C.]



CHAPTER LXIX.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF NANGHIN.


Nanghin is a very noble Province towards the west. The people are
Idolaters (and so forth) and live by trade and manufactures. They have
silk in great abundance, and they weave many fine tissues of silk and
gold. They have all sorts of corn and victuals very cheap, for the
province is a most productive one. Game also is abundant, and lions too
are found there. The merchants are great and opulent, and the Emperor
draws a large revenue from them, in the shape of duties on the goods which
they buy and sell.[NOTE 1]

And now I will tell you of the very noble city of Saianfu, which well
deserves a place in our book, for there is a matter of great moment to
tell about it.


NOTE 1.--The name and direction from Yang-chau are probably sufficient to
indicate (as Pauthier has said) that this is NGAN-KING on the Kiang,
capital of the modern province of Ngan-hwei. The more celebrated city of
_Nan-king_ did not bear that name in our traveller's time.

Ngan-king, when recovered from the T'ai-P'ing in 1861, was the scene of a
frightful massacre by the Imperialists. They are said to have left neither
man, woman, nor child alive in the unfortunate city. (_Blakiston_ p. 55.)



CHAPTER LXX.

CONCERNING THE VERY NOBLE CITY OF SAIANFU, AND HOW ITS CAPTURE
WAS EFFECTED.


Saianfu is a very great and noble city, and it rules over twelve other
large and rich cities, and is itself a seat of great trade and
manufacture. The people are Idolaters (and so forth). They have much silk,
from which they weave fine silken stuffs; they have also a quantity of
game, and in short the city abounds in all that it behoves a noble city to
possess.

Now you must know that this city held out against the Great Kaan for three
years after the rest of Manzi had surrendered. The Great Kaan's troops
made incessant attempts to take it, but they could not succeed because of
the great and deep waters that were round about it, so that they could
approach from one side only, which was the north. And I tell you they
never would have taken it, but for a circumstance that I am going to
relate.

You must know that when the Great Kaan's host had lain three years before
the city without being able to take it, they were greatly chafed thereat.
Then Messer Nicolo Polo and Messer Maffeo and Messer Marco said: "We could
find you a way of forcing the city to surrender speedily;" whereupon those
of the army replied, that they would be right glad to know how that should
be. All this talk took place in the presence of the Great Kaan. For
messengers had been despatched from the camp to tell him that there was no
taking the city by blockade, for it continually received supplies of
victual from those sides which they were unable to invest; and the Great
Kaan had sent back word that take it they must, and find a way how. Then
spoke up the two brothers and Messer Marco the son, and said: "Great
Prince, we have with us among our followers men who are able to construct
mangonels which shall cast such great stones that the garrison will never
be able to stand them, but will surrender incontinently, as soon as the
mangonels or trebuchets shall have shot into the town."[NOTE 1]

The Kaan bade them with all his heart have such mangonels made as speedily
as possible. Now Messer Nicolo and his brother and his son immediately
caused timber to be brought, as much as they desired, and fit for the work
in hand. And they had two men among their followers, a German and a
Nestorian Christian, who were masters of that business, and these they
directed to construct two or three mangonels capable of casting stones of
300 lbs. weight. Accordingly they made three fine mangonels, each of which
cast stones of 300 lbs. weight and more.[NOTE 2] And when they were
complete and ready for use, the Emperor and the others were greatly
pleased to see them, and caused several stones to be shot in their
presence; whereat they marvelled greatly and greatly praised the work. And
the Kaan ordered that the engines should be carried to his army which was
at the leaguer of Saianfu.[NOTE 3]

And when the engines were got to the camp they were forthwith set up, to
the great admiration of the Tartars. And what shall I tell you? When the
engines were set up and put in gear, a stone was shot from each of them
into the town. These took effect among the buildings, crashing and
smashing through everything with huge din and commotion. And when the
townspeople witnessed this new and strange visitation they were so
astonished and dismayed that they wist not what to do or say. They took
counsel together, but no counsel could be suggested how to escape from
these engines, for the thing seemed to them to be done by sorcery. They
declared that they were all dead men if they yielded not, so they
determined to surrender on such conditions as they could get.[NOTE 4]
Wherefore they straightway sent word to the commander of the army that
they were ready to surrender on the same terms as the other cities of the
province had done, and to become the subjects of the Great Kaan; and to
this the captain of the host consented.

So the men of the city surrendered, and were received to terms; and this
all came about through the exertions of Messer Nicolo, and Messer Maffeo,
and Messer Marco; and it was no small matter. For this city and province
is one of the best that the Great Kaan possesses, and brings him in great
revenues.[NOTE 5]


NOTE 1.--Pauthier's MS. C. here says: "When the Great Kaan, and the Barons
about him, and the messengers from the camp ... heard this, they all
marvelled greatly; for I tell you that in all those parts they know
nothing of mangonels or trebuchets; and they were so far from being
accustomed to employ them in their wars that they had never even seen
them, nor knew what they were." The MS. in question has in this narrative
several statements peculiar to itself,[1] as indeed it has in various
other passages of the book; and these often look very like the result of
revision by Polo himself. Yet I have not introduced the words just quoted
into our text, because they are, as we shall see presently, notoriously
contrary to fact.

NOTE 2.--The same MS. has here a passage which I am unable to understand.
After the words "300 lbs. and more," it goes on: "Et la veoit l'en voler
moult loing, desquelles pierres _il en y avoit plus de_ lx _routes qui
tant montoit l'une comme l'autre_" The Bern has the same. [Perhaps we
might read lx _en routes_, viz. on their way.--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--I propose here to enter into some detailed explanation regarding
the military engines that were in use in the Middle Ages.[2] None of these
depended for their motive force on _torsion_ like the chief engines used
in classic times. However numerous the names applied to them, with
reference to minor variations in construction or differences in power,
they may all be reduced to two classes, viz. _great slings_ and _great
crossbows_. And this is equally true of all the three great branches of
mediaeval civilisation--European, Saracenic, and Chinese. To the first
class belonged the _Trebuchet_ and _Mangonel_; to the second, the
_Winch-Arblast_ (Arbalête à Tour), _Springold_ etc.

Whatever the ancient _Balista_ may have been, the word in mediaeval Latin
seems always to mean some kind of crossbow. The heavier crossbows were
wound up by various aids, such as winches, ratchets, etc. They discharged
stone shot, leaden bullets, and short, square-shafted arrows called
_quarrels_, and these with such force we are told as to pierce a six-inch
post (?). But they were worked so slowly in the field that they were no
match for the long-bow, which shot five or six times to their once. The
great machines of this kind were made of wood, of steel, and very
frequently of horn;[3] and the bow was sometimes more than 30 feet in
length. Dufour calculates that such a machine could shoot an arrow of half
a kilogram in weight to a distance of about 860 yards.

The _Trebuchet_ consisted of a long tapering shaft or beam, pivoted at a
short distance from the butt end on a pair of strong pyramidal trestles.
At the other end of the shaft a sling was applied, one cord of which was
firmly attached by a ring, whilst the other hung in a loop over an iron
hook which formed the extremity of the shaft. The power employed to
discharge the sling was either the strength of a number of men, applied to
ropes which were attached to the short end of the shaft or lever, or the
weight of a heavy counterpoise hung from the same, and suddenly released.

[Illustration: Mediaeval Artillery Engines. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Chinese;
Figs. 6, 7, 8, Saracenic: the rest Frank.]

Supposing the latter force to be employed, the long end of the shaft was
drawn down by a windlass; the sling was laid forward in a wooden trough
provided for it, and charged with the shot. The counterpoise was, of
course, now aloft, and was so maintained by a detent provided with a
trigger. On pulling this, the counterpoise falls and the shaft flies
upwards drawing the sling. When a certain point is reached the loop end of
the sling releases itself from the hook, and the sling flies abroad whilst
the shot is projected in its parabolic flight.[4] To secure the most
favourable result the shot should have acquired its maximum velocity, and
should escape at an angle of about 45°. The attainment of this required
certain proportions between the different dimensions of the machine and
the weight of the shot, for which, doubtless, traditional rules of thumb
existed among the mediaeval engineers.

The ordinary shot consisted of stones carefully rounded. But for these
were substituted on occasion rough stones with fuses attached,[5] pieces
of red-hot iron, pots of fused metal, or casks full of Greek fire or of
foul matter to corrupt the air of the besieged place. Thus carrion was
shot into Negropont from such engines by Mahomed II. The Cardinal
Octavian, besieging Modena in 1249, slings a dead ass into the town.
Froissart several times mentions such measures, as at the siege of Thin
l'Evêque on the Scheldt in 1340, when "the besiegers by their engines
flung dead horses and other carrion into the castle to poison the garrison
by their smell." In at least one instance the same author tells how a
living man, an unlucky messenger from the Castle of Auberoche, was caught
by the besiegers, thrust into the sling with the letters that he bore hung
round his neck, and shot into Auberoche, where he fell dead among his
horrified comrades. And Lipsius quotes from a Spanish Chronicle the story
of a virtuous youth, Pelagius, who, by order of the Tyrant Abderramin, was
shot across the Guadalquivir, but lighted unharmed upon the rocks beyond.
Ramon de Muntaner relates how King James of Aragon, besieging Majorca in
1228, vowed vengeance against the Saracen King because he shot Christian
prisoners into the besiegers' camp with his trebuchets (pp. 223-224). We
have mentioned one kind of corruption propagated by these engines; the
historian Wassáf tells of another. When the garrison of Dehli refused to
open the gates to Aláuddin Khilji after the murder of his uncle, Firúz
(1296), he loaded his mangonels with bags of gold and shot them into the
fort, a measure which put an end to the opposition.

Ibn Batuta, forty years later, describes Mahomed Tughlak as entering Dehli
accompanied by elephants carrying small _balistae_ (_ra'ádái_), from which
gold and silver pieces were shot among the crowd. And the same king, when
he had given the crazy and cruel order that the population of Dehli should
evacuate the city and depart to Deogir, 900 miles distant, having found
two men skulking behind, one of whom was paralytic and the other blind,
caused the former to be shot from a mangonel. (_I.B._ III. 395, 315.)

Some old drawings represent the shaft as discharging the shot from a kind
of spoon at its extremity, without the aid of a sling (e.g. fig. 13);
but it may be doubted if this was actually used, for the sling was
essential to the efficiency of the engine. The experiments and
calculations of Dufour show that without the sling, other things remaining
the same, the range of the shot would be reduced by more than a half.

In some of these engines the counterpoise, consisting of a timber case
filled with stones, sand, or the like, was permanently fixed to the
butt-end of the shaft. This seems to have been the _Trebuchet_ proper. In
others the counterpoise hung free on a pivot from the yard; whilst a third
kind (as in fig. 17) combined both arrangements. The first kind shot most
steadily and truly; the second with more force.

Those machines, in which the force of men pulling cords took the place of
the counterpoise, could not discharge such weighty shot, but they could be
worked more rapidly, and no doubt could be made of lighter scantling. Mr.
Hewitt points out a curious resemblance between this kind of Trebuchet and
the apparatus used on the Thames to raise the cargo from the hold of a
collier.

The Emperor Napoleon deduces from certain passages in mediaeval writers
that the _Mangonel_ was similar to the Trebuchet, but of lighter structure
and power. But often certainly the term Mangonel seems to be used
generically for all machines of this class. Marino Sanudo uses no word but
_Machina_, which he appears to employ as the Latin equivalent of
_Mangonel_, whilst the machine which he describes is a Trebuchet with
moveable counterpoise. The history of the word appears to be the
following. The Greek word [Greek: mágganon], "a piece of witchcraft," came
to signify a juggler's trick, an unexpected contrivance (in modern slang
"_a jim_"), and so specially a military engine. It seems to have reached
this specific meaning by the time of Hero the Younger, who is believed to
have written in the first half of the 7th century. From the form [Greek:
magganikòn] the Orientals got _Manganík_ and _Manjánik_,[6] whilst the
Franks adopted _Mangona_ and _Mangonella_. Hence the verbs _manganare_ and
_amanganare_, to batter and crush with such engines, and eventually our
verb "to mangle." Again, when the use of gunpowder rendered these warlike
engines obsolete, perhaps their ponderous counterweights were utilised in
the peaceful arts of the laundry, and hence gave us our substantive "the
Mangle" (It. _Mangano_)!

The Emperor Napoleon, when Prince President, caused some interesting
experiments in the matter of mediaeval artillery to be carried out at
Vincennes, and a full-sized trebuchet was constructed there. With a shaft
of 33 feet 9 inches in length, having a permanent counterweight of 3300
lbs. and a pivoted counterweight of 6600 lbs. more, the utmost effect
attained was the discharge of an iron 24-kilo. shot to a range of 191
yards, whilst a 12-1/2-inch shell, filled with earth, ranged to 131 yards.
The machine suffered greatly at each discharge, and it was impracticable
to increase the counterpoise to 8000 kilos., or 17,600 lbs. as the Prince
desired. It was evident that the machine was not of sufficiently massive
structure. But the officers in charge satisfied themselves that, with
practice in such constructions and the use of very massive timber, even
the exceptional feats recorded of mediaeval engineers might be realised.

Such a case is that cited by Quatremère, from an Oriental author, of the
discharge of stones weighing 400 _mans_, certainly not less than 800 lbs.,
and possibly much more; or that of the Men of Bern, who are reported, when
besieging Nidau in 1388, to have employed trebuchets which shot daily into
the town upwards of 200 blocks weighing 12 cwt. apiece.[7] Stella relates
that the Genoese armament sent against Cyprus, in 1373, among other great
machines had one called _Troja_ (_Truia_?), which cast stones of 12 to 18
hundredweights; and when the Venetians were besieging the revolted city of
Zara in 1346, their Engineer, Master Francesco delle Barche, shot into the
city stones of 3000 lbs. weight.[8] In this case the unlucky engineer was
"hoist with his own petard," for while he stood adjusting one of his
engines, it went off, and shot him into the town.

With reference to such cases the Emperor calculates that a stone of 3000
lbs. weight might be shot 77 yards with a counterpoise of 36,000 lbs.
weight, and a shaft 65 feet long. The counterpoise, composed of stone shot
of 55 lbs. each, might be contained in a cubical case of about 5-1/2 feet
to the side. The machine would be preposterous, but there is nothing
impossible about it. Indeed in the Album of Villard de Honnecourt, an
architect of the 13th century, which was published at Paris in 1858, in
the notes accompanying a plan of a trebuchet (from which Professor Willis
restored the machine as it is shown in our fig. 19), the artist remarks:
"It is a great job to heave down the beam, for the counterpoise is very
heavy. For it consists of a chest full of earth which is 2 great toises in
length, 8 feet in breadth, and 12 feet in depth"! (p. 203).

Such calculations enable us to understand the enormous quantities of
material said to have been used in some of the larger mediaeval machines.
Thus Abulfeda speaks of one used at the final capture of Acre, which was
entrusted to the troops of Hamath, and which formed a load for 100 carts,
of which one was in charge of the historian himself. The romance of
Richard Coeur de Lion tells how in the King's Fleet an entire ship was
taken up by one such machine with its gear:--

  "Another schyp was laden yet
  With an engyne hyghte Robinet,
  (It was Richardys o mangonel)
  And all the takyl that thereto fel."

Twenty-four machines, captured from the Saracens by St. Lewis in his first
partial success on the Nile, afforded material for stockading his whole
camp. A great machine which cumbered the Tower of St. Paul at Orleans, and
was dismantled previous to the celebrated defence against the English,
furnished 26 cart-loads of timber. (_Abulf. Ann. Muslem_, V. 95-97;
_Weber_, II. 56; _Michel's Joinville_, App. p. 278; _Jollois, H. du Siège
d Orleans_, 1833, p. 12.)

The _number_ of such engines employed was sometimes very great. We have
seen that St. Lewis captured 24 at once, and these had been employed in
the field. Villehardouin says that the fleet which went from Venice to the
attack of Constantinople carried more than 300 perriers and mangonels,
besides quantities of other engines required for a siege (ch. xxxviii). At
the siege of Acre in 1291, just referred to, the Saracens, according to
Makrizi, set 92 engines in battery against the city, whilst Abulfaraj says
300, and a Frank account, of great and small, 666. The larger ones are
said to have shot stones of "a kantar and even more." (_Makrizi_, III.
125; _Reinaud, Chroniques Arabes, etc._, p. 570; _De Excidio Urbis
Acconis_, in _Marlène and Durand_, V. 769.)

How heavy a _mangonade_ was sometimes kept up may be understood from the
account of the operations on the Nile, already alluded to. The King was
trying to run a dam across a branch of the river, and had protected the
head of his work by "cat-castles" or towers of timber, occupied by
archers, and these again supported by trebuchets, etc., in battery. "And,"
says Jean Pierre Sarrasin, the King's Chamberlain, "when the Saracens saw
what was going on, they planted a great number of engines against ours,
and to destroy our towers and our causeway they shot such vast quantities
of stones, great and small, that all men stood amazed. They slung stones,
and discharged arrows, and shot quarrels from winch-arblasts, and pelted
us with Turkish darts and Greek fire, and kept up such a harassment of
every kind against our engines and our men working at the causeway, that
it was horrid either to see or to hear. Stones, darts, arrows, quarrels,
and Greek fire came down on them like rain."

The Emperor Napoleon observes that the direct or grazing fire of the great
arblasts may be compared to that of guns in more modern war, whilst the
mangonels represent mortar-fire. And this vertical fire was by no means
contemptible, at least against buildings of ordinary construction. At the
sieges of Thin l'Evêque in 1340, and Auberoche in 1344, already cited,
Froissart says the French cast stones in, night and day, so as in a few
days to demolish all the roofs of the towers, and none within durst
venture out of the vaulted basement.

The Emperor's experiments showed that these machines were capable of
surprisingly accurate direction. And the mediaeval histories present some
remarkable feats of this kind. Thus, in the attack of Mortagne by the men
of Hainault and Valenciennes (1340), the latter had an engine which was a
great annoyance to the garrison; there was a clever engineer in the
garrison who set up another machine against it, and adjusted it so well
that the first shot fell within 12 paces of the enemy's engine, the second
fell near the box, and the third struck the shaft and split it in two.

Already in the first half of the 13th century, a French poet (quoted by
Weber) looks forward with disgust to the supercession of the feats of
chivalry by more mechanical methods of war:--

  "Chevaliers sont esperdus,
  Cil ont auques leur tens perdus;
  Arbalestier et mineor
  Et perrier et engigneor
  Seront dorenavant plus chier."

When Gházán Khan was about to besiege the castle of Damascus in 1300, so
much importance was attached to this art that whilst his Engineer, a man
of reputation therein, was engaged in preparing the machines, the Governor
of the castle offered a reward of 1000 dinars for that personage's head.
And one of the garrison was daring enough to enter the Mongol camp, stab
the Engineer, and carry back his head into the castle!

Marino Sanudo, about the same time, speaks of the range of these engines
with a prophetic sense of the importance of artillery in war:--

"On this subject (length of range) the engineers and experts of the army
should employ their very sharpest wits. For if the shot of one army,
whether engine-stones or pointed projectiles, have a longer range than the
shot of the enemy, rest assured that the side whose artillery hath the
longest range will have a vast advantage in action. Plainly, if the
Christian shot can take effect on the Pagan forces, whilst the Pagan shot
cannot reach the Christian forces, it may be safely asserted that the
Christians will continually gain ground from the enemy, or, in other
words, they will win the battle."

The importance of these machines in war, and the efforts made to render
them more effective, went on augmenting till the introduction of the still
more "villanous saltpetre," even then, however, coming to no sudden halt.
Several of the instances that we have cited of machines of extraordinary
power belong to a time when the use of cannon had made some progress. The
old engines were employed by Timur; in the wars of the Hussites as late as
1422; and, as we have seen, up to the middle of that century by Mahomed
II. They are also distinctly represented on the towers of Aden, in the
contemporary print of the escalade in 1514, reproduced in this volume.
(Bk. III. ch. xxxvi.)

(_Etudes sur le Passé et l'Avenir de l'Artillerie_, par _L. N. Bonaparte_,
etc., tom. II.; _Marinus Sanutius_, Bk. II. Pt. 4, ch. xxi. and xxii.;
_Kington's Fred. II._, II. 488; _Froissart_, I. 69, 81, 182; _Elliot_,
III. 41, etc.; Hewitt's _Ancient Armour_, I. 350; _Pertz, Scriptores_,
XVIII. 420, 751; _Q. R._ 135-7; _Weber_, III. 103; _Hammer, Ilch._ II.
95.)

NOTE 4.--Very like this is what the Romance of Coeur de Lion tells of the
effects of Sir Fulke Doyley's mangonels on the Saracens of _Ebedy_:--

  "Sir Fouke brought good engynes
  Swylke knew but fewe Sarazynes--
         *       *       *
  "A prys tour stood ovyr the Gate;
  He bent his engynes and threw thereate
  A great stone that harde droff,
  That the Tour al to roff
         *       *       *
  "And slough the folk that therinne stood;
  The other fledde and wer nygh wood,
  And sayde it was the devylys dent," etc.
      --_Weber_, II. 172.

NOTE 5.--This chapter is one of the most perplexing in the whole book,
owing to the chronological difficulties involved.

SAIANFU is SIANG-YANG FU, which stands on the south bank of the River Han,
and with the sister city of Fan-ch'eng, on the opposite bank, commands the
junction of two important approaches to the southern provinces, viz. that
from Shen-si down the Han, and that from Shan-si and Peking down the
Pe-ho. Fan-ch'eng seems now to be the more important place of the two.

The name given to the city by Polo is precisely that which Siang-yang
bears in Rashiduddin, and there is no room for doubt as to its identity.

The Chinese historians relate that Kúblái was strongly advised to make the
capture of Siang-yang and Fan-ch'eng a preliminary to his intended attack
upon the Sung. The siege was undertaken in the latter part of 1268, and
the twin cities held out till the spring [March] of 1273. Nor did Kúblái
apparently prosecute any other operations against the Sung during that
long interval.

Now Polo represents that the long siege of Saianfu, instead of being a
prologue to the subjugation of Manzi, was the protracted epilogue of that
enterprise; and he also represents the fall of the place as caused by
advice and assistance rendered by his father, his uncle, and himself, a
circumstance consistent only with the siege's having really been such an
epilogue to the war. For, according to the narrative as it stands in all
the texts, the Polos _could not_ have reached the Court of Kúblái before
the end of 1274, i.e. a year and a half after the fall of Siang-yang, as
represented in the Chinese histories.

The difficulty is not removed, nor, it appears to me, abated in any
degree, by omitting the name of Marco as one of the agents in this affair,
an omission which occurs both in Pauthier's MS. B and in Ramusio. Pauthier
suggests that the father and uncle may have given the advice and
assistance in question when on their first visit to the Kaan, and when the
siege of Siang-yang was first contemplated. But this would be quite
inconsistent with the assertion that the place had held out three years
longer than the rest of Manzi, as well as with the idea that their aid had
abridged the duration of the siege, and, in fact, with the spirit of the
whole story. It is certainly very difficult in this case to justify
Marco's veracity, but I am very unwilling to believe that there was no
justification in the facts.

It is a very curious circumstance that the historian Wassáf also appears
to represent Saianfu (see note 5, ch. lxv.) as holding out after all the
rest of Manzi had been conquered. Yet the Chinese annals are systematic,
minute, and consequent, and it seems impossible to attribute to them such
a misplacement of an event which they represent as the key to the conquest
of Southern China.

In comparing Marco's story with that of the Chinese, we find the same
coincidence in prominent features, accompanying a discrepancy in details,
that we have had occasion to notice in other cases where his narrative
intersects history. The Chinese account runs as follows:--

In 1271, after Siang-yang and Fan-ch'eng had held out already nearly three
years, an Uighúr General serving at the siege, whose name was Alihaiya,
urged the Emperor to send to the West for engineers expert at the
construction and working of machines casting stones of 150 lbs. weight.
With such aid he assured Kúblái the place would speedily be taken. Kúblái
sent to his nephew Abaka in Persia for such engineers, and two were
accordingly sent post to China, _Alawating_ of Mufali and his pupil Ysemain
of Huli or Hiulie (probably _Ala'uddin_ of _Miafarakain_ and _Ismael_ of
_Heri_ or Herat). Kúblái on their arrival gave them military rank. They
exhibited their skill before the Emperor at Tatu, and in the latter part of
1272 they reached the camp before Siang-yang, and set up their engines. The
noise made by the machines, and the crash of the shot as it broke through
everything in its fall, caused great alarm in the garrison. Fan-ch'eng was
first taken by assault, and some weeks later Siang-yang surrendered.

The shot used on this occasion weighed 125 Chinese pounds (if _catties_,
then equal to about 166 _lbs. avoird._), and penetrated 7 or 8 feet into
the earth.

Rashiduddin also mentions the siege of Siangyang, as we learn from
D'Ohsson. He states that as there were in China none of the _Manjaníks_ or
Mangonels called _Kumghá_ the Kaan caused a certain engineer to be sent
from Damascus or Balbek, and the three sons of this person, Abubakr,
Ibrahim, and Mahomed, with their workmen, constructed seven great
Manjaníks which were employed against SAYANFU, a frontier fortress and
bulwark of Manzi.

We thus see that three different notices of the siege of Siang-yang,
Chinese, Persian, and Venetian, all concur as to the employment of foreign
engineers from the West, but all differ as to the individuals.

We have seen that one of the MSS. makes Polo assert that till this event
the Mongols and Chinese were totally ignorant of mangonels and trebuchets.
This, however, is quite untrue; and it is not very easy to reconcile even
the statement, implied in all versions of the story, that mangonels of
considerable power were unknown in the far East, with other circumstances
related in Mongol history.

The Persian History called _Tabakát-i-Násiri_ speaks of Aikah Nowin the
_Manjaníki Khás_ or Engineer-in-Chief to Chinghiz Khan, and his corps of
ten thousand _Manjaníkis_ or Mangonellers. The Chinese histories used by
Gaubil also speak of these artillery battalions of Chinghiz. At the siege
of Kai-fung fu near the Hwang-Ho, the latest capital of the Kin Emperors,
in 1232, the Mongol General, Subutai, threw from his engines great
quarters of millstones which smashed the battlements and watch-towers on
the ramparts, and even the great timbers of houses in the city. In 1236 we
find the Chinese garrison of Chinchau (_I-chin-hien_ on the Great Kiang
near the Great Canal) repelling the Mongol attack, partly by means of
their stone shot. When Hulaku was about to march against Persia (1253),
his brother, the Great Kaan Mangku, sent to _Cathay_ to fetch thence 1000
families of mangonellers, naphtha-shooters, and arblasteers. Some of the
crossbows used by these latter had a range, we are told, of 2500 paces!
European history bears some similar evidence. One of the Tartar
characteristics reported by a fugitive Russian Archbishop, in Matt. Paris
(p. 570 under 1244), is: "_Machinas habent multiplices, recte et fortiter
jacientes_"

It is evident, therefore, that the Mongols and Chinese _had_ engines of
war, but that they were deficient in some advantage possessed by those of
the Western nations. Rashiduddin's expression as to their having no
_Kumghá_ mangonels, seems to be unexplained. Is it perhaps an error for
_Karábughá_, the name given by the Turks and Arabs to a kind of great
mangonel? This was known also in Europe as Carabaga, Calabra, etc. It is
mentioned under the former name by Marino Sanudo, and under the latter,
with other quaintly-named engines, by William of Tudela, as used by Simon
de Montfort the Elder against the Albigenses:--

  "E dressa sos _Calabres_, et foi _Mal Vezina_
  E sas autras pereiras, e _Dona_, e _Reina_;
  Pessia les autz murs e la sala peirina."[9]

  ("He set up his _Calábers_, and likewise his _Ill-Neighbours_,
  With many a more machine, this the _Lady_, that the _Queen_,
  And breached the lofty walls, and smashed the stately Halls.")

Now, in looking at the Chinese representations of their ancient mangonels,
which are evidently genuine, and of which I have given some specimens
(figs. I, 2, 3), I see none worked by the counterpoise; all (and there are
six or seven different representations in the work from which these are
taken) are shown as worked by man-ropes. Hence, probably, the improvement
brought from the West was essentially the use of the counterpoised lever.
And, after I had come to this conclusion, I found it to be the view of
Captain Favé. (See _Du Feu Grégeois_, by MM. Reinaud and Favé, p. 193.)

In Ramusio the two Polos propose to Kúblái to make "_mangani al modo di_
_Ponente"_; and it is worthy of note that in the campaigns of Aláuddín
Khilji and his generals in the Deccan, circa 1300, frequent mention is
made of the _Western Manjaniks_ and their great power. (See _Elliot_, III.
75, 78, etc.)

Of the kind worked by man-ropes must have been that huge mangonel which
Mahomed Iba Kásim, the conqueror of Sind, set in battery against the great
Dagoba of Daubul, and which required 500 men to work it. Like Simon de
Montfort's it had a tender name; it was called "The Bride." (_Elliot_, I.
120.)

Before quitting this subject, I will quote a curious passage from the
History of the Sung Dynasty, contributed to the work of Reinaud and Favé
by M. Stanislas Julien: "In the 9th year of the period Hien-shun (A.D.
1273) the frontier cities had fallen into the hands of the enemy
(Tartars). The _Pao_ (or engines for shooting) of the Bwei-Hwei
(Mahomedans) were imitated, but in imitating them very ingenious
improvements were introduced, and _pao_ of a different and very superior
kind were constructed. Moreover, an extraordinary method was invented of
neutralising the effects of the enemy's _pao_. Ropes were made of
rice-straw 4 inches thick, and 34 feet in length. Twenty such ropes were
joined, applied to the tops of buildings, and covered with clay. In this
manner the fire-arrows, fire-_pao_, and even the pao casting stones of 100
Lbs. weight, could cause no damage to the towers or houses." (Ib. 196; also
for previous parts of this note, _Visdelou_, 188; _Gaubil_, 34, 155 seqq.
and 70; _De Mailla_, 329; _Pauthier in loco_ and Introduction; _D'Ohsson_,
II. 35, and 391; Notes by _Mr. Edward Thomas_, F.R.S.; _Q. Rashid._, pp.
132, 136.) [See I. p. 342.]

[Captain Gill writes (_River of Golden Sand_, I. p. 148): "The word 'P'ao'
which now means 'cannon,' was, it was asserted, found in old Chinese books
of a date anterior to that in which gunpowder was first known to
Europeans; hence the deduction was drawn that the Chinese were acquainted
with gunpowder before it was used in the West. But close examination shows
that in all old books the radical of the character 'P'ao' means 'stone,'
but that in modern books the radical of the character 'P'ao' means 'fire';
that the character with the radical 'fire' only appears in books well
known to have been written since the introduction of gunpowder into the
West; and that the old character 'P'ao' in reality means 'Balista.'"
--H.C.]

["Wheeled boats are mentioned in 1272 at the siege of Siang-yang. Kúblái
did not decide to 'go for' Manzi, i.e. the southern of the two Chinese
Empires, until 1273. Bayan did not start until 1274, appearing before
Hankow in January 1275. Wuhu and Taiping surrendered in April; then
Chinkiang, Kien K'ang (Nanking), and Ning kwoh; the final crushing blow
being dealt at Hwai-chan. In March 1276, the Manzi Emperor accepted
vassaldom. Kiang-nan was regularly administered in 1278." (_E. H. Parker,
China Review_, xxiv. p. 105.)--H.C.]

Siang-yang has been twice visited by Mr. A. Wylie. Just before his first
visit (I believe in 1866) a discovery had been made in the city of a
quantity of treasure buried at the time of the siege. One of the local
officers gave Mr. Wylie one of the copper coins, not indeed in itself of
any great rarity, but worth engraving here on account of its connection
with the siege commemorated in the text; and a little on the principle of
Smith the Weaver's evidence:--"The bricks are alive at this day to testify
of it; therefore deny it not."

[Illustration: Coin from a treasure hidden at Siang-yang during the siege
in 1268-73, lately discovered.]


[1] And to the Bern MS. which seems to be a copy of it, as is also I think
    (in substance) the Bodleian.

[2] In this note I am particularly indebted to the researches of the
    Emperor Napoleon III. on this subject. (_Etudes sur le passé et
    l'avenir de l'Artillerie_; 1851.)

[3] Thus Joinville mentions the journey of Jehan li Ermin, the king's
    artillerist, from Acre to Damascus, _pour acheter cornes et glus pour
    faire arbalestres_--to buy horns and glue to make crossbows withal
    (p. 134).

    In the final defence of Acre (1291) we hear of balistae _bipedales_
    (with a forked rest?) and other _vertiginales_ (traversing on a pivot)
    that shot 3 quarrels at once, and with such force as to _stitch_ the
    Saracens to their bucklers--_cum clypeis consutos interfecerunt_.

    The crossbow, though apparently indigenous among various tribes of
    Indo-China, seems to have been a new introduction in European warfare
    in the 12th century. William of Brittany in a poem called the
    _Philippis_, speaking of the early days of Philip Augustus, says:--

      "Francigenis nostris illis ignota diebus
      Res erat omnino quid balistarius arcus,
      Quid balista foret, nec habebat in agmine toto
      Rex quenquam sciret armis qui talibus uti."
          --_Duchesne, Hist. Franc. Script._, V. 115.

    Anna Comnena calls it [Greek: Tzágra] (which looks like Persian
    _charkh_), "a barbaric bow, totally unknown to the Greeks"; and she
    gives a very lengthy description of it, ending: "Such then are the
    facts about the _Tzagra_, and a truly diabolical affair it is."
    (_Alex._ X.--Paris ed. p. 291.)

[4] The construction is best seen in Figs. 17 and 19. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
    in the cut are from Chinese sources; Figs. 6, 7, 8 from Arabic works;
    the rest from European sources.

[5] Christine de Pisan says that when keeping up a discharge by night
    lighted brands should be attached to the stones in order to observe and
    correct the practice. (_Livre des faits_, etc., _du sage Roy Charles_,
    Pt. II. ch. xxiv.)

[6] Professor Sprenger informs me that the first mention of the _Manjanik_
    in Mahomedan history is at the siege of Táyif by Mahomed himself, A.D.
    630 (and see _Sprenger's Mohammed_ [German], III. 330). The _Annales
    Marbacenses_ in _Pertz_, xvii. 172, say under 1212, speaking of wars of
    the Emperor Otho in Germany: "Ibi tunc cepit haberi usus instrumenti
    bellici quod vulgo _tribok_ appellari solet."

    There is a ludicrous Oriental derivation of Manjanik, from the Persian:
    "_Man chi nek_"! "How good am I!" Ibn Khallikan remarks that the word
    must be foreign, because the letters j and k ([Arabic] and [Arabic])
    never occur together in genuine Arabic words (_Notes_ by _Mr. E.
    Thomas_, F.R.S.). It may be noticed that the letters in question occur
    together in another Arabic word of foreign origin used by Polo, viz.
    _Játhalík_.

[7] Dufour mentions that stone shot of the mediaeval engines exist at
    Zurich, of 20 and 22 inches diameter. The largest of these would,
    however, scarcely exceed 500 lbs. in weight.

[8] _Georg. Stellae Ann._ in _Muratori_, XVII. 1105; and _Daru_, Bk. viii.
    § 12.

[9] Shaw, _Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages_, vol. i. No 21.



CHAPTER LXXI.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF SINJU AND THE GREAT RIVER KIAN.


You must know that when you leave the city of Yanju, after going 15 miles
south-east, you come to a city called SINJU, of no great size, but
possessing a very great amount of shipping and trade. The people are
Idolaters and subject to the Great Kaan, and use paper-money.[NOTE 1]

And you must know that this city stands on the greatest river in the
world, the name of which is KIAN. It is in some places ten miles wide, in
others eight, in others six, and it is more than 100 days' journey in
length from one end to the other. This it is that brings so much trade to
the city we are speaking of; for on the waters of that river merchandize
is perpetually coming and going, from and to the various parts of the
world, enriching the city, and bringing a great revenue to the Great Kaan.

And I assure you this river flows so far and traverses so many countries
and cities that in good sooth there pass and repass on its waters a great
number of vessels, and more wealth and merchandize than on all the rivers
and all the seas of Christendom put together! It seems indeed more like a
Sea than a River.[NOTE 2] Messer Marco Polo said that he once beheld at
that city 15,000 vessels at one time. And you may judge, if this city, of
no great size, has such a number, how many must there be altogether,
considering that on the banks of this river there are more than sixteen
provinces and more than 200 great cities, besides towns and villages, all
possessing vessels?

Messer Marco Polo aforesaid tells us that he heard from the officer
employed to collect the Great Kaan's duties on this river that there
passed up-stream 200,000 vessels in the year, without counting those that
passed down! [Indeed as it has a course of such great length, and receives
so many other navigable rivers, it is no wonder that the merchandize which
is borne on it is of vast amount and value. And the article in largest
quantity of all is salt, which is carried by this river and its branches
to all the cities on their banks, and thence to the other cities in the
interior.[NOTE 3]]

The vessels which ply on this river are decked. They have but one mast,
but they are of great burthen, for I can assure you they carry (reckoning
by our weight) from 4000 up to 12,000 cantars each.[NOTE 4]

Now we will quit this matter and I will tell you of another city called
CAIJU. But first I must mention a point I had forgotten. You must know
that the vessels on this river, in going up-stream have to be tracked, for
the current is so strong that they could not make head in any other
manner. Now the tow-line, which is some 300 paces in length, is made of
nothing but cane. 'Tis in this way: they have those great canes of which I
told you before that they are some fifteen paces in length; these they
take and split from end to end [into many slender strips], and then they
twist these strips together so as to make a rope of any length they
please. And the ropes so made are stronger than if they were made of
hemp.[NOTE 5]

[There are at many places on this river hills and rocky eminences on which
the idol-monasteries and other edifices are built; and you find on its
shores a constant succession of villages and inhabited places.[NOTE 6]]


NOTE 1.--The traveller's diversion from his direct course--_sceloc_
or south-east, as he regards it--towards Fo-kien, in order to notice
Ngan-king (as we have supposed) and Siang-yang, has sadly thrown out both
the old translators and transcribers, and the modern commentators. Though
the G. Text has here "_quant l'en se part de la cité de_ Angui," I cannot
doubt that _Iangui_ (Yanju) is the reading intended, and that Polo here
comes back to the main line of his journey.

[Illustration: 'Sono sopiaquesto frumern molti luoghi, colline e
monticelli sassosi, sopia quali sono edificati monasteir d'Edoli, e altre
stanze...']

I conceive Sinju to be the city which was then called CHÊN-CHAU, but now
I-CHING HIEN,[1] and which stands on the Kiang as near as may be 15 miles
from Yang-chau. It is indeed south-west instead of south-east, but those
who have noted the style of Polo's orientation will not attach much
importance to this. I-ching hien is still the great port of the Yang-chau
salt manufacture, for export by the Kiang and its branches to the interior
provinces. It communicates with the Grand Canal by two branch canals.
Admiral Collinson, in 1842, remarked the great numbers of vessels lying in
the creek off I-ching. (See note 1 to ch. lxviii. above; and _J.R.G.S._
XVII. 139.)

["We anchored at a place near the town of _Y-ching-hien_, distinguished by
a pagoda. The most remarkable objects that struck us here were some
enormously large salt-junks of a very singular shape, approaching to a
crescent, with sterns at least thirty feet above the water, and bows that
were two-thirds of that height. They had 'bright sides', that is, were
varnished over the natural wood without painting, a very common style in
China." (_Davis, Sketches_, II. p. 13.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--The river is, of course, the Great Kiang or Yang-tzu Kiang
(already spoken of in ch. xliv. as the _Kiansui_), which Polo was
justified in calling the greatest river in the world, whilst the New World
was yet hidden. The breadth seems to be a good deal exaggerated, the
length not at all. His expressions about it were perhaps accompanied by a
mental reference to the term _Dalai_, "The Sea," which the Mongols appear
to have given the river. (See _Fr. Odoric_, p. 121.) The Chinese have a
popular saying, "_Haï vu ping, Kiang vu ti_," "Boundless is the Ocean,
bottomless the Kiang!"

NOTE 3.--"The assertion that there is a greater amount of tonnage
belonging to the Chinese than to all other nations combined, does not
appear overcharged to those who have seen the swarms of boats on their
rivers, though it might not be found strictly true." (_Mid. Kingd._ II.
398.) Barrow's picture of the life, traffic, and population on the Kiang,
excepting as to specific numbers, quite bears out Marco's account. This
part of China suffered so long from the wars of the T'ai-P'ing rebellion
that to travellers it has presented thirty years ago an aspect sadly
belying its old fame. Such havoc is not readily repaired in a few years,
nor in a few centuries, but prosperity is reviving, and European
navigation is making an important figure on the Kiang.

[From the _Returns of Trade for the Year 1900_ of the Imperial Maritime
Customs of China, we take the following figures regarding the navigation
on the Kiang. Steamers entered inwards and cleared outwards, under General
Regulations at _Chung-King_: 1; 331 tons; sailing vessels, 2681; 84,862
tons, of which Chinese, 816; 27,684 tons. At _Ichang_: 314; 231,000 tons,
of which Chinese, 118; 66,944 tons; sailing vessels, all Chinese, 5139;
163,320 tons. At _Shasi_: 606; 453,818 tons, of which Chinese, 606;
453,818 tons; no sailing vessels. At _Yochow_: 650; 299,962 tons, of which
Chinese, 458; 148,112 tons; no sailing vessels; under Inland Steam
Navigation Rules, 280 Chinese vessels, 20,958 tons. At _Hankow_: under
General Regulation, Steamers, 2314; 2,101,555 tons, of which Chinese, 758;
462,424 tons; sailing vessels, 1137; 166,118 tons, of which Chinese, 1129;
163,724 tons; under Inland Steam Navigation Rules, 1682 Chinese vessels,
31,173 tons. At _Kiu-Kiang_: under General Regulation, Steamers, 2916;
3,393,514 tons, of which Chinese, 478; 697,468 tons; sailing vessels,
163; 29,996 tons, of which Chinese, 160; 27,797 tons; under Inland Steam
Navigation Rules, 798 Chinese vessels; 21,670 tons. At _Wu-hu_: under
General Regulation, Steamers, 3395; 3,713,172 tons, of which Chinese, 540;
678,362 tons; sailing vessels, 356; 48,299 tons, of which Chinese, 355;
47,848 tons; under Inland Steam Navigation Rules, 286 Chinese vessels;
4272 tons. At _Nanking_: under General Regulation, Steamers, 1672;
1,138,726 tons, of which Chinese, 970; 713,232 tons; sailing vessels, 290;
36,873 tons, of which Chinese, 281; 34,985 tons; under Inland Steam
Navigation Rules, 30 Chinese vessels; 810 tons. At _Chinkiang_: under
General Regulation, Steamers, 4710; 4,413,452 tons, of which Chinese, 924;
794,724 tons; sailing vessels, 1793; 294,664 tons, of which Chinese, 1771;
290,286 tons; under Inland Steam Navigation Rules, 2920; 39,346 tons, of
which Chinese, 1684; 22,776 tons.--H.C.]

NOTE 4.--+12,000 _cantars_ would be more than 500 tons, and this is
justified by the burthen of _Chinese_ vessels on the river; we see it is
more than doubled by that of some British or American steamers thereon. In
the passage referred to under Note 1, Admiral Collinson speaks of the
salt-junks at I-ching as "very remarkable, being built nearly in the form
of a crescent, the stern rising in some of them nearly 30 feet and the
prow 20, whilst the mast is 90 feet high." These dimensions imply large
capacity. Oliphant speaks of the old rice-junks for the canal traffic as
transporting 200 and 300 tons (I. 197).

NOTE 5.--The tow-line in river-boats is usually made (as here described)
of strips of bamboo twisted. Hawsers are also made of bamboo. Ramusio, in
this passage, says the boats are tracked by horses, ten or twelve to each
vessel. I do not find this mentioned anywhere else, nor has any traveller
in China that I have consulted heard of such a thing.

NOTE 6.--Such eminences as are here alluded to are the Little Orphan Rock,
Silver Island, and the Golden Island, which is mentioned in the following
chapter. We give on the preceding page illustrations of those three
picturesque islands; the Orphan Rock at the top, Golden Island in the
middle, Silver Island below.


[1] See _Gaubil_, p. 93, note 4; _Biot_, p. 275 [and _Playfair's Dict._,
    p. 393].



CHAPTER LXXII.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIJU.


Caiju is a small city towards the south-east. The people are subject to
the Great Kaan and have paper-money. It stands upon the river before
mentioned.[NOTE 1] At this place are collected great quantities of corn
and rice to be transported to the great city of Cambaluc for the use of
the Kaan's Court; for the grain for the Court all comes from this part of
the country. You must understand that the Emperor hath caused a
water-communication to be made from this city to Cambaluc, in the shape of
a wide and deep channel dug between stream and stream, between lake and
lake, forming as it were a great river on which large vessels can ply. And
thus there is a communication all the way from this city of Caiju to
Cambaluc; so that great vessels with their loads can go the whole way. A
land road also exists, for the earth dug from those channels has been
thrown up so as to form an embanked road on either side.[NOTE 2]

Just opposite to the city of Caiju, in the middle of the River, there
stands a rocky island on which there is an idol-monastery containing some
200 idolatrous friars, and a vast number of idols. And this Abbey holds
supremacy over a number of other idol-monasteries, just like an
archbishop's see among Christians.[NOTE 3]

Now we will leave this and cross the river, and I will tell you of a city
called Chinghianfu.


NOTE 1.--No place in Polo's travels is better identified by his local
indications than this. It is on the Kiang; it is at the extremity of the
Great Canal from Cambaluc; it is opposite the Golden Island and Chin-kiang
fu. Hence it is KWA-CHAU, as Murray pointed out. Marsden here
misunderstands his text, and puts the place on the south side of the
Kiang.

Here Van Braam notices that there passed in the course of the day more
than fifty great rice-boats, most of which could easily carry more than
300,000 lbs. of rice. And Mr. Alabaster, in 1868, speaks of the canal from
Yang-chau to Kwa-chau as "full of junks."

[Sir J.F. Davis writes (_Sketches of China_, II. p. 6): "Two ... days ...
were occupied in exploring the half-deserted town of _Kwa-chow_, whose name
signifies 'the island of gourds,' being completely insulated by the river
and canal. We took a long walk along the top of the walls, which were as
usual of great thickness, and afforded a broad level platform behind the
parapet: the parapet itself, about six feet high, did not in thickness
exceed the length of a brick and a half, and the embrasures were evidently
not constructed for cannon, being much too high. A very considerable
portion of the area within the walls consisted of burial-grounds planted
with cypress; and this alone was a sufficient proof of the decayed
condition of the place, as in modern or fully inhabited cities no person
can be buried within the walls. Almost every spot bore traces of ruin, and
there appeared to be but one good street in the whole town; this, however,
was full of shops, and as busy as Chinese streets always are."--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Rashiduddin gives the following account of the Grand Canal spoken
of in this passage. "The river of Khanbaligh had," he says, "in the course
of time, become so shallow as not to admit the entrance of shipping, so
that they had to discharge their cargoes and send them up to Khanbaligh on
pack-cattle. And the Chinese engineers and men of science having reported
that the vessels from the provinces of Cathay, from Machin, and from the
cities of Khingsai and Zaitún, could no longer reach the court, the Kaan
gave them orders to dig a great canal into which the waters of the said
river, and of several others, should be introduced. This canal extends for
a distance of 40 days' navigation from Khanbaligh to Khingsai and Zaitún,
the ports frequented by the ships that come from India, and from the city
of Machin (Canton). The canal is provided with many sluices ... and when
vessels arrive at these sluices they are hoisted up by means of machinery,
whatever be their size, and let down on the other side into the water. The
canal has a width of more than 30 ells. Kúblái caused the sides of the
embankments to be revetted with stone, in order to prevent the earth
giving way. Along the side of the canal runs the high road to Machin,
extending for a space of 40 days' journey, and this has been paved
throughout, so that travellers and their animals may get along during the
rainy season without sinking in the mud.... Shops, taverns, and villages
line the road on both sides, so that dwelling succeeds dwelling without
intermission throughout the whole space of 40 days' journey." (_Cathay_,
259-260.)

The canal appears to have been [begun in 1289 and to have been completed
in 1292.--H.C.] though large portions were in use earlier. Its chief
object was to provide the capital with food. Pauthier gives the statistics
of the transport of rice by this canal from 1283 to the end of Kúblái's
reign, and for some subsequent years up to 1329. In the latter year the
quantity reached 3,522,163 _shi_ or 1,247,633 quarters. As the supplies of
rice for the capital and for the troops in the Northern Provinces always
continued to be drawn from Kiang-nan, the distress and derangement caused
by the recent rebel occupation of that province must have been enormous.
(_Pauthier_, p. 481-482; _De Mailla_, p. 439.) Polo's account of the
formation of the canal is exceedingly accurate. Compare that given by Mr.
Williamson (I. 62).

NOTE 3.--"On the Kiang, not far from the mouth, is that remarkably
beautiful little island called the 'Golden Isle,' surmounted by numerous
temples inhabited by the votaries of Buddha or Fo, and very correctly
described so many centuries since by Marco Polo." (_Davis's Chinese_, I.
149.) The monastery, according to Pauthier, was founded in the 3rd or 4th
century, but the name _Kin-Shan_, or "Golden Isle," dates only from a
visit of the Emperor K'ang-hi in 1684.

The monastery contained one of the most famous Buddhist libraries in
China. This was in the hands of our troops during the first China war,
and, as it was intended to remove the books, there was no haste made in
examining their contents. Meanwhile peace came, and the library was
restored. It is a pity _now_ that the _jus belli_ had not been exercised
promptly, for the whole establishment was destroyed by the T'ai-P'ings in
1860, and, with the exception of the Pagoda at the top of the hill, which
was left in a dilapidated state, not one stone of the buildings remained
upon another. The rock had also then ceased to be an island; and the site
of what not many years before had been a channel with four fathoms of
water separating it from the southern shore, was covered by flourishing
cabbage-gardens. (_Gützlaff_ in _J.R.A.S._ XII. 87; _Mid. Kingd._ I.
84, 86; _Oliphant's Narrative_, II. 301; _N. and Q. Ch. and Jap._ No. 5,
p. 58.)



CHAPTER LXXIII.

OF THE CITY OF CHINGHIANFU.


Chinghianfu is a city of Manzi. The people are Idolaters and subject to
the Great Kaan, and have paper-money, and live by handicrafts and trade.
They have plenty of silk, from which they make sundry kinds of stuffs of
silk and gold. There are great and wealthy merchants in the place; plenty
of game is to be had, and of all kinds of victual.

[Illustration: West Gate of Chin-kiang fu in 1842.]

There are in this city two churches of Nestorian Christians which were
established in the year of our Lord 1278; and I will tell you how that
happened. You see, in the year just named, the Great Kaan sent a Baron of
his whose name was MAR SARGHIS, a Nestorian Christian, to be governor of
this city for three years. And during the three years that he abode there
he caused these two Christian churches to be built, and since then there
they are. But before his time there was no church, neither were there any
Christians.[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--CHIN-KIANG FU retains its name unchanged. It is one which became
well known in the war of 1842. On its capture on the 21st July in that
year, the heroic Manchu commandant seated himself among his records and
then set fire to the building, making it his funeral pyre. The city was
totally destroyed in the T'ai-P'ing wars, but is rapidly recovering its
position as a place of native commerce.

[Chên-kiang, "a name which may be translated 'River Guard,' stands at the
point where the Grand Canal is brought to a junction with the waters of
the Yang-tzu when the channel of the river proper begins to expand into an
extensive tidal estuary." (_Treaty Ports of China_, p. 421.) It was
declared open to foreign trade by the Treaty of Tien-Tsin 1858.--H.C.]

_Mar Sarghis_ (or Dominus Sergius) appears to have been a common name
among Armenian and other Oriental Christians. As Pauthier mentions, this
very name is one of the names of Nestorian priests inscribed in Syriac on
the celebrated monument of Si-ngan fu.

[In the description of Chin-kiang quoted by the Archimandrite Palladius
(see vol. i. p. 187, note 3), a Christian monastery or temple is
mentioned: "The temple _Ta-hing-kuo-sze_ stands in Chin-kiang fu, in the
quarter called _Kia-t'ao h'eang_. It was built in the 18th year of
_Chi-yuen_ (A.D. 1281) by the _Sub-darugachi, Sie-li-ki-sze_ (Sergius).
_Liang Siang_, the teacher in the Confucian school, wrote a commemorative
inscription for him." From this document we see that "_Sie-mi-sze-hien_
(Samarcand) is distant from China 100,000 li (probably a mistake for
10,000) to the north-west. It is a country where the religion of the
_Ye-li-k'o-wen_ dominates.... The founder of the religion was called _Ma-rh
Ye-li-ya_. He lived and worked miracles a thousand five hundred years ago.
_Ma Sie-li-ki-sze_ (Mar Sergius) is a follower of him." (_Chinese
Recorder_, VI. p. 108).--H.C.]

From this second mention of _three years_ as a term of government, we may
probably gather that this was the usual period for the tenure of such
office. (_Mid. Kingd._, I. 86; _Cathay_, p. xciii.)



CHAPTER LXXIV.

OF THE CITY OF CHINGINJU AND THE SLAUGHTER OF CERTAIN ALANS THERE.


Leaving the city of Chinghianfu and travelling three days south-east
through a constant succession of busy and thriving towns and villages, you
arrive at the great and noble city of CHINGINJU. The people are Idolaters,
use paper-money, and are subject to the Great Kaan. They live by trade and
handicrafts, and they have plenty of silk. They have also abundance of
game, and of all manner of victuals, for it is a most productive
territory.[NOTE 1]

Now I must tell you of an evil deed that was done, once upon a time, by
the people of this city, and how dearly they paid for it.

You see, at the time of the conquest of the great province of Manzi, when
Bayan was in command, he sent a company of his troops, consisting of a
people called Alans, who are Christians, to take this city.[NOTE 2] They
took it accordingly, and when they had made their way in, they lighted
upon some good wine. Of this they drank until they were all drunk, and
then they lay down and slept like so many swine. So when night fell, the
townspeople, seeing that they were all dead-drunk, fell upon them and slew
them all; not a man escaped.

And when Bayan heard that the townspeople had thus treacherously slain his
men, he sent another Admiral of his with a great force, and stormed the
city, and put the whole of the inhabitants to the sword; not a man of them
escaped death. And thus the whole population of that city was
exterminated.[NOTE 3]

Now we will go on, and I will tell you of another city called Suju.


NOTE 1.--Both the position and the story which follows identify this city
with CHANG-CHAU. The name is written in Pauthier's MSS. _Chinginguy_, in
the G.T. _Cingiggui_ and _Cinghingui_, in Ramusio _Tinguigui_.

The capture of Chang-chau by Gordon's force, 11th May 1864, was the final
achievement of that "Ever Victorious Army."

Regarding the territory here spoken of, once so rich and densely peopled,
Mr. Medhurst says, in reference to the effects of the T'ai-P'ing
insurrection: "I can conceive of no more melancholy sight than the acres
of ground that one passes through strewn with remains of once thriving
cities, and the miles upon miles of rich land, once carefully parcelled
out into fields and gardens, but now only growing coarse grass and
brambles--the home of the pheasant, the deer, and the wild pig."
(_Foreigner in Far Cathay_, p. 94.)

NOTE 2.--The relics of the Alans were settled on the northern skirts of
the Caucasus, where they made a stout resistance to the Mongols, but
eventually became subjects of the Khans of Sarai. The name by which they
were usually known in Asia in the Middle Ages was _Aas_, and this name is
assigned to them by Carpini, Rubruquis, and Josafat Barbaro, as well as by
Ibn Batuta. Mr. Howorth has lately denied the identity of Alans and Aas;
but he treats the question as all one with the identity of Alans and
Ossethi, which is another matter, as may be seen in Vivien de St. Martin's
elaborate paper on the Alans (_N. Ann. des Voyages_, 1848, tom. 3, p. 129
seqq.). The Alans are mentioned by the Byzantine historian, Pachymeres,
among nations whom the Mongols had assimilated to themselves and adopted
into their military service. Gaubil, without being aware of the identity
of the _Asu_ (as the name _Aas_ appears to be expressed in the Chinese
Annals), beyond the fact that they dwelt somewhere near the Caspian,
observes that this people, after they were conquered, furnished many
excellent officers to the Mongols; and he mentions also that when the
Mongol army was first equipt for the conquest of Southern China, many
officers took service therein from among the Uighúrs, Persians, and Arabs,
Kincha (people of Kipchak), the _Asu_ and other foreign nations. We find
also, at a later period of the Mongol history (1336), letters reaching
Pope Benedict XII. from several Christian Alans holding high office at the
court of Cambaluc--one of them being a _Chingsang_ or Minister of the
First Rank, and another a _Fanchang_ or Minister of the Second Order--in
which they conveyed their urgent request for the nomination of an
Archbishop in succession to the deceased John of Monte Corvino. John
Marignolli speaks of those Alans as "the greatest and noblest nation in
the world, the fairest and bravest of men," and asserts that in his day
there were 30,000 of them in the Great Kaan's service, and all, at least
nominally, Christians.[1] Rashiduddin also speaks of the Alans as
Christians; though Ibn Batuta certainly mentions the _Aas_ as Mahomedans.
We find Alans about the same time (in 1306) fighting well in the service
of the Byzantine Emperors (_Muntaner_, p. 449). All these circumstances
render Marco's story of a corps of Christian Alans in the army of Bayan
perfectly consistent with probability. (_Carpini_, p. 707; _Rub._, 243;
_Ramusio_, II. 92; _I.B._ II. 428; _Gaubil_, 40, 147; _Cathay_, 314
seqq.)

[Mr. Rockhill writes (_Rubruck_, p. 88, note): "The Alans or Aas appear to
be identical with the An-ts'ai or A-lan-na of the _Hou Han shu_ (bk. 88,
9), of whom we read that 'they led a pastoral life N.W. of Sogdiana
(K'ang-chú) in a plain bounded by great lakes (or swamps), and in their
wanderings went as far as the shores of the Northern Ocean.' (Ma Twan-lin,
bk. 338.) _Pei-shih_ (bk. 97, 12) refers to them under the name of Su-tê
and Wen-na-sha (see also _Bretschneider, Med. Geog._, 258, et seq.).
Strabo refers to them under the name of Aorsi, living to the north but
contiguous to the Albani, whom some authors confound with them, but whom
later Armenian historians carefully distinguish from them (_De Morgan,
Mission_, i. 232). Ptolemy speaks of this people as the 'Scythian Alans'
([Greek: Alanoí Skýthai]); but the first definite mention of them in
classical authors is, according to Bunbury (ii. 486), found in Dionysius
Periergetes (305), who speaks of the [Greek: alkaéentes Alanoí]. (See also
_De Morgan_, i. 202, and _Deguignes_, ii. 279 et seq.)

"Ammianus Marcellinus (xxxi. 348) says, the Alans were a congeries of
tribes living E. of the Tanais (Don), and stretching far into Asia.
'Distributed over two continents, all these nations, whose various names I
refrain from mentioning, though separated by immense tracts of country in
which they pass their vagabond existence, have with time been confounded
under the generic appellation of Alans.' Ibn Alathir, at a later date,
also refers to the Alans as 'formed of numerous nations.' (_Dulaurier_,
xiv. 455).

"Conquered by the Huns in the latter part of the fourth century, some of
the Alans moved westward, others settled on the northern slopes of the
Caucasus; though long prior to that, in A.D. 51, they had, as allies of
the Georgians, ravaged Armenia. (See _Yule, Cathay_, 316; _Deguignes_, I.,
pt. ii. 277 et seq.; and _De Morgan_, I. 217, et seq.)

"Mirkhond, in the _Tarikhi Wassaf_, and other Mohammedan writers speak of
the Alans _and_ As. However this may be, it is thought that the Oss or
Ossetes of the Caucasus are their modern representatives (_Klaproth, Tabl.
hist._, 180; _De Morgan_, i. 202, 231.)" _Aas_ is the transcription of
_A-soo_ (_Yuen-shi_, quoted by Devéria, _Notes d'épig._, p. 75). (See
_Bretschneider, Med. Res._, II., p. 84.)--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--The Chinese histories do not mention the story of the Alans and
their fate; but they tell how Chang-chau was first taken by the Mongols
about April 1275, and two months later recovered by the Chinese; how
Bayan, some months afterwards, attacked it in person, meeting with a
desperate resistance; finally, how the place was stormed, and how Bayan
ordered the whole of the inhabitants to be put to the sword. Gaubil
remarks that some grievous provocation must have been given, as Bayan was
far from cruel. Pauthier gives original extracts on the subject, which are
interesting. They picture the humane and chivalrous Bayan on this occasion
as demoniacal in cruelty, sweeping together all the inhabitants of the
suburbs, forcing them to construct his works of attack, and then
butchering the whole of them, boiling down their carcasses, and using the
fat to grease his mangonels! Perhaps there is some misunderstanding as to
the _use_ of this barbarous lubricant. For Carpini relates that the
Tartars, when they cast Greek fire into a town, shot with it human fat,
for this caused the fire to rage inextinguishably.

Cruelties, like Bayan's on this occasion, if exceptional with him, were
common enough among the Mongols generally. Chinghiz, at an early period in
his career, after a victory, ordered seventy great caldrons to be heated,
and his prisoners to be boiled therein. And the "evil deed" of the citizens
of Chang-chau fell far short of Mongol atrocities. Thus Hulaku, suspecting
the Turkoman chief Nasiruddin, who had just quitted his camp with 300 men,
sent a body of horse after him to cut him off. The Mongol officers told the
Turkoman they had been ordered to give him and his men a parting feast;
they made them all drunk and then cut their throats. (_Gaubil_, 166, 167,
170; _Carpini_, 696; _Erdmann_, 262; _Quat. Rashid._ 357.)


[1] I must observe here that the learned Professor Bruun has raised doubts
    whether these Alans of Marignolli's could be Alans of the Caucasus, and
    if they were not rather _Ohláns_, i.e. Mongol Princes and nobles. There
    are difficulties certainly about Marignolli's Alans; but obvious
    difficulties also in this explanation.



CHAPTER LXXV.

OF THE NOBLE CITY OF SUJU.


Suju is a very great and noble city. The people are Idolaters, subjects of
the Great Kaan, and have paper-money. They possess silk in great
quantities, from which they make gold brocade and other stuffs, and they
live by their manufactures and trade.[NOTE 1]

The city is passing great, and has a circuit of some 60 miles; it hath
merchants of great wealth and an incalculable number of people. Indeed, if
the men of this city and of the rest of Manzi had but the spirit of
soldiers they would conquer the world; but they are no soldiers at all,
only accomplished traders and most skilful craftsmen. There are also in
this city many philosophers and leeches, diligent students of nature.

And you must know that in this city there are 6,000 bridges, all of stone,
and so lofty that a galley, or even two galleys at once, could pass
underneath one of them.[NOTE 2]

In the mountains belonging to this city, rhubarb and ginger grow in great
abundance; insomuch that you may get some 40 pounds of excellent fresh
ginger for a Venice groat.[NOTE 3] And the city has sixteen other great
trading cities under its rule. The name of the city, Suju, signifies in
our tongue, "Earth," and that of another near it, of which we shall speak
presently, called Kinsay, signifies "Heaven;" and these names are given
because of the great splendour of the two cities.[NOTE 4]

Now let us quit Suju, and go on to another which is called VUJU, one day's
journey distant; it is a great and fine city, rife with trade and
manufactures. But as there is nothing more to say of it we shall go on and
I will tell you of another great and noble city called VUGHIN. The people
are Idolaters, &c., and possess much silk and other merchandize, and they
are expert traders and craftsmen. Let us now quit Vughin and tell you of
another city called CHANGAN, a great and rich place. The people are
Idolaters, &c., and they live by trade and manufactures. They make great
quantities of sendal of different kinds, and they have much game in the
neighbourhood. There is however nothing more to say about the place, so we
shall now proceed.[NOTE 5]


NOTE 1.--SUJU is of course the celebrated city of SU-CHAU in Kiang-nan--
before the rebellion brought ruin on it, the Paris of China. "Everything
remarkable was alleged to come from it; fine pictures, fine carved-work,
fine silks, and fine ladies!" (_Fortune_, I. 186.) When the Emperor
K'ang-hi visited Su-chau, the citizens laid the streets with carpets and
silk stuffs, but the Emperor dismounted and made his train do the like.
(_Davis_, I. 186.)

[Su-chau is situated 80 miles west of Shang-hai, 12 miles east of the
Great Lake, and 40 miles south of the Kiang, in the plain between this
river and Hang-chau Bay. It was the capital of the old kingdom of Wu which
was independent from the 12th to the 4th centuries (B.C.) inclusive; it
was founded by Wu Tzu-su, prime minister of King Hoh Lü (514-496 B.C.),
who removed the capital of Wu from Mei-li (near the modern Ch'ang-chau) to
the new site now occupied by the city of Su-chau. "Suchau is built in the
form of a rectangle, and is about three and a half miles from North to
South, by two and a half in breadth, the wall being twelve or thirteen
miles in length. There are six gates." (_Rev. H.C. Du Bose, Chin.
Rec._, xix. p. 205.) It has greatly recovered since the T'ai-P'ing
rebellion, and its recapture by General (then Major) Gordon on the 27th
November 1863; Su-chau has been declared open to foreign trade on the 26th
September 1896, under the provisions of the Japanese Treaty of 1895.

"The great trade of Soochow is silk. In the silk stores are found about
100 varieties of satin, and 200 kinds of silks and gauzes.... The weavers
are divided into two guilds, the Nankin and Suchau, and have together
about 7000 looms. Thousands of men and women are engaged in reeling the
thread." (_Rev. H.C. Du Bose, Chin. Rec._, xix. pp. 275-276.)--H.C.]

[Illustration: CITY OF SUCHAU
Reduced to 1/10 the scale from a Rubbing of a PLAN incised on MARBLE
AD MCCXLVII, & preserved in the GREAT TEMPLE of CONFUCIUS at SUCHAU]

NOTE 2.--I believe we must not bring Marco to book for the literal
accuracy of his statements as to the bridges; but all travellers have
noticed the number and elegance of the bridges of cut stone in this part
of China; see, for instance, _Van Braam_, II. 107, 119-120, 124, 126;
and _Deguignes_ I. 47, who gives a particular account of the arches.
These are said to be often 50 or 60 feet in span.

["Within the city there are, generally speaking, six canals from North to
South, and six canals from East to West, intersecting one another at from
a quarter to half a mile. There are a hundred and fifty or two hundred
bridges at intervals of two or three hundred yards; some of these with
arches, others with stone slabs thrown across, many of which are twenty
feet in length. The canals are from ten to fifteen feet wide and faced with
stone." (_Rev. H.C. Du Bose, Chin. Rec._, xix., 1888, p. 207).--H.C.]

[Illustration: South-West Gate and Water-Gate of Su-chau; facsimile on half
the scale from a mediaeval Map, incised on Marble, A.D. 1247.]

NOTE 3.--This statement about the abundance of rhubarb in the hills near
Su-chau is believed by the most competent authorities to be quite
erroneous. Rhubarb _is_ exported from Shang-hai, but it is brought
thither from Hankau on the Upper Kiang, and Hankau receives it from the
further west. Indeed Mr. Hanbury, in a note on the subject, adds his
disbelief also that _ginger_ is produced in Kiang-nan. And I see in
the Shang-hai trade-returns of 1865, that there is _no_ ginger among
the exports. [Green ginger is mentioned in the Shang-hai Trade Reports for
1900 among the exports (p. 309) to the amount of 18,756 piculs; none is
mentioned at Su-chau.--H.C.]. Some one, I forget where, has suggested a
confusion with Suh-chau in Kan-suh, the great rhubarb mart, which seems
possible.

["Polo is correct in giving Tangut as the native country of Rhubarb
(_Rheum palmatum_) but no species of Rheum has hitherto been gathered by
our botanists as far south as Kiang-Su, indeed, not even in Shan-tung."
(_Bretschneider, Hist. of Bot. Disc._, I. p. 5.)--H.C.]

NOTE 4.--The meanings ascribed by Polo to the names of Su-chau and
King-szé (Hang-chau) show plainly enough that he was ignorant of Chinese.
Odoric does not mention Su-chau, but he gives the same explanation of
Kinsay as signifying the "City of Heaven," and Wassáf also in his notice of
the same city has an obscure passage about Paradise and Heaven, which is
not improbably a corrupted reference to the same interpretation.[1] I
suspect therefore that it was a "Vulgar Error" of the foreign residents in
China, probably arising out of a misunderstanding of the Chinese adage
quoted by Duhalde and Davis:--

  "_Shang yeu t'ien t'ang, Hia yeu_ SU HANG!"

  "There's Paradise above 'tis true,
  But here below we've HANG and SU!"

These two neighbouring cities, in the middle of the beautiful tea and silk
districts, and with all the advantages of inland navigation and foreign
trade, combined every source of wealth and prosperity, and were often thus
coupled together by the Chinese. Both are, I believe, now recovering from
the effects of devastation by T'ai-P'ing occupation and Imperialist
recapture; but neither probably is one-fifth of what it was.

The plan of Su-chau which we give is of high interest. It is reduced (1/10
the scale) from a rubbing of a plan of the city incised on marble
measuring 6' 7" by 4' 4", and which has been preserved in the Confucian
Temple in Su-chau since A.D. 1247. Marco Polo's eyes have probably rested
on this fine work, comparable to the famous _Pianta Capitolina_. The
engraving on page 183 represents one of the gates traced from the rubbing
and reduced to _half_ the scale. It is therefore an authentic
representation of Chinese fortification in or before the 13th century.[2]

["In the southern part of Su-chau is the park, surrounded by a high wall,
which contains the group of buildings called the Confucian Temple. This is
the Dragon's head;--the Dragon Street, running directly North, is his
body, and the Great Pagoda is his tail. In front is a grove of cedars. To
one side is the hall where thousands of scholars go to worship at the
Spring and Autumn Festivals--this for the gentry alone, not for the
unlettered populace. There is a building used for the slaughter of
animals, another containing a map of the city engraved in stone; a third
with tablets and astronomical diagrams, and a fourth containing the
Provincial Library. On each side of the large courts are rooms where are
placed the tablets of the 500 sages. The main temple is 50 by 70 feet, and
contains the tablet of Confucius and a number of gilded boards with
mottoes. It is a very imposing structure. On the stone dais in front, a
mat-shed is erected for the great sacrifices at which the official
magnates exercise their sacerdotal functions. As a tourist beheld the
sacred grounds and the aged trees, she said: 'This is the most
venerable-looking place I have seen in China.' On the gateway in front, the
sage is called 'The Prince of Doctrine in times Past and Present.'" (_Rev.
H.C. Du Bose, Chin. Rec._, xix. p. 272).--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--The Geographic Text only, at least of the principal Texts, has
distinctly the _three_ cities, _Vugui, Vughin, Ciangan_. Pauthier
identifies the first and third with HU-CHAU FU and Sung-kiang fu. In
favour of Vuju's being Hu-chau is the fact mentioned by Wilson that the
latter city is locally called WUCHU.[3] If this be the place, the
Traveller does not seem to be following a direct and consecutive route
from Su-chau to Hang-chau. Nor is Hu-chau within a day's journey of
Su-chau. Mr. Kingsmill observes that the only town at that distance is
_Wukiang-hien_, once of some little importance but now much reduced.
WUKIANG, however, is suggestive of VUGHIN; and, in that supposition,
Hu-chau must be considered the object of a digression from which the
Traveller returns and takes up his route to Hang-chau via Wukiang.
_Kiahing_ would then best answer to _Ciangan_, or _Caingan_, as it is
written in the following chapter of the G.T.


[1] See Quatremère's _Rashid._, p. lxxxvii., and Hammer's _Wassáf_, p. 42.

[2] I owe these valuable illustrations, as so much else, to the unwearied
    kindness of Mr. A. Wylie. There were originally four maps: (1) _The
    City_, (2) _The Empire_, (3) _The Heavens_, (4) no longer known. They
    were drawn originally by one Hwan Kin-shan, and presented by him to a
    high official in Sze-ch'wan. Wang Che-yuen, subsequently holding office
    in the same province, got possession of the maps, and had them incised
    at Su-chau in A.D. 1247. The inscription bearing these particulars is
    partially gone, and the date of the original drawings remains
    uncertain. (See _List of Illustrations_.)

[3] _The Ever Victorious Army_, p. 395



CHAPTER LXXVI.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY, WHICH IS THE CAPITAL OF THE WHOLE
COUNTRY OF MANZI.


When you have left the city of Changan and have travelled for three days
through a splendid country, passing a number of towns and villages, you
arrive at the most noble city of Kinsay, a name which is as much as to say
in our tongue "The City of Heaven," as I told you before.[NOTE 1]

And since we have got thither I will enter into particulars about its
magnificence; and these are well worth the telling, for the city is beyond
dispute the finest and the noblest in the world. In this we shall speak
according to the written statement which the Queen of this Realm sent to
Bayan the conqueror of the country for transmission to the Great Kaan, in
order that he might be aware of the surpassing grandeur of the city and
might be moved to save it from destruction or injury. I will tell you all
the truth as it was set down in that document. For truth it was, as the
said Messer Marco Polo at a later date was able to witness with his own
eyes. And now we shall rehearse those particulars.

First and foremost, then, the document stated the city of Kinsay to be so
great that it hath an hundred miles of compass. And there are in it twelve
thousand bridges of stone, for the most part so lofty that a great fleet
could pass beneath them. And let no man marvel that there are so many
bridges, for you see the whole city stands as it were in the water and
surrounded by water, so that a great many bridges are required to give
free passage about it. [And though the bridges be so high the approaches
are so well contrived that carts and horses do cross them.[NOTE 2]]

The document aforesaid also went on to state that there were in this city
twelve guilds of the different crafts, and that each guild had 12,000
houses in the occupation of its workmen. Each of these houses contains at
least 12 men, whilst some contain 20 and some 40,--not that these are all
masters, but inclusive of the journeymen who work under the masters. And
yet all these craftsmen had full occupation, for many other cities of the
kingdom are supplied from this city with what they require.

The document aforesaid also stated that the number and wealth of the
merchants, and the amount of goods that passed through their hands, was so
enormous that no man could form a just estimate thereof. And I should have
told you with regard to those masters of the different crafts who are at
the head of such houses as I have mentioned, that neither they nor their
wives ever touch a piece of work with their own hands, but live as nicely
and delicately as if they were kings and queens. The wives indeed are most
dainty and angelical creatures! Moreover it was an ordinance laid down by
the King that every man should follow his father's business and no other,
no matter if he possessed 100,000 bezants.[NOTE 3]

Inside the city there is a Lake which has a compass of some 30 miles: and
all round it are erected beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest
and most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles
of the city. There are also on its shores many abbeys and churches of the
Idolaters. In the middle of the Lake are two Islands, on each of which
stands a rich, beautiful and spacious edifice, furnished in such style as
to seem fit for the palace of an Emperor. And when any one of the citizens
desired to hold a marriage feast, or to give any other entertainment, it
used to be done at one of these palaces. And everything would be found
there ready to order, such as silver plate, trenchers, and dishes [napkins
and table-cloths], and whatever else was needful. The King made this
provision for the gratification of his people, and the place was open to
every one who desired to give an entertainment. [Sometimes there would be
at these palaces an hundred different parties; some holding a banquet,
others celebrating a wedding; and yet all would find good accommodation in
the different apartments and pavilions, and that in so well ordered a
manner that one party was never in the way of another.[NOTE 4]]

The houses of the city are provided with lofty towers of stone in which
articles of value are stored for fear of fire; for most of the houses
themselves are of timber, and fires are very frequent in the city.

The people are Idolaters; and since they were conquered by the Great Kaan
they use paper-money. [Both men and women are fair and comely, and for the
most part clothe themselves in silk, so vast is the supply of that
material, both from the whole district of Kinsay, and from the imports by
traders from other provinces.[NOTE 5]] And you must know they eat every
kind of flesh, even that of dogs and other unclean beasts, which nothing
would induce a Christian to eat.

Since the Great Kaan occupied the city he has ordained that each of the
12,000 bridges should be provided with a guard of ten men, in case of any
disturbance, or of any being so rash as to plot treason or insurrection
against him. [Each guard is provided with a hollow instrument of wood and
with a metal basin, and with a time-keeper to enable them to know the hour
of the day or night. And so when one hour of the night is past the sentry
strikes one on the wooden instrument and on the basin, so that the whole
quarter of the city is made aware that one hour of the night is gone. At
the second hour he gives two strokes, and so on, keeping always wide awake
and on the look out. In the morning again, from the sunrise, they begin to
count anew, and strike one hour as they did in the night, and so on hour
after hour.

Part of the watch patrols the quarter, to see if any light or fire is
burning after the lawful hours; if they find any they mark the door, and
in the morning the owner is summoned before the magistrates, and unless he
can plead a good excuse he is punished. Also if they find any one going
about the streets at unlawful hours they arrest him, and in the morning
they bring him before the magistrates. Likewise if in the daytime they
find any poor cripple unable to work for his livelihood, they take him to
one of the hospitals, of which there are many, founded by the ancient
kings, and endowed with great revenues.[NOTE 6] Or if he be capable of
work they oblige him to take up some trade. If they see that any house has
caught fire they immediately beat upon that wooden instrument to give the
alarm, and this brings together the watchmen from the other bridges to
help to extinguish it, and to save the goods of the merchants or others,
either by removing them to the towers above mentioned, or by putting them
in boats and transporting them to the islands in the lake. For no citizen
dares leave his house at night, or to come near the fire; only those who
own the property, and those watchmen who flock to help, of whom there
shall come one or two thousand at the least.]

Moreover, within the city there is an eminence on which stands a Tower,
and at the top of the tower is hung a slab of wood. Whenever fire or any
other alarm breaks out in the city a man who stands there with a mallet in
his hand beats upon the slab, making a noise that is heard to a great
distance. So when the blows upon this slab are heard, everybody is aware
that fire has broken out, or that there is some other cause of alarm.

The Kaan watches this city with especial diligence because it forms the
head of all Manzi; and because he has an immense revenue from the duties
levied on the transactions of trade therein, the amount of which is such
that no one would credit it on mere hearsay.

All the streets of the city are paved with stone or brick, as indeed are
all the highways throughout Manzi, so that you ride and travel in every
direction without inconvenience. Were it not for this pavement you could
not do so, for the country is very low and flat, and after rain 'tis deep
in mire and water. [But as the Great Kaan's couriers could not gallop
their horses over the pavement, the side of the road is left unpaved for
their convenience. The pavement of the main street of the city also is
laid out in two parallel ways of ten paces in width on either side,
leaving a space in the middle laid with fine gravel, under which are
vaulted drains which convey the rain water into the canals; and thus the
road is kept ever dry.][NOTE 7]

You must know also that the city of Kinsay has some 3000 baths, the water
of which is supplied by springs. They are hot baths, and the people take
great delight in them, frequenting them several times a month, for they
are very cleanly in their persons. They are the finest and largest baths
in the world; large enough for 100 persons to bathe together.[NOTE 8]

And the Ocean Sea comes within 25 miles of the city at a place called
GANFU, where there is a town and an excellent haven, with a vast amount of
shipping which is engaged in the traffic to and from India and other
foreign parts, exporting and importing many kinds of wares, by which the
city benefits. And a great river flows from the city of Kinsay to that
sea-haven, by which vessels can come up to the city itself. This river
extends also to other places further inland.[NOTE 9]

Know also that the Great Kaan hath distributed the territory of Manzi into
nine parts, which he hath constituted into nine kingdoms. To each of these
kingdoms a king is appointed who is subordinate to the Great Kaan, and
every year renders the accounts of his kingdom to the fiscal office at the
capital.[NOTE 10] This city of Kinsay is the seat of one of these kings,
who rules over 140 great and wealthy cities. For in the whole of this vast
country of Manzi there are more than 1200 great and wealthy cities,
without counting the towns and villages, which are in great numbers. And
you may receive it for certain that in each of those 1200 cities the Great
Kaan has a garrison, and that the smallest of such garrisons musters 1000
men; whilst there are some of 10,000, 20,000 and 30,000; so that the total
number of troops is something scarcely calculable. The troops forming
these garrisons are not all Tartars. Many are from the province of Cathay,
and good soldiers too. But you must not suppose they are by any means all
of them cavalry; a very large proportion of them are foot-soldiers,
according to the special requirements of each city. And all of them belong
to the army of the Great Kaan.[NOTE 11]

I repeat that everything appertaining to this city is on so vast a scale,
and the Great Kaan's yearly revenues therefrom are so immense, that it is
not easy even to put it in writing, and it seems past belief to one who
merely hears it told. But I _will_ write it down for you.

First, however, I must mention another thing. The people of this country
have a custom, that as soon as a child is born they write down the day and
hour and the planet and sign under which its birth has taken place; so
that every one among them knows the day of his birth. And when any one
intends a journey he goes to the astrologers, and gives the particulars of
his nativity in order to learn whether he shall have good luck or no.
Sometimes they will say _no_, and in that case the journey is put off
till such day as the astrologer may recommend. These astrologers are very
skilful at their business, and often their words come to pass, so the
people have great faith in them.

They burn the bodies of the dead. And when any one dies the friends and
relations make a great mourning for the deceased, and clothe themselves in
hempen garments,[NOTE 12] and follow the corpse playing on a variety of
instruments and singing hymns to their idols. And when they come to the
burning place, they take representations of things cut out of parchment,
such as caparisoned horses, male and female slaves, camels, armour suits
of cloth of gold (and money), in great quantities, and these things they
put on the fire along with the corpse, so that they are all burnt with it.
And they tell you that the dead man shall have all these slaves and
animals of which the effigies are burnt, alive in flesh and blood, and the
money in gold, at his disposal in the next world; and that the instruments
which they have caused to be played at his funeral, and the idol hymns
that have been chaunted, shall also be produced again to welcome him in
the next world; and that the idols themselves will come to do him honour.
[NOTE 13]

Furthermore there exists in this city the palace of the king who fled, him
who was Emperor of Manzi, and that is the greatest palace in the world, as
I shall tell you more particularly. For you must know its demesne hath a
compass of ten miles, all enclosed with lofty battlemented walls; and
inside the walls are the finest and most delectable gardens upon earth,
and filled too with the finest fruits. There are numerous fountains in it
also, and lakes full of fish. In the middle is the palace itself, a great
and splendid building. It contains 20 great and handsome halls, one of
which is more spacious than the rest, and affords room for a vast
multitude to dine. It is all painted in gold, with many histories and
representations of beasts and birds, of knights and dames, and many
marvellous things. It forms a really magnificent spectacle, for over all
the walls and all the ceiling you see nothing but paintings in gold. And
besides these halls the palace contains 1000 large and handsome chambers,
all painted in gold and divers colours.

Moreover, I must tell you that in this city there are 160 _tomans_ of
fires, or in other words 160 _tomans_ of houses. Now I should tell
you that the _toman_ is 10,000, so that you can reckon the total as
altogether 1,600,000 houses, among which are a great number of rich
palaces. There is one church only, belonging to the Nestorian Christians.

There is another thing I must tell you. It is the custom for every burgess
of this city, and in fact for every description of person in it, to write
over his door his own name, the name of his wife, and those of his
children, his slaves, and all the inmates of his house, and also the
number of animals that he keeps. And if any one dies in the house then the
name of that person is erased, and if any child is born its name is added.
So in this way the sovereign is able to know exactly the population of the
city. And this is the practice also throughout all Manzi and Cathay.
[NOTE 14]

[Illustration: Plan of the City of SI-NGAN-FU]

And I must tell you that every hosteler who keeps an hostel for travellers
is bound to register their names and surnames, as well as the day and
month of their arrival and departure. And thus the sovereign hath the
means of knowing, whenever it pleases him, who come and go throughout his
dominions. And certes this is a wise order and a provident.


NOTE 1.--Kinsay represents closely enough the Chinese term _King-sze_,
"capital," which was then applied to the great city, the proper name of
which was at that time Lin-ngan and is now HANG-CHAU, as being since 1127
the capital of the Sung Dynasty. The same term _King-sze_ is now on
Chinese maps generally used to designate Peking. It would seem, however,
that the term adhered long as a quasi-proper name to Hang-chau; for in the
Chinese Atlas, dating from 1595, which the traveller Carletti presented to
the Magliabecchian Library, that city appears to be still marked with this
name, transcribed by Carletti as _Camse_; very near the form _Campsay_
used by Marignolli in the 14th century.

[Illustration: The ancient Lun ho-ta Pagoda at Hang-chau.]

NOTE 2.--+The Ramusian version says: "Messer Marco Polo was frequently at
this city, and took great pains to learn everything about it, writing down
the whole in his notes." The information being originally derived from a
Chinese document, there might be some ground for supposing that 100 miles
of circuit stood for 100 _li_. Yet the circuit of the modern city is
stated in the official book called _Hang-chau Fu-Chi_ or topographical
history of Hang-chau, at only 35 _li_. And the earliest record of the
wall, as built under the Sui by Yang-su (before A.D. 606), makes its
extent little more (36 _li_ and 90 paces.)[1] But the wall was
reconstructed by Ts'ien Kiao, feudal prince of the region, during the
reign of Chao Tsung, one of the last emperors of the T'ang Dynasty (892),
so as to embrace the Luh-ho-ta Pagoda, on a high bluff over the Tsien-tang
River,[2] 15 _li_ distant from the present south gate, and had then a
circuit of 70 _li_. Moreover, in 1159, after the city became the capital
of the Sung emperors, some further extension was given to it, so that,
even exclusive of the suburbs, the circuit of the city may have been not
far short of 100 _li_. When the city was in its glory under the Sung, the
Luh-ho-ta Pagoda may be taken as marking the extreme S.W. Another known
point marks approximately the chief north gate of that period, at a mile
and a half or two miles beyond the present north wall. The S.E. angle was
apparently near the river bank. But, on the other hand, the _waist_ of the
city seems to have been a good deal narrower than it now is. Old
descriptions compare its form to that of a slender-waisted drum (dice-box
or hour-glass shape).

Under the Mongols the walls were allowed to decay; and in the disturbed
years that closed that dynasty (1341-1368) they were rebuilt by an
insurgent chief on a greatly reduced compass, probably that which they
still retain. Whatever may have been the facts, and whatever the origin of
the estimate, I imagine that the ascription of 100 miles of circuit to
Kinsay had become popular among Westerns. Odoric makes the same statement.
Wassáf calls it 24 parasangs, which will not be far short of the same
amount. Ibn Batuta calls the _length_ of the city three days' journey.
Rashiduddin says the enceinte had a _diameter_ of 11 parasangs, and that
there were three post stages between the two extremities of the city,
which is probably what Ibn Batuta had heard. The _Masálak-al-Absár_ calls
it _one_ day's journey in length, and half a day's journey in breadth. The
enthusiastic Jesuit Martini tries hard to justify Polo in this as in other
points of his description. We shall quote the whole of his remarks at the
end of the chapters on Kinsay.

[Dr. F. Hirth, in a paper published in the _T'oung Pao_, V. pp. 386-390
(_Ueber den Shiffsverkehr von Kinsay zu Marco Polo's Zeit_), has some
interesting notes on the maritime trade of Hang-chau, collected from a
work in twenty books, kept at the Berlin Royal Library, in which is to be
found a description of Hang-chau under the title of _Mêng-liang-lu_,
published in 1274 by Wu Tzu-mu, himself a native of this city: there are
various classes of sea-going vessels; large boats measuring 5000 _liao_
and carrying from five to six hundred passengers; smaller boats measuring
from 2 to 1000 _liao_ and carrying from two to three hundred passengers;
there are small fast boats called _tsuan-fêng_, "wind breaker," with six
or eight oarsmen, which can carry easily 100 passengers, and are generally
used for fishing; sampans are not taken into account. To start for foreign
countries one must embark at Ts'wan-chau, and then go to the sea of
Ts'i-chau (Paracels), through the Tai-hsü pass; coming back he must look to
Kwen-lun (Pulo Condor).--H.C.]

The 12,000 bridges have been much carped at, and modern accounts of
Hang-chau (desperately meagre as they are) do not speak of its bridges as
notable. "There is, indeed," says Mr. Kingsmill, speaking of changes in the
hydrography about Hang-chau, "no trace in the city of the magnificent
canals and bridges described by Marco Polo." The number was no doubt in
this case also a mere popular saw, and Friar Odoric repeats it. The sober
and veracious John Marignolli, alluding apparently to their statements, and
perhaps to others which have not reached us, says: "When authors tell of
its ten thousand noble bridges of stone, adorned with sculptures and
statues of armed princes, it passes the belief of one who has not been
there, and yet peradventure these authors tell us no lie." Wassáf speaks of
360 bridges only, but they make up in size what they lack in number, for
they cross canals as big as the Tigris! Marsden aptly quotes in reference
to this point excessively loose and discrepant statements from modern
authors as to the number of bridges in Venice. The great _height_ of the
arches of the canal bridges in this part of China is especially noticed by
travellers. Barrow, quoted by Marsden, says: "Some have the piers of such
an extraordinary height that the largest vessels of 200 tons sail under
them without striking their masts."

[Illustration: Plan of the Imperial City of Hangchow in the 13th Century.
(From the Notes of the Right Rev. G.E. Moule.)]

Mr. Moule has added up the lists of bridges in the whole department (or
_Fu_) and found them to amount to 848, and many of these even are now
unknown, their approximate sites being given from ancient topographies.
The number _represented_ in a large modern map of the city, which I owe to
Mr. Moule's kindness, is III.

NOTE 3.--Though Rubruquis (p. 292) says much the same thing, there is
little trace of such an ordinance in modern China. Père Parrenin observes:
"As to the hereditary perpetuation of trades, it has never existed in
China. On the contrary, very few Chinese will learn the trade of their
fathers; and it is only necessity that ever constrains them to do so."
(_Lett. Edif._ XXIV. 40.) Mr. Moule remarks, however, that P. Parrenin is
a little too absolute. Certain trades do run in families, even of the free
classes of Chinese, not to mention the disfranchised boatmen, barbers,
chair-coolies, etc. But, except in the latter cases, there is no
compulsion, though the Sacred Edict goes to encourage the perpetuation of
the family calling.

NOTE 4.--This sheet of water is the celebrated SI-HU, or "Western Lake,"
the fame of which had reached Abulfeda, and which has raised the
enthusiasm even of modern travellers, such as Barrow and Van Braam. The
latter speaks of _three_ islands (and this the Chinese maps confirm), on
each of which were several villas, and of causeways across the lake, paved
and bordered with trees, and provided with numerous bridges for the
passage of boats. Barrow gives a bright description of the lake, with its
thousands of gay, gilt, and painted pleasure boats, its margins studded
with light and fanciful buildings, its gardens of choice flowering shrubs,
its monuments, and beautiful variety of scenery. None surpasses that of
Martini, whom it is always pleasant to quote, but here he is too lengthy.
The most recent description that I have met with is that of Mr. C.
Gardner, and it is as enthusiastic as any. It concludes: "Even to us
foreigners ... the spot is one of peculiar attraction, but to the Chinese
it is as a paradise." The Emperor K'ien Lung had erected a palace on one
of the islands in the lake; it was ruined by the T'ai-P'ings. Many of the
constructions about the lake date from the flourishing days of the T'ang
Dynasty, the 7th and 8th centuries.

Polo's ascription of a circumference of 30 miles to the lake, corroborates
the supposition that in the compass of the city a confusion had been made
between miles and _li_, for Semedo gives the circuit of the lake really as
30 _li_. Probably the document to which Marco refers at the beginning of
the chapter was seen by him in a Persian translation, in which _li_ had
been rendered by _mil_. A Persian work of the same age, quoted by
Quatremère (the _Nuzhát al-Kultúb_, gives the circuit of the lake as six
parasangs, or some 24 miles, a statement which probably had a like origin).

Polo says the lake was _within_ the city. This might be merely a loose way
of speaking, but it may on the other hand be a further indication of the
former existence of an extensive outer wall. The Persian author just
quoted also speaks of the lake as within the city. (_Barrow's Autobiog._,
p. 104; _V. Braam_, II. 154; _Gardner_ in _Proc. of the R. Geog. Soc._,
vol. xiii. p. 178; _Q. Rashid_, p. lxxxviii.) Mr. Moule states that
popular oral tradition does enclose the lake within the walls, but he can
find no trace of this in the Topographies.

Elsewhere Mr. Moule says: "Of the luxury of the (Sung) period, and its
devotion to pleasure, evidence occurs everywhere. Hang-chow went at the
time by the nickname of the melting-pot for money. The use, at houses of
entertainment, of _linen and silver plate_ appears somewhat out of keeping
in a Chinese picture. I cannot vouch for the linen, but here is the
plate.... 'The most famous Tea-houses of the day were the _Pa-seen_ ("8
genii"), the "Pure Delight", the "Pearl", the "House of the Pwan Family,"
and the "Two and Two" and "Three and Three" houses (perhaps rather "Double
honours" and "Treble honours"). In these places they always set out
bouquets of fresh flowers, according to the season.... At the counter were
sold "Precious thunder Tea", Tea of fritters and onions, or else Pickle
broth; and in hot weather wine of snow bubbles and apricot blossom, or
other kinds of refrigerating liquor. _Saucers, ladles, and bowls were all
of pure, silver_!' (_Si-Hu-Chi_.)"

[Illustration: Plan of the Metropolitan City of Hangchow in the 13th
Century. (From the Notes of the Right Rev. G.E. Moule.)

1-17, Gates; 18, _Ta-nuy_, Central Palace; 19, _Woo-Foo_, The Five Courts;
20, _T'aï Miao_, The Imperial Temple; 21, _Fung-hwang shan_, Phoenix Hill;
22, _Shih fuh she_, Monastery of the Sacred Fruit; 25-30, Gates; 31,
_T'ien tsung yen tsang_ T'ien tsung Salt Depot; 2, _T'ien tsung tsew koo_,
T'ien tsung Wine Store; 33, _Chang she_, The Chang Monastery; 34, _Foo
che_, Prefecture; _Foo hio_, Prefectural Confucian Temple.]

NOTE 5.--This is still the case: "The people of Hang-chow dress gaily, and
are remarkable among the Chinese for their dandyism. All, except the lowest
labourers and coolies, strutted about in dresses composed of silk, satin,
and crape.... 'Indeed' (said the Chinese servants) 'one can never tell a
rich man in Hang-chow, for it is just possible that all he possesses in the
world is on his back.'" (_Fortune_, II. 20.) "The silk manufactures of
Hang-chau are said to give employment to 60,000 persons within the city
walls, and Hu-chau, Kia-hing, and the surrounding villages, are reputed to
employ 100,000 more." (_Ningpo Trade Report_, January 1869, comm. by Mr. N.
B. Dennys.) The store-towers, as a precaution in case of fire, are still
common both in China and Japan.

NOTE 6.--Mr. Gardner found in this very city, in 1868, a large collection
of cottages covering several acres, which were "erected, after the taking
of the city from the rebels, by a Chinese charitable society for the
refuge of the blind, sick, and infirm." This asylum sheltered 200 blind
men with their families, amounting to 800 souls; basket-making and such
work was provided for them; there were also 1200 other inmates, aged and
infirm; and doctors were maintained to look after them. "None are allowed
to be absolutely idle, but all help towards their own sustenance." (_Proc.
R.G.Soc._ XIII. 176-177.) Mr. Moule, whilst abating somewhat from the
colouring of this description, admits the establishment to be a
considerable charitable effort. It existed before the rebellion, as I see
in the book of Mr. Milne, who gives interesting details on such Chinese
charities. (_Life in China_, pp. 46 seqq.)

NOTE 7.--The paved roads of Manzi are by no means extinct yet. Thus, Mr.
Fortune, starting from Chang-shan (see below, ch. lxxix.) in the direction
of the Black-Tea mountains, says: "The road on which we were travelling
was well paved with granite, about 12 feet in width, and perfectly free
from weeds." (II. 148). Garnier, Sladen, and Richthofen speak of
well-paved roads in Yun-Nan and Sze-ch'wan.

The Topography quoted by Mr. Moule says that in the year 1272 the Governor
renewed the pavement of the Imperial road (or Main Street), "after which
nine cars might move abreast over a way perfectly smooth, and straight as
an arrow." In the Mongol time the people were allowed to encroach on this
grand street.

NOTE 8.--There is a curious discrepancy in the account of these baths.
Pauthier's text does not say whether they are hot baths or cold. The
latter sentence, beginning, "They are hot baths" (_estuves_), is from the
G. Text. And Ramusio's account is quite different: "There are numerous
baths of cold water, provided with plenty of attendants, male and female,
to assist the visitors of the two sexes in the bath. For the people are
used from their childhood to bathe in cold water at all seasons, and they
reckon it a very wholesome custom. But in the bath-houses they have also
certain chambers furnished with hot water, for foreigners who are
unaccustomed to cold bathing, and cannot bear it. The people are used to
bathe daily, and do not eat without having done so." This is in
contradiction with the notorious Chinese horror of cold water for any
purpose.

A note from Mr. C. Gardner says: "There are numerous public baths at
Hang-chau, as at every Chinese city I have ever been in. In my experience
natives always take _hot_ baths. But only the poorer classes go to the
public baths; the tradespeople and middle classes are generally supplied by
the bath-houses with hot water at a moderate charge."

NOTE 9.--The estuary of the Ts'ien T'ang, or river of Hang-chau, has
undergone great changes since Polo's day. The sea now comes up much nearer
the city; and the upper part of the Bay of Hang-chau is believed to cover
what was once the site of the port and town of KANP'U, the Ganpu of the
text. A modern representative of the name still subsists, a walled town,
and one of the depôts for the salt which is so extensively manufactured on
this coast; but the present port of Hang-chau, and till recently the sole
seat of Chinese trade with Japan, is at _Chapu_, some 20 miles further
seaward.

It is supposed by Klaproth that KANP'U was the port frequented by the
early Arab voyagers, and of which they speak under the name of _Khánfú_,
confounding in their details Hang-chau itself with the port. Neumann
dissents from this, maintaining that the Khanfu of the Arabs was certainly
Canton. Abulfeda, however, states expressly that Khanfu was known in his
day as _Khansá_ (i.e. Kinsay), and he speaks of its lake of fresh water
called _Sikhu_ (Si-hu). [Abulfeda has in fact two Khânqû (Khanfû): Khansâ
with the lake which is Kinsay, and one Khanfû which is probably Canton.
(See _Guyard's transl._, II., ii., 122-124.)--H.C.] There seems to be an
indication in Chinese records that a southern branch of the Great Kiang
once entered the sea at Kanp'u; the closing of it is assigned to the 7th
century, or a little later.

[Dr. F. Hirth writes (_Jour. Roy. As. Soc._, 1896, pp. 68-69): "For
centuries Canton must have been the only channel through which foreign
trade was permitted; for it is not before the year 999 that we read of the
appointment of Inspectors of Trade at Hang-chou and Ming-chou. The latter
name is identified with Ning-po." Dr. Hirth adds in a note: "This is in my
opinion the principal reason why the port of _Khanfu_, mentioned by the
earliest Muhammadan travellers, or authors (Soleiman, Abu Zeid, and
Maçoudi), cannot be identified with Hang-chou. The report of Soleiman, who
first speaks of _Khanfu_, was written in 851, and in those days Canton was
apparently the only port open to foreign trade. Marco Polo's _Ganfu_ is a
different port altogether, viz. _Kan-fu_, or _Kan-pu_, near Hang-chou, and
should not be confounded with _Khanfu_."--H.C.]

The changes of the Great Kiang do not seem to have attracted so much
attention among the Chinese as those of the dangerous Hwang-Ho, nor does
their history seem to have been so carefully recorded. But a paper of
great interest on the subject was published by Mr. Edkins, in the _Journal
of the North China Branch of the R.A.S._ for September 1860 [pp. 77-84],
which I know only by an abstract given by the late Comte d'Escayrac de
Lauture. From this it would seem that about the time of our era the
Yang-tzu Kiang had three great mouths. The most southerly of these was the
Che-Kiang, which is said to have given its name to the Province still so
called, of which Hang-chau is the capital. This branch quitted the present
channel at Chi-chau, passed by Ning-Kwé and Kwang-té, communicating with
the southern end of a great group of lakes which occupied the position of
the T'ai-Hu, and so by Shih-men and T'ang-si into the sea not far from
Shao-hing. The second branch quitted the main channel at Wu-hu, passed by
I-hing (or I-shin) communicating with the northern end of the T'ai-Hu
(passed apparently by Su-chau), and then bifurcated, one arm entering the
sea at Wu-sung, and the other at Kanp'u. The third, or northerly branch is
that which forms the present channel of the Great Kiang. These branches are
represented hypothetically on the sketch-map attached to ch. lxiv. supra.

(_Kingsmill_, u.s. p. 53; _Chin. Repos._ III. 118; _Middle Kingdom_, I.
95-106; _Bürck._ p. 483; _Cathay_, p. cxciii.; _J.N.Ch.Br.R.A.S._,
December 1865, p. 3 seqq.; _Escayrac de Lauture, Mém. sur la Chine, H.
du Sol_, p. 114.)

NOTE 10.--Pauthier's text has: "_Chascun Roy fait chascun an le compte de
son royaume aux comptes du grant siège_," where I suspect the last word is
again a mistake for _sing_ or _scieng_. (See supra, Bk. II. ch. xxv.,
note 1.) It is interesting to find Polo applying the term _king_ to the
viceroys who ruled the great provinces; Ibn Batuta uses a corresponding
expression, _sultán_. It is not easy to make out the nine kingdoms or
great provinces into which Polo considered Manzi to be divided. Perhaps
his _nine_ is after all merely a traditional number, for the "Nine
Provinces" was an ancient synonym for China proper, just as _Nau-Khanda_,
with like meaning, was an ancient name of India. (See _Cathay_, p. cxxxix.
_note_; and _Reinaud, Inde_, p. 116.) But I observe that on the portage
road between Chang-shan and Yuh-shan (infra, p. 222) there are stone
pillars inscribed "Highway (from Che-kiang) to Eight Provinces," thus
indicating Nine. (_Milne_, p. 319.)

NOTE 11.--We have in Ramusio: "The men levied in the province of Manzi are
not placed in garrison in their own cities, but sent to others at least 20
days' journey from their homes; and there they serve for four or five
years, after which they are relieved. This applies both to the Cathayans
and to those of Manzi.

"The great bulk of the revenue of the cities, which enters the exchequer
of the Great Kaan, is expended in maintaining these garrisons. And if
perchance any city rebel (as you often find that under a kind of madness
or intoxication they rise and murder their governors), as soon as it is
known, the adjoining cities despatch such large forces from their
garrisons that the rebellion is entirely crushed. For it would be too long
an affair if troops from Cathay had to be waited for, involving perhaps a
delay of two months."

NOTE 12.--"The sons of the dead, wearing hempen clothes as badges of
mourning, kneel down," etc. (_Doolittle_, p. 138.)

NOTE 13.--These practices have been noticed, supra, Bk. I. ch. xl.

NOTE 14.--This custom has come down to modern times. In Pauthier's _Chine
Moderne_, we find extracts from the statutes of the reigning dynasty and
the comments thereon, of which a passage runs thus: "To determine the
exact population of each province the governor and the lieutenant-governor
cause certain persons who are nominated as _Pao-kia_, or Tithing-Men, in
all the places under their jurisdiction, to add up the figures inscribed
on the wooden tickets attached to the doors of houses, and exhibiting the
number of the inmates" (p. 167).

Friar Odoric calls the number of fires 89 _tomans_; but says 10 or 12
households would unite to have one fire only!


[1] In the first edition, my best authority on this matter was a lecture
    on the city by the late Rev. D.D. Green, an American Missionary at
    Ningpo, which is printed in the November and December numbers for 1869
    of the (Fuchau) _Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal_. In the
    present (second) edition I have on this, and other points embraced in
    this and the following chapters, benefited largely by the remarks of
    the Right Rev. G.E. Moule of the Ch. Mission. Soc., now residing at
    Hang-chau. These are partly contained in a paper (_Notes on Colonel
    Yule's Edition of Marco Polo's 'Quinsay'_) read before the North China
    Branch of the R.A.Soc. at Shang-hai in December 1873 [published in New
    Series, No. IX. of the _Journal N.C.B.R.A.Soc._], of which a proof has
    been most kindly sent to me by Mr. Moule, and partly in a special
    communication, both forwarded through Mr. A. Wylie. [See also _Notes
    on Hangchow Past and Present_, a paper read in 1889 by Bishop G.E.
    Moule at a Meeting of the Hangchau Missionary Association, at whose
    request it was compiled, and subsequently printed for private
    circulation.--H.C.]

[2] The building of the present Luh-ho-ta ("Six Harmonies Tower"), after
    repeated destructions by fire, is recorded on a fine tablet of the
    Sung period, still standing (_Moule_).



CHAPTER LXXVII.

[FURTHER PARTICULARS CONCERNING THE GREAT CITY OF KINSAY.[NOTE 1]]


[The position of the city is such that it has on one side a lake of fresh
and exquisitely clear water (already spoken of), and on the other a very
large river. The waters of the latter fill a number of canals of all sizes
which run through the different quarters of the city, carry away all
impurities, and then enter the Lake; whence they issue again and flow to
the Ocean, thus producing a most excellent atmosphere. By means of these
channels, as well as by the streets, you can go all about the city. Both
streets and canals are so wide and spacious that carts on the one and
boats on the other can readily pass to and fro, conveying necessary
supplies to the inhabitants.[NOTE 2]

At the opposite side the city is shut in by a channel, perhaps 40 miles in
length, very wide, and full of water derived from the river aforesaid,
which was made by the ancient kings of the country in order to relieve the
river when flooding its banks. This serves also as a defence to the city,
and the earth dug from it has been thrown inwards, forming a kind of mound
enclosing the city.[NOTE 3]

In this part are the ten principal markets, though besides these there are
a vast number of others in the different parts of the town. The former are
all squares of half a mile to the side, and along their front passes the
main street, which is 40 paces in width, and runs straight from end to end
of the city, crossing many bridges of easy and commodious approach. At
every four miles of its length comes one of those great squares of 2 miles
(as we have mentioned) in compass. So also parallel to this great street,
but at the back of the market places, there runs a very large canal, on
the bank of which towards the squares are built great houses of stone, in
which the merchants from India and other foreign parts store their wares,
to be handy for the markets. In each of the squares is held a market three
days in the week, frequented by 40,000 or 50,000 persons, who bring
thither for sale every possible necessary of life, so that there is always
an ample supply of every kind of meat and game, as of roebuck, red-deer,
fallow-deer, hares, rabbits, partridges, pheasants, francolins, quails,
fowls, capons, and of ducks and geese an infinite quantity; for so many
are bred on the Lake that for a Venice groat of silver you can have a
couple of geese and two couple of ducks. Then there are the shambles where
the larger animals are slaughtered, such as calves, beeves, kids, and
lambs, the flesh of which is eaten by the rich and the great dignitaries.
[NOTE 4]

Those markets make a daily display of every kind of vegetables and fruits;
and among the latter there are in particular certain pears of enormous
size, weighing as much as ten pounds apiece, and the pulp of which is
white and fragrant like a confection; besides peaches in their season both
yellow and white, of every delicate flavour.[NOTE 5]

Neither grapes nor wine are produced there, but very good raisins are
brought from abroad, and wine likewise. The natives, however, do not much
care about wine, being used to that kind of their own made from rice and
spices. From the Ocean Sea also come daily supplies of fish in great
quantity, brought 25 miles up the river, and there is also great store of
fish from the lake, which is the constant resort of fishermen, who have no
other business. Their fish is of sundry kinds, changing with the season;
and, owing to the impurities of the city which pass into the lake, it is
remarkably fat and savoury. Any one who should see the supply of fish in
the market would suppose it impossible that such a quantity could ever be
sold; and yet in a few hours the whole shall be cleared away; so great is
the number of inhabitants who are accustomed to delicate living. Indeed
they eat fish and flesh at the same meal.

All the ten market places are encompassed by lofty houses, and below these
are shops where all sorts of crafts are carried on, and all sorts of wares
are on sale, including spices and jewels and pearls. Some of these shops
are entirely devoted to the sale of wine made from rice and spices, which
is constantly made fresh and fresh, and is sold very cheap.

Certain of the streets are occupied by the women of the town, who are in
such a number that I dare not say what it is. They are found not only in
the vicinity of the market places, where usually a quarter is assigned to
them, but all over the city. They exhibit themselves splendidly attired
and abundantly perfumed, in finely garnished houses, with trains of
waiting-women. These women are extremely accomplished in all the arts of
allurement, and readily adapt their conversation to all sorts of persons,
insomuch that strangers who have once tasted their attractions seem to get
bewitched, and are so taken with their blandishments and their fascinating
ways that they never can get these out of their heads. Hence it comes to
pass that when they return home they say they have been to Kinsay or the
City of Heaven, and their only desire is to get back thither as soon as
possible.[NOTE 6]

Other streets are occupied by the Physicians, and by the Astrologers, who
are also teachers of reading and writing; and an infinity of other
professions have their places round about those squares. In each of the
squares there are two great palaces facing one another, in which are
established the officers appointed by the King to decide differences
arising between merchants, or other inhabitants of the quarter. It is the
daily duty of these officers to see that the guards are at their posts on
the neighbouring bridges, and to punish them at their discretion if they
are absent.

All along the main street that we have spoken of, as running from end to
end of the city, both sides are lined with houses and great palaces and
the gardens pertaining to them, whilst in the intervals are the houses of
tradesmen engaged in their different crafts. The crowd of people that you
meet here at all hours, passing this way and that on their different
errands, is so vast that no one would believe it possible that victuals
enough could be provided for their consumption, unless they should see
how, on every market-day, all those squares are thronged and crammed with
purchasers, and with the traders who have brought in stores of provisions
by land or water; and everything they bring in is disposed of.

To give you an example of the vast consumption in this city let us take
the article of _pepper_; and that will enable you in some measure to
estimate what must be the quantity of victual, such as meat, wine,
groceries, which have to be provided for the general consumption. Now
Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of
customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into
the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs.
[NOTE 7]

The houses of the citizens are well built and elaborately finished; and
the delight they take in decoration, in painting and in architecture,
leads them to spend in this way sums of money that would astonish you.

The natives of the city are men of peaceful character, both from education
and from the example of their kings, whose disposition was the same. They
know nothing of handling arms, and keep none in their houses. You hear of
no feuds or noisy quarrels or dissensions of any kind among them. Both in
their commercial dealings and in their manufactures they are thoroughly
honest and truthful, and there is such a degree of good will and
neighbourly attachment among both men and women that you would take the
people who live in the same street to be all one family.[NOTE 8]

And this familiar intimacy is free from all jealousy or suspicion of the
conduct of their women. These they treat with the greatest respect, and a
man who should presume to make loose proposals to a married woman would be
regarded as an infamous rascal. They also treat the foreigners who visit
them for the sake of trade with great cordiality, and entertain them in
the most winning manner, affording them every help and advice on their
business. But on the other hand they hate to see soldiers, and not least
those of the Great Kaan's garrisons, regarding them as the cause of their
having lost their native kings and lords.

On the Lake of which we have spoken there are numbers of boats and barges
of all sizes for parties of pleasure. These will hold 10, 15, 20, or more
persons, and are from 15 to 20 paces in length, with flat bottoms and
ample breadth of beam, so that they always keep their trim. Any one who
desires to go a-pleasuring with the women, or with a party of his own sex,
hires one of these barges, which are always to be found completely
furnished with tables and chairs and all the other apparatus for a feast.
The roof forms a level deck, on which the crew stand, and pole the boat
along whithersoever may be desired, for the Lake is not more than 2 paces
in depth. The inside of this roof and the rest of the interior is covered
with ornamental painting in gay colours, with windows all round that can
be shut or opened, so that the party at table can enjoy all the beauty and
variety of the prospects on both sides as they pass along. And truly a
trip on this Lake is a much more charming recreation than can be enjoyed
on land. For on the one side lies the city in its entire length, so that
the spectators in the barges, from the distance at which they stand, take
in the whole prospect in its full beauty and grandeur, with its numberless
palaces, temples, monasteries, and gardens, full of lofty trees, sloping
to the shore. And the Lake is never without a number of other such boats,
laden with pleasure parties; for it is the great delight of the citizens
here, after they have disposed of the day's business, to pass the
afternoon in enjoyment with the ladies of their families, or perhaps with
others less reputable, either in these barges or in driving about the city
in carriages.[NOTE 9]

Of these latter we must also say something, for they afford one mode of
recreation to the citizens in going about the town, as the boats afford
another in going about the Lake. In the main street of the city you meet
an infinite succession of these carriages passing to and fro. They are
long covered vehicles, fitted with curtains and cushions, and affording
room for six persons; and they are in constant request for ladies and
gentlemen going on parties of pleasure. In these they drive to certain
gardens, where they are entertained by the owners in pavilions erected on
purpose, and there they divert themselves the livelong day, with their
ladies, returning home in the evening in those same carriages.[NOTE 10]

(FURTHER PARTICULARS OF THE PALACE OF THE KING FACFUR.)

The whole enclosure of the Palace was divided into three parts. The middle
one was entered by a very lofty gate, on each side of which there stood on
the ground-level vast pavilions, the roofs of which were sustained by
columns painted and wrought in gold and the finest azure. Opposite the
gate stood the chief Pavilion, larger than the rest, and painted in like
style, with gilded columns, and a ceiling wrought in splendid gilded
sculpture, whilst the walls were artfully painted with the stories of
departed kings.

On certain days, sacred to his gods, the King Facfur[1] used to hold a
great court and give a feast to his chief lords, dignitaries, and rich
manufacturers of the city of Kinsay. On such occasions those pavilions
used to give ample accommodation for 10,000 persons sitting at table. This
court lasted for ten or twelve days, and exhibited an astonishing and
incredible spectacle in the magnificence of the guests, all clothed in
silk and gold, with a profusion of precious stones; for they tried to
outdo each other in the splendour and richness of their appointments.
Behind this great Pavilion that faced the great gate, there was a wall
with a passage in it shutting off the inner part of the Palace. On
entering this you found another great edifice in the form of a cloister
surrounded by a portico with columns, from which opened a variety of
apartments for the King and the Queen, adorned like the outer walls with
such elaborate work as we have mentioned. From the cloister again you
passed into a covered corridor, six paces in width, of great length, and
extending to the margin of the lake. On either side of this corridor were
ten courts, in the form of oblong cloisters surrounded by colonnades; and
in each cloister or court were fifty chambers with gardens to each. In
these chambers were quartered one thousand young ladies in the service of
the King. The King would sometimes go with the Queen and some of these
maidens to take his diversion on the Lake, or to visit the Idol-temples,
in boats all canopied with silk.

The other two parts of the enclosure were distributed in groves, and
lakes, and charming gardens planted with fruit-trees, and preserves for
all sorts of animals, such as roe, red-deer, fallow-deer, hares, and
rabbits. Here the King used to take his pleasure in company with those
damsels of his; some in carriages, some on horseback, whilst no man was
permitted to enter. Sometimes the King would set the girls a-coursing
after the game with dogs, and when they were tired they would hie to the
groves that overhung the lakes, and leaving their clothes there they would
come forth naked and enter the water and swim about hither and thither,
whilst it was the King's delight to watch them; and then all would return
home. Sometimes the King would have his dinner carried to those groves,
which were dense with lofty trees, and there would be waited on by those
young ladies. And thus he passed his life in this constant dalliance with
women, without so much as knowing what _arms_ meant! And the result
of all this cowardice and effeminacy was that he lost his dominion to the
Great Kaan in that base and shameful way that you have heard.[NOTE 11]

All this account was given me by a very rich merchant of Kinsay when I was
in that city. He was a very old man, and had been in familiar intimacy
with the King Facfur, and knew the whole history of his life; and having
seen the Palace in its glory was pleased to be my guide over it. As it is
occupied by the King appointed by the Great Kaan, the first pavilions are
still maintained as they used to be, but the apartments of the ladies are
all gone to ruin and can only just be traced. So also the wall that
enclosed the groves and gardens is fallen down, and neither trees nor
animals are there any longer.[NOTE 12]]


NOTE 1.--I have, after some consideration, followed the example of Mr. H.
Murray, in his edition of _Marco Polo_, in collecting together in a
separate chapter a number of additional particulars concerning the Great
City, which are only found in Ramusio. Such of these as could be
interpolated in the text of the older form of the narrative have been
introduced between brackets in the last chapter. Here I bring together
those particulars which could not be so interpolated without taking
liberties with one or both texts.

The picture in Ramusio, taken as a whole, is so much more brilliant,
interesting, and complete than in the older texts, that I thought of
substituting it entirely for the other. But so much doubt and difficulty
hangs over _some_ passages of the Ramusian version that I could not
satisfy myself of the propriety of this, though I feel that the
dismemberment inflicted on that version is also objectionable.

NOTE 2.--The tides in the Hang-chau estuary are now so furious, entering
in the form of a bore, and running sometimes, by Admiral Collinson's
measurement, 11-1/2 knots, that it has been necessary to close by weirs
the communication which formerly existed between the River Tsien-tang on
the one side and the Lake Si-hu and internal waters of the district on the
other. Thus all cargoes are passed through the small city canal in barges,
and are subject to transhipment at the river-bank, and at the great canal
terminus outside the north gate, respectively. Mr. Kingsmill, to whose
notices I am indebted for part of this information, is, however, mistaken
in supposing that in Polo's time the tide stopped some 20 miles below the
city. We have seen (note 6, ch. lxv. supra) that the tide in the river
before Kinsay was the object which first attracted the attention of Bayan,
after his triumphant entrance into the city. The tides reach Fuyang, 20
miles higher. (_N. and Q., China and Japan_, vol. I. p. 53; _Mid. Kingd._
I. 95, 106; _J.N.Ch.Br.R.A.S._, December, 1865, p. 6; _Milne_, p. 295;
_Note_ by _Mr. Moule_).

[Miss E. Scidmore writes (_China_, p. 294): "There are only three wonders
of the world in China--The Demons at Tungchow, the Thunder at Lungchow,
and the Great Tide at Hangchow, the last, the greatest of all, and a
living wonder to this day of 'the open door,' while its rivals are lost in
myth and oblivion.... The Great Bore charges up the narrowing river at a
speed of ten and thirteen miles an hour, with a roar that can be heard for
an hour before it arrives."--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--For satisfactory elucidation as to what is or may have been
authentic in these statements, we shall have to wait for a correct survey
of Hang-chau and its neighbourhood. We have already seen strong reason to
suppose that _miles_ have been substituted for _li_ in the circuits
assigned both to the city and to the lake, and we are yet more strongly
impressed with the conviction that the same substitution has been made
here in regard to the canal on the east of the city, as well as the
streets and market-places spoken of in the next paragraph.

Chinese plans of Hang-chau do show a large canal encircling the city on
the east and north, i.e., on the sides away from the lake. In some of
them this is represented like a ditch to the rampart, but in others it is
more detached. And the position of the main street, with its parallel
canal, does answer fairly to the account in the next paragraph, setting
aside the extravagant dimensions.

The existence of the squares or market-places is alluded to by Wassáf in a
passage that we shall quote below; and the _Masálak-al-Absár_ speaks of
the main street running from end to end of the city.

On this Mr. Moule says: "I have found no certain account of market-squares,
though the _Fang_,[2] of which a few still exist, and a very large number
are laid down in the Sung Map, mainly grouped along the chief street, may
perhaps represent them.... The names of some of these (_Fang_) and of the
_Sze_ or markets still remain."

Mr. Wylie sent Sir Henry Yule a tracing of the figures mentioned in the
footnote; it is worth while to append them, at least in _diagram_.

No 1.                   No 2.               No 3.
      ++                                     ++      ++
 |-----------|     |-----------|        |-----|------|------|
 |     |     |     |           |        |     |   a  |      |
+|     |     |+   +|           |+      +|-----+------+------|+
+|-----+-----|+   +|-----------|+      +|     |      |      |+
 |     |     |     |           |        |     |   b  |      |
 |     |     |     |           |       +|-----+------+------|+
 |-----------|     |-----------|       +|     |      |      |+
      ++                                |     |   c  |      |
                                        |-----|------|------|
                                             ++      ++

No. 1. Plan of a _Fang_ or Square.

No. 2. Plan of a _Fang_ or Square in the South of the Imperial City
of Si-ngan fu.

No. 3. Arrangement of Two-Fang Square, with four streets and 8 gates.
    a. The Market place.
    b. The Official Establishment.
    c. Office for regulating Weights.

Compare Polo's statement that in each of the squares at Kinsay, where the
markets were held, there were two great Palaces facing one another, in
which were established the officers who decided differences between
merchants, etc.

The double lines represent streets, and the ++ are gates.

NOTE 4.--There is no mention of _pork_, the characteristic animal food of
China, and the only one specified by Friar Odoric in his account of the
same city. Probably Mark may have got a little _Saracenized_ among the
Mahomedans at the Kaan's Court, and doubted if 'twere good manners to
mention it. It is perhaps a relic of the same feeling, gendered by Saracen
rule, that in Sicily pigs are called _i neri_.

"The larger game, red-deer and fallow-deer, is now never seen for sale.
Hog-deer, wild-swine, pheasants, water-fowl, and every description of
'vermin' and small birds, are exposed for sale, not now in markets, but at
the retail wine shops. Wild-cats, racoons, otters, badgers, kites, owls,
etc., etc., festoon the shop fronts along with game." (_Moule_.)

NOTE 5.--Van Braam, in passing through Shan-tung Province, speaks of very
large pears. "The colour is a beautiful golden yellow. Before it is pared
the pear is somewhat hard, but in eating it the juice flows, the pulp
melts, and the taste is pleasant enough." Williams says these Shan-tung
pears are largely exported, but he is not so complimentary to them as
Polo: "The pears are large and juicy, sometimes weighing 8 or 10 pounds,
but remarkably tasteless and coarse." (_V. Braam_, II. 33-34; _Mid.
Kingd._, I. 78 and II. 44). In the beginning of 1867 I saw pears in Covent
Garden Market which I should guess to have weighed 7 or 8 lbs. each. They
were priced at 18 guineas a dozen!

["Large pears are nowadays produced in Shan-tung and Manchuria, but they
are rather tasteless and coarse. I am inclined to suppose that Polo's
large pears were Chinese quinces, _Cydonia chinensis_, Thouin, this fruit
being of enormous size, sometimes one foot long, and very fragrant. The
Chinese use it for sweet-meats." (_Bretschneider, Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I.
p. 2.)--H.C.]

As regards the "yellow and white" peaches, Marsden supposes the former to
be apricots. Two kinds of peach, correctly so described, are indeed common
in Sicily, where I write;--and both are, in their raw state, equally good
food for _i neri_! But I see Mr. Moule also identifies the yellow peach
with "the _hwang-mei_ or clingstone apricot," as he knows no yellow peach
in China.

NOTE 6.--"_E non veggono mai l'ora che di nuovo possano ritornarvi;_" a
curious Italian idiom. (See _Vocab. It. Univ._ sub. v. "_vedere_".)

NOTE 7.--It would seem that the habits of the Chinese in reference to the
use of pepper and such spices have changed. Besides this passage, implying
that their consumption of pepper was large, Marco tells us below (ch.
lxxxii.) that for one shipload of pepper carried to Alexandria for the
consumption of Christendom, a hundred went to Zayton in Manzi. At the
present day, according to Williams, the Chinese use little spice; pepper
chiefly as a febrifuge in the shape of _pepper-tea_, and that even less
than they did some years ago. (See p. 239, infra, and _Mid. Kingd._, II.
46, 408.) On this, however, Mr. Moule observes: "Pepper is not so
completely relegated to the doctors. A month or two ago, passing a
portable cookshop in the city, I heard a girl-purchaser cry to the cook,
'Be sure you put in _pepper and leeks!_'"

NOTE 8.--Marsden, after referring to the ingenious frauds commonly related
of Chinese traders, observes: "In the long continued intercourse that has
subsisted between the agents of the European companies and the more
eminent of the Chinese merchants ... complaints on the ground of
commercial unfairness have been extremely rare, and on the contrary, their
transactions have been marked with the most perfect good faith and mutual
confidence." Mr. Consul Medhurst bears similar strong testimony to the
upright dealings of Chinese merchants. His remark that, as a rule, he has
found that the Chinese deteriorate by intimacy with foreigners is worthy
of notice;[3] it is a remark capable of application wherever the East and
West come into habitual contact. Favourable opinions among the nations on
their frontiers of Chinese dealing, as expressed to Wood and Burnes in
Turkestan, and to Macleod and Richardson in Laos, have been quoted by me
elsewhere in reference to the old classical reputation of the Seres for
integrity. Indeed, Marco's whole account of the people here might pass for
an expanded paraphrase of the Latin commonplaces regarding the Seres. Mr.
Milne, a missionary for many years in China, stands up manfully against
the wholesale disparagement or Chinese character (p. 401).

NOTE 9.--Semedo and Martini, in the 17th century, give a very similar
account of the Lake Si-hu, the parties of pleasure frequenting it, and
their gay barges. (_Semedo_, pp. 20-21; _Mart._ p. 9.) But here is a
Chinese picture of the very thing described by Marco, under the Sung
Dynasty: "When Yaou Shunming was Prefect of Hangchow, there was an old
woman, who said she was formerly a singing-girl, and in the service of
Tung-p'o Seen-sheng.[4] She related that her master, whenever he found a
leisure day in spring, would invite friends to take their pleasure on the
lake. They used to take an early meal on some agreeable spot, and, the
repast over, a chief was chosen for the company of each barge, who called
a number of dancing-girls to follow them to any place they chose. As the
day waned a gong sounded to assemble all once more at 'Lake Prospect
Chambers,' or at the 'Bamboo Pavilion,' or some place of the kind, where
they amused themselves to the top of their bent, and then, at the first or
second drum, before the evening market dispersed, returned home by
candle-light. In the city, gentlemen and ladies assembled in crowds, lining
the way to see the return of the thousand Knights. It must have been a
brave spectacle of that time." (_Moule_, from the _Si-hu-Chi_, or
"Topography of the West Lake.") It is evident, from what Mr. Moule says,
that this book abounds in interesting illustration of these two chapters of
Polo. Barges with paddle-wheels are alluded to.

NOTE 10.--Public carriages are still used in the great cities of the
north, such as Peking. Possibly this is a revival. At one time carriages
appear to have been much more general in China than they were afterwards,
or are now. Semedo says they were abandoned in China just about the time
that they were adopted in Europe, viz. in the 16th century. And this
disuse seems to have been either cause or effect of the neglect of the
roads, of which so high an account is given in old times. (_Semedo; N. and
Q. Ch. and Jap._ I. 94.)

Deguignes describes the public carriages of Peking, as "shaped like a
palankin, but of a longer form, with a rounded top, lined outside and in
with coarse blue cloth, and provided with black cushions" (I. 372). This
corresponds with our author's description, and with a drawing by Alexander
among his published sketches. The present Peking cab is evidently the same
vehicle, but smaller.

NOTE 11.--The character of the King of Manzi here given corresponds to
that which the Chinese histories assign to the Emperor Tu-Tsong, in whose
time Kúblái commenced his enterprise against Southern China, but who died
two years before the fall of the capital. He is described as given up to
wine and women, and indifferent to all public business, which he committed
to unworthy ministers. The following words, quoted by Mr. Moule from the
_Hang-Chau Fu-Chi_, are like an echo of Marco's: "In those days the
dynasty was holding on to a mere corner of the realm, hardly able to
defend even that; and nevertheless all, high and low, devoted themselves
to dress and ornament, to music and dancing on the lake and amongst the
hills, with no idea of sympathy for the country." A garden called
Tseu-king ("of many prospects") near the Tsing-po Gate, and a monastery
west of the lake, near the Lingin, are mentioned as pleasure haunts of the
Sung Kings.

NOTE 12.--The statement that the palace of Kingszé was occupied by the
Great Kaan's lieutenant seems to be inconsistent with the notice in De
Mailla that Kúblái made it over to the Buddhist priests. Perhaps _Kúblái's_
name is a mistake; for one of Mr. Moule's books (_Jin-ho-hien-chi_) says
that under _the last_ Mongol Emperor five convents were built on the area
of the palace.

Mr. H. Murray argues, from this closing passage especially, that Marco
never could have been the author of the Ramusian interpolations; but with
this I cannot agree. Did this passage stand alone we might doubt if it
were Marco's; but the interpolations must be considered as a whole. Many
of them bear to my mind clear evidence of being his own, and I do not see
that the present one _may_ not be his. The picture conveyed of the ruined
walls and half-obliterated buildings does, it is true, give the impression
of a long interval between their abandonment and the traveller's visit,
whilst the whole interval between the capture of the city and Polo's
departure from China was not more than fifteen or sixteen years. But this
is too vague a basis for theorising.

Mr. Moule has ascertained by maps of the Sung period, and by a variety of
notices in the Topographies, that the palace lay to the south and
south-east of the present city, and included a large part of the fine hills
called _Fung-hwang Shan_ or Phoenix Mount,[5] and other names, whilst its
southern gate opened near the Ts'ien-T'ang River. Its north gate is
supposed to have been the Fung Shan Gate of the present city, and the chief
street thus formed the avenue to the palace.

By the kindness of Messrs. Moule and Wylie, I am able to give a copy of
the Sung Map of the Palace (for origin of which see list of
illustrations). I should note that the orientation is different from that
of the map of the city already given. This map elucidates Polo's account
of the palace in a highly interesting manner.

[Father H. Havret has given in p. 21 of _Variétés Sinologiques_, No. 19, a
complete study of the inscription of a _chwang_, nearly similar to the one
given here, which is erected near Ch'êng-tu.--H.C.]

Before quitting KINSAY, the description of which forms the most striking
feature in Polo's account of China, it is worth while to quote other
notices from authors of nearly the same age. However exaggerated some of
these may be, there can be little doubt that it was the greatest city then
existing in the world.

[Illustration: Stone _Chwang_, or Umbrella Column, on site of "Brahma's
Temple," Hang-chau.]

[Illustration: South Part of KING-SZÉ, with the SUNG PALACE, from a
Chinese reprint of a Plan dated circa A.D. 1270]

_Friar Odoric_ (in China about 1324-1327):--"Departing thence I came unto
the city of CANSAY, a name which signifieth the 'City of Heaven.' And
'tis the greatest city in the whole world, so great indeed that I should
scarcely venture to tell of it, but that I have met at Venice people in
plenty who have been there. It is a good hundred miles in compass, and
there is not in it a span of ground which is not well peopled. And many a
tenement is there which shall have 10 or 12 households comprised in it.
And there be also great suburbs which contain a greater population than
even the city itself.... This city is situated upon lagoons of standing
water, with canals like the city of Venice. And it hath more than 12,000
bridges, on each of which are stationed guards, guarding the city on
behalf of the Great Kaan. And at the side of this city there flows a river
near which it is built, like Ferrara by the Po, for it is longer than it
is broad," and so on, relating how his host took him to see a great
monastery of the idolaters, where there was a garden full of grottoes, and
therein many animals of divers kinds, which they believed to be inhabited
by the souls of gentlemen. "But if any one should desire to tell all the
vastness and great marvels of this city, a good quire of stationery would
not hold the matter, I trow. For 'tis the greatest and noblest city, and
the finest for merchandize that the whole world containeth." (_Cathay_,
113 seqq.)

_The Archbishop of Soltania_ (circa 1330):--"And so vast is the number of
people that the soldiers alone who are posted to keep ward in the city of
Cambalec are 40,000 men by sure tale. And in the city of CASSAY there be
yet more, for its people is greater in number, seeing that it is a city of
very great trade. And to this city all the traders of the country come to
trade; and greatly it aboundeth in all manner of merchandize." (Ib.
244-245.)

_John Marignolli_ (in China 1342-1347):--"Now Manzi is a country which has
countless cities and nations included in it, past all belief to one who
has not seen them.... And among the rest is that most famous city of
CAMPSAY, the finest, the biggest, the richest, the most populous, and
altogether the most marvellous city, the city of the greatest wealth and
luxury, of the most splendid buildings (especially idol-temples, in some
of which there are 1000 and 2000 monks dwelling together), that exists now
upon the face of the earth, or mayhap that ever did exist." (Ib. p.
354.) He also speaks, like Odoric, of the "cloister at Campsay, in that
most famous monastery where they keep so many monstrous animals, which
they believe to be the souls of the departed" (384). Perhaps this
monastery may yet be identified. Odoric calls it _Thebe_. [See _A.
Vissière, Bul. Soc. Géog. Com._, 1901, pp. 112-113.--H.C.]

Turning now to Asiatic writers, we begin with _Wassáf_ (A.D. 1300):--

"KHANZAI is the greatest city of the cities of Chín,

  "'_Stretching like Paradise through the breadth of Heaven._'

"Its shape is oblong, and the measurement of its perimeter is about 24
parasangs. Its streets are paved with burnt brick and with stone. The
public edifices and the houses are built of wood, and adorned with a
profusion of paintings of exquisite elegance. Between one end of the city
and the other there are three _Yams_ (post-stations) established. The
length of the chief streets is three parasangs, and the city contains 64
quadrangles corresponding to one another in structure, and with parallel
ranges of columns. The salt excise brings in daily 700 _balish_ in
paper-money. The number of craftsmen is so great that 32,000 are employed
at the dyer's art alone; from that fact you may estimate the rest. There
are in the city 70 _tomans_ of soldiers and 70 _tomans_ of _rayats_, whose
number is registered in the books of the Dewán. There are 700 churches
(_Kalísíá_) resembling fortresses, and every one of them overflowing with
presbyters without faith, and monks without religion, besides other
officials, wardens, servants of the idols, and this, that, and the other,
to tell the names of which would surpass number and space. All these are
exempt from taxes of every kind. Four _tomans_ of the garrison constitute
the night patrol.... Amid the city there are 360 bridges erected over
canals ample as the Tigris, which are ramifications of the great river of
Chín; and different kinds of vessels and ferry-boats, adapted to every
class, ply upon the waters in such numbers as to pass all powers of
enumeration.... The concourse of all kinds of foreigners from the four
quarters of the world, such as the calls of trade and travel bring together
in a kingdom like this, may easily be conceived." (_Revised on Hammer's
Translation_, pp. 42-43.)

The Persian work _Nuzhát-al-Kulúb_:--"KHINZAI is the capital of the
country of Máchín. If one may believe what some travellers say, there
exists no greater city on the face of the earth; but anyhow, all agree
that it is the greatest in all the countries in the East. Inside the place
is a lake which has a circuit of six parasangs, and all round which houses
are built.... The population is so numerous that the watchmen are some
10,000 in number." (_Quat. Rash._ p. lxxxviii.)

The Arabic work _Masálak-al-Absár_:--"Two routes lead from Khanbalik to
KHINSÁ, one by land, the other by water; and either way takes 40 days. The
city of Khinsá extends a whole day's journey in length and half a day's
journey in breadth. In the middle of it is a street which runs right from
one end to the other. The streets and squares are all paved; the houses
are five-storied (?), and are built with planks nailed together," etc.
(Ibid.)

_Ibn Batuta_:--"We arrived at the city of KHANSÁ.... This city is the
greatest I have ever seen on the surface of the earth. It is three days'
journey in length, so that a traveller passing through the city has to
make his marches and his halts!.. It is subdivided into six towns, each
of which has a separate enclosure, while one great wall surrounds the
whole," etc. (_Cathay_, p. 496 seqq.)

Let us conclude with a writer of a later age, the worthy Jesuit Martin
Martini, the author of the admirable _Atlas Sinensis_, one whose
honourable zeal to maintain Polo's veracity, of which he was one of the
first intelligent advocates, is apt, it must be confessed, a little to
colour his own spectacles:--"That the cosmographers of Europe may no
longer make such ridiculous errors as to the QUINSAI of Marco Polo, I will
here give you the very place. [He then explains the name.] ... And to come
to the point; this is the very city that hath those bridges so lofty and
so numberless, both within the walls and in the suburbs; nor will they
fall much short of the 10,000 which the Venetian alleges, if you count
also the triumphal arches among the bridges, as he might easily do because
of their analogous structure, just as he calls tigers _lions_;.. or if
you will, he may have meant to include not merely the bridges in the city
and suburbs, but in the whole of the dependent territory. In that case
indeed the number which Europeans find it so hard to believe might well be
set still higher, so vast is everywhere the number of bridges and of
triumphal arches. Another point in confirmation is that lake which he
mentions of 40 Italian miles in circuit. This exists under the name of
_Si-hu_; it is not, indeed, as the book says, inside the walls, but lies
in contact with them for a long distance on the west and south-west, and a
number of canals drawn from it _do_ enter the city. Moreover, the shores
of the lake on every side are so thickly studded with temples,
monasteries, palaces, museums, and private houses, that you would suppose
yourself to be passing through the midst of a great city rather than a
country scene. Quays of cut stone are built along the banks, affording a
spacious promenade; and causeways cross the lake itself, furnished with
lofty bridges, to allow of the passage of boats; and thus you can readily
walk all about the lake on this side and on that. 'Tis no wonder that Polo
considered it to be part of the city. This, too, is the very city that
hath within the walls, near the south side, a hill called _Ching-hoang_
[6] on which stands that tower with the watchmen, on which there is a
clepsydra to measure the hours, and where each hour is announced by the
exhibition of a placard, with gilt letters of a foot and a half in height.
This is the very city the streets of which are paved with squared stones:
the city which lies in a swampy situation, and is intersected by a number
of navigable canals; this, in short, is the city from which the emperor
escaped to seaward by the great river Ts'ien-T'ang, the breadth of which
exceeds a German mile, flowing on the south of the city, exactly
corresponding to the river described by the Venetian at Quinsai, and
flowing eastward to the sea, which it enters precisely at the distance
which he mentions. I will add that the compass of the city will be 100
Italian miles and more, if you include its vast suburbs, which run out on
every side an enormous distance; insomuch that you may walk for 50 Chinese
_li_ in a straight line from north to south, the whole way through crowded
blocks of houses, and without encountering a spot that is not full of
dwellings and full of people; whilst from east to west you can do very
nearly the same thing." (_Atlas Sinensis_, p. 99.)

And so we quit what Mr. Moule appropriately calls "Marco's famous rhapsody
of the Manzi capital"; perhaps the most striking section of the whole
book, as manifestly the subject was that which had made the strongest
impression on the narrator.


[1] _Fanfur_, in Ramusio.

[2] See the mention of the _I-ning Fang_ at Si-ngan fu, supra,
    p. 28. Mr. Wylie writes that in a work on the latter city, published
    during the Yuen time, of which he has met with a reprint, there are
    figures to illustrate the division of the city into _Fang_, a
    word "which appears to indicate a certain space of ground, not an open
    square ... but a block of buildings crossed by streets, and at the end
    of each street an open gateway." In one of the figures a first
    reference indicates "the market place," a second "the official
    establishment," a third "the office for regulating weights." These
    indications seem to explain Polo's squares. (See Note 3, above.)

[3] _Foreigner in Far Cathay_, pp. 158, 176.

[4] A famous poet and scholar of the 11th century.

[5] Mr. Wylie, after ascending this hill with Mr. Moule, writes: "It is
    about two miles from the south gate to the top, by a rather steep
    road. On the top is a remarkably level plot of ground, with a cluster
    of rocks in one place. On the face of these rocks are a great many
    inscriptions, but so obliterated by age and weather that only a few
    characters can be decyphered. A stone road leads up from the city
    gate, and another one, very steep, down to the lake. This is the only
    vestige remaining of the old palace grounds. There is no doubt about
    this being really a relic of the palace.... You will see on the map,
    just inside the walls of the Imperial city, the Temple of Brahma.
    There are still two stone columns standing with curious Buddhist
    inscriptions.... Although the temple is entirely gone, these columns
    retain the name and mark the place. They date from the 6th century,
    and there are few structures earlier in China." One is engraved above,
    after a sketch by Mr. Moule.

[6] See the plan of the city with last chapter.



CHAPTER LXXVIII.

TREATING OF THE GREAT YEARLY REVENUE THAT THE GREAT KAAN HATH FROM KINSAY.


Now I will tell you about the great revenue which the Great Kaan draweth
every year from the said city of Kinsay and its territory, forming a ninth
part of the whole country of Manzi.

First there is the salt, which brings in a great revenue. For it produces
every year, in round numbers, fourscore _tomans_ of gold; and the
_toman_ is worth 70,000 _saggi_ of gold, so that the total value
of the fourscore tomans will be five millions and six hundred thousand
_saggi_ of gold, each saggio being worth more than a gold florin or
ducat; in sooth, a vast sum of money! [This province, you see, adjoins the
ocean, on the shores of which are many lagoons or salt marshes, in which
the sea-water dries up during the summer time; and thence they extract
such a quantity of salt as suffices for the supply of five of the kingdoms
of Manzi besides this one.]

Having told you of the revenue from salt, I will now tell you of that
which accrues to the Great Kaan from the duties on merchandize and other
matters.

You must know that in this city and its dependencies they make great
quantities of sugar, as indeed they do in the other eight divisions of
this country; so that I believe the whole of the rest of the world
together does not produce such a quantity, at least, if that be true which
many people have told me; and the sugar alone again produces an enormous
revenue.--However, I will not repeat the duties on every article
separately, but tell you how they go in the lump. Well, all spicery pays
three and a third per cent. on the value; and all merchandize likewise
pays three and a third per cent. [But sea-borne goods from India and other
distant countries pay ten per cent.] The rice-wine also makes a great
return, and coals, of which there is a great quantity; and so do the
twelve guilds of craftsmen that I told you of, with their 12,000 stations
apiece, for every article they make pays duty. And the silk which is
produced in such abundance makes an immense return. But why should I make
a long story of it? The silk, you must know, pays ten per cent., and many
other articles also pay ten per cent.

And you must know that Messer Marco Polo, who relates all this, was
several times sent by the Great Kaan to inspect the amount of his customs
and revenue from this ninth part of Manzi,[NOTE 1] and he found it to be,
exclusive of the salt revenue which we have mentioned already, 210
_tomans_ of gold, equivalent to 14,700,000 _saggi_ of gold; one
of the most enormous revenues that ever was heard of. And if the sovereign
has such a revenue from one-ninth part of the country, you may judge what
he must have from the whole of it! However, to speak the truth, this part
is the greatest and most productive; and because of the great revenue that
the Great Kaan derives from it, it is his favourite province, and he takes
all the more care to watch it well, and to keep the people contented.
[NOTE 2]

Now we will quit this city and speak of others.


NOTE 1.--Pauthier's text seems to be the only one which says that Marco
was sent by the Great Kaan. The G. Text says merely: "_Si qe jeo March Pol
qe plusor foies hoï faire le conte de la rende de tous cestes couses_,"--
"had several times heard the calculations made."

NOTE 2.--_Toman_ is 10,000. And the first question that occurs in
considering the statements of this chapter is as to the unit of these
tomans, as intended by Polo. I believe it to have been the _tael_ (or
Chinese ounce) of gold.

We do not know that the Chinese ever made monetary calculations in gold.
But the usual unit of the revenue accounts appears from Pauthier's
extracts to have been the _ting_, i.e. a money of account equal to ten
taels of silver, and we know (supra, ch. l. note 4) that this was in
those days the exact equivalent of one tael of gold.

The equation in our text is 10,000 _x_ = 70,000 saggi of gold, giving _x_,
or the unit sought, = 7 _saggi_. But in both Ramusio on the one hand, and
in the Geog. Latin and Crusca Italian texts on the other hand, the
equivalent of the toman is 80,000 _saggi_; though it is true that neither
with one valuation nor the other are the calculations consistent in any of
the texts, except Ramusio's.[1] This consistency does not give any
greater weight to Ramusio's reading, because we know that version to have
been _edited_, and corrected when the editor thought it necessary: but I
adopt his valuation, because we shall find other grounds for preferring
it. The unit of the _toman_ then is = 8 _saggi_.

The Venice saggio was one-sixth of a Venice ounce. The Venice mark of 8
ounces I find stated to contain 3681 grains troy;[2] hence the _saggio_ =
76 grains. But I imagine the term to be used by Polo here and in other
Oriental computations, to express the Arabic _miskál_, the real weight of
which, according to Mr. Maskelyne, is 74 grains troy. The _miskál_ of gold
was, as Polo says, something more than a ducat or sequin, indeed, weight
for weight, it was to a ducat nearly as 1.4: 1.

Eight _saggi_ or _miskáls_ would be 592 grains troy. The tael is 580, and
the approximation is as near as we can reasonably expect from a
calculation in such terms.

Taking the silver tael at 6_s._ 7_d._, the gold tael, or rather the
_ting_, would be = 3_l._ 5_s._ 10_d._; the _toman_ = 32,916_l._ 13_s._
4_d._; and the whole salt revenue (80 tomans) = 2,633,333_l._; the revenue
from other sources (210 tomans) = 6,912,500_l._; total revenue from Kinsay
and its province (290 tomans) = 9,545,833_l._ A sufficiently startling
statement, and quite enough to account for the sobriquet of Marco Milioni.

Pauthier, in reference to this chapter, brings forward a number of
extracts regarding Mongol finance from the official history of that
dynasty. The extracts are extremely interesting in themselves, but I
cannot find in them that confirmation of Marco's accuracy which M.
Pauthier sees.

First as to the salt revenue of Kiang-Ché, or the province of Kinsay. The
facts given by Pauthier amount to these: that in 1277, the year in which
the Mongol salt department was organised, the manufacture of salt amounted
to 92,148 _yin_, or 22,115,520 _kilos.;_ in 1286 it had reached 450,000
_yin_, or 108,000,000 _kilos.;_ in 1289 it fell off by 100,000 _yin_.

The price was, in 1277, 18 _liang_ or taels, in _chao_ or paper-money of
the years 1260-64 (see vol. i. p. 426); in 1282 it was raised to 22 taels;
in 1284 a permanent and reduced price was fixed, the amount of which is
not stated.

M. Pauthier assumes as a mean 400,000 _yin_, at 18 taels, which will give
7,200,000 _taels;_ or, at 6_s._ 7_d._ to the tael, 2,370,000_l._ But this
amount being in _chao_ or paper-currency, which at its highest valuation
was worth only 50 per cent. of the nominal value of the notes, we must
_halve_ the sum, giving the salt revenue on Pauthier's assumptions =
1,185,000_l._

Pauthier has also endeavoured to present a table of the whole revenue of
Kiang-Ché under the Mongols, amounting to 12,955,710 paper _taels_, or
2,132,294_l._, _including_ the salt revenue. This would leave only
947,294_l._ for the other sources of revenue, but the fact is that several
of these are left blank, and among others one so important as the
sea-customs. However, even making the extravagant supposition that the
sea-customs and other omitted items were equal in amount to the whole of
the other sources of revenue, salt included, the total would be only
4,264,585_l._

Marco's amount, as he gives it, is, I think, unquestionably a huge
exaggeration, though I do not suppose an intentional one. In spite of his
professed rendering of the amounts in gold, I have little doubt that his
tomans really represent paper-currency, and that to get a valuation in
gold, his total has to be divided _at the very least_ by two. We may then
compare his total of 290 tomans of paper _ting_ with Pauthier's 130 tomans
of paper _ting_, excluding sea-customs and some other items. No nearer
comparison is practicable; and besides the sources of doubt already
indicated, it remains uncertain what in either calculation are the limits
of the province intended. For the bounds of Kiang-Ché seem to have varied
greatly, sometimes including and sometimes excluding Fo-kien.

I may observe that Rashiduddin reports, on the authority of the Mongol
minister Pulad Chingsang, that the whole of Manzi brought in a revenue of
"900 tomans." This Quatremère renders "nine million pieces of gold,"
presumably meaning dinars. It is unfortunate that there should be
uncertainty here again as to the unit. If it were the _dinar_ the whole
revenue of Manzi would be about 5,850,000_l._, whereas if the unit were,
as in the case of Polo's toman, the _ting_, the revenue would be nearly
30,000,000 sterling!

It does appear that in China a toman of some denomination of money near
the dinar was known in account. For Friar Odoric states the revenue of
Yang-chau in _tomans_ of _Balish_, the latter unit being, as he explains,
a sum in paper-currency equivalent to a florin and a half (or something
more than a dinar); perhaps, however, only the _liang_ or tael (see vol.
i. pp. 426-7).

It is this calculation of the Kinsay revenue which Marco is supposed to be
expounding to his fellow-prisoner on the title-page of this volume. [See
_P. Hoang, Commerce Public du Sel_, Shanghai, 1898, Liang-tahé-yen, pp.
6-7.--H.C.]


[1] Pauthier's MSS. A and B are hopelessly corrupt here. His MS. C agrees
    with the Geog. Text in making the toman = 70,000 saggi, but 210 tomans
    = 15,700,000, instead of 14,700,000. The Crusca and Latin have 80,000
    saggi in the first place, but 15,700,000 in the second. Ramusio alone
    has 80,000 in the first place, and 16,800,000 in the second.

[2] _Eng. Cyclop., "Weights and Measures."_



CHAPTER LXXIX.

OF THE CITY OF TANPIJU AND OTHERS.


When you leave Kinsay and travel a day's journey to the south-east,
through a plenteous region, passing a succession of dwellings and charming
gardens, you reach the city of TANPIJU, a great, rich, and fine city,
under Kinsay. The people are subject to the Kaan, and have paper-money,
and are Idolaters, and burn their dead in the way described before. They
live by trade and manufactures and handicrafts, and have all necessaries
in great plenty and cheapness.[NOTE 1]

But there is no more to be said about it, so we proceed, and I will tell
you of another city called VUJU at three days' distance from Tanpiju. The
people are Idolaters, &c., and the city is under Kinsay. They live by
trade and manufactures.

Travelling through a succession of towns and villages that look like one
continuous city, two days further on to the south-east, you find the great
and fine city of GHIUJU which is under Kinsay. The people are Idolaters,
&c. They have plenty of silk, and live by trade and handicrafts, and have
all things necessary in abundance. At this city you find the largest and
longest canes that are in all Manzi; they are full four palms in girth and
15 paces in length.[NOTE 2]

When you have left Ghiuju you travel four days S.E. through a beautiful
country, in which towns and villages are very numerous. There is abundance
of game both in beasts and birds; and there are very large and fierce
lions. After those four days you come to the great and fine city of
CHANSHAN. It is situated upon a hill which divides the River, so that the
one portion flows up country and the other down.[1] It is still under the
government of Kinsay.

I should tell you that in all the country of Manzi they have no sheep,
though they have beeves and kine, goats and kids and swine in abundance.
The people are Idolaters here, &c.

When you leave Changshan you travel three days through a very fine
country with many towns and villages, traders and craftsmen, and abounding
in game of all kinds, and arrive at the city of CUJU. The people are
Idolaters, &c., and live by trade and manufactures. It is a fine, noble,
and rich city, and is the last of the government of Kinsay in this
direction.[NOTE 3] The other kingdom which we now enter, called Fuju, is
also one of the nine great divisions of Manzi as Kinsay is.


NOTE 1.--The traveller's route proceeds from Kinsay or Hang-chau southward
to the mountains of Fo-kien, ascending the valley of the Ts'ien T'ang,
commonly called by Europeans the Green River. The general line, directed
as we shall see upon Kien-ning fu in Fo-kien, is clear enough, but some of
the details are very obscure, owing partly to vague indications and partly
to the excessive uncertainty in the reading of some of the proper names.

No name resembling Tanpiju (G.T., _Tanpigui_; Pauthier, _Tacpiguy,
Carpiguy, Capiguy_; Ram., _Tapinzu_) belongs, so far as has yet been
shown, to any considerable town in the position indicated.[2] Both
Pauthier and Mr. Kingsmill identify the place with Shao-hing fu, a large
and busy town, compared by Fortune, as regards population, to Shang-hai.
Shao-hing is across the broad river, and somewhat further down than
Hang-chau: it is out of the traveller's general direction; and it seems
unnatural that he should commence his journey by passing this wide river,
and yet not mention it.

For these reasons I formerly rejected Shao-hing, and looked rather to
Fu-yang as the representative of Tanpiju. But my opinion is shaken when I
find both Mr. Elias and Baron Richthofen decidedly opposed to Fu-yang, and
the latter altogether in favour of Shao-hing. "The journey through a
plenteous region, passing a succession of dwellings and charming gardens;
the epithets 'great, rich, and fine city'; the 'trade, manufactures, and
handicrafts,' and the 'necessaries in great plenty and cheapness,' appear
to apply rather to the populous plain and the large city of ancient fame,
than to the small Fu-yang hien ... shut in by a spur from the hills, which
would hardly have allowed it in former days to have been a great city."
(_Note by Baron R._) The after route, as elucidated by the same authority,
points with even more force to Shao-hing.

[Mr. G. Phillips has made a special study of the route from Kinsay to
Zaytun in the _T'oung Pao_, I. p. 218 seq. (_The Identity of Marco
Polo's Zaitun with Changchau_). He says (p. 222): "Leaving Hangchau by
boat for Fuhkien, the first place of importance is Fuyang, at 100 _li_
from Hangchau. This name does not in any way resemble Polo's Ta Pin Zu,
but I think it can be no other." Mr. Phillips writes (pp. 221-222) that by
the route he describes, he "intends to follow the highway which has been
used by travellers for centuries, and the greater part of which is by
water." He adds: "I may mention that the boats used on this route can be
luxuriously fitted up, and the traveller can go in them all the way from
Hangchau to Chinghu, the head of the navigation of the Ts'ien-t'ang River.
At this Chinghu, they disembark and hire coolies and chairs to take them
and their luggage across the Sien-hia pass to Puching in Fuhkien. This
route is described by Fortune in an opposite direction, in his _Wanderings
in China_, vol. ii. p. 139. I am inclined to think that Polo followed this
route, as the one given by Yule, by way of Shao-hing and Kin-hua by land,
would be unnecessarily tedious for the ladies Polo was escorting, and
there was no necessity to take it; more especially as there was a direct
water route to the point for which they were making. I further incline to
this route, as I can find no city at all fitting in with Yenchau,
Ramusio's Gengiu, along the route given by Yule."

In my paper on the Catalan Map (Paris, 1895) I gave the following
itinerary: Kinsay (Hang-chau), Tanpiju (Shao-hing fu), Vuju (Kin-hwa fu),
Ghiuju (K'iu-chau fu), Chan-shan (Sui-chang hien), Cuju (Ch'u-chau),
Ke-lin-fu (Kien-ning fu), Unken (Hu-kwan), Fuju (Fu-chau), Zayton (Kayten,
Hai-t'au), Zayton (Ts'iuen-chau), Tyunju (Tek-hwa).

Regarding the burning of the dead, Mr. Phillips (_T'oung Pao_, VI. p. 454)
quotes the following passage from a notice by M. Jaubert. "The town of
Zaitun is situated half a day's journey inland from the sea. At the place
where the ships anchor, the water is fresh. The people drink this water
and also that of the wells. Zaitun is 30 days' journey from Khanbaligh.
The inhabitants of this town burn their dead either with Sandal, or Brazil
wood, according to their means; they then throw the ashes into the river."
Mr. Phillips adds: "The custom of burning the dead is a long established
one in Fuh-Kien, and does not find much favour among the upper classes. It
exists even to this day in the central parts of the province. The time for
cremation is generally at the time of the Tsing-Ming. At the commencement
of the present dynasty the custom of burning the dead appears to have been
pretty general in the Fuchow Prefecture; it was looked upon with disfavour
by many, and the gentry petitioned the Authorities that proclamations
forbidding it should be issued. It was thought unfilial for children to
cremate their parents; and the practice of gathering up the bones of a
partially cremated person and thrusting them into a jar, euphoniously
called a Golden Jar, but which was really an earthen one, was much
commented on, as, if the jar was too small to contain all the bones, they
were broken up and put in, and many pieces got thrown aside. In the
Changchow neighbourhood, with which we have here most to do, it was a
universal custom in 1126 to burn the dead, and was in existence for many
centuries after." (See note, supra, II. p. 134.)

Captain Gill, speaking of the country near the Great Wall, writes (I. p.
61): ["The Chinese] consider mutton very poor food, and the butchers'
shops are always kept by Mongols. In these, however, both beef and mutton
can be bought for 3_d._ or 4_d._ a lb., while pork, which is considered by
the Chinese as the greatest delicacy, sells for double the price."--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Che-kiang produces bamboos more abundantly than any province of
Eastern China. Dr. Medhurst mentions meeting, on the waters near
Hang-chau, with numerous rafts of bamboos, one of which was one-third of a
mile in length. (_Glance at Int. of China_, p. 53.)

NOTE 3.--Assuming Tanpiju to be Shao-hing, the remaining places as far as
the Fo-kien Frontier run thus:--

  3 days to Vuju (P. _Vugui_, G.T. _Vugui, Vuigui_, Ram. _Uguiu_).
  2  "   to Ghiuju (P. _Guiguy_, G.T. _Ghingui, Ghengui, Chengui_, Ram.
                  _Gengui_).
  4  "   to Chanshan (P. _Ciancian_, G.T. _Cianscian_, Ram. _Zengian_).
  3  "   to Cuju or Chuju (P. _Cinguy_, G.T. _Cugui_, Ram. _Gieza_).

First as regards _Chanshan_, which, with the notable circumstances about
the waters there, constitutes the key to the route, I extract the
following remarks from a note which Mr. Fortune has kindly sent me: "When
we get to _Chanshan_ the proof as to the route is _very strong_. This is
undoubtedly my _Chang-shan_. The town is near the head of the Green River
(the Ts'ien T'ang) which flows in a N.E. direction and falls into the Bay
of Hang-chau. At Chang-shan the stream is no longer navigable even for
small boats. Travellers going west or south-west walk or are carried in
sedan-chairs across country in a westerly direction for about 30 miles to
a town named Yuh-shan. Here there is a river which flows westward ('the
other half goes down'), taking the traveller rapidly in that direction,
and passing _en route_ the towns of Kwansinfu, Hokow or Hokeu, and onward
to the Poyang Lake." From the careful study of Mr. Fortune's published
narrative I had already arrived at the conclusion that this was the
correct explanation of the remarkable expressions about the division of
the waters, which are closely analogous to those used by the traveller in
ch. lxii. of this book when speaking of the watershed of the Great Canal
at Sinjumatu. Paraphrased the words might run: "At Chang-shan you reach
high ground, which interrupts the continuity of the River; from one side
of this ridge it flows up country towards the north, from the other it
flows down towards the south." The expression "The River" will be
elucidated in note 4 to ch. lxxxii. below.

This route by the Ts'ien T'ang and the Chang-shan portage, which turns the
danger involved in the navigation of the Yang-tzu and the Poyang Lake, was
formerly a thoroughfare to the south much followed; though now almost
abandoned through one of the indirect results (as Baron Richthofen points
out) of steam navigation.

The portage from Chang-shan to Yuh-shan was passed by the English and
Dutch embassies in the end of last century, on their journeys from
Hang-chau to Canton, and by Mr. Fortune on his way from Ningpo to the Bohea
country of Fo-kien. It is probable that Polo on some occasion made the
ascent of the Ts'ien T'ang by water, and that this leads him to notice the
interruption of the navigation.

[Mr. Phillips writes (_T. Pao_, I. p. 222): "From Fuyang the next point
reached is Tunglu, also another 100 _li_ distant. Polo calls this city
Ugim, a name bearing no resemblance to Tunglu, but this name and Ta Pin Zu
are so corrupted in all editions that they defy conjecture. One hundred
_li_ further up the river from Tunglu, we come to Yenchau, in which I
think we have Polo's Gengiu of Ramusio's text. Yule's text calls this city
Ghiuju, possibly an error in transcription for Ghinju; Yenchau in ancient
Chinese would, according to Williams, be pronounced Ngam, Ngin, and
Ngienchau, all of which are sufficiently near Polo's Gengiu. The next city
reached is Lan Ki Hien or Lan Chi Hsien, famous for its hams, dates, and
all the good things of this life, according to the Chinese. In this city I
recognise Polo's Zen Gi An of Ramusio. Does its description justify me in
my identification? 'The city of "Zen gi an",' says Ramusio, 'is built upon
a hill that stands isolated in the river, which latter, by dividing itself
into two branches, appears to embrace it. These streams take opposite
directions: one of them pursuing its course to the south-east and the
other to the north-west.' Fortune, in his _Wanderings in China_ (vol. li.
p. 139), calls Lan-Khi, Nan-Che-hien, and says: 'It is built on the banks
of the river, and has a picturesque hill behind it.' Milne, who also
visited it, mentions it in his _Life in China_ (p. 258), and says: 'At the
southern end of the suburbs of Lan-Ki the river divides into two branches,
the one to the left on south-east leading direct to Kinhua.' Milne's
description of the place is almost identical with Polo's, when speaking of
the division of the river. There are in Fuchau several Lan-Khi
shopkeepers, who deal in hams, dates, etc., and these men tell me the city
from the river has the appearance of being built on a hill, but the houses
on the hill are chiefly temples. I would divide the name as follows, Zen
gi an; the last syllable _an_ most probably represents the modern Hien,
meaning District city, which in ancient Chinese was pronounced _Han_,
softened by the Italians into _an_. Lan-Khi was a Hien in Polo's day."
--H.C.]

Kin-hwa fu, as Pauthier has observed, bore at this time the name of
WU-CHAU, which Polo would certainly write _Vugiu_. And between Shao-hing
and Kin-hwa there exists, as Baron Richthofen has pointed out, a line of
depression which affords an easy connection between Shao-hing and Lan-ki
hien or Kin-hwa fu. This line is much used by travellers, and forms just 3
short stages. Hence Kin-hwa, a fine city destroyed by the T'ai-P'ings, is
satisfactorily identified with _Vugiu_.

The journey from Vugui to Ghiuju is said to be through a succession of
towns and villages, looking like a continuous city. Fortune, whose journey
occurred before the T'ai-P'ing devastations, speaks of the approach to
Kiu-chau as a vast and beautiful garden. And Mr. Milne's map of this route
shows an incomparable density of towns in the Ts'ien T'ang valley from
Yen-chau up to Kiu-chau. _Ghiuju_ then will be KIU-CHAU. But between
Kiu-chau and Chang-shan it is impossible to make four days: barely possible
to make two. My map (_Itineraries_, No. VI.), based on D'Anville and
Fortune, makes the _direct_ distance 24 miles; Milne's map barely 18;
whilst from his book we deduce the distance travelled by water to be about
30. On the whole, it seems probable that there is a mistake in the figure
here.

[Illustration: Marco Polo's route from Kinsai to ZAITUN, illustrating Mr.
G. Phillips' theory.]

From the head of the great Che-kiang valley I find two roads across the
mountains into Fo-kien described.

One leads from _Kiang-shan_ (not Chang-shan) by a town called Ching-hu,
and then, nearly due south, across the mountains to Pu-ch'eng in Upper
Fo-kien. This is specified by Martini (p. 113): it seems to have been
followed by the Dutch Envoy, Van Hoorn, in 1665 (see _Astley_, III. 463),
and it was travelled by Fortune on his return _from_ the Bohea country to
Ningpo. (II. 247, 271.)

The other route follows the portage spoken of above from _Chang-shan_ to
Yuh-shan, and descends the river on that side to _Hokeu_, whence it
strikes south-east across the mountains to Tsung-ngan-hien in Fo-kien.
This route was followed by Fortune on his way _to_ the Bohea country.

Both from Pu-ch'eng on the former route, and from near Tsung-ngan on the
latter, the waters are navigable down to Kien-ning fu and so to Fu-chau.

Mr. Fortune judges the first to have been Polo's route. There does not,
however, seem to be on this route any place that can be identified with
his Cuju or Chuju. Ching-hu seems to be insignificant, and the name has no
resemblance. On the other route followed by Mr. Fortune himself from that
side we have Kwansin fu, _Hokeu_, Yen-shan, and (last town passed on that
side) _Chuchu_. The latter, as to both name and position, is quite
satisfactory, but it is described as a small poor town. _Hokeu_ would be
represented in Polo's spelling as Caghiu or Cughiu. It is now a place of
great population and importance as the entrepôt of the Black Tea Trade,
but, like many important commercial cities in the interior, not being even
a _hien_ it has no place either in Duhalde or in Biot, and I cannot learn
its age.

It is no objection to this line that Polo speaks of Cuju or Chuju as the
last city of the government of Kinsay, whilst the towns just named are in
Kiang-si. For _Kiang-Ché_, the province of Kinsay, then included the
eastern part of Kiang-si. (See _Cathay_, p. 270.)

[Mr. Phillips writes (_T. Pao_, I. 223-224): "Eighty-five _li_ beyond
Lan-ki hien is Lung-yin, a place not mentioned by Polo, and another
ninety-five _li_ still further on is Chüchau or Keuchau, which is, I think,
the Gie-za of Ramusio, and the Cuju of Yule's version. Polo describes it as
the last city of the government of Kinsai (Che-kiang) in this direction. It
is the last Prefectural city, but ninety _li_ beyond Chü-chau, on the road
to Pu-chêng, is Kiang-shan, a district city which is the last one in this
direction. Twenty _li_ from Kiang-shan is Ching-hu, the head of the
navigation of the T'sien-T'ang river. Here one hires chairs and coolies for
the journey over the Sien-hia Pass to Pu-chêng, a distance of 215 _li_.
From Pu-cheng, Fu-chau can be reached by water in 4 or 5 days. The distance
is 780 _li_."--H.C.]


[1] "_Est sus un mont que parte le Flum, gue le une moitié ala en sus e
    l'autre moitié en jus_" (G.T.).

[2] One of the _Hien_, forming the special districts of Hang-Chau itself,
    now called _Tsien-tang_, was formerly called _Tang-wei-tang_. But it
    embraces the _eastern_ part of the district, and can, I think, have
    nothing to do with _Tanpiju_. (See _Biot_, p. 257, and _Chin. Repos._
    for February, 1842, p. 109.)



CHAPTER LXXX.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF FUJU.


On leaving Cuju, which is the last city of the kingdom of Kinsay, you
enter the kingdom of FUJU, and travel six days in a south-easterly
direction through a country of mountains and valleys, in which are a
number of towns and villages with great plenty of victuals and abundance
of game. Lions, great and strong, are also very numerous. The country
produces ginger and galingale in immense quantities, insomuch that for a
Venice groat you may buy fourscore pounds of good fine-flavoured ginger.
They have also a kind of fruit resembling saffron, and which serves the
purpose of saffron just as well.[NOTE 1]

And you must know the people eat all manner of unclean things, even the
flesh of a man, provided he has not died a natural death. So they look out
for the bodies of those that have been put to death and eat their flesh,
which they consider excellent.[NOTE 2]

Those who go to war in those parts do as I am going to tell you. They
shave the hair off the forehead and cause it to be painted in blue like
the blade of a glaive. They all go afoot except the chief; they carry
spears and swords, and are the most savage people in the world, for they
go about constantly killing people, whose blood they drink, and then
devour the bodies.[NOTE 3]

Now I will quit this and speak of other matters. You must know then that
after going three days out of the six that I told you of you come to the
city of KELINFU, a very great and noble city, belonging to the Great Kaan.
This city hath three stone bridges which are among the finest and best in
the world. They are a mile long and some nine paces in width, and they are
all decorated with rich marble columns. Indeed they are such fine and
marvellous works that to build any one of them must have cost a
treasure.[NOTE 4]

The people live by trade and manufactures, and have great store of silk
[which they weave into various stuffs], and of ginger and galingale.
[NOTE 5] [They also make much cotton cloth of dyed thread, which is sent
all over Manzi.] Their women are particularly beautiful. And there is a
strange thing there which I needs must tell you. You must know they have a
kind of fowls which have no feathers, but hair only, like a cat's fur.
[NOTE 6] They are black all over; they lay eggs just like our fowls, and
are very good to eat.

In the other three days of the six that I have mentioned above[NOTE 7],
you continue to meet with many towns and villages, with traders, and goods
for sale, and craftsmen. The people have much silk, and are Idolaters, and
subject to the Great Kaan. There is plenty of game of all kinds, and there
are great and fierce lions which attack travellers. In the last of those
three days' journey, when you have gone 15 miles you find a city called
UNKEN, where there is an immense quantity of sugar made. From this city
the Great Kaan gets all the sugar for the use of his Court, a quantity
worth a great amount of money. [And before this city came under the Great
Kaan these people knew not how to make fine sugar; they only used to boil
and skim the juice, which when cold left a black paste. But after they
came under the Great Kaan some men of Babylonia who happened to be at the
Court proceeded to this city and taught the people to refine the sugar
with the ashes of certain trees.[NOTE 8]]

There is no more to say of the place, so now we shall speak of the
splendour of Fuju. When you have gone 15 miles from the city of Unken, you
come to this noble city which is the capital of the kingdom. So we will
now tell you what we know of it.


NOTE 1.--The vague description does not suggest the root _turmeric_ with
which Marsden and Pauthier identify this "fruit like saffron." It is
probably one of the species of _Gardenia_, the fruits of which are used by
the Chinese for their colouring properties. Their splendid yellow colour
"is due to a body named crocine which appears to be identical with the
polychroite of saffron." (_Hanbury's Notes on Chinese Mat. Medica_, pp.
21-22.) For this identification, I am indebted to Dr. Flückiger of Bern.
["Colonel Yule concludes that the fruit of a _Gardenia_, which yields a
yellow colour, is meant. But Polo's vague description might just as well
agree with the Bastard Saffron, _Carthamus tinctorius_, a plant introduced
into China from Western Asia in the 2nd century B.C., and since then much
cultivated in that country." (_Bretschneider, Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I. p.
4.)--H.C.]

[Illustration: Scene in the Bohea Mountains, on Polo's route between
Kiang-si and Fo-kien (From Fortune.)

"Adonc entre l'en en roiaume de Fugin, et ici comance. Et ala siz jornée
por
montangnes e por bales...."]

NOTE 2.--See vol. i. p. 312.

NOTE 3.--These particulars as to a race of painted or tattooed caterans
accused of cannibalism apparently apply to some aboriginal tribe which
still maintained its ground in the mountains between Fo-kien and Che-kiang
or Kiang-si. Davis, alluding to the Upper part of the Province of Canton,
says: "The Chinese History speaks of the aborigines of this wild region
under the name of Mân (Barbarians), who within a comparatively recent
period were subdued and incorporated into the Middle Nation. Many persons
have remarked a decidedly Malay cast in the features of the natives of
this province; and it is highly probable that the Canton and Fo-kien
people were originally the same race as the tribes which still remain
unreclaimed on the east side of Formosa."[1] (_Supply. Vol._ p. 260.)
Indeed Martini tells us that even in the 17th century this very range of
mountains, farther to the south, in the Ting-chau department of Fo-kien,
contained a race of uncivilised people, who were enabled by the
inaccessible character of the country to maintain their independence of
the Chinese Government (p. 114; see also _Semedo_, p. 19).

["Colonel Yule's 'pariah caste' of Shao-ling, who, he says, rebelled
against either the Sung or the Yüan, are evidently the _tomin_ of Ningpo
and _zikas_ of Wenchow. Colonel Yule's 'some aboriginal tribe between
Fo-kien and Che-kiang' are probably the _zikas_ of Wênchow and the _siapo_
of Fu-kien described by recent travellers. The _zikas_ are locally called
dogs' heads, which illustrates Colonel Yule's allophylian theories."
(_Parker, China Review_, XIV. p. 359.) Cf. _A Visit to the "Dog-Headed
Barbarians" or Hill People, near Fu-chow, by Rev. F. Ohlinger, Chinese
Recorder_, July, 1886, pp. 265-268.--H.C.]

NOTE 4.--Padre Martini long ago pointed out that this _Quelinfu_ is
KIEN-NING FU, on the upper part of the Min River, an important city of
Fo-kien. In the Fo-kien dialect he notices that _l_ is often substituted
for _n_, a well-known instance of which is _Liampoo_, the name applied by
F.M. Pinto and the old Portuguese to _Ningpo_.

[Mr. Phillips writes (_T. Pao_, I. p. 224): "From Puchêng to Kien-Ning-Foo
the distance is 290 _li_, all down stream. I consider this to have been
the route followed by Polo. His calling Kien-Ning-Foo, Que-lin-fu, is
quite correct, as far as the Ling is concerned, the people of the city and
of the whole southern province pronounce Ning, Ling. The Ramusian version
gives very full particulars regarding the manufactures of Kien-Ning-Foo,
which are not found in the other texts; for example, silk is said in this
version to be woven into various stuffs, and further: 'They also make much
cotton cloth of dyed thread which is sent all over Manzi.' All this is
quite true. Much silk was formerly and is still woven in Kien-Ning, and
the manufacture of cotton cloth with dyed threads is very common. Such
stuff is called Hung Lu Kin 'red and green cloth.' Cotton cloth, made with
dyed thread, is also very common in our day in many other cities in
Fuh-Kien."--H.C.]

In Ramusio the bridges are only "each more than 100 paces long and 8 paces
wide." In Pauthier's text _each_ is a mile long, and 20 feet wide. I
translate from the G.T.

Martini describes _one_ beautiful bridge at Kien-ning fu: the piers of cut
stone, the superstructure of timber, roofed in and lined with houses on
each side (pp. 112-113). If this was over the Min it would seem not to
survive. A recent journal says: "The river is crossed by a bridge of
boats, the remains of a stone bridge being visible just above water."
(_Chinese Recorder_ (Foochow), August, 1870, p. 65.)

NOTE 5.--_Galanga_ or Galangal is an aromatic root belonging to a class of
drugs once much more used than now. It exists of two kinds: 1. _Great_ or
_Java Galangal_, the root of the _Alpinia Galanga_. This is rarely
imported and hardly used in Europe in modern times, but is still found in
the Indian bazaars. 2. _Lesser_ or _China Galangal_ is imported into
London from Canton, and is still sold by druggists in England. Its
botanical origin is unknown. It is produced in Shan-si, Fo-kien, and
Kwang-tung, and is called by the Chinese _Liang Kiang_ or "Mild Ginger."

["According to the Chinese authors the province of Sze-ch'wan and
Han-chung (Southern Shen-si) were in ancient times famed for their Ginger.
Ginger is still exported in large quantities from Han k'ou. It is known
also to be grown largely in the southern provinces.--Galingale is the
Lesser or Chinese Galanga of commerce, _Alpinia officinarum_ Hance."
(_Bretschneider, Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I. p. 2. See _Heyd, Com. Levant_, II.
616-618.)--H.C.]

Galangal was much used as a spice in the Middle Ages. In a syrup for a
capon, _temp._ Rich. II., we find ground-ginger, cloves, cinnamon and
_galingale_. "Galingale" appears also as a growth in old English gardens,
but this is believed to have been _Cyperus Longus_, the tubers of which
were substituted for the real article under the name of English Galingale.

The name appears to be a modification of the Arabic _Kulíjan_, Pers.
_Kholinján_, and these from the Sanskrit _Kulanjana_. (_Mr. Hanbury;
China Comm.-Guide_, 120; _Eng. Cycl.; Garcia_, f. 63; _Wright_, p. 352.)

NOTE 6.--The cat in question is no doubt the fleecy Persian. These
fowls,--but white,--are mentioned by Odoric at Fu-chau; and Mr. G.
Phillips in a MS. note says that they are still abundant in Fo-kien, where
he has often seen them; all that he saw or heard of were _white_. The
Chinese call them "velvet-hair fowls." I believe they are well known to
poultry-fanciers in Europe. [_Gallus Lanatus_, Temm. See note, p. 286, of
my edition of Odoric.--H.C.]

NOTE 7.--The _times_ assigned in this chapter as we have given them, after
the G. Text, appear very short; but I have followed that text because it
is perfectly consistent and clear. Starting from the last city of Kinsay
government, the traveller goes six days south-east; _three_ out of those
six days bring him to Kelinfu; he goes on the other three days and at the
15th mile of the 3rd day reaches Unken; 15 miles further bring him to
Fuju. This is interesting as showing that Polo reckoned his day at 30
miles.

In Pauthier's text again we find: "_Sachiez que quand on est alé_ six
journées, après ces trois que je vous ay dit," not having mentioned
_trois_ at all "_on treuve la cité de Quelifu_." And on leaving Quelinfu:
"_Sachiez que_ es autres trois journées oultre et plus xv. milles _treuve
l'en une cité qui a nom Vuguen_." This seems to mean from Cugui to
Kelinfu six days, and thence to Vuguen (or Unken) three and a half days
more. But evidently there has been bungling in the transcript, for the _es
autre trois journées_ belongs to the same conception of the distance as
that in the G.T. Pauthier's text does not say how far it is from Unken to
Fuju. Ramusio makes six days to Kelinfu, three days more to Unguem, and
then 15 miles more to Fuju (which he has erroneously as _Cugiu_ here,
though previously given right, _Fugiu_).

The latter scheme looks probable certainly, but the times in the G.T. are
quite admissible, if we suppose that water conveyance was adopted where
possible.

For assuming that _Cugiu_ was Fortune's Chuchu at the western base of the
Bohea mountains (see note 3, ch. lxxix.), and that the traveller reached
Tsun-ngan-hien, in two marches, I see that from Tsin-tsun, near
Tsun-ngan-hien, Fortune says he could have reached Fu-chau in four days by
boat. Again Martini, speaking of the skill with which the Fo-kien boatmen
navigate the rocky rapids of the upper waters, says that even from
_Pu-ch'eng_ the descent to the capital could be made in three days. So the
thing is quite possible, and the G. Text may be quite correct. (See
_Fortune_, II. 171-183 and 210; _Mart._ 110.) A party which recently made
the journey seem to have been six days from _Hokeu_ to the Wu-e-shan and
then five and a half days by water (but in stormy weather) to Fu-chau.
(_Chinese Recorder_, as above.)

NOTE 8.--Pauthier supposes Unken, or _Vuguen_ as he reads it, to be
_Hukwan_, one of the _hiens_ under the immediate administration of Fu-chau
city. This cannot be, according to the lucid reading of the G.T., making
Unken 15 miles from the chief city. The only place which the maps show
about that position is _Min-ts'ing hien_. And the Dutch mission of
1664-1665 names this as "Binkin, by some called Min-sing." (_Astley_, III.
461.)

[Mr. Phillips writes (_T. Pao_, I. 224-225): "Going downstream from
Kien-Ning, we arrive first at Yen-Ping on the Min Main River. Eighty-seven
_li_ further down is the mouth of the Yiu-Ki River, up which stream, at a
distance of eighty _li_, is Yiu-Ki city, where travellers disembark for the
land journey to Yung-chun and Chinchew. This route is the highway from the
town of Yiu-Ki to the seaport of Chinchew. This I consider to have been
Polo's route, and Ramusio's Unguen I believe to be Yung-chun, locally known
as Eng-chun or Ung-chun, a name greatly resembling Polo's Unguen. I look
upon this mere resemblance of name as of small moment in comparison with
the weighty and important statement, that 'this place is remarkable for a
great manufacture of sugar.' Going south from the Min River towards
Chin-chew, this is the first district in which sugar-cane is seen growing
in any quantity. Between Kien-Ning-Foo and Fuchau I do not know of any
place remarkable for the _great_ manufacture of sugar. Pauthier makes
How-Kuan do service for Unken or Unguen, but this is inadmissible, as there
is no such place as How-Kuan; it is simply one of the divisions of the city
of Fuchau, which is divided into two districts, viz. the Min-Hien and the
How-Kuan-Hien. A small quantity of sugar-cane is, I admit, grown in the
How-Kuan division of Fuchau-foo, but it is not extensively made into sugar.
The cane grown there is usually cut into short pieces for chewing and
hawked about the streets for sale. The nearest point to Foochow where sugar
is made in any great quantity is Yung-Foo, a place quite out of Polo's
route. The great sugar manufacturing districts of Fuh-Kien are Hing-hwa,
Yung-chun, Chinchew, and Chang-chau."--H. C]

The _Babylonia_ of the passage from Ramusio is Cairo,--Babylon of Egypt,
the sugar of which was very famous in the Middle Ages. _Zucchero di
Bambellonia_ is repeatedly named in Pegolotti's Handbook (210, 311, 362,
etc.).

The passage as it stands represents the Chinese as not knowing even how to
get sugar in the granular form: but perhaps the fact was that they did
not know how to _refine_ it. Local Chinese histories acknowledge that the
people of Fo-kien did not know how to make fine sugar, till, in the time
of the Mongols, certain men from the West taught the art.[2] It is a
curious illustration of the passage that in India coarse sugar is commonly
called _Chíní_, "the produce of China," and sugar candy or fine sugar
_Misri_, the produce of Cairo (_Babylonia_) or Egypt. Nevertheless, fine
_Misri_ has long been exported from Fo-kien to India, and down to 1862
went direct from Amoy. It is now, Mr. Phillips states, sent to India by
steamers via Hong-Kong. I see it stated, in a late Report by Mr. Consul
Medhurst, that the sugar at this day commonly sold and consumed throughout
China is excessively coarse and repulsive in appearance. (See _Academy_,
February, 1874, p. 229.) [We note from the _Returns of Trade for 1900_,
of the Chinese Customs, p. 467, that during that year 1900, the following
quantities of sugar were exported from Amoy: _Brown_, 89,116 _piculs_,
value 204,969 Hk. taels; _white_, 3,708 _piculs_, 20,024 Hk. taels;
_candy_, 53,504 _piculs_, 304,970 Hk. taels.--H.C.]

[Dr. Bretschneider (_Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I. p. 2) remarks that "the sugar
cane although not indigenous in China, was known to the Chinese in the 2nd
century B.C. It is largely cultivated in the Southern provinces."--H.C.]

The fierce lions are, as usual, tigers. These are numerous in this
province, and tradition points to the diversion of many roads, owing to
their being infested by tigers. Tiger cubs are often offered for sale in
Amoy.[3]


[1] "It is not improbable that there is some admixture of aboriginal blood
    in the actual population (of Fuh-Kien), but if so, it cannot be much.
    The _surnames_ in this province are the same as those in Central
    and North China.... The language also is pure Chinese; actually much
    nearer the ancient form of Chinese than the modern Mandarin dialect.
    There are indeed many words in the vernacular for which no
    corresponding character has been found in the literary style: but
    careful investigation is gradually diminishing the number." (_Note
    by Rev. Dr. C. Douglas_.)

[2] _Note_ by _Mr. C. Phillips_. I omit a corroborative quotation about
    sugar from the Turkish Geography, copied from Klaproth in the former
    edition: because the author, Hajji Khalfa, used European sources; and
    I have no doubt the passage was derived indirectly from Marco Polo.

[3] _Note_ by _Mr. G. Phillips_.



CHAPTER LXXXI.

CONCERNING THE GREATNESS OF THE CITY OF FUJU.


Now this city of Fuju is the key of the kingdom which is called CHONKA,
and which is one of the nine great divisions of Manzi.[NOTE 1] The city
is a seat of great trade and great manufactures. The people are Idolaters
and subject to the Great Kaan. And a large garrison is maintained there by
that prince to keep the kingdom in peace and subjection. For the city is
one which is apt to revolt on very slight provocation.

There flows through the middle of this city a great river, which is about
a mile in width, and many ships are built at the city which are launched
upon this river. Enormous quantities of sugar are made there, and there is
a great traffic in pearls and precious stones. For many ships of India
come to these parts bringing many merchants who traffic about the Isles of
the Indies. For this city is, as I must tell you, in the vicinity of the
Ocean Port of ZAYTON,[NOTE 2] which is greatly frequented by the ships of
India with their cargoes of various merchandize; and from Zayton ships
come this way right up to the city of Fuju by the river I have told you
of; and 'tis in this way that the precious wares of India come hither.
[NOTE 3]

The city is really a very fine one and kept in good order, and all
necessaries of life are there to be had in great abundance and cheapness.


NOTE 1.--The name here applied to Fo-kien by Polo is variously written as
_Choncha, Chonka, Concha, Chouka_. It has not been satisfactorily
explained. Klaproth and Neumann refer it to _Kiang-Ché_, of which Fo-kien
at one time of the Mongol rule formed a part. This is the more improbable
as Polo expressly distinguishes this province or kingdom from that which
was under Kinsay, viz. Kiang-Ché. Pauthier supposes the word to represent
_Kien-Kwé_ "the Kingdom of Kien," because in the 8th century this
territory had formed a principality of which the seat was at _Kien-chau_,
now Kien-ning fu. This is not satisfactory either, for no evidence is
adduced that the name continued in use.

One might suppose that _Choncha_ represented _T'swan-chau_, the Chinese
name of the city of Zayton, or rather of the department attached to it,
written by the French _Thsiuan-tchéou_, but by Medhurst _Chwanchew_, were
it not that Polo's practice of writing the term _tchéu_ or _chau_ by _giu_
is so nearly invariable, and that the soft _ch_ is almost always expressed
in the old texts by the Italian _ci_ (though the Venetian does use the
soft _ch_).[1]

It is again impossible not to be struck with the resemblance of _Chonka_
to "CHUNG-KWÉ" "the Middle Kingdom," though I can suggest no ground for
the application of such a title specially to Fo-kien, except a possible
misapprehension. _Chonkwé_ occurs in the Persian _Historia Cathaica_
published by Müller, but is there specially applied to _North China_. (See
_Quat. Rashid._, p. lxxxvi.)

The city of course is FU-CHAU. It was visited also by Friar Odoric, who
calls it _Fuzo_, and it appears in duplicate on the Catalan Map as _Fugio_
and as _Fozo_.

I used the preceding words, "the city of course is Fu-chau," in the first
edition. Since then Mr. G. Phillips, of the consular staff in Fo-kien, has
tried to prove that Polo's Fuju is not Fu-chau (_Foochow_ is his
spelling), but T'swan-chau. This view is bound up with another regarding
the identity of Zayton, which will involve lengthy notice under next
chapter; and both views have met with an able advocate in the Rev. Dr. C.
Douglas, of Amoy.[2] I do not in the least accept these views about Fuju.

In considering the objections made to Fu-chau, it must never be forgotten
that, according to the spelling usual with Polo or his scribe, Fuju is not
merely "a name with a great resemblance in sound to Foochow" (as Mr.
Phillips has it); it _is_ Mr. Phillips's word Foochow, just as absolutely
as my word Fu-chau is his word Foochow. (See remarks almost at the end of
the Introductory Essay.) And what has to be proved against me in this
matter is, that when Polo _speaks_ of Fu-chau he does not _mean_ Fu-chau.
It must also be observed that the distances as given by Polo (three days
from Quelinfu to Fuju, five days from Fuju to Zayton) do correspond well
with my interpretations, and do _not_ correspond with the other. These are
very strong fences of my position, and it demands strong arguments to
level them. The adverse arguments (in brief) are these:

(1.) That Fu-chau was not the capital of Fo-kien ("_chief dou reigne_").

(2.) That the River of Fu-chau does not flow through the middle of the
city ("_por le mi de cest çité_"), nor even under the walls.

(3.) That Fu-chau was not frequented by foreign trade till centuries
afterwards.

The first objection will be more conveniently answered under next chapter.

As regards the second, the fact urged is true. But even now a straggling
street extends to the river, ending in a large suburb on its banks, and a
famous bridge there crosses the river to the south side where now the
foreign settlements are. There _may_ have been suburbs on that side to
justify the _por le mi_, or these words may have been a slip; for the
Traveller begins the next chapter--"When you quit Fuju (to go south) you
_cross the river_."[3]

Touching the question of foreign commerce, I do not see that Mr.
Phillips's negative evidence would be sufficient to establish his point.
But, in fact, the words of the Geog. Text (i.e. the original dictation),
which we have followed, do not (as I now see) necessarily involve any
foreign trade at Fu-chau, the impression of which has been derived mainly
from Ramusio's text. They appear to imply no more than that, through the
vicinity of Zayton, there was a great influx of Indian wares, which were
brought on from the great port by vessels (it may be local junks)
ascending the river Min.[4]

[Illustration: Scene on the Min River, below Fu-chau. (From Fortune.)

"E sachiés che por le mi de ceste cité vait un grant fluv qe bien est
large un mil, et en ceste cité se font maintes nés lesquelz najent por cel
flum."]

[Mr. Phillips gives the following itinerary after Unguen: Kangiu =
Chinchew = Chuan-chiu or Ts'wan-chiu. He writes (_T. Pao_, I. p. 227):
"When you leave the city of Chinchew for Changchau, which lies in a
south-westerly, not a south-easterly direction, you cross the river by a
handsome bridge, and travelling for five days by way of Tung-an, locally
Tang-oa, you arrive at Changchau. Along this route in many parts, more
especially in that part lying between Tang-oa and Changchau, very large
camphor-trees are met with. I have frequently travelled over this road. The
road from Fuchau to Chinchew, which also takes five days to travel over, is
bleak and barren, lying chiefly along the sea-coast, and in winter a most
uncomfortable journey. But few trees are met with; a banyan here and there,
but no camphor-trees along this route; but there is one extremely
interesting feature on it that would strike the most unobservant traveller,
viz.; the Loyang bridge, one of the wonders of China." Had Polo travelled
by this route, he would certainly have mentioned it. Pauthier remarks upon
Polo's silence in this matter: "It is surprising," says he, "that Marco
Polo makes no mention of it."--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--The G.T. reads _Caiton_, presumably for Çaiton or Zayton. In
Pauthier's text, in the following chapter, the name of Zayton is written
_Çaiton_ and _Çayton_, and the name of that port appears in the same form
in the Letter of its Bishop, Andrew of Perugia, quoted in note 2, ch.
lxxxii. Pauthier, however, in _this_ place reads _Kayteu_ which he
develops into a port at the mouth of the River Min.[5]

NOTE 3.--The Min, the River of Fu-chau, "varies much in width and depth.
Near its mouth, and at some other parts, it is not less than a mile in
width, elsewhere deep and rapid." It is navigable for ships of large size
20 miles from the mouth, and for good-sized junks thence to the great
bridge. The scenery is very fine, and is compared to that of the Hudson.
(_Fortune_, I. 281; _Chin. Repos._ XVI. 483.)


[1] Dr. Medhurst calls the proper name of the city, as distinct from the
    _Fu_, _Chinkang_ (_Dict. of the Hok-keen dialect_). Dr. Douglas has
    suggested _Chinkang_, and _T'swan-kok_, i.e. "Kingdom of T'swan"
    (chau), as possible explanations of _Chonka_.

[2] Mr. Phillips's views were issued first in the _Chinese Recorder_
    (published by Missionaries at Fu-Chau) in 1870, and afterwards sent to
    the R. Geo. Soc., in whose Journal for 1874 they appeared, with
    remarks in reply more detailed than I can introduce here. Dr.
    Douglas's notes were received after this sheet was in proof, and it
    will be seen that they modify to a certain extent my views about
    Zayton, though not about Fu-chau. His notes, which do more justice to
    the question than Mr. Phillips's, should find a place with the other
    papers in the Geog. Society's Journal.

[3] There is a capital lithograph of Fu-chau in _Fortune's Three Years'
    Wanderings_ (1847), in which the city shows as on a river, and
    Fortune always speaks of it; e.g. (p. 369): "The river runs
    through the suburbs." I do not know what is the worth of the old
    engravings in Montanus. A view of Fu-chau in one of these (reproduced
    in _Astley_, iv. 33) shows a broad creek from the river
    penetrating to the heart of the city.

[4] The words of the G.T. are these: "_Il hi se fait grant mercandies
    de perles e d'autres pieres presiose, e ce est por ce que les nés de
    Yndie hi vienent maintes con maint merchaant qe usent en les ysles de
    L'ndie, et encore voz di que ceste ville est pres au port de Caiton
    en la mer Osiani; et illuec vienent maintes nes de Indie con maintes
    mercandies, e puis de cest part vienent les nes por le grant flum qe
    je voz ai dit desoure jusque à la cité de Fugui, et en ceste mainere
    hi vienent chieres cousse de Indie._"

[5] It is odd enough that Martini (though M. Pauthier apparently was not
    aware of it) does show a fort called _Haiteu_ at the mouth of the
    Min; but I believe this to be merely an accidental coincidence. The
    various readings must be looked at together; that of the G.T. which I
    have followed is clear in itself and accounts for the others.



CHAPTER LXXXII.

OF THE CITY AND GREAT HAVEN OF ZAYTON.


Now when you quit Fuju and cross the River, you travel for five days
south-east through a fine country, meeting with a constant succession of
flourishing cities, towns, and villages, rich in every product. You travel
by mountains and valleys and plains, and in some places by great forests
in which are many of the trees which give Camphor.[NOTE 1] There is
plenty of game on the road, both of bird and beast. The people are all
traders and craftsmen, subjects of the Great Kaan, and under the
government of Fuju. When you have accomplished those five days' journey
you arrive at the very great and noble city of ZAYTON, which is also
subject to Fuju.

At this city you must know is the Haven of Zayton, frequented by all the
ships of India, which bring thither spicery and all other kinds of costly
wares. It is the port also that is frequented by all the merchants of
Manzi, for hither is imported the most astonishing quantity of goods and
of precious stones and pearls, and from this they are distributed all over
Manzi.[NOTE 2] And I assure you that for one shipload of pepper that goes
to Alexandria or elsewhere, destined for Christendom, there come a hundred
such, aye and more too, to this haven of Zayton; for it is one of the two
greatest havens in the world for commerce.[NOTE 3]

The Great Kaan derives a very large revenue from the duties paid in this
city and haven; for you must know that on all the merchandize imported,
including precious stones and pearls, he levies a duty of ten per cent.,
or in other words takes tithe of everything. Then again the ship's charge
for freight on small wares is 30 per cent., on pepper 44 per cent., and on
lignaloes, sandalwood, and other bulky goods 40 per cent., so that between
freight and the Kaan's duties the merchant has to pay a good half the
value of his investment [though on the other half he makes such a profit
that he is always glad to come back with a new supply of merchandize]. But
you may well believe from what I have said that the Kaan hath a vast
revenue from this city.

There is a great abundance here of all provision for every necessity of
man's life. [It is a charming country, and the people are very quiet, and
fond of an easy life. Many come hither from Upper India to have their
bodies painted with the needle in the way we have elsewhere described,
there being many adepts at this craft in the city.[NOTE 4]]

Let me tell you also that in this province there is a town called TYUNJU,
where they make vessels of porcelain of all sizes, the finest that can be
imagined. They make it nowhere but in that city, and thence it is exported
all over the world. Here it is abundant and very cheap, insomuch that for
a Venice groat you can buy three dishes so fine that you could not imagine
better.[NOTE 5]

I should tell you that in this city (i.e. of Zayton) they have a
peculiar language. [For you must know that throughout all Manzi they
employ one speech and one kind of writing only, but yet there are local
differences of dialect, as you might say of Genoese, Milanese,
Florentines, and Neapolitans, who though they speak different dialects can
understand one another.[NOTE 6]]

And I assure you that the Great Kaan has as large customs and revenues
from this kingdom of Chonka as from Kinsay, aye and more too.[NOTE 7]

We have now spoken of but three out of the nine kingdoms of Manzi, to wit
Yanju and Kinsay and Fuju. We could tell you about the other six, but it
would be too long a business; so we will say no more about them.

And now you have heard all the truth about Cathay and Manzi and many other
countries, as has been set down in this Book; the customs of the people
and the various objects of commerce, the beasts and birds, the gold and
silver and precious stones, and many other matters have been rehearsed to
you. But our Book as yet does not contain nearly all that we purpose to
put therein. For we have still to tell you all about the people of India
and the notable things of that country, which are well worth the
describing, for they are marvellous indeed. What we shall tell is all
true, and without any lies. And we shall set down all the particulars in
writing just as Messer Marco Polo related them. And he well knew the
facts, for he remained so long in India, and enquired so diligently into
the manners and peculiarities of the nations, that I can assure you there
never was a single man before who learned so much and beheld so much as he
did.


NOTE 1.--The _Laurus_ (or _Cinnamomum_) _Camphora_, a large timber tree,
grows abundantly in Fo-kien. A description of the manner in which camphor
is produced at a very low cost, by sublimation from the chopped twigs,
etc., will be found in the _Lettres Edifiantes_, XXIV. 19 _seqq.;_ and
more briefly in _Hedde_ by _Rondot_, p. 35. Fo-kien alone has been known
to send to Canton in one year 4000 _piculs_ (of 133-1/3 lbs. each), but
the average is 2500 to 3000 (Ib.).

NOTE 2.--When Marco says Zayton is one of the _two_ greatest commercial
ports in the world, I know not if he has another haven in his eye, or is
only using an idiom of the age. For in like manner Friar Odoric calls Java
"the _second best_ of all Islands that exist"; and Kansan (or Shen-si) the
"_second best_ province in the world, and the best populated." But apart
from any such idiom, Ibn Batuta pronounces Zayton to be the greatest haven
in the world.

Martini relates that when one of the Emperors wanted to make war on Japan,
the Province of Fo-kien offered to bridge the interval with their vessels!

ZAYTON, as Martini and Deguignes conjectured, is T'SWAN-CHAU FU, or
CHWAN-CHAU FU (written by French scholars _Thsiouan-tchéou-fou_), often
called in our charts, etc., _Chinchew_, a famous seaport of Fo-kien about
100 miles in a straight line S.W. by S. of Fu-chau, Klaproth supposes that
the name by which it was known to the Arabs and other Westerns was
corrupted from an old Chinese name of the city, given in the Imperial
Geography, viz. TSEU-T'UNG.[1] _Zaitún_ commended itself to Arabian ears,
being the Arabic for an olive-tree (whence Jerusalem is called
_Zaitúniyah_); but the corruption (if such it be) must be of very old date,
as the city appears to have received its present name in the 7th or 8th
century.

Abulfeda, whose Geography was terminated in 1321, had heard the real name
of Zayton: "_Shanju_" he calls it, "known in our time as Zaitún"; and
again: "Zaitún, i.e. Shanju, is a haven of China, and, according to the
accounts of merchants who have travelled to those parts, is a city of
mark. It is situated on a marine estuary which ships enter from the China
Sea. The estuary extends fifteen miles, and there is a river at the head
of it. According to some who have seen the place, the tide flows. It is
half a day from the sea, and the channel by which ships come up from the
sea is of fresh water. It is smaller in size than Hamath, and has the
remains of a wall which was destroyed by the Tartars. The people drink
water from the channel, and also from wells."

Friar Odoric (in China, circa 1323-1327, who travelled apparently by
land from Chin-kalán, i.e. Canton) says: "Passing through many cities
and towns, I came to a certain noble city which is called Zayton, where we
Friars Minor have two Houses.... In this city is great plenty of all
things that are needful for human subsistence. For example, you can get
three pounds and eight ounces of sugar for less than half a groat. The
city is twice as great as Bologna, and in it are many monasteries of
devotees, idol-worshippers every man of them. In one of those monasteries
which I visited there were 3000 monks.... The place is one of the best in
the world.... Thence I passed eastward to a certain city called Fuzo....
The city is a mighty fine one, and standeth upon the sea." Andrew of
Perugia, another Franciscan, was Bishop of Zayton from 1322, having
resided there from 1318. In 1326 he writes a letter home, in which he
speaks of the place as "a great city on the shores of the Ocean Sea, which
is called in the Persian tongue _Cayton_ (Çayton); and in this city a rich
Armenian lady did build a large and fine enough church, which was erected
into a cathedral by the Archbishop," and so on. He speaks incidentally of
the Genoese merchants frequenting it. John Marignolli, who was there about
1347, calls it "a wondrous fine sea-port, and a city of incredible size,
where our Minor Friars have three very fine churches; ... and they have a
bath also, and a _fondaco_ which serves as a depôt for all the merchants."
Ibn Batuta about the same time says: "The first city that I reached after
crossing the sea was ZAITÚN.... It is a great city, superb indeed; and in
it they make damasks of velvet as well as those of satin (_Kimkhá_ and
_Atlás_), which are called from the name of the city _Zatúníah_; they are
superior to the stuffs of Khansá and Khárbálik. The harbour of Zaitún is
one of the greatest in the world--I am wrong; it is _the_ greatest! I
have seen there about an hundred first-class junks together; as for small
ones, they were past counting. The harbour is formed by an estuary which
runs inland from the sea until it joins the Great River."

[Mr. Geo. Phillips finds a strong argument in favour of Changchau being
Zayton in this passage of Ibn Batuta. He says (_Jour. China Br.R.A.
Soc._ 1888, 28-29): "Changchow in the Middle Ages was the seat of a great
silk manufacture, and the production of its looms, such as gauzes, satins
and velvets, were said to exceed in beauty those of Soochow and Hangchow.
According to the _Fuhkien Gazetteer_, silk goods under the name of Kinki,
and porcelain were, at the end of the Sung Dynasty, ordered to be taken
abroad and to be bartered against foreign wares, treasure having been
prohibited to leave the country. In this Kinki I think we may recognise
the Kimkha of IBN BATUTA. I incline to this fact, as the characters Kinki
are pronounced in the Amoy and Changchow dialects Khimkhi and Kimkhia.
Anxious to learn if the manufacture of these silk goods still existed in
Changchow, I communicated with the Rev. Dr. TALMAGE of Amoy, who, through
the Rev. Mr. Ross of the London Mission, gave me the information that
Kinki was formerly somewhat extensively manufactured at Changchow,
although at present it was only made by one shop in that city. IBN BATUTA
tells us that the King of China had sent to the Sultan, five hundred
pieces of Kamkha, of which one hundred were made in the city of Zaitun.
This form of present appears to have been continued by the Emperors of the
Ming Dynasty, for we learn that the Emperor Yunglo gave to the Envoy of
the Sultan of Quilon, presents of Kinki and Shalo, that is to say,
brocaded silks and gauzes. Since writing the above, I found that Dr. HIRTH
suggests that the characters Kinhua, meaning literally gold flower in the
sense of silk embroidery, possibly represent the mediaeval Khimka. I
incline rather to my own suggestion. In the _Pei-wen-yun-fu_ these
characters Kien-ki are frequently met in combination, meaning a silk
texture, such as brocade or tapestry. Curtains made of this texture are
mentioned in Chinese books, as early as the commencement of the Christian
era."--H.C.]

Rashiduddin, in enumerating the Sings or great provincial governments of
the empire, has the following: "7th FUCHÚ.--This is a city of Manzi. The
Sing was formerly located at ZAITÚN, but afterwards established here,
where it still remains. Zaitún is a great shipping-port, and the
commandant there is Boháuddin Kandári." Pauthier's Chinese extracts show
us that the seat of the _Sing_ was, in 1281, at T'swan-chau, but was then
transferred to Fu-chau. In 1282 it was removed back to T'swan-chau, and in
1283 recalled to Fu-chau. That is to say, what the Persian writer tells us
of Fújú and Zayton, the Chinese Annalists tell us of Fu-chau and
T'swan-chau. Therefore Fuju and Zayton were respectively Fu-chau and
T'swan-chau.

[In the _Yuen-shi_ (ch. 94), _Shi po_, Maritime trade regulations, it "is
stated, among other things, that in 1277, a superintendency of foreign
trade was established in Ts'uän-chou. Another superintendency was
established for the three ports of K'ing-yüan (the present Ning-po),
Shang-hai, and Gan-p'u. These three ports depended on the province of
Fu-kien, the capital of which was Ts'üan-chou. Farther on, the ports of
Hang-chou and Fu-chou are also mentioned in connection with foreign trade.
Chang-chou (in Fu-kien, near Amoy) is only once spoken of there. We meet
further the names of Wen-chou and Kuang-chou as seaports for foreign trade
in the Mongol time. But Ts'üan-chou in this article on the sea-trade seems
to be considered as the most important of the seaports, and it is
repeatedly referred to. I have, therefore, no doubt that the port of Zayton
of Western mediaeval travellers can only be identified with Ts'uän-chou,
not with Chang-chou.... There are many other reasons found in Chinese works
in favour of this view. Gan-p'u of the _Yuen-shi_ is the seaport Ganfu of
Marco Polo." (_Bretschneider, Med. Res._ I. pp. 186-187.)

In his paper on _Changchow, the Capital of Fuhkien in Mongol Times_,
printed in the _Jour. China B.R.A. Soc._ 1888, pp. 22-30, Mr. Geo.
Phillips from Chinese works has shown that the Port of Chang-chau did, in
Mongol times, alternate with Chinchew and Fu-chau as the capital of
Fuh-kien.--H.C.]

Further, Zayton was, as we see from this chapter, and from the 2nd and 5th
of Bk. III., in that age the great focus and harbour of communication with
India and the Islands. From Zayton sailed Kúblái's ill-fated expedition
against Japan. From Zayton Marco Polo seems to have sailed on his return
to the West, as did John Marignolli some half century later. At Zayton Ibn
Batuta first landed in China, and from it he sailed on his return.

All that we find quoted from Chinese records regarding _T'swan-chau_
corresponds to these Western statements regarding _Zayton_. For centuries
T'swan-chau was the seat of the Customs Department of Fo-kien, nor was
this finally removed till 1473. In all the historical notices of the
arrival of ships and missions from India and the Indian Islands during the
reign of Kúblái, T'swan-chau, and T'swan-chau almost alone, is the port of
debarkation; in the notices of Indian regions in the annals of the same
reign it is from T'swan-chau that the distances are estimated; it was from
T'swan-chau that the expeditions against Japan and Java were mainly fitted
out. (See quotations by Pauthier, pp. 559, 570, 604, 653, 603, 643;
_Gaubil_, 205, 217; _Deguignes_, III. 169, 175, 180, 187; _Chinese
Recorder_ (Foochow), 1870, pp. 45 seqq.)

When the Portuguese, in the 16th century, recovered China to European
knowledge, Zayton was no longer the great haven of foreign trade; but yet
the old name was not extinct among the mariners of Western Asia. Giovanni
d'Empoli, in 1515, writing about China from Cochin, says: "Ships carry
spices thither from these parts. Every year there go thither from Sumatra
60,000 cantars of pepper, and 15,000 or 20,000 from Cochin and Malabar,
worth 15 to 20 ducats a cantar; besides ginger (?), mace, nutmegs,
incense, aloes, velvet, European goldwire, coral, woollens, etc. The Grand
Can is the King of China, and he dwells at ZEITON." Giovanni hoped to get
to Zeiton before he died.[2]

The port of T'swan-chau is generally called in our modern charts
_Chinchew_. Now _Chincheo_ is the name given by the old Portuguese
navigators to the coast of Fo-kien, as well as to the port which they
frequented there, and till recently I supposed this to be T'swan-chau. But
Mr. Phillips, in his paper alluded to at p. 232, asserted that by
_Chincheo_ modern Spaniards and Portuguese designated (not T'swan-chau
but) _Chang-chau_, a great city 60 miles W.S.W. of T'swan-chau, on a river
entering Amoy Harbour. On turning, with this hint, to the old maps of the
17th century, I found that their Chincheo is really Chang-chau. But Mr.
Phillips also maintains that Chang-chau, or rather its port, a place
formerly called Gehkong and now Haiteng, is _Zayton_. Mr. Phillips does
not adduce any precise evidence to show that this place was known as a
port in Mongol times, far less that it was known as the most famous haven
in the world; nor was I able to attach great weight to the arguments which
he adduced. But his thesis, or a modification of it, has been taken up and
maintained with more force, as already intimated, by the Rev. Dr. Douglas.

The latter makes a strong point in the magnificent character of Amoy
Harbour, which really is one of the grandest havens in the world, and thus
answers better to the emphatic language of Polo, and of Ibn Batuta, than
the river of T'swan-chau. All the rivers of Fo-kien, as I learn from Dr.
Douglas himself, are rapidly silting up; and it is probable that the river
of Chinchew presented, in the 13th and 14th centuries, a far more
impressive aspect as a commercial basin than it does now. But still it
must have been far below Amoy Harbour in magnitude, depth, and
accessibility. I have before recognised this, but saw no way to reconcile
the proposed deduction with the positive historical facts already stated,
which absolutely (to my mind) identify the Zayton of Polo and Rashiduddin
with the Chinese city and port of T'swan-chau. Dr. Douglas, however,
points out that the whole northern shore of Amoy Harbour, with the Islands
of Amoy and Quemoy, are within the Fu or Department of T'swan-chau; and
the latter name would, in Chinese parlance, apply equally to the city and
to any part of the department. He cites among other analogous cases the
Treaty Port Neuchwang (in Liao-tong). That city really lies 20 miles up
the Liao River, but the name of Neuchwang is habitually applied by
foreigners to Ying-tzu, which is the actual port. Even now much of the
trade of T'swan-chau merchants is carried on through Amoy, either by junks
touching, or by using the shorter sea-passage to 'An-hai, which was once a
port of great trade, and is only 20 miles from T'swan-chau.[3] With such
a haven as Amoy Harbour close by, it is improbable that Kúblái's vast
armaments would have made _rendezvous_ in the comparatively inconvenient
port of T'swan-chau. Probably then the two were spoken of as one. In all
this I recognise strong likelihood, and nothing inconsistent with recorded
facts, or with Polo's concise statements. It is even possible that (as Dr.
Douglas thinks) Polo's words intimate a distinction between Zayton the
City and Zayton the Ocean Port; but for me Zayton the city, in Polo's
chapters, remains still T'swan-chau. Dr. Douglas, however, seems disposed
to regard it as _Chang-chau_.

The chief arguments urged for this last identity are: (1.) Ibn Batuta's
representation of his having embarked at Zayton "on the river," i.e. on
the internal navigation system of China, first for Sin-kalán (Canton), and
afterwards for Kinsay. This could not, it is urged, be T'swan-chau, the
river of which has no communication with the internal navigation, whereas
the river at Chang-chau has such communication, constantly made use of in
both directions (interrupted only by brief portages); (2.) Martini's
mention of the finding various Catholic remains, such as crosses and
images of the Virgin, at Chang-chau, in the early part of the 17th
century, indicating that city as the probable site of the Franciscan
establishments.

[Illustration: SKETCH MAP of the GREAT PORTS OF FOKIEN to illustrate the
Identity of Marco Polo's ZAYTON]

[I remember that the argument brought forward by Mr. Phillips in favour of
Changchow which most forcibly struck Sir H. Yule, was the finding of
various Christian remains at this place, and Mr. Phillips wrote (_Jour.
China Br.R.A.Soc._ 1888, 27-28): "We learn from the history of the
Franciscan missions that two churches were built in Zaitun, one in the
city and the other in a forest not far from the town. MARTINI makes
mention of relics being found in the city of Changchow, and also of a
missal which he tried in vain to purchase from its owner, who gave as a
reason for not parting with it, that it had been in his family for several
generations. According to the history of the Spanish Dominicans in China,
ruins of churches were used in rebuilding the city walls, many of the
stones having crosses cut on them." Another singular discovery relating to
these missions, is one mentioned by Father VITTORIO RICCI, which would
seem to point distinctly to the remains of the Franciscan church built by
ANDRÉ DE PÉROUSE outside the city of Zaitun: "The heathen of Changchow,"
says RICCI, "found buried in a neighbouring hill called Saysou another
cross of a most beautiful form cut out of a single block of stone, which I
had the pleasure of placing in my church in that city. The heathen were
alike ignorant of the time when it was made and how it came to be buried
there."--H.C.]

Whether the application by foreigners of the term Zayton, may, by some
possible change in trade arrangements in the quarter-century after Polo's
departure from China, have undergone a transfer, is a question which it
would be vain to answer positively without further evidence. But as
regards Polo's Zayton, I continue in the belief that this was T'swan-chau
_and its haven_, with the admission that this haven may probably have
embraced that great basin called Amoy Harbour, or part of it.[4]

[Besides the two papers I have already mentioned, the late Mr. Phillips
has published, since the last edition of Marco Polo, in the _T'oung-Pao_,
VI. and VII.: _Two Mediaeval Fuh-kien Trading Ports: Chüan-chow and
Chang-chow_. He has certainly given many proofs of the importance of
Chang-chau at the time of the Mongol Dynasty, and one might well hesitate
(I know it was also the feeling of Sir Henry Yule at the end of his life)
between this city and T'swan-chau, but the weak point of his controversy is
his theory about Fu-chau. However, Mr. George Phillips, who died in 1896,
gathered much valuable material, of which we have made use; it is only fair
to pay this tribute to the memory of this learned consul.--H.C.]

Martini (circa 1650) describes T'swan-chau as delightfully situated on a
promontory between two branches of the estuary which forms the harbour,
and these so deep that the largest ships could come up to the walls on
either side. A great suburb, Loyang, lay beyond the northern water,
connected with the city by the most celebrated bridge in China.
Collinson's Chart in some points below the town gives only 1-1/4 fathom
for the present depth, but Dr. Douglas tells me he has even now
occasionally seen large junks come close to the city.

Chinchew, though now occasionally visited by missionaries and others, is
not a Treaty port, and we have not a great deal of information about its
modern state. It is the head-quarters of the _T'i-tuh_, or general
commanding the troops in Fo-kien. The walls have a circuit of 7 or 8
miles, but embracing much vacant ground. The chief exports now are tea and
sugar, which are largely grown in the vicinity, tobacco, china-ware,
nankeens, etc. There are still to be seen (as I learn from Mr. Phillips)
the ruins of a fine mosque, said to have been founded by the Arab traders
who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian Church Mission has had a
chapel in the city for about ten years.

Zayton, we have seen from Ibn Batuta's report, was famed for rich satins
called _Zaitúníah_. I have suggested in another work (_Cathay_, p. 486)
that this may be the origin of our word _Satin_, through the _Zettani_ of
mediaeval Italian (or _Aceytuni_ of mediaeval Spanish). And I am more
strongly disposed to support this, seeing that Francisque-Michel, in
considering the origin of _Satin_, hesitates between _Satalin_ from
Satalia in Asia Minor and _Soudanin_ from the Soudan or Sultan; neither
half so probable as _Zaituni_. I may add that in a French list of charges
of 1352 we find the intermediate form _Zatony_. _Satin_ in the modern form
occurs in Chaucer:--

  "In Surrie whilom dwelt a compagnie
  Of chapmen rich, and therto sad and trewe,
  That wide where senten their spicerie,
  Clothes of gold, and _satins_ riche of hewe."
      --_Man of Lawe's Tale_, st. 6.

[Hatzfeld (_Dict._) derives _satin_ from the Italian _setino_; and
_setino_ from SETA, pig's hair, and gives the following example: "Deux
aunes et un quartier de satin vremeil," in _Caffiaux, Abattis de maisons à
Gommegnies_, p. 17, 14th century. The Portuguese have _setim_. But I
willingly accept Sir Henry Yule's suggestion that the origin of the word
is Zayton; cf. _zeitun_ [Arabic] olive.

"The King [of Bijánagar] ... was clothed in a robe of _zaitún_ satin."
(_Elliot_, IV. p. 113, who adds in a note _zaitún_: Olive-coloured?) And
again (Ibid. p. 120): "Before the throne there was placed a cushion of
_zaitúni_ satin, round which three rows of the most exquisite pearls were
sewn."--H.C.]

(_Recherches_, etc., II. 229 seqq.; _Martini, circa_ p. 110; _Klaproth,
Mém._ II. 209-210; _Cathay_, cxciii. 268, 223, 355, 486; _Empoli_ in
_Append._ vol. iii. 87 to _Archivio Storico Italiano; Douet d'Arcq._ p.
342; _Galv., Discoveries of the World_, Hak. Soc. p. 129; Marsden, 1st ed.
p. 372; _Appendix to Trade Report of Amoy_, for 1868 and 1900. [_Heyd,
Com. Levant_, II. 701-702.])

NOTE 3.--We have referred in a former note (ch. lxxvii. note 7) to an
apparent change in regard to the Chinese consumption of pepper, which is
now said to be trifling. We shall see in the first chapter of Bk. III.
that Polo estimates the tonnage of Chinese junks by the number of baskets
of pepper they carried, and we have seen in last note the large estimate
by Giov. d'Empoli of the quantity that went to China in 1515. Galvano
also, speaking of the adventure of Fernão Perez d'Andrade to China in
1517, says that he took in at Pacem a cargo of pepper, "as being the chief
article of trade that is valued in China." And it is evident from what
Marsden says in his _History of Sumatra_, that in the last century some
tangible quantity was still sent to China. The export from the Company's
plantations in Sumatra averaged 1200 tons, of which the greater part came
to Europe, _the rest_ went to China.

[Couto says also: "Os portos principaes do Reyno da Sunda são Banta, Aché,
Xacatara, por outro nome Caravão, aos quaes vam todos os annos mui perto
de vinte sommas, que são embarcações do Chincheo, huma das Provincias
maritimas da China, a carregar de pimenta, porque dá este Reyno todos es
annos oito mil bares della, que são trinta mil quintaes." (_Decada_ IV.
Liv. III. Cap. I. 167.)]

NOTE 4.--These tattooing artists were probably employed mainly by mariners
frequenting the port. We do not know if the Malays practised tattooing
before their conversion to Islam. But most Indo-Chinese races tattoo, and
the Japanese still "have the greater part of the body and limbs scrolled
over with bright-blue dragons, and lions, and tigers, and figures of men
and women tattooed into their skins with the most artistic and elaborate
ornamentation." (_Alcock_, I. 191.) Probably the Arab sailors also
indulged in the same kind of decoration. It is common among the Arab women
now, and Della Valle speaks of it as in his time so much in vogue among
both sexes through Egypt, Arabia, and Babylonia, that _he_ had not been
able to escape. (I. 395.)

NOTE 5.--The divergence in Ramusio's version is here very notable: "The
River which enters the Port of Zayton is great and wide, running with
great velocity, and is a branch of that which flows by the city of Kinsay.
And at the place where it quits the main channel is the city of Tingui, of
which all that is to be said is that there they make porcelain basins and
dishes. The manner of making porcelain was thus related to him. They
excavate a certain kind of earth, as it were from a mine, and this they
heap into great piles, and then leave it undisturbed and exposed to wind,
rain, and sun for 30 or 40 years. In this space of time the earth becomes
sufficiently refined for the manufacture of porcelain; they then colour it
at their discretion, and bake it in a furnace. Those who excavate the clay
do so always therefore for their sons and grandsons. The articles are so
cheap in that city that you get 8 bowls for a Venice groat."

Ibn Batuta speaks of porcelain as manufactured at Zayton; indeed he says
positively (and wrongly): "Porcelain is made nowhere in China except in
the cities of Zaitun and Sinkalan" (Canton). A good deal of China ware in
modern times _is_ made in Fo-kien and Canton provinces, and it is still an
article of export from T'swan-chau and Amoy; but it is only of a very
ordinary kind. Pakwiha, between Amoy and Chang-chau, is mentioned in the
_Chinese Commercial Guide_ (p. 114) as now the place where the coarse blue
ware, so largely exported to India, etc., is largely manufactured; and
Phillips mentions Tung-'an (about half-way between T'swan-chau and
Chang-chau) as a great seat of this manufacture.

Looking, however, to the Ramusian interpolations, which do not indicate a
locality necessarily near Zayton, or even in Fo-kien, it is possible that
Murray is right in supposing the place intended _in these_ to be really
_King-tê chên_ in Kiang-si, the great seat of the manufacture of genuine
porcelain, or rather its chief mart JAU-CHAU FU on the P'o-yang Lake.

The geographical indication of this city of porcelain, as at the place
where a branch of the River of Kinsay flows off towards Zayton, points to
a notion prevalent in the Middle Ages as to the interdivergence of rivers
in general, and especially of Chinese rivers. This notion will be found
well embodied in the Catalan Map, and something like it in the maps of the
Chinese themselves;[5] it is a ruling idea with Ibn Batuta, who, as we
have seen (in note 2), speaks of the River of Zayton as connected in the
interior with "the Great River," and who travels by this waterway
accordingly from Zayton to Kinsay, taking no notice of the mountains of
Fo-kien. So also (supra, p. 175) Rashiduddin had been led to suppose
that the Great Canal extended to Zayton. With apparently the same idea of
one Great River of China with many ramifications, Abulfeda places most of
the great cities of China upon "The River." The "Great River of China,"
with its branches to Kinsay, is alluded to in a like spirit by Wassáf
(supra, p. 213). Polo has already indicated the same idea (p. 219).

Assuming this as the notion involved in the passage from Ramusio, the
position of _Jau-chau_ might be fairly described as that of Tingui is
therein, standing as it does on the P'o-yang Lake, from which there is
such a ramification of internal navigation, e.g. to Kinsay or Hang-chau fu
directly by Kwansin, the Chang-shan portage already referred to (supra,
p. 222), and the Ts'ien T'ang (and this is the Kinsay River line to which
I imagine Polo here to refer), or circuitously by the Yang-tzu and Great
Canal; to Canton by the portage of the Meiling Pass; and to the cities of
Fo-kien either by the Kwansin River or by Kian-chan fu, further south,
with a portage in each case across the Fo-kien mountains. None of our maps
give any idea of the extent of internal navigation in China. (See
_Klaproth, Mém_. vol. iii.)

The story of the life-long period during which the porcelain clay was
exposed to temper long held its ground, and probably was only dispelled by
the publication of the details of the King-tê chên manufacture by Père
d'Entrecolles in the _Lettres Edifiantes_.

NOTE 6.--The meagre statement in the French texts shows merely that Polo
had heard of the Fo-kien dialect. The addition from Ramusio shows further
that he was aware of the unity of the written character throughout China,
but gives no indication of knowledge of its peculiar principles, nor of
the extent of difference in the spoken dialects. Even different districts
of Fo-kien, according to Martini, use dialects so different that they
understand each other with difficulty (108).

[Mendoza already said: "It is an admirable thing to consider how that in
that kingdome they doo speake manie languages, the one differing from the
other: yet generallie in writing they doo understand one the other, and in
speaking not." (_Parke's Transl._ p. 93.)]

Professor Kidd, speaking of his instructors in the Mandarin and Fo-kien
dialects respectively, says: "The teachers in both cases read the same
books, composed in the same style, and attached precisely the same ideas
to the written symbols, but could not understand each other in
conversation." Moreover, besides these sounds attaching to the Chinese
characters when read in the dialect of Fo-kien, thus discrepant from the
sounds used in reading the same characters in the Mandarin dialect, yet
_another_ class of sounds is used to express the same ideas in the Fo-kien
dialect when it is used colloquially and without reference to written
symbols! (_Kidd's China_, etc., pp. 21-23.)

The term _Fokien dialect_ in the preceding passage is ambiguous, as will
be seen from the following remarks, which have been derived from the
Preface and Appendices to the Rev. Dr. Douglas's Dictionary of the Spoken
Language of Amoy,[6] and which throw a distinct light on the subject of
this note:--

"The vernacular or spoken language of Amoy is not a mere colloquial
dialect or _patois_, it is a _distinct language_--one of the many and
widely differing spoken languages which divide among them the soil of
China. For these spoken languages are not _dialects_ of one language, but
cognate languages, bearing to each other a relation similar to that
between Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, or between English, Dutch, German, and
Danish. The so-called '_written language_' is indeed uniform throughout
the whole country, but that is rather a _notation_ than a language. And
this written language, as read aloud from books, is not _spoken_ in any
place whatever, under any form of pronunciation. The most learned men
never employ it as a means of ordinary oral communication even among
themselves. It is, in fact, a _dead language_, related to the various
spoken languages of China, somewhat as Latin is to the languages of
Southern Europe.

"Again: Dialects, properly speaking, of the Amoy vernacular language are
found (e.g.) in the neighbouring districts of Changchew, Chinchew, and
Tungan, and the language with its subordinate dialects is believed to be
spoken by 8 or 10 millions of people. Of the other languages of China the
most nearly related to the Amoy is the vernacular of Chau-chau-fu, often
called 'the Swatow dialect,' from the only treaty-port in that region. The
ancestors of the people speaking it emigrated many years ago from
Fuh-kien, and are still distinguished there by the appellation _Hok-ló_,
i.e. people from Hok-kien (or Fuh-kien). This language differs from the
Amoy, much as Dutch differs from German, or Portuguese from Spanish.

"In the Island of Hai-nan (Hái-lâm), again (setting aside the central
aborigines), a language is spoken which differs from Amoy more than that
of Swatow, but is more nearly related to these two than to any other of
the languages of China.

"In Fuh-chau fu we have another language which is largely spoken in the
centre and north of Fuh-kien. This has many points of resemblance to the
Amoy, but is quite unintelligible to the Amoy people, with the exception
of an occasional word or phrase.

"Hing-hwa fu (Heng-hoà), between Fuh-chau and Chinchew, has also a
language of its own, though containing only two _Hien_ districts. It is
alleged to be unintelligible both at Amoy and at Fuhchau.

"To the other languages of China that of Amoy is less closely related; yet
all evidently spring from one common stock. But that common stock is _not_
the modern Mandarin dialect, but the ancient form of the Chinese language
as spoken some 3000 years ago. The so-called _Mandarin_, far from being
the original form, is usually more changed than any. It is in the ancient
form of the language (naturally) that the relation of Chinese to other
languages can best be traced; and as the Amoy vernacular, which very
generally retains the final consonants in their original shape, has been
one of the chief sources from which the ancient form of Chinese has been
recovered, the study of that vernacular is of considerable importance."

NOTE 7.--This is inconsistent with his former statements as to the supreme
wealth of Kinsay. But with Marco the subject in hand is always _pro
magnifico_.

Ramusio says that the Traveller will now "begin to speak of the
territories, cities, and provinces of the Greater, Lesser, and Middle
India, in which regions he was when in the service of the Great Kaan,
being sent thither on divers matters of business. And then again when he
returned to the same quarter with the queen of King Argon, and with his
father and uncle, on his way back to his native land. So he will relate
the strange things that he saw in those Indies, not omitting others which
he heard related by persons of reputation and worthy of credit, and things
that were pointed out to him on the maps of manners of the Indies
aforesaid."

[Illustration: The Kaan's Fleet leaving the Port of Zayton]

[Illustration: Marco Polo's Itineraries No. VI. (Book II, Chapters 67-82)
Journey through Manzi _Polo's names thus_ Kinsay]


[1] Dr. C. Douglas objects to this derivation of _Zayton_, that the place
    was never called _Tseut'ung_ absolutely, but _T'seu-t'ung-ching_, "city
    of prickly T'ung-trees"; and this not as a name, but as a polite
    literary epithet, somewhat like "City of Palaces" applied to Calcutta.

[2] Giovanni did not get to Zayton; but two years later he got to Canton
    with Fernão Perez, was sent ashore as Factor, and a few days after
    died of fever. (De Barros, III. II. viii.) The way in which Botero, a
    compiler in the latter part of the 16th century, speaks of Zayton as
    between Canton and Liampo (Ningpo), and exporting immense quantities
    of porcelain, salt and sugar, looks as if he had before him modern
    information as to the place. He likewise observes, "All the moderns
    note the port of Zaiton between Canton and Liampo." Yet I know no
    other modern allusion except Giovanni d'Empoli's; and that was printed
    only a few years ago. (_Botero, Relazione Universale_, pp. 97,
    228.)

[3] Martini says of Ganhai ('An-Hai or Ngan-Hai), "Ingens hic mercium ac
    Sinensium navium copia est ... ex his ('Anhai and Amoy) in totam
    Indiam merces avehuntur."

[4] Dr. Douglas assures me that the cut at p. 245 is an _excellent_
    view of the entrance to the S. channel of the _Chang-chau River_,
    though I derived it from a professed view of the mouth of the
    _Chinchew River_. I find he is quite right; see _List of
    Illustrations_.

[5] In a modern Chinese geographical work abstracted by Mr. Laidlay, we
    are told that the great river of _Tsim-lo_, or Siam, "penetrates
    to a branch of the Hwang-Ho." (_J.A.S.B._ XVII. Pt. I. 157.)

[6] CHINESE-ENGLISH DICTIONARY _of the Vernacular or Spoken language of
    Amoy, with the principal variations of the Chang-chew and Chin-chew
    Dialects_; _by the_ Rev. Carstairs Douglas, M.A., LL.D.,
    Glasg., Missionary of the Presb. Church in England. (Trübner, 1873.)
    I must note that I have not access to the book itself, but condense
    these remarks from extracts and abstracts made by a friend at my
    request.



BOOK THIRD.

JAPAN, THE ARCHIPELAGO, SOUTHERN INDIA, AND THE COASTS AND ISLANDS OF THE
INDIAN SEA


[Illustration: The Kaan's Fleet passing through the Indian Archipelago

"Fist aparoiller xiv nes, lesquels avoit chascune iv arbres, et maintes
foies aloient a xii voiles ... et najeient bien iii mois tant k'il
vendrent a bre Asie qui es ver midi"]



BOOK III.



CHAPTER I.

OF THE MERCHANT SHIPS OF MANZI THAT SAIL UPON THE INDIAN SEAS.


Having finished our discourse concerning those countries wherewith our
Book hath been occupied thus far, we are now about to enter on the subject
of INDIA, and to tell you of all the wonders thereof.

And first let us speak of the ships in which merchants go to and fro
amongst the Isles of India.

These ships, you must know, are of fir timber.[NOTE 1] They have but one
deck, though each of them contains some 50 or 60 cabins, wherein the
merchants abide greatly at their ease, every man having one to himself.
The ship hath but one rudder, but it hath four masts; and sometimes they
have two additional masts, which they ship and unship at pleasure.[NOTE 2]

[Moreover the larger of their vessels have some thirteen compartments or
severances in the interior, made with planking strongly framed, in case
mayhap the ship should spring a leak, either by running on a rock or by
the blow of a hungry whale (as shall betide ofttimes, for when the ship in
her course by night sends a ripple back alongside of the whale, the
creature seeing the foam fancies there is something to eat afloat, and
makes a rush forward, whereby it often shall stave in some part of the
ship). In such case the water that enters the leak flows to the bilge,
which is always kept clear; and the mariners having ascertained where the
damage is, empty the cargo from that compartment into those adjoining, for
the planking is so well fitted that the water cannot pass from one
compartment to another. They then stop the leak and replace the
lading.[NOTE 3]]

The fastenings are all of good iron nails and the sides are double, one
plank laid over the other, and caulked outside and in. The planks are not
pitched, for those people do not have any pitch, but they daub the sides
with another matter, deemed by them far better than pitch; it is this. You
see they take some lime and some chopped hemp, and these they knead
together with a certain wood-oil; and when the three are thoroughly
amalgamated, they hold like any glue. And with this mixture they do paint
their ships.[NOTE 4]

Each of their great ships requires at least 200 mariners [some of them
300]. They are indeed of great size, for one ship shall carry 5000 or 6000
baskets of pepper [and they used formerly to be larger than they are now].
And aboard these ships, you must know, when there is no wind they use
sweeps, and these sweeps are so big that to pull them requires four
mariners to each.[NOTE 5] Every great ship has certain large barks or
tenders attached to it; these are large enough to carry 1000 baskets of
pepper, and carry 50 or 60 mariners apiece [some of them 80 or 100], and
they are likewise moved by oars; they assist the great ship by towing her,
at such times as her sweeps are in use [or even when she is under sail, if
the wind be somewhat on the beam; not if the wind be astern, for then the
sails of the big ship would take the wind out of those of the tenders, and
she would run them down]. Each ship has two [or three] of these barks, but
one is bigger than the others. There are also some ten [small] boats for
the service of each great ship, to lay out the anchors, catch fish, bring
supplies aboard, and the like. When the ship is under sail she carries
these boats slung to her sides. And the large tenders have their boats in
like manner.

When the ship has been a year in work and they wish to repair her, they
nail on a third plank over the first two, and caulk and pay it well; and
when another repair is wanted they nail on yet another plank, and so on
year by year as it is required. Howbeit, they do this only for a certain
number of years, and till there are six thicknesses of planking. When a
ship has come to have six planks on her sides, one over the other, they
take her no more on the high seas, but make use of her for coasting as
long as she will last, and then they break her up.[NOTE 6]

Now that I have told you about the ships which sail upon the Ocean Sea and
among the Isles of India, let us proceed to speak of the various wonders
of India; but first and foremost I must tell you about a number of Islands
that there are in that part of the Ocean Sea where we now are, I mean the
Islands lying to the eastward. So let us begin with an Island which is
called Chipangu.


NOTE 1.--Pine [Pinus sinensis] is [still] the staple timber for
ship-building both at Canton and in Fo-kien. There is a very large export
of it from Fu-chau, and even the chief fuel at that city is from a kind of
fir. Several varieties of pine-wood are also brought down the rivers for
sale at Canton. (N. and Q., _China and Japan_, I. 170; Fortune, I. 286;
Doolittle.)

NOTE 2.--Note the _one rudder_ again. (Supra, Bk. I. ch. xix. note 3.) One
of the shifting masts was probably a bowsprit, which, according to
Lecomte, the Chinese occasionally use, very slight, and planted on the
larboard bow.

NOTE 3.--The system of water-tight compartments, for the description of
which we have to thank Ramusio's text, in our own time introduced into
European construction, is still maintained by the Chinese, not only in
sea-going junks, but in the larger river craft. (See _Mid. Kingd._ II. 25;
_Blakiston_, 88; _Deguignes_, I. 204-206.)

NOTE 4.--This still remains quite correct, hemp, old nets, and the fibre of
a certain creeper being used for oakum. The _wood-oil_ is derived from a
tree called _Tong-shu_, I do not know if identical with the wood-oil trees
of Arakan and Pegu (_Dipterocarpus laevis_).

["What goes under the name of 'wood-oil' to-day in China is the poisonous
oil obtained from the nuts of _Elaeococca verrucosa_. It is much used for
painting and caulking ships." (_Bretschneider, Hist. of Bot. Disc._ I. p.
4.)--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--The junks that visit Singapore still use these sweeps. (_J. Ind.
Arch._ II. 607.) Ibn Batuta puts a much larger number of men to each. It
will be seen from his account below that great ropes were attached to the
oars to pull by, the bulk of timber being too large to grasp; as in the
old French galleys wooden _manettes_ or grips, were attached to the oar
for the same purpose.

NOTE 6.--The Chinese sea-going vessels of those days were apparently larger
than was at all common in European navigation. Marco here speaks of 200 (or
in Ramusio up to 300) mariners, a large crew indeed for a merchant vessel,
but not so great as is implied in Odoric's statement, that the ship in
which he went from India to China had 700 souls on board. The numbers
carried by Chinese junks are occasionally still enormous. "In February,
1822, Captain Pearl, of the English ship _Indiana_, coming through Caspar
Straits, fell in with the cargo and crew of a wrecked junk, and saved 198
persons out of 1600, with whom she had left Amoy, whom he landed at
Pontianak. This humane act cost him 11,000_l._" (Quoted by _Williams_ from
_Chin. Rep._ VI. 149.)

The following are some other mediaeval accounts of the China shipping, all
unanimous as to the main facts.

_Friar Jordanus_:--"The vessels which they navigate to Cathay be very big,
and have upon the ship's hull more than one hundred cabins, and with a
fair wind they carry ten sails, and they are very bulky, being made of
three thicknesses of plank, so that the first thickness is as in our great
ships, the second crosswise, the third again longwise. In sooth, 'tis a
very strong affair!" (55.)

_Nicolo Conti_:--"They build some ships much larger than ours, capable of
containing 2000 butts (_vegetes_), with five masts and five sails. The
lower part is constructed with triple planking, in order to withstand the
force of the tempests to which they are exposed. And the ships are divided
into compartments, so formed that if one part be shattered the rest
remains in good order, and enables the vessel to complete its voyage."

_Ibn Batuta_:--"Chinese ships only are used in navigating the sea of
China.... There are three classes of these: (1) the Large, which are
called _Jonúk_ (sing. _Junk_); (2) the Middling, which are called _Zao_;
and (3) the Small, called _Kakam_. Each of the greater ships has from
twelve sails down to three. These are made of bamboo laths woven into a
kind of mat; they are never lowered, and they are braced this way and that
as the wind may blow. When these vessels anchor the sails are allowed to
fly loose. Each ship has a crew of 1000 men, viz. 600 mariners and 400
soldiers, among whom are archers, target-men, and cross-bow men to shoot
naphtha. Each large vessel is attended by three others, which are called
respectively 'The Half,' 'The Third,' and 'The Quarter.' These vessels are
built only at Zayton, in China, and at Sínkalán or Sín-ul-Sín (i.e.
Canton). This is the way they are built. They construct two walls of
timber, which they connect by very thick slabs of wood, clenching all fast
this way and that with huge spikes, each of which is three cubits in
length. When the two walls have been united by these slabs they apply the
bottom planking, and then launch the hull before completing the
construction. The timbers projecting from the sides towards the water
serve the crew for going down to wash and for other needs. And to these
projecting timbers are attached the oars, which are like masts in size,
and need from 10 to 15 men[1] to ply each of them. There are about 20 of
these great oars, and the rowers at each oar stand in two ranks facing one
another. The oars are provided with two strong cords or cables; each rank
pulls at one of these and then lets go, whilst the other rank pulls on the
opposite cable. These rowers have a pleasant chaunt at their work usually,
singing Lá' la! Lá' la![2] The three tenders which we have mentioned above
also use oars, and tow the great ships when required.

"On each ship four decks are constructed; and there are cabins and public
rooms for the merchants. Some of these cabins are provided with closets
and other conveniences, and they have keys so that their tenants can lock
them, and carry with them their wives or concubines. The crew in some of
the cabins have their children, and they sow kitchen herbs, ginger, etc.,
in wooden buckets. The captain is a very great Don; and when he lands, the
archers and negro-slaves march before him with javelins, swords, drums,
horns, and trumpets." (IV. pp. 91 seqq. and 247 seqq. combined.)
Comparing this very interesting description with Polo's, we see that they
agree in all essentials except size and the number of decks. It is not
unlikely that the revival of the trade with India, which Kúblái
stimulated, may have in its development under his successors led to the
revival also of the larger ships of former times to which Marco alludes.


[1] Or even 30 (p. 248).

[2] Corresponding to the "Hevelow and rumbelow" of the Christian oarsmen.
   (See _Coeur de Lion_ in _Weber_, II. 99.)



CHAPTER II.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ISLAND OF CHIPANGU, AND THE GREAT KAAN'S DESPATCH OF A
HOST AGAINST IT.


Chipangu is an Island towards the east in the high seas, 1500 miles
distant from the Continent; and a very great Island it is.[NOTE 1]

The people are white, civilized, and well-favoured. They are Idolaters,
and are dependent on nobody. And I can tell you the quantity of gold they
have is endless; for they find it in their own Islands, [and the King does
not allow it to be exported. Moreover] few merchants visit the country
because it is so far from the main land, and thus it comes to pass that
their gold is abundant beyond all measure.[NOTE 2]

I will tell you a wonderful thing about the Palace of the Lord of that
Island. You must know that he hath a great Palace which is entirely roofed
with fine gold, just as our churches are roofed with lead, insomuch that
it would scarcely be possible to estimate its value. Moreover, all the
pavement of the Palace, and the floors of its chambers, are entirely of
gold, in plates like slabs of stone, a good two fingers thick; and the
windows also are of gold, so that altogether the richness of this Palace
is past all bounds and all belief.[NOTE 3]

[Illustration: Ancient Japanese Emperor. (After a Native Drawing; from
Humbert.)]

They have also pearls in abundance, which are of a rose colour, but fine,
big, and round, and quite as valuable as the white ones. [In this Island
some of the dead are buried, and others are burnt. When a body is burnt,
they put one of these pearls in the mouth, for such is their custom.] They
have also quantities of other precious stones.[NOTE 4]

Cublay, the Grand Kaan who now reigneth, having heard much of the immense
wealth that was in this Island, formed a plan to get possession of it. For
this purpose he sent two of his Barons with a great navy, and a great
force of horse and foot. These Barons were able and valiant men, one of
them called ABACAN and the other VONSAINCHIN, and they weighed with all
their company from the ports of Zayton and Kinsay, and put out to sea.
They sailed until they reached the Island aforesaid, and there they
landed, and occupied the open country and the villages, but did not
succeed in getting possession of any city or castle. And so a disaster
befel them, as I shall now relate.

You must know that there was much ill-will between those two Barons, so
that one would do nothing to help the other. And it came to pass that
there arose a north wind which blew with great fury, and caused great
damage along the coasts of that Island, for its harbours were few. It blew
so hard that the Great Kaan's fleet could not stand against it. And when
the chiefs saw that, they came to the conclusion that if the ships
remained where they were the whole navy would perish. So they all got on
board and made sail to leave the country. But when they had gone about
four miles they came to a small Island, on which they were driven ashore
in spite of all they could do; and a large part of the fleet was wrecked,
and a great multitude of the force perished, so that there escaped only
some 30,000 men, who took refuge on this Island.

These held themselves for dead men, for they were without food, and knew
not what to do, and they were in great despair when they saw that such of
the ships as had escaped the storm were making full sail for their own
country without the slightest sign of turning back to help them. And this
was because of the bitter hatred between the two Barons in command of the
force; for the Baron who escaped never showed the slightest desire to
return to his colleague who was left upon the Island in the way you have
heard; though he might easily have done so after the storm ceased; and it
endured not long. He did nothing of the kind, however, but made straight
for home. And you must know that the Island to which the soldiers had
escaped was uninhabited; there was not a creature upon it but themselves.

Now we will tell you what befel those who escaped on the fleet, and also
those who were left upon the Island.


NOTE 1.--+CHIPANGU represents the Chinese _Jih-pên-kwé_, the kingdom of
Japan, the name Jih-pên being the Chinese pronunciation, of which the term
_Nippon_, _Niphon_ or _Nihon_, used in Japan, is a dialectic variation,
both meaning "the origin of the sun," or sun-rising, the place the sun
comes from. The name _Chipangu_ is used also by Rashiduddin. Our _Japan_
was probably taken from the Malay _Japún_ or _Japáng_.

["The name _Nihon_ ('Japan') seems to have been first officially employed
by the Japanese Government in A.D. 670. Before that time, the usual native
designation of the country was _Yamato_, properly the name of one of the
central provinces. Yamato and _O-mi-kuni_, that is, 'the Great August
Country,' are the names still preferred in poetry and _belles-lettres_.
Japan has other ancient names, some of which are of learned length and
thundering sound, for instance, _Toyo-ashi-wara-no-chi-aki-no-naga-i-ho-
aki-no-mizu-ho-no-kuni_, that is 'the Luxuriant-Reed-Plains-the-Land-of-
Fresh-Rice-Ears-of-a-Thousand-Autumns-of-Long-Five-Hundred-Autumns.'"
(_B.H. Chamberlain_, _Things Japanese_, 3rd ed. p. 222.)--H.C.]

It is remarkable that the name _Nipon_ occurs, in the form of _Al-Náfún_,
in the _Ikhwán-al-Safá_, supposed to date from the 10th century. (See
_J.A.S.B._ XVII. Pt. I. 502.)

[I shall merely mention the strange theory of Mr. George Collingridge that
_Zipangu_ is Java and not Japan in his paper on _The Early Cartography of
Japan_. (_Geog. Jour._ May, 1894, pp. 403-409.) Mr. F.G. Kramp (_Japan or
Java?_), in the _Tijdschrift v. het K. Nederl. Aardrijkskundig
Genootschap_, 1894, and Mr. H. Yule Oldham (_Geog. Jour._, September,
1894, pp. 276-279), have fully replied to this paper.--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--The causes briefly mentioned in the text maintained the abundance
and low price of gold in Japan till the recent opening of the trade. (See
Bk. II. ch. 1. note 5.) Edrisi had heard that gold in the isles of Sila
(or Japan) was so abundant that dog-collars were made of it.

NOTE 3.--This was doubtless an old "yarn," repeated from generation to
generation. We find in a Chinese work quoted by Amyot: "The palace of the
king (of Japan) is remarkable for its singular construction. It is a vast
edifice, of extraordinary height; it has nine stories, and presents on all
sides an exterior shining with the purest gold." (_Mém. conc. les
Chinois_, XIV. 55.) See also a like story in Kaempfer. (_H. du Japon_, I.
139.)

[Illustration: Ancient Japanese Archer. (From a Native Drawing.)]

NOTE 4.--Kaempfer speaks of pearls being found in considerable numbers,
chiefly about Satsuma, and in the Gulf of Omura, in Kiusiu. From what
Alcock says they do not seem now to be abundant. (Ib. I. 95; _Alcock_,
I. 200.) No precious stones are mentioned by Kaempfer.

Rose-tinted pearls are frequent among the Scotch pearls, and, according to
Mr. King, those of this tint are of late the most highly esteemed in
Paris. Such pearls were perhaps also most highly esteemed in old India;
for red pearls (_Lohitamukti_) form one of the seven precious objects
which it was incumbent to use in the adornment of Buddhistic reliquaries,
and to distribute at the building of a Dagoba. (_Nat. Hist. of Prec.
Stones, etc._, 263; _Koeppen_, I. 541.)



CHAPTER III.

WHAT FURTHER CAME OF THE GREAT KAAN'S EXPEDITION AGAINST CHIPANGU.


You see those who were left upon the Island, some 30,000 souls, as I have
said, did hold themselves for dead men, for they saw no possible means of
escape. And when the King of the Great Island got news how the one part of
the expedition had saved themselves upon that Isle, and the other part was
scattered and fled, he was right glad thereat, and he gathered together
all the ships of his territory and proceeded with them, the sea now being
calm, to the little Isle, and landed his troops all round it. And when the
Tartars saw them thus arrive, and the whole force landed, without any
guard having been left on board the ships (the act of men very little
acquainted with such work), they had the sagacity to feign flight. [Now
the Island was very high in the middle, and whilst the enemy were
hastening after them by one road they fetched a compass by another and] in
this way managed to reach the enemy's ships and to get aboard of them.
This they did easily enough, for they encountered no opposition.

Once they were on board they got under weigh immediately for the great
Island, and landed there, carrying with them the standards and banners of
the King of the Island; and in this wise they advanced to the capital. The
garrison of the city, suspecting nothing wrong, when they saw their own
banners advancing supposed that it was their own host returning, and so
gave them admittance. The Tartars as soon as they had got in seized all
the bulwarks and drove out all who were in the place except the pretty
women, and these they kept for themselves. In this way the Great Kaan's
people got possession of the city.

When the King of the great Island and his army perceived that both fleet
and city were lost, they were greatly cast down; howbeit, they got away to
the great Island on board some of the ships which had not been carried
off. And the King then gathered all his host to the siege of the city, and
invested it so straitly that no one could go in or come out. Those who
were within held the place for seven months, and strove by all means to
send word to the Great Kaan; but it was all in vain, they never could get
the intelligence carried to him. So when they saw they could hold out no
longer they gave themselves up, on condition that their lives should be
spared, but still that they should never quit the Island. And this befel
in the year of our Lord 1279.[NOTE 1] The Great Kaan ordered the Baron
who had fled so disgracefully to lose his head. And afterwards he caused
the other also, who had been left on the Island, to be put to death, for
he had never behaved as a good soldier ought to do.[NOTE 2]

But I must tell you a wonderful thing that I had forgotten, which happened
on this expedition.

You see, at the beginning of the affair, when the Kaan's people had landed
on the great Island and occupied the open country as I told you, they
stormed a tower belonging to some of the islanders who refused to
surrender, and they cut off the heads of all the garrison except eight; on
these eight they found it impossible to inflict any wound! Now this was by
virtue of certain stones which they had in their arms inserted between the
skin and the flesh, with such skill as not to show at all externally. And
the charm and virtue of these stones was such that those who wore them
could never perish by steel. So when the Barons learned this they ordered
the men to be beaten to death with clubs. And after their death the stones
were extracted from the bodies of all, and were greatly prized.[NOTE 3]

Now the story of the discomfiture of the Great Kaan's folk came to pass as
I have told you. But let us have done with that matter, and return to our
subject.


NOTE 1.--Kúblái had long hankered after the conquest of Japan, or had at
least, after his fashion, desired to obtain an acknowledgment of supremacy
from the Japanese sovereign. He had taken steps in this view as early as
1266, but entirely without success. The fullest accessible particulars
respecting his efforts are contained in the Japanese Annals translated by
Titsing; and these are in complete accordance with the Chinese histories
as given by Gaubil, De Mailla, and in Pauthier's extracts, so far as these
three latter enter into particulars. But it seems clear from the
comparison that the Japanese chronicler had the Chinese Annals in his
hands.

In 1268, 1269, 1270, and 1271, Kúblái's efforts were repeated to little
purpose, and, provoked at this, in 1274, he sent a fleet of 300 vessels
with 15,000 men against Japan. This was defeated near the Island of
Tsushima with heavy loss.

Nevertheless Kúblái seems in the following years to have renewed his
attempts at negotiation. The Japanese patience was exhausted, and, in
1280, they put one of his ambassadors to death.

"As soon as the Moko (Mongols) heard of this, they assembled a
considerable army to conquer Japan. When informed of their preparations,
the Dairi sent ambassadors to Ize and other temples to invoke the gods.
Fosiono Toki Mune, who resided at Kama Kura, ordered troops to assemble at
Tsukuzi (_Tsikouzen_ of Alcock's Map), and sent ... numerous detachments
to Miyako to guard the Dairi and the Togou (Heir Apparent) against all
danger.... In the first moon (of 1281) the Mongols named Asikan (Ngo
Tsa-han[1]), Fan-bunko (Fan Wen-hu), Kinto (Hintu), and Kosakio (Hung
Cha-khieu), Generals of their army, which consisted of 100,000 men, and was
embarked on numerous ships of war. Asikan fell ill on the passage, and this
made the second General (Fan Wen-hu) undecided as to his course.

"_7th Month_. The entire fleet arrived at the Island of Firando
(P'hing-hu), and passed thence to Goriosan (Ulungshan). The troops of
Tsukuzi were under arms. _1st of 3rd Month_. A frightful storm arose; the
Mongol ships foundered or were sorely shattered. The General (Fan Wen-hu)
fled with the other Generals on the vessels that had least suffered; nobody
has ever heard what became of them. The army of 100,000 men, which had
landed below Goriosan, wandered about for three days without provisions;
and the soldiers began to plan the building of vessels in which they might
escape to China.

"_7th day_. The Japanese army invested and attacked them with great
vigour. The Mongols were totally defeated. 30,000 of them were made
prisoners and conducted to Fakata (the _Fokouoka_ of Alcock's Map, but
_Fakatta_ in Kaempfer's), and there put to death. Grace was extended to
only (three men), who were sent to China with the intelligence of the fate
of the army. The destruction of so numerous a fleet was considered the
most evident proof of the protection of the gods." (_Titsingh_, pp.
264-265.) At p. 259 of the same work Klaproth gives another account from
the Japanese Encyclopaedia; the difference is not material.

The Chinese Annals, in De Mailla, state that the Japanese spared 10,000 or
12,000 of the Southern Chinese, whom they retained as slaves. Gaubil says
that 30,000 Mongols were put to death, whilst 70,000 Coreans and Chinese
were made slaves.

Kúblái was loth to put up with this huge discomfiture, and in 1283 he made
preparations for another expedition; but the project excited strong
discontent; so strong that some Buddhist monks whom he sent before to
collect information, were thrown overboard by the Chinese sailors; and he
gave it up. (_De Mailla_, IX. 409; 418, 428; _Gaubil_, 195; _Deguignes_,
III. 177.)

[Illustration: Japanese in fight with Chinese. (After Siebold, from an
ancient Japanese drawing.)

"Or ensint avint ceste estoire de la desconfiture de les gens dou Grant
Kaan."]

The Abacan of Polo is probably the Asikan of the Japanese, whom Gaubil
calls _Argan_. Vonsainchin is _perhaps Fan_ Wen-hu with the Chinese title
of _Tsiang-Kiun_ or General (elsewhere represented in Polo by _Sangon_),
--FAN TSIANG-KIUN.

We see that, as usual, whilst Marco's account in some of the main features
concurs with that of the histories, he gives a good many additional
particulars, some of which, such as the ill-will between the Generals, are
no doubt genuine. But of the story of the capture of the Japanese capital
by the shipwrecked army we know not what to make: we can't accept it
certainly.

[The _Korea Review_ publishes a _History of Korea_ based upon Korean and
Chinese sources, from which we gather some interesting facts regarding the
relations of China, Korea, and Japan at the time of Kúblái: "In 1265, the
seed was sown that led to the attempted invasion of Japan by the Mongols.
A Koryu citizen, Cho I., found his way to Peking, and there, having gained
the ear of the emperor, told him that the Mongol powers ought to secure
the vassalage of Japan. The emperor listened favourably and determined to
make advances in that direction. He therefore appointed Heuk Chuk and Eun
Hong as envoys to Japan, and ordered them to go by way of Koryu and take
with them to Japan a Koryu envoy as well. Arriving in Koryu they delivered
this message to the king, and two officials, Son Kun-bi and Kim Ch'an,
were appointed to accompany them to Japan. They proceeded by the way of
Koje Harbor in Kyung-sang Province, but were driven back by a fierce
storm, and the king sent the Mongol envoys back to Peking. The Emperor was
ill satisfied with the outcome of the adventure, and sent Heuk Chuk with a
letter to the king, ordering him to forward the Mongol envoy to Japan. The
message which he was to deliver to the ruler of Japan said, 'The Mongol
power is kindly disposed towards you and desires to open friendly
intercourse with you. She does not desire your submission, but if you
accept her patronage, the great Mongol empire will cover the earth.' The
king forwarded the message with the envoys to Japan, and informed the
emperor of the fact.... The Mongol and Koryu envoys, upon reaching the
Japanese capital, were treated with marked disrespect.... They remained
five months, ... and at last they were dismissed without receiving any
answer either to the emperor or to the king." (II. pp. 37, 38.)

Such was the beginning of the difficulties with Japan; this is the end of
them: "The following year, 1283, changed the emperor's purpose. He had
time to hear the whole story of the sufferings of his army in the last
invasion; the impossibility of squeezing anything more out of Koryu, and
the delicate condition of home affairs, united in causing him to give up
the project of conquering Japan, and he countermanded the order for the
building of boats and the storing of grain." (II. p. 82.)

Japan was then, for more than a century (A.D. 1205-1333), governed really
in the name of the descendants of Yoritomo, who proved unworthy of their
great ancestor "by the so-called 'Regents' of the Hojo family, while their
liege lords, the Shoguns, though keeping a nominal court at Kamakura, were
for all that period little better than empty names. So completely were the
Hojos masters of the whole country, that they actually had their deputy
governors at Kyoto and in Kyushu in the south-west, and thought nothing of
banishing Mikados to distant islands. Their rule was made memorable by the
repulse of the Mongol fleet sent by Kúblái Khan with the purpose of adding
Japan to his gigantic dominions. This was at the end of the 13th century,
since which time Japan has never been attacked from without." (_B. H.
Chamberlain_, _Things Japanese_, 3rd ed., 1898, pp. 208-209.)

The sovereigns (_Mikado_, _Tenno_) of Japan during this period were:
_Kameyama_-Tenno (1260; abdicated 1274; repulse of the Mongols);
_Go-Uda_-Tenno (1275; abdicated 1287); _Fushimi_-Tenno (1288; abdicated
1298); and _Go-Fushimi_ Tenno. The _shikken_ (prime ministers) were Hojo
_Tokiyori_ (1246); Hojo _Tokimune_ (1261); Hojo _Sadatoki_ (1284). In 1266
Prince _Kore-yasu_ and in 1289 _Hisa-akira_, were appointed _shogun_.
--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--_Ram._ says he was sent to a certain island called Zorza
(_Chorcha?_), where men who have failed in duty are put to death in this
manner: They wrap the arms of the victim in the hide of a newly flayed
buffalo, and sew it tight. As this dries it compresses him so terribly
that he cannot move, and so, finding no help, his life ends in misery. The
same kind of torture is reported of different countries in the East:
e.g. see _Makrizi_, Pt. III. p. 108, and Pottinger, as quoted by Marsden
_in loco_. It also appears among the tortures of a Buddhist hell as
represented in a temple at Canton. (_Oliphant's Narrative_, I. 168.)

NOTE 3.--Like devices to procure invulnerability are common in the
Indo-Chinese countries. The Burmese sometimes insert pellets of gold under
the skin with this view. At a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in
1868, gold and silver coins were shown, which had been extracted from under
the skin of a Burmese convict who had been executed at the Andaman Islands.
Friar Odoric speaks of the practice in one of the Indian Islands
(apparently Borneo); and the stones possessing such virtue were, according
to him, found in the bamboo, presumably the siliceous concretions called
_Tabashir_. Conti also describes the practice in Java of inserting such
amulets under the skin. The Malays of Sumatra, too, have great faith in the
efficacy of certain "stones, which they pretend are extracted from
reptiles, birds, animals, etc., in preventing them from being wounded."
(See _Mission to Ava_, p. 208; _Cathay_, 94; _Conti_, p. 32; _Proc. As.
Soc. Beng._ 1868, p. 116; _Andarson's Mission to Sumatra_, p. 323.)


[1] These names in parentheses are the Chinese forms; the others, the
    Japanese modes of reading them.



CHAPTER IV.

CONCERNING THE FASHION OF THE IDOLS.


Now you must know that the Idols of Cathay, and of Manzi, and of this
Island, are all of the same class. And in this Island as well as
elsewhere, there be some of the Idols that have the head of an ox, some
that have the head of a pig, some of a dog, some of a sheep, and some of
divers other kinds. And some of them have four heads, whilst some have
three, one growing out of either shoulder. There are also some that have
four hands, some ten, some a thousand! And they do put more faith in those
Idols that have a thousand hands than in any of the others.[NOTE 1] And
when any Christian asks them why they make their Idols in so many
different guises, and not all alike, they reply that just so their
forefathers were wont to have them made, and just so they will leave them
to their children, and these to the after generations. And so they will be
handed down for ever. And you must understand that the deeds ascribed to
these Idols are such a parcel of devilries as it is best not to tell. So
let us have done with the Idols, and speak of other things.

But I must tell you one thing still concerning that Island (and 'tis the
same with the other Indian Islands), that if the natives take prisoner an
enemy who cannot pay a ransom, he who hath the prisoner summons all his
friends and relations, and they put the prisoner to death, and then they
cook him and eat him, and they say there is no meat in the world so
good!--But now we _will_ have done with that Island and speak of
something else.

You must know the Sea in which lie the Islands of those parts is called
the SEA OF CHIN, which is as much as to say "The Sea over against Manzi."
For, in the language of those Isles, when they say _Chin_, 'tis Manzi
they mean. And I tell you with regard to that Eastern Sea of Chin,
according to what is said by the experienced pilots and mariners of those
parts, there be 7459 Islands in the waters frequented by the said
mariners; and that is how they know the fact, for their whole life is
spent in navigating that sea. And there is not one of those Islands but
produces valuable and odorous woods like the lignaloe, aye and better too;
and they produce also a great variety of spices. For example in those
Islands grows pepper as white as snow, as well as the black in great
quantities. In fact the riches of those Islands is something wonderful,
whether in gold or precious stones, or in all manner of spicery; but they
lie so far off from the main land that it is hard to get to them. And when
the ships of Zayton and Kinsay do voyage thither they make vast profits by
their venture.[NOTE 2]

It takes them a whole year for the voyage, going in winter and returning
in summer. For in that Sea there are but two winds that blow, the one that
carries them outward and the other that brings them homeward; and the one
of these winds blows all the winter, and the other all the summer. And you
must know these regions are so far from India that it takes a long time
also for the voyage thence.

Though that Sea is called the Sea of Chin, as I have told you, yet it is
part of the Ocean Sea all the same. But just as in these parts people talk
of the Sea of England and the Sea of Rochelle, so in those countries they
speak of the Sea of Chin and the Sea of India, and so on, though they all
are but parts of the Ocean.[NOTE 3]

Now let us have done with that region which is very inaccessible and out
of the way. Moreover, Messer Marco Polo never was there. And let me tell
you the Great Kaan has nothing to do with them, nor do they render him any
tribute or service.

So let us go back to Zayton and take up the order of our book from that
point.[NOTE 4]


NOTE 1.--"Several of the (Chinese) gods have horns on the forehead, or
wear animals' heads; some have three eyes.... Some are represented in the
Indian manner with a multiplicity of arms. We saw at Yang-cheu fu a
goddess with thirty arms." (_Deguignes_, I. 364-366.)

The reference to any particular form of idolatry here is vague. But in
Tibetan Buddhism, with which Marco was familiar, all these extravagances
are prominent, though repugnant to the more orthodox Buddhism of the
South.

When the Dalai Lama came to visit the Altun Khan, to secure the
reconversion of the Mongols in 1577, he appeared as a manifest embodiment
of the Bodhisatva Avalokiteçvara, with _four hands_, of which two were
always folded across the breast! The same Bodhisatva is sometimes
represented with eleven heads. Manjushri manifests himself in a golden
body with 1000 hands and 1000 _Pátras_ or vessels, in each of which were
1000 figures of Sakya visible, etc. (_Koeppen_, II. 137; _Vassilyev_,
200.)

NOTE 2.--Polo seems in this passage to be speaking of the more easterly
Islands of the Archipelago, such as the Philippines, the Moluccas, etc.,
but with vague ideas of their position.

NOTE 3.--In this passage alone Polo makes use of the now familiar name of
CHINA. "_Chin_" as he says, "in the language of those Isles means
_Manzi_." In fact, though the form _Chin_ is more correctly Persian, we do
get the exact form _China_ from "the language of those Isles," i.e. from
the _Malay_. _China_ is also used in Japanese.

What he says about the Ocean and the various names of its parts is nearly
a version of a passage in the geographical Poem of Dionysius, ending:--

  [Greek:
  Oútos Okeanòs peridédrome gaîan hápasan
  Toîos eòn kaì toîa met' andrásin ounómath' élkon] (42-3).

So also Abulfeda: "This is the sea which flows from the Ocean Sea....
This sea takes the names of the countries it washes. Its eastern extremity
is called the Sea of Chin ... the part west of this is called the Sea of
India ... then comes the Sea of Fárs, the Sea of Berbera, and lastly the
Sea of Kolzum" (Red Sea).

NOTE 4.--The Ramusian here inserts a short chapter, shown by the awkward
way in which it comes in to be a very manifest interpolation, though
possibly still an interpolation by the Traveller's hand:--

"Leaving the port of Zayton you sail westward and something south-westward
for 1500 miles, passing a gulf called CHEINAN, having a length of two
months' sail towards the north. Along the whole of its south-east side it
borders on the province of Manzi, and on the other side with Anin and
Coloman, and many other provinces formerly spoken of. Within this Gulf
there are innumerable Islands, almost all well-peopled; and in these is
found a great quantity of gold-dust, which is collected from the sea where
the rivers discharge. There is copper also, and other things; and the
people drive a trade with each other in the things that are peculiar to
their respective Islands. They have also a traffic with the people of the
mainland, selling them gold and copper and other things; and purchasing in
turn what they stand in need of. In the greater part of these Islands
plenty of corn grows. This gulf is so great, and inhabited by so many
people, that it seems like a world in itself."

This passage is translated by Marsden with much forcing, so as to describe
the China Sea, embracing the Philippine Islands, etc.; but, as a matter
of fact, it seems clearly to indicate the writer's conception as of a
great gulf running up into the continent between Southern China and
Tong-king for a length equal to two months' journey.

The name of the gulf, Cheinan, i.e. _Heinan_, may either be that of the
Island so called, or, as I rather incline to suppose, _'An-nan_, i.e.
Tong-king. But even by Camoens, writing at Macao in 1559-1560, the Gulf of
Hainan is styled an unknown sea (though this perhaps is only appropriate to
the prophetic speaker):--

  "Vês, corre a costa, que Champa se chama,
  Cuja mata he do pao cheiroso ornada:
  Vês, Cauchichina está de escura fama,
  _E de Ainao vê a incognita enseada_" (X. 129).

And in Sir Robert Dudley's _Arcano del Mare_ (Firenze, 1647), we find a
great bottle-necked gulf, of some 5-1/2° in length, running up to the
north from Tong-king, very much as I have represented the Gulf of Cheinan
in the attempt to realise Polo's Own Geography. (See map in Introductory
Essay.)



CHAPTER V.

OF THE GREAT COUNTRY CALLED CHAMBA.


You must know that on leaving the port of Zayton you sail west-south-west
for 1500 miles, and then you come to a country called CHAMBA,[NOTE 1] a
very rich region, having a king of its own. The people are Idolaters and
pay a yearly tribute to the Great Kaan, which consists of elephants and
nothing but elephants. And I will tell you how they came to pay this
tribute.

It happened in the year of Christ 1278 that the Great Kaan sent a Baron of
his called, Sagatu with a great force of horse and foot against this King
of Chamba, and this Baron opened the war on a great scale against the King
and his country.

Now the King [whose name was Accambale] was a very aged man, nor had he
such a force as the Baron had. And when he saw what havoc the Baron was
making with his kingdom he was grieved to the heart. So he bade messengers
get ready and despatched them to the Great Kaan. And they said to the
Kaan: "Our Lord the King of Chamba salutes you as his liege-lord, and
would have you to know that he is stricken in years and long hath held his
realm in peace. And now he sends you word by us that he is willing to be
your liegeman, and will send you every year a tribute of as many elephants
as you please. And he prays you in all gentleness and humility that you
would send word to your Baron to desist from harrying his kingdom and to
quit his territories. These shall henceforth be at your absolute disposal,
and the King shall hold them of you."

When the Great Kaan had heard the King's ambassage he was moved with pity,
and sent word to that Baron of his to quit that kingdom with his army, and
to carry his arms to the conquest of some other country; and as soon as
this command reached them they obeyed it. Thus it was then that this King
became vassal of the Great Kaan, and paid him every year a tribute of 20
of the greatest and finest elephants that were to be found in the country.

But now we will leave that matter, and tell you other particulars about
the King of Chamba.

You must know that in that kingdom no woman is allowed to marry until the
King shall have seen her; if the woman pleases him then he takes her to
wife; if she does not, he gives her a dowry to get her a husband withal.
In the year of Christ 1285, Messer Marco Polo was in that country, and at
that time the King had, between sons and daughters, 326 children, of whom
at least 150 were men fit to carry arms.[NOTE 2]

There are very great numbers of elephants in this kingdom, and they have
lignaloes in great abundance. They have also extensive forests of the wood
called _Bonús_, which is jet-black, and of which chessmen and pen-cases are
made. But there is nought more to tell, so let us proceed.[NOTE 3]


NOTE 1.--+The name CHAMPA is of Indian origin, like the adjoining Kamboja
and many other names in Indo-China, and was probably taken from that of an
ancient Hindu city and state on the Ganges, near modern Bhágalpúr. Hiuen
Tsang, in the 7th century, makes mention of the Indo-Chinese state as
Mahachampa (_Pèl. Boudd_, III. 83.)

The title of Champa down to the 15th century seems to have been applied by
Western Asiatics to a kingdom which embraced the whole coast between
Tong-king and Kamboja, including all that is now called Cochin China
outside of Tong-king. It was termed by the Chinese _Chen-Ching_. In 1471
the King of Tong-king, Lê Thanh-tong, conquered the country, and the
genuine people of Champa were reduced to a small number occupying the
mountains of the province of Binh Thuan at the extreme south-east of the
Coch. Chinese territory. To this part of the coast the name Champa is often
applied in maps. (See _J.A._ sér. II. tom. xi. p. 31, and _J. des Savans_,
1822, p. 71.) The people of Champa in this restricted sense are said to
exhibit Malay affinities, and they profess Mahomedanism. ["The Mussulmans
of Binh-Thuan call themselves _Bani_ or _Orang Bani_, 'men mussulmans,'
probably from the Arabic _beni_ 'the sons,' to distinguish them from the
Chams _Djat_ 'of race,' which they name also _Kaphir_ or _Akaphir_, from
the Arabic word _kafer_ 'pagans.' These names are used in _Binh-Thuan_ to
make a distinction, but Banis and Kaphirs alike are all Chams.... In
Cambodia all Chams are Mussulmans." (_E. Aymonier, Les Tchames_, p. 26.)
The religion of the pagan Chams of Binh-Thuan is degenerate Brahmanism with
three chief gods, Po-Nagar, Po-Romé, and Po-Klong-Garaï. (Ibid., p.
35.)--H.C.] The books of their former religion they say (according to Dr.
Bastian) that they received from Ceylon, but they were converted to
Islamism by no less a person than 'Ali himself. The Tong-king people
received their Buddhism from China, and this tradition puts Champa as the
extreme flood-mark of that great tide of Buddhist proselytism, which went
forth from Ceylon to the Indo-Chinese regions in an early century of our
era, and which is generally connected with the name of Buddaghosha.

The prominent position of Champa on the route to China made its ports
places of call for many ages, and in the earliest record of the Arab
navigation to China we find the country noticed under the identical name
(allowing for the deficiencies of the Arabic Alphabet) of _Sanf_ or
_Chanf_. Indeed it is highly probable that the [Greek: Zába] or [Greek:
Zábai] of Ptolemy's itinerary of the sea-route to the _Sinae_ represents
this same name.

["It is true," Sir Henry Yule wrote since (1882), "that Champa, as known in
later days, lay to the east of the Mekong delta, whilst Zabai of the Greeks
lay to the west of that and of the [Greek: méga akrotaérion]--the Great
Cape, or C. Cambodia of our maps. Crawford (_Desc. Ind. Arch._ p. 80) seems
to say that the Malays include under the name _Champa_ the whole of what we
call Kamboja. This may possibly be a slip. But it is certain, as we shall
see presently, that the Arab _Sanf_--which is unquestionably Champa--also
lay west of the Cape, i.e. within the Gulf of Siam. The fact is that the
Indo-Chinese kingdoms have gone through unceasing and enormous
vicissitudes, and in early days Champa must have been extensive and
powerful, for in the travels of Hiuen Tsang (about A.D. 629) it is called
_mahâ_-Champa. And my late friend Lieutenant Garnier, who gave great
attention to these questions, has deduced from such data as exist in
Chinese Annals and elsewhere, that the ancient kingdom which the Chinese
describe under the name of _Fu-nan_, as extending over the whole peninsula
east of the Gulf of Siam, was a kingdom of the _Tsiam_ or Champa race. The
locality of the ancient port of Zabai or Champa is probably to be sought on
the west coast of Kamboja, near the Campot, or the Kang-kao of our maps. On
this coast also was the _Komâr_ and _Kamârah_ of Ibn Batuta and other Arab
writers, the great source of aloes-wood, the country then of the _Khmer_ or
Kambojan People." (_Notes on the Oldest Records of the Sea-Route to China
from Western Asia, Proc.R.G.S._ 1882, pp. 656-657.)

M. Barth says that this identification would agree well with the testimony
of his inscription XVIII. B., which comes from Angkor and for which _Campa_
is a part of the _Dakshinapatha_, of the southern country. But the capital
of this rival State of Kamboja would thus be very near the Trêang province
where inscriptions have been found with the names of _Bhavavarman_ and of
Icanavarman. It is true that in 627, the King of Kamboja, according to the
Chinese Annals (_Nouv. Mél. As._ I. p. 84), had subjugated the kingdom of
Fu-nan identified by Yule and Garnier with _Campa_. Abel Rémusat (_Nouv.
Mél. As._ I. pp. 75 and 77) identifies it with Tong-king and Stan. Julien
(_J. As._ 4° Sér. X. p. 97) with Siam. (_Inscrip. Sanscrites du Cambodge_,
1885, pp. 69-70, note.)

Sir Henry Yule writes (l.c. p. 657): "We have said that the Arab _Sanf_, as
well as the Greek _Zabai_, lay west of Cape Cambodia. This is proved by the
statement that the Arabs on their voyage to China made a ten days' run from
_Sanf_ to Pulo Condor." But Abulfeda (transl. by _Guyard_, II. ii. p. 127)
distinctly says that the Komar Peninsula (Khmer) is situated _west_ of the
Sanf Peninsula; between Sanf and Komar there is not a day's journey by sea.

We have, however, another difficulty to overcome.

I agree with Sir Henry Yule and Marsden that in ch. vii. infra, p. 276, the
text must be read, "When you leave _Chamba_," instead of "When you leave
_Java_." Coming from Zayton and sailing 1500 miles, Polo arrives at Chamba;
from Chamba, sailing 700 miles he arrives at the islands of Sondur and
Condur, identified by Yule with Sundar Fúlát (Pulo Condore); from Sundar
Fúlát, after 500 miles more, he finds the country called Locac; then he
goes to Pentam (Bintang, 500 miles), Malaiur, and Java the Less (Sumatra).
Ibn Khordâdhbeh's itinerary agrees pretty well with Marco Polo's, as
Professor De Goeje remarks to me: "Starting from Mâit (Bintang), and
leaving on the left Tiyuma (Timoan), in five days' journey, one goes to
Kimèr (Kmer, Cambodia), and after three days more, following the coast,
arrives to Sanf; then to Lukyn, the first point of call in China, 100
parasangs by land or by sea; from Lukyn it takes four days by sea and
twenty by land to go to Kanfu." [Canton, see note, supra p. 199.] (See _De
Goeje's Ibn Khordâdhbeh_, p. 48 et seq.) But we come now to the difficulty.
Professor De Goeje writes to me: "It is strange that in the _Relation des
Voyages_ of Reinaud, p. 20 of the text, reproduced by Ibn al Fakîh, p. 12
seq., Sundar Fúlát (Pulo Condore) is placed between Sanf and the China Sea
(_Sandjy_); it takes ten days to go from Sanf to Sundar Fúlát, and then a
month (seven days of which between mountains called the Gates of China.) In
the _Livre des Merveilles de l'Inde_ (pp. 85, 86) we read: 'When arrived
between Sanf and the China coast, in the neighbourhood of Sundar Fúlát, an
island situated at the entrance of the Sea of Sandjy, which is the Sea of
China....' It would appear from these two passages that Sanf is to be
looked for in the Malay Peninsula. This Sanf is different from the Sanf of
Ibn Khordâdhbeh and of Abulfeda." (_Guyard's transl._ II. ii. 127.)

It does not strike me from these passages that Sanf must be looked for in
the Malay Peninsula. Indeed Professor G. Schlegel, in a paper published in
the _T'oung Pao_, vol. x., seems to prove that Shay-po (Djava), represented
by Chinese characters, which are the transcription of the Sanskrit name of
the China Rose (_Hibiscus rosa sinensis_), Djavâ or Djapâ, is not the
great island of Java, but, according to Chinese texts, a state of the
Malay Peninsula; but he does not seem to me to prove that Shay-po is
Champa, as he believes he has done.

However, Professor De Goeje adds in his letter, and I quite agree with the
celebrated Arabic scholar of Leyden, that he does not very much like the
theory of two Sanf, and that he is inclined to believe that the sea
captain of the _Marvels of India_ placed Sundar Fúlát a little too much to
the north, and that the narrative of the _Relation des Voyages_ is
inexact.

To conclude: the history of the relations between Annam (Tong-king) and
her southern neighbour, the kingdom of Champa, the itineraries of Marco
Polo and Ibn Khordâdhbêh as well as the position given to Sanf by
Abulfeda, justify me, I think, in placing Champa in that part of the
central and southern indo-Chinese coast which the French to-day call Annam
(Cochinchine and Basse-Cochinchine), the Binh-Thuan province showing more
particularly what remains of the ancient kingdom.

Since I wrote the above, I have received No. 1 of vol. ii. of the _Bul.
de l'Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient_, which contains a note on _Canf et
Campa_, by M.A. Barth. The reasons given in a note addressed to him by
Professor De Goeje and the work of Ibn Khordâdhbeh have led M.A. Barth to
my own conclusion, viz. that the coast of Champa was situated where
inscriptions have been found on the Annamite coast.--H.C.]

The Sagatu of Marco appears in the Chinese history as _Sotu_, the military
governor of the Canton districts, which he had been active in reducing.

In 1278 Sotu sent an envoy to Chen-ching to claim the king's submission,
which was rendered, and for some years he sent his tribute to Kúblái. But
when the Kaan proceeded to interfere in the internal affairs of the
kingdom by sending a Resident and Chinese officials, the king's son (1282)
resolutely opposed these proceedings, and threw the Chinese officials into
prison. The Kaan, in great wrath at this insult, (coming also so soon
after his discomfiture in Japan), ordered Sotu and others to Chen-ching to
take vengeance. The prince in the following year made a pretence of
submission, and the army (if indeed it had been sent) seems to have been
withdrawn. The prince, however, renewed his attack on the Chinese
establishments, and put 100 of their officials to death. Sotu then
despatched a new force, but it was quite unsuccessful, and had to retire.
In 1284 the king sent an embassy, including his grandson, to beg for
pardon and reconciliation. Kúblái, however, refused to receive them, and
ordered his son Tughan to advance through Tong-king, an enterprise which
led to a still more disastrous war with that country, in which the Mongols
had much the worst of it. We are not told more.

Here we have the difficulties usual with Polo's historical anecdotes.
Certain names and circumstances are distinctly recognisable in the Chinese
Annals; others are difficult to reconcile with these. The embassy of 1284
seems the most likely to be the one spoken of by Polo, though the Chinese
history does not give it the favourable result which he ascribes to it.
The date in the text we see to be wrong, and as usual it varies in
different MSS. I suspect the original date was MCCLXXXIII.

One of the Chinese notices gives one of the king's names as _Sinhopala_,
and no doubt this is Ramusio's _Accambale_ (Açambale); an indication at
once of the authentic character of that interpolation, and of the identity
of Champa and Chen-ching.

[We learn from an inscription that in 1265 the King of Champa was
Jaya-Sinhavarman II., who was named Indravarman in 1277, and whom the
Chinese called _Che li Tseya Sinho phala Maha thiwa_ (Çri Jaya Sinha varmma
maha deva). He was the king at the time of Polo's voyage. (_A. Bergaigne,
Ancien royaume de Campa_, pp. 39-40; _E. Aymonier, les Tchames et leurs
religious_, p. 14.)--H.C.]

There are notices of the events in De Mailla (IX. 420-422) and Gaubil
(194), but Pauthier's extracts which we have made use of are much fuller.

Elephants have generally formed a chief part of the presents or tribute
sent periodically by the various Indo-Chinese states to the Court of
China.

[In a Chinese work published in the 14th century, by an Annamite, under
the title of _Ngan-nan chi lio_, and translated into French by M. Sainson
(1896), we read (p. 397): "Elephants are found only in Lin-y; this is the
country which became Champa. It is the habit to have burdens carried by
elephants; this country is to-day the Pu-cheng province." M. Sainson adds
in a note that Pu-cheng, in Annamite Bó chanh quân, is to-day Quang-binh,
and that, in this country, was placed the first capital (Dong-hoi) of the
future kingdom of Champa thrown later down to the south.--H.C.]

[The Chams, according to their tradition, had three capitals: the most
ancient, _Shri-Banoeuy_, probably the actual Quang-Binh province;
_Bal-Hangov_, near Hué; and _Bal-Angoué_, in the Binh-Dinh province. In the
4th century, the kingdom of _Lin-y_ or _Lâm-âp_ is mentioned in the Chinese
Annals.--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--The date of Marco's visit to Champa varies in the MSS.: Pauthier
has 1280, as has also Ramusio; the G.T. has 1285; the Geographic Latin
1288. I incline to adopt the last. For we know that about 1290, Mark
returned to Court from a mission to the Indian Seas, which might have
included this visit to Champa.

The large family of the king was one of the stock marvels. Odoric says:
"ZAMPA is a very fine country, having great store of victuals and all good
things. The king of the country, it was said when I was there [circa 1323],
had, what with sons and with daughters, a good two hundred children; for he
hath many wives and other women whom he keepeth. This king hath also 14,000
tame elephants.... And other folk keep elephants there just as commonly as
we keep oxen here" (pp. 95-96). The latter point illustrates what Polo says
of elephants, and is scarcely an exaggeration in regard to all the southern
Indo-Chinese States. (See note to Odoric u.s.)

NOTE 3.--Champa Proper and the adjoining territories have been from time
immemorial the chief seat of the production of lign-aloes or eagle-wood.
Both names are misleading, for the thing has nought to do either with
aloes or eagles; though good Bishop Pallegoix derives the latter name from
the wood being speckled like an eagle's plumage. It is in fact through
_Aquila_, _Agila_, from _Aguru_, one of the Sanskrit names of the article,
whilst that is possibly from the Malay _Kayu_ (wood)-_gahru_, though the
course of the etymology is more likely to be the other way; and [Greek:
Alóae] is perhaps a corruption of the term which the Arabs apply to it,
viz. _Al-'Ud_, "The Wood."

[It is probable that the first Portuguese who had to do with eagle-wood
called it by its Arabic name, _aghaluhy_, or malayalam, _agila_; whence
_páo de' aguila_ "aguila wood." It was translated into Latin as _lignum
aquilae_, and after into modern languages, as _bois d'aigle_,
_eagle-wood_, _adlerholz_, etc. (_A. Cabaton, les Chams_, p. 50.) Mr.
Groeneveldt (_Notes_, pp. 141-142) writes: "_Lignum aloes_ is the wood of
the _Aquilaria agallocha_, and is chiefly known as _sinking incense_. The
_Pen-ts'au Kang-mu_ describes it as follows: '_Sinking incense_, also
called _honey incense_. It comes from the heart and the knots of a tree and
sinks in water, from which peculiarity the name _sinking incense_ is
derived.... In the Description of Annam we find it called _honey incense_,
because it smells like honey.' The same work, as well as the _Nan-fang
Ts'au-mu Chuang_, further informs us that this incense was obtained in all
countries south of China, by felling the old trees and leaving them to
decay, when, after some time, only the heart, the knots, and some other
hard parts remained. The product was known under different names, according
to its quality or shape, and in addition to the names given above, we find
_fowl bones_, _horse-hoofs_, and _green cinnamon_; these latter names,
however, are seldom used."--H.C.]

The fine eagle-wood of Champa is the result of disease in a leguminous
tree, _Aloexylon Agallochum_; whilst an inferior kind, though of the same
aromatic properties, is derived from a tree of an entirely different
order, _Aquilaria Agallocha_, and is found as far north as Silhet.

The _Bonus_ of the G.T. here is another example of Marco's use, probably
unconscious, of an Oriental word. It is Persian _Abnús_, Ebony, which has
passed almost unaltered into the Spanish _Abenuz_. We find _Ibenus_ also
in a French inventory (_Douet d'Arcq_, p. 134), but the _Bonús_ seems to
indicate that the word as used by the Traveller was strange to Rusticiano.
The word which he uses for pen-cases too, _Calamanz_, is more suggestive
of the Persian _Kalamdán_ than of the Italian _Calamajo_.

"Ebony is very common in this country (Champa), but the wood which is the
most precious, and which is sufficiently abundant, is called 'Eagle-wood,'
of which the first quality sells for its weight in gold; the native name
_Kínam_," (_Bishop Louis_ in J.A.S.B. VI. 742; _Dr. Birdwood_, in the
_Bible Educator_, I. 243; _Crawford's Dict._)



CHAPTER VI.

CONCERNING THE GREAT ISLAND OF JAVA.


When you sail from Chamba, 1500 miles in a course between south and
south-east, you come to a great Island called Java. And the experienced
mariners of those Islands who know the matter well, say that it is the
greatest Island in the world, and has a compass of more than 3000 miles. It
is subject to a great King and tributary to no one else in the world. The
people are Idolaters. The Island is of surpassing wealth, producing black
pepper, nutmegs, spikenard, galingale, cubebs, cloves, and all other kinds
of spices.

[Illustration: View in the Interior of Java.

"Une grandissune Ysle qe est avellé Java. Ceste Ysle est de mont grant
richesse."]

This Island is also frequented by a vast amount of shipping, and by
merchants who buy and sell costly goods from which they reap great profit.
Indeed the treasure of this Island is so great as to be past telling. And
I can assure you the Great Kaan never could get possession of this Island,
on account of its great distance, and the great expense of an expedition
thither. The merchants of Zayton and Manzi draw annually great returns
from this country.[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--Here Marco speaks of that Pearl of Islands, Java. The chapter is
a digression from the course of his voyage towards India, but possibly he
may have touched at the island on his previous expedition, alluded to in
note 2, ch. v. Not more, for the account is vague, and where particulars
are given not accurate. Java does not _produce_ nutmegs or cloves, though
doubtless it was a great mart for these and all the products of the
Archipelago. And if by _treasure_ he means gold, as indeed Ramusio reads,
no gold is found in Java. Barbosa, however, has the same story of the
great amount of gold drawn from Java; and De Barros says that Sunda,
i.e. Western Java, which the Portuguese regarded as a distinct island,
produced inferior gold of 7 carats, but that pepper was the staple, of
which the annual supply was more than 30,000 cwt. (_Ram._ I. 318-319; _De
Barros_, Dec. IV. liv. i. cap. 12.)

[Illustration: Ship of the Middle Ages in the Java Seas. (From Bas-relief
at Boro Bodor.)

"En ceste Ysle vienent grant quantité de nés, e de mercanz qe hi acatent
de maintes mercandies et hi font grant gaagne"]

The circuit ascribed to Java in Pauthier's Text is 5000 miles. Even the
3000 which we take from the Geog. Text is about double the truth; but it
is exactly the same that Odoric and Conti assign. No doubt it was a
tradition among the Arab seamen. They never visited the south coast, and
probably had extravagant ideas of its extension in that direction, as the
Portuguese had for long. Even at the end of the 16th century Linschoten
says: "Its breadth is as yet unknown; some conceiving it to be a part of
the Terra Australis extending from opposite the Cape of Good Hope.
_However it is commonly held to be an island_" (ch. xx.). And in the old
map republished in the Lisbon De Bairos of 1777, the south side of Java is
marked "Parte incognita de Java," and is without a single name, whilst a
narrow strait runs right across the island (the supposed division of Sunda
from Java Proper).

The history of Java previous to the rise of the Empire of Majapahit, in
the age immediately following our Traveller's voyage, is very obscure. But
there is some evidence of the existence of a powerful dynasty in the
island about this time; and in an inscription of ascertained date (A.D.
1294) the King Uttungadeva claims to have subjected _five kings_ and to be
sovereign of the whole Island of Java (_Jawa-dvipa_; see Lassen, IV. 482).
It is true that, as our Traveller says, Kúblái had not yet attempted the
subjugation of Java, but he did make the attempt almost immediately after
the departure of the Venetians. It was the result of one of his unlucky
embassies to claim the homage of distant states, and turned out as badly
as the attempts against Champa and Japan. His ambassador, a Chinese called
Meng-K'i, was sent back with his face branded like a thief's. A great
armament was assembled in the ports of Fo-kien to avenge this insult; it
started about January, 1293, but did not effect a landing till autumn.
After some temporary success the force was constrained to re-embark with a
loss of 3000 men. The death of Kúblái prevented any renewal of the
attempt; and it is mentioned that his successor gave orders for the
re-opening of the Indian trade which the Java war had interrupted. (See
_Gaubil_, pp. 217 seqq., 224.) To this failure Odoric, who visited Java
about 1323, alludes: "Now the Great Kaan of Cathay many a time engaged in
war with this king; but the king always vanquished and got the better of
him." Odoric speaks in high terms of the richness and population of Java,
calling it "the second best of all Islands that exist," and describing a
gorgeous palace in terms similar to those in which Polo speaks of the
Palace of Chipangu. (_Cathay_, p. 87 seqq.)

[We read in the _Yuen-shi_ (Bk. 210), translated by Mr. Groeneveldt, that
"Java is situated beyond the sea and further away than Champa; when one
embarks at Ts'wan-chau and goes southward, he first comes to Champa and
afterwards to this country." It appears that when his envoy Mêng-K'i had
been branded on the face, Kúblái, in 1292, appointed Shih-pi, a native of
Po-yeh, district Li-chau, Pao-ting fu, Chih-li province, commander of the
expedition to Java, whilst Ike-Mese, a Uighúr, and Kau-Hsing, a man from
Ts'ai-chau (Ho-nan), were appointed to assist him. Mr. Groeneveldt has
translated the accounts of these three officers. In the _Ming-shi_ (Bk.
324) we read: "Java is situated at the south-west of Champa. In the time
of the Emperor Kúblái of the Yuen Dynasty, Mêng-K'i was sent there as an
envoy and had his face cut, on which Kúblái sent a large army which
subdued the country and then came back." (l.c. p. 34.) The prince guilty
of this insult was the King of Tumapel "in the eastern part of the island
Java, whose country was called Java par excellence by the Chinese, because
it was in this part of the island they chiefly traded."
(l.c. p. 32.)--H.C.]

The curious figure of a vessel which we give here is taken from the vast
series of mediaeval sculptures which adorns the great Buddhist pyramid in
the centre of Java, known as Boro Bodor, one of the most remarkable
architectural monuments in the world, but the history of which is all in
darkness. The ship, with its outrigger and apparently canvas sails, is not
Chinese, but it undoubtedly pictures vessels which frequented the ports of
Java in the early part of the 14th century,[1] possibly one of those from
Ceylon or Southern India.


[1] 1344 is the date to which a Javanese traditional verse ascribes the
    edifice. (_Crawford's Desc. Dictionary_.)



CHAPTER VII.

WHEREIN THE ISLES OF SONDUR AND CONDUR ARE SPOKEN OF; AND THE KINGDOM OF
LOCAC.


When you leave Chamba[NOTE 1] and sail for 700 miles on a course between
south and south-west, you arrive at two Islands, a greater and a less. The
one is called SONDUR and the other CONDUR.[NOTE 2] As there is nothing
about them worth mentioning, let us go on five hundred miles beyond
Sondur, and then we find another country which is called LOCAC. It is a
good country and a rich; [it is on the mainland]; and it has a king of its
own. The people are Idolaters and have a peculiar language, and pay
tribute to nobody, for their country is so situated that no one can enter
it to do them ill. Indeed if it were possible to get at it, the Great Kaan
would soon bring them under subjection to him.

In this country the brazil which we make use of grows in great plenty; and
they also have gold in incredible quantity. They have elephants likewise,
and much game. In this kingdom too are gathered all the porcelain shells
which are used for small change in all those regions, as I have told you
before.

There is nothing else to mention except that this is a very wild region,
visited by few people; nor does the king desire that any strangers should
frequent the country, and so find out about his treasure and other
resources.[NOTE 3] We will now proceed, and tell you of something else.


NOTE 1.--All the MSS. and texts I believe without exception read "_when
you leave_ Java," etc. But, as Marsden has indicated, the point of
departure is really _Champa_, the introduction of Java being a digression;
and the retention of the latter name here would throw us irretrievably
into the Southern Ocean. Certain old geographers, we may observe, did
follow that indication, and the results were curious enough, as we shall
notice in next note but one. Marsden's observations are so just that I
have followed Pauthier in substituting Champa for Java in the text.

NOTE 2.--There is no reason to doubt that these islands are the group now
known as that of PULO CONDORE, in old times an important landmark, and
occasional point of call, on the route to China. The group is termed
_Sundar Fúlát_ (_Fúlát_ representing the Malay _Pulo_ or Island, in the
plural) in the Arab _Relations_ of the 9th century, the last point of
departure on the voyage to China, from which it was a month distant. This
old record gives us the name _Sondor_; in modern times we have it as
_Kondór_; Polo combines both names. ["These may also be the 'Satyrs'
Islands' of Ptolemy, or they may be his _Sindai_; for he has a _Sinda_
city on the coast close to this position, though his Sindai islands are
dropt far away. But it would not be difficult to show that Ptolemy's
islands have been located almost at random, or as from a pepper castor."
(_Yule_, _Oldest Records_, p. 657.)] The group consists of a larger island
about 12 miles long, two of 2 or 3 miles, and some half-dozen others of
insignificant dimensions. The large one is now specially called Pulo
Condore. It has a fair harbour, fresh water, and wood in abundance.
Dampier visited the group and recommended its occupation. The E.I.
Company did establish a post there in 1702, but it came to a speedy end in
the massacre of the Europeans by their Macassar garrison. About the year
1720 some attempt to found a settlement there was also made by the French,
who gave the island the name of _Isle d'Orléans_. The celebrated Père
Gaubil spent eight months on the island and wrote an interesting letter
about it (February, 1722; see also _Lettres Edifiantes_, Rec. xvi.). When
the group was visited by Mr. John Crawford on his mission to Cochin China
the inhabitants numbered about 800, of Cochin Chinese descent. The group
is now held by the French under Saigon. The chief island is known to the
Chinese as the mountain of Kunlun. There is another cluster of rocks in
the same sea, called the Seven Cheu, and respecting these two groups
Chinese sailors have a kind of _Incidit-in-Scyllan_ saw:--

  "_Shang p'a Tsi-chéu, hia-pa Kun-lun,
  Chen mi t'uo shih, jin chuen mo tsun._"[1]

Meaning:--

  "With Kunlun to starboard, and larboard the Cheu,
  Keep conning your compass, whatever you do,
  Or to Davy Jones' Locker go vessel and crew."

(_Ritter_, IV. 1017; _Reinaud_, I. 18; _A. Hamilton_, II. 402; _Mém. conc.
les Chinois_, XIV. 53.)

NOTE 3.--Pauthier reads the name of the kingdom _Soucat_, but I adhere to
the readings of the G.T., _Lochac_ and _Locac_, which are supported by
Ramusio. Pauthier's C and the Bern MS. have _le chac_ and _le that_, which
indicate the same reading.

Distance and other particulars point, as Hugh Murray discerns, to the east
coast of the Malay Peninsula, or (as I conceive) to the territory now
called Siam, including the said coast, as subject or tributary from time
immemorial.

The kingdom of Siam is known to the Chinese by the name of _Sien-Lo_. The
Supplement to Ma Twan-lin's Encyclopaedia describes Sien-Lo as on the
sea-board to the extreme south of Chen-ching. "It originally consisted of
two kingdoms, _Sien_ and _Lo-hoh_. The Sien people are the remains of a
tribe which in the year (A.D. 1341) began to come down upon the Lo-hoh, and
united with the latter into one nation.... The land of the Lo-hoh consists
of extended plains, but not much agriculture is done."[2]

In this _Lo_ or LO-HOH, which apparently formed the lower part of what is
now Siam, previous to the middle of the 14th century, I believe that we
have our Traveller's Locac. The latter half of the name may be either the
second syllable of Lo-Hoh, for Polo's _c_ often represents _h_; or it may
be the Chinese _Kwo_ or _Kwé_, "kingdom," in the Canton and Fo-kien
pronunciation (i.e. the pronunciation of Polo's mariners) _kok_;
_Lo-kok_, "the kingdom of Lo." _Sien_-LO-KOK is the exact form of the
Chinese name of Siam which is used by Bastian.

What was this kingdom of Lo which occupied the northern shores of the Gulf
of Siam? Chinese scholars generally say that _Sien-Lo_ means Siam and
_Laos_; but this I cannot accept, if Laos is to bear its ordinary
geographical sense, i.e. of a country bordering Siam on the _north-east
and north_. Still there seems a probability that the usual interpretation
may be correct, when properly explained.

[Regarding the identification of Locac with Siam, Mr. G. Phillips writes
(_Jour. China B.R.A.S._, XXI., 1886, p. 34, note): "I can only fully
endorse what Col. Yule says upon this subject, and add a few extracts of
my own taken from the article on Siam given in the _Wu-pé-ché_. It would
appear that previously to 1341 a country called Lohoh (in Amoy
pronunciation Lohok) existed, as Yule says, in what is now called Lower
Siam, and at that date became incorporated with Sien. In the 4th year of
Hung-wu, 1372, it sent tribute to China, under the name of Sien Lohok. The
country was first called Sien Lo in the first year of Yung Lo, 1403. In
the T'ang Dynasty it appears to have been known as _Lo-yueh_, pronounced
_Lo-gueh_ at that period. This _Lo-yueh_ would seem to have been situated
on the Eastern side of Malay Peninsula, and to have extended to the
entrance to the Straits of Singapore, in what is now known as Johore."
--H.C.]

In 1864, Dr. Bastian communicated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal the
translation of a long and interesting inscription, brought [in 1834] from
Sukkothai to Bangkok by the late King of Siam [Mongkut, then crown
prince], and dated in _a_ year 1214, which in the era of Salivahana (as it
is almost certainly, see _Garnier_, cited below) will be A.D. 1292-1293,
almost exactly coincident with Polo's voyage. The author of this
inscription was a Prince of _Thai_ (or Siamese) race, styled Phra Râma
Kamhêng ("The Valiant") [son of Sri Indratiya], who reigned in Sukkothai,
whilst his dominions extended from Vieng-chan on the Mekong River (lat.
18°), to Pechabur, and Sri-Thammarat (i.e. Ligór, in lat. 8° 18"), on
the coast of the Gulf of Siam. [This inscription gives three dates--1205,
1209, and 1214 s'aka = A.D. 1283, 1287 and 1292. One passage says:
"Formerly the Thaïs had no writing; it is in 1205 s'aka, year of the goat
= A.D. 1283, that King Râma Kamhêng sent for a teacher who invented the
Thaï writing. It is to him that we are indebted for it to-day." (Cf.
_Fournereau, Siam ancien_, p. 225; _Schmitt, Exc. et Recon._, 1885;
_Aymonier, Cambodge_, II. p. 72.)--H.C.] The conquests of this prince are
stated to have extended eastward to the "Royal Lake", apparently the Great
Lake of Kamboja; and we may conclude with certainty that he was the leader
of the Siamese, who had invaded Kamboja shortly before it was visited (in
1296) by that envoy of Kúblái's successor, whose valuable account of the
country has been translated by Rémusat.[3]

Now this prince Râma Kamhêng of Sukkothai was probably (as Lieutenant
Garnier supposes) of the _Thai-nyai_, Great Thai, or Laotian branch of the
race. Hence the application of the name Lo-kok to his kingdom can be
accounted for.

It was another branch of the Thai, known as _Thai-noi_, or Little Thai,
which in 1351, under another Phra Rama, founded Ayuthia and the Siamese
monarchy, which still exists.

The explanation now given seems more satisfactory than the suggestions
formerly made of the connection of the name _Locac_, either with Lophaburi
(or _Lavó, Louvo_), a very ancient capital near Ayuthia, or with _Lawék_,
i.e. Kamboja. Kamboja had at an earlier date possessed the lower valley
of the Menam, but, we see, did so no longer.[4]

The name _Lawek_ or Lovek is applied by writers of the 16th and 17th
centuries to the capital of what is still Kamboja, the ruins of which
exist near Udong. _Laweik_ is mentioned along with the other Siamese or
Laotian countries of Yuthia, Tennasserim, Sukkothai, Pichalok, Lagong,
Lanchang (or Luang Prabang), Zimmé (or Kiang-mai), and Kiang-Tung, in the
vast list of states claimed by the Burmese Chronicle as tributary to Pagán
before its fall. We find in the _Aín-i-Akbari_ a kind of aloes-wood called
_Lawáki_, no doubt because it came from this region.

The G.T. indeed makes the course from Sondur to Locac _sceloc_ or S.E.;
but Pauthier's text seems purposely to correct this, calling it, "_v. c.
milles_ oultre _Sandur_." This would bring us to the Peninsula somewhere
about what is now the Siamese province of Ligor,[5] and this is the only
position accurately consistent with the next indication of the route, viz.
a run of 500 miles _south_ to the Straits of Singapore. Let us keep in
mind also Ramusio's specific statement that Locac was on _terra firma_.

As regards the products named: (1) gold is mined in the northern part of
the Peninsula and is a staple export of Kalantan, Tringano, and Pahang,
further down. Barbosa says gold was so abundant in Malacca that it was
reckoned by _Bahars_ of 4 cwt. Though Mr. Logan has estimated the present
produce of the whole Peninsula at only 20,000 ounces, Hamilton, at the
beginning of last century, says Pahang alone in some years exported above
8 cwt. (2) Brazil-wood, now generally known by the Malay term _Sappan_, is
abundant on the coast. Ritter speaks of three small towns on it as
entirely surrounded by trees of this kind. And higher up, in the latitude
of Tavoy, the forests of sappan-wood find a prominent place in some maps
of Siam. In mediaeval intercourse between the courts of Siam and China we
find Brazil-wood to form the bulk of the Siamese present. ["Ma Huan fully
bears out Polo's statement in this matter, for he says: This Brazil (of
which Marco speaks) is as plentiful as firewood. On Ch'êng-ho's chart
Brazil and other fragrant woods are marked as products of Siam. Polo's
statement of the use of porcelain shells as small change is also
corroborated by Ma Huan." (_G. Phillips, Jour. China B.R.A.S._, XXI.,
1886, p. 37.)--H.C.] (3) Elephants are abundant. (4) Cowries, according
to Marsden and Crawford, are found in those seas largely only on the Sulu
Islands; but Bishop Pallegoix says distinctly that they are found _in
abundance_ on the sand-banks of the Gulf of Siam. And I see Dr. Fryer, in
1673, says that cowries were brought to Surat "from Siam and the
Philippine Islands."

For some centuries after this time Siam was generally known to traders by
the Persian name of _Shahr-i-nao_, or New City. This seems to be the name
generally applied to it in the _Shijarat Malayu_ (or Malay Chronicle), and
it is used also by Abdurrazzák. It appears among the early navigators of
the 16th century, as Da Gama, Varthema, Giovanni d'Empoli and Mendez
Pinto, in the shape of _Sornau, Xarnau_. Whether this name was applied to
the new city of Ayuthia, or was a translation of that of the older
_Lophaburi_ (which appears to be the Sansk. or Pali _Nava pura_ =
New-City) I do not know.

[Reinaud (_Int. Abulfeda_, p. CDXVI.) writes that, according to the
Christian monk of Nadjran, who crossed the Malayan Seas, about the year
980, at this time, the King of Lukyn had just invaded the kingdom of Sanf
and taken possession of it. According to Ibn Khordâdhbeh (_De Goeje_, p.
49) Lukyn is the first port of China, 100 parasangs distant from Sanf by
land or sea; Chinese stone, Chinese silk, porcelain of excellent quality,
and rice are to be found at Lukyn.--H.C.]

(_Bastian_, I. 357, III. 433, and in _J.A.S.B._ XXXIV. Pt. I. p. 27
seqq.; _Ramus._ I. 318; _Amyot_, XIV. 266, 269; _Pallegoix_, I. 196;
_Bowring_, I. 41, 72; _Phayre_ in _J.A.S.B._ XXXVII. Pt. I. p. 102;
_Aín Akb._ 80; _Mouhot_, I. 70; _Roe and Fryer_, reprint, 1873, p. 271.)

Some geographers of the 16th century, following the old editions which
carried the travellers south-east or south-west of Java to the land of
_Boeach_ (for Locac), introduced in their maps a continent in that
situation. (See e.g. the map of the world by P. Plancius in Linschoten.)
And this has sometimes been adduced to prove an early knowledge of
Australia. Mr. Major has treated this question ably in his interesting
essay on the early notices of Australia.


[1] [From the _Hsing-ch'a Sheng-lan_, by Fei Hsin.]

[2] The extract of which this is the substance I owe to the kindness of
    Professor J. Summers, formerly of King's College.

[3] I am happy to express my obligation to the remarks of my lamented
    friend Lieutenant Garnier, for light on this subject, which has led to
    an entire reform in the present note. (See his excellent Historical
    Essay, forming ch. v. of the great "_Voyage d'Exploration en
    Indo-Chine_," pp. 136-137).

[4] The _Kakula_ of Ibn Batuta was probably on the coast of Locac.
    The _Kamárah Komar_ of the same traveller and other Arab writers,
    I have elsewhere suggested to be _Khmer_, or Kamboja Proper. (See
    _I.B._ IV. 240; _Cathay_, 469, 519.) Kakula and Kamarah
    were both in "_Mul-Java_"; and the king of this undetermined
    country, whom Wassáf states to have submitted to Kúblái in 1291, was
    called _Sri Rama_. It is possible that this was Phra Rama of
    Sukkothai. (See _Cathay_, 519; _Elliot_, III. 27)

[5] Mr. G Phillips supposes the name locac to be Ligor, or rather lakhon
    as the Siamese call it. But it seems to me pretty clear from what has
    been said the Lo-kok though including Ligor, is a different name from
    Lakhon. The latter is a corruption of the Sanskrit, _Nagara_, "city."



CHAPTER VIII.

OF THE ISLAND CALLED PENTAM, AND THE CITY MALAIUR


When you leave Locac and sail for 500 miles towards the south, you come to
an island called PENTAM, a very wild place. All the wood that grows
thereon consists of odoriferous trees.[NOTE 1] There is no more to say
about it; so let us sail about sixty miles further between those two
Islands. Throughout this distance there is but four paces' depth of water,
so that great ships in passing this channel have to lift their rudders,
for they draw nearly as much water as that.[NOTE 2]

And when you have gone these 60 miles, and again about 30 more, you come
to an Island which forms a Kingdom, and is called MALAIUR. The people have
a King of their own, and a peculiar language. The city is a fine and noble
one, and there is great trade carried on there. All kinds of spicery are
to be found there, and all other necessaries of life.[NOTE 3]


NOTE 1.--_Pentam_, or as in Ram. _Pentan_, is no doubt the Bintang of our
maps, more properly BENTAN, a considerable Island at the eastern extremity
of the Straits of Malacca. It appears in the list, published by Dulaurier
from a Javanese Inscription, of the kingdoms conquered in the 15th century
by the sovereigns reigning at Majapahit in Java. (_J.A._ sér. IV. tom.
xiii. 532.) Bintang was for a long time after the Portuguese conquest of
Malacca the chief residence of the Malay Sultans who had been expelled by
that conquest, and it still nominally belongs to the Sultan of Johore, the
descendant of those princes, though in fact ruled by the Dutch, whose port
of Rhio stands on a small island close to its western shore. It is the
_Bintão_ of the Portuguese whereof Camoens speaks as the persistent enemy
of Malacca (X. 57).

[Cf. _Professor Schlegel's Geog. Notes_, VI. _Ma-it_; regarding the
odoriferous trees, Professor Schlegel remarks (p. 20) that they were
probably santal trees.--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--There is a good deal of confusion in the text of this chapter.
Here we have a passage spoken of between "those two Islands," when only
one island seems to have been mentioned. But I imagine the other "island"
in the traveller's mind to be the continuation of the same Locac, i.e.
the Malay Peninsula (included by him under that name), which he has
coasted for 500 miles. This is confirmed by Ramusio, and the old Latin
editions (as Müller's): "between the kingdom of Locac and the Island of
Pentan." The passage in question is the Strait of Singapore, or as the old
navigators called it, the Straits of Gobernador, having the mainland of
the Peninsula and the Island of Singapore, on the one side, and the
Islands of Bintang and Batang on the other. The length of the strait is
roughly 60 geographical miles, or a little more; and I see in a route
given in the _Lettres Edifiantes_ (II. p. 118) that the length of
navigation is so stated: "Le détroit de Gobernador a vingt lieues de long,
et est for difficile quand on n'y a jamais passé."

The Venetian _passo_ was 5 feet. Marco here alludes to the well-known
practice with the Chinese junks of raising the rudder, for which they have
a special arrangement, which is indicated in the cut at p. 248.

NOTE 3.--There is a difficulty here about the indications, carrying us, as
they do, first 60 miles through the Strait, and then 30 miles further to
the Island Kingdom and city of Malaiur. There is also a singular variation
in the readings as to this city and island. The G.T. has "_Une isle qe
est roiame, et s'apelle_ Malanir e l'isle Pentam." The Crusca has the
same, only reading _Malavir_. Pauthier: "_Une isle qui est royaume, et a
nom_ Maliur." The Geog. Latin: "_Ibi invenitur una insula in qua est unus
rex_ quem vocant Lamovich. _Civitas et insula vocantur_ Pontavich." Ram.:
"_Chiamasi la città_ Malaiur, e cosi l'isola Malaiur."

All this is very perplexed, and it is difficult to trace what may have
been the true readings. The 30 miles beyond the straits, whether we give
the direction _south-east_ as in G.T. or no, will not carry us to the
vicinity of any place known to have been the site of an important city. As
the point of departure in the next chapter is from _Pentam_ and not from
Malaiur, the introduction of the latter is perhaps a digression from the
route, on information derived either from hearsay or from a former voyage.
But there is not information enough to decide what place is meant by
Malaiur. Probabilities seem to me to be divided between _Palembang_, and
its colony _Singhapura_. Palembang, according to the Commentaries of
Alboquerque, was called by the Javanese MALAYO. The List of Sumatran
Kingdoms in De Barros makes TANA-MALAYU the _next_ to Palembang. On the
whole, I incline to this interpretation.

[In _Valentyn_ (V. 1, _Beschryvinge van Malakka_, p. 317) we find it
stated that the Malay people just dwelt on the River _Malayu_ in the
Kingdom of Palembang, and were called from the River _Orang Malayu.--MS.
Note_.--H.Y.]

[Professor Schlegel in his _Geog. Notes_, IV., tries to prove by Chinese
authorities that Maliur and Tana-Malayu are two quite distinct countries,
and he says that Maliur may have been situated on the coast opposite
Singapore, perhaps a little more to the S.W. where now lies Malacca, and
that Tana-Malayu may be placed in Asahan, upon the east coast of
Sumatra.--H.C.]

Singhapura was founded by an emigration from Palembang, itself a Javanese
colony. It became the site of a flourishing kingdom, and was then,
according to the tradition recorded by De Barros, the most important
centre of population in those regions, "whither used to gather all the
navigators of the Eastern Seas, from both East and West; to this great
city of Singapura all flocked as to a general market." (Dec. II. 6, 1.)
This suits the description in our text well; but as Singhapura was in
sight of any ship passing through the straits, mistake could hardly occur
as to its position, even if it had not been visited.

I omit _Malacca_ entirely from consideration, because the evidence appears
to me conclusive against the existence of Malacca at this time.

The Malay Chronology, as published by Valentyn, ascribes the foundation of
that city to a king called Iskandar Shah, placing it in A.D. 1252, fixes
the reign of Mahomed Shah, the third King of Malacca and first Mussulman
King, as extending from 1276 to 1333 (not stating _when_ his conversion
took place), and gives 8 kings in all between the foundation of the city
and its capture by the Portuguese in 1511, a space, according to those
data, of 259 years. As Sri Iskandar Shah, the founder, had reigned 3 years
in Singhapura _before_ founding Malacca, and Mahomed Shah, the loser,
reigned 2 years in Johore _after_ the loss of his capital, we have 264
years to divide among 8 kings, giving 33 years to each reign. This
certainly indicates that the period requires considerable curtailment.

Again, both De Barros and the Commentaries or Alboquerque ascribe the
foundation of Malacca to a Javanese fugitive from Palembang called
Paramisura, and Alboquerque makes Iskandar Shah (_Xaquem darxa_) the _son_
of Paramisura, and the first convert to Mahomedanism. _Four_ other kings
reign in succession after him, the last of the four being Mahomed Shah,
expelled in 1511.

[Godinho de Eredia says expressly (Cap. i. _Do Citio Malaca_, p. 4) that
Malacca was founded by _Permicuri, primeiro monarcha de Malayos_, in the
year 1411, in the Pontificate of John XXIV., and in the reign of Don Juan
II. of Castille and Dom Juan I. of Portugal.]

The historian De Couto, whilst giving the same number of reigns from the
conversion to the capture, places the former event about 1384. And the
Commentaries of Alboquerque allow no more than some ninety years from the
foundation of Malacca to his capture of the city.

There is another approximate check to the chronology afforded by a Chinese
record in the XIVth volume of Amyot's collection. This informs us that
Malacca first acknowledged itself as tributary to the Empire in 1405, the
king being _Sili-ju-eul-sula_ (?). In 1411 the King of Malacca himself,
now called _Peilimisula_ (Paramisura), came in person to the court of
China to render homage. And in 1414 the Queen-Mother of Malacca came to
court, bringing her son's tribute.

Now this notable fact of the visit of a King of Malacca to the court of
China, and his acknowledgment of the Emperor's supremacy, is also recorded
in the Commentaries of Alboquerque. This work, it is true, attributes the
visit, not to Paramisura, the founder of Malacca, but to his son and
successor Iskandar Shah. This may be a question of a _title_ only, perhaps
borne by both; but we seem entitled to conclude with confidence that
Malacca was founded by a prince whose son was reigning, and visited the
court of China in 1411. And the real chronology will be about midway
between the estimates of De Couto and of Alboquerque. Hence Malacca did
not exist for a century, more or less, after Polo's voyage.

[Mr. C.O. Blagden, in a paper on the Mediaeval Chronology of Malacca
(_Actes du XI'e Cong. Int. Orient. Paris_, 1897), writes (p. 249) that "if
Malacca had been in the middle of the 14th century anything like the great
emporium of trade which it certainly was in the 15th, Ibn Batuta would
scarcely have failed to speak of it." The foundation of Malacca by Sri
Iskandar Shah in 1252, according to the _Sejarah Malayu_ "must be put at
least 125 years later, and the establishment of the Muhammadan religion
there would then precede by only a few years the end of the 14th century,
instead of taking place about the end of the 13th, as is generally
supposed" (p. 251). (Cf. _G. Schlegel, Geog. Notes_, XV.)--H.C.]

Mr. Logan supposes that the form _Malayu-r_ may indicate that the Malay
language of the 13th century "had not yet replaced the strong
naso-guttural terminals by pure vowels." We find the same form in a
contemporary Chinese notice. This records that in the 2nd year of the Yuen,
tribute was sent from Siam to the Emperor. "The Siamese had long been at
war with the _Maliyi_ or MALIURH, but both nations laid aside their feud
and submitted to China." (_Valentyn_, V. p. 352; _Crawford's Desc.
Dict._ art. _Malacca_; _Lassen_, IV. 541 seqq.; _Journ. Ind. Archip._ V.
572, II. 608-609; _De Barros_, Dec. II. 1. vi. c. 1; _Comentarios do grande
Afonso d'Alboquerque_, Pt. III. cap. xvii.; _Couto_, Dec. IV. liv. ii.;
_Wade_ in _Bowring's Kingdom and People of Siam_, I. 72.)

[From I-tsing we learn that going from China to India, the traveller
visits the country of _Shih-li-fuh-shi_ (_Çribhoja_ or simply _Fuh-shi_ =
Bhôja), then _Mo-louo-yu_, which seems to Professor Chavannes to
correspond to the _Malaiur_ of Marco Polo and to the modern Palembang, and
which in the 10th century formed a part of Çribhôdja identified by
Professor Chavannes with Zabedj. (_I-tsing_, p. 36.) The Rev. S. Beal has
some remarks on this question in the _Merveilles de l'Inde_, p. 251, and
he says that he thinks "there are reasons for placing this country
[Çribhôja], or island, on the East coast of Sumatra, and near Palembang,
or, on the Palembang River." Mr. Groeneveldt (_T'oung Pao_, VII. abst. p.
10) gives some extracts from Chinese authors, and then writes: "We have
therefore to find now a place for the Molayu of I-tsing, the Malaiur of
Marco Polo, the Malayo of Alboquerque, and the Tana-Malayu of De Barros,
all which may be taken to mean the same place. I-tsing tells us that it
took fifteen days to go from Bhôja to Molayu and fifteen days again to go
from there to Kieh-ch'a. The latter place, suggesting a native name Kada,
must have been situated in the north-west of Sumatra, somewhere near the
present Atjeh, for going from there west, one arrived in thirty days at
Magapatana; near Ceylon, whilst a northern course brought one in ten days
to the Nicobar Islands. Molayu should thus lie half-way between Bhôja and
Kieh-ch'a, but this indication must not be taken too literally where it is
given for a sailing vessel, and there is also the statement of De Barros,
which does not allow us to go too far away from Palembang, as he mentions
Tana-Malayu _next_ to that place. We have therefore to choose between the
next three larger rivers: those of Jambi, Indragiri, and Kampar, and there
is an indication in favour of the last one, not very strong, it is true,
but still not to be neglected. I-tsing tells us: 'Le roi me donna des
secours grâce auxquels je parvins au pays de _Mo-louo-yu_; j'y séjournai
derechef pendant deux mois. Je changeai de direction pour aller dans le
pays de _Kie-tcha_.' The change of direction during a voyage along the
east coast of Sumatra from Palembang to Atjeh is nowhere very perceptible,
because the course is throughout more or less north-west, still one may
speak of a change of direction at the mouth of the River Kampar, about the
entrance of the Strait of Malacca, whence the track begins to run more
west, whilst it is more north before. The country of Kampar is of little
importance now, but it is not improbable that there has been a Hindoo
settlement, as the ruins of religious monuments decidedly Buddhist are
still existing on the upper course of the river, the only ones indeed on
this side of the island, it being a still unexplained fact that the
Hindoos in Java have built on a very large scale, and those of Sumatra
hardly anything at all."--Mr. Takakusu (_A Record of the Buddhist
Religion_, p. xli.) proposes to place Shih-li-fuh-shi at Palembang and
Mo-louo-yu farther on the northern coast of Sumatra.--(Cf. _G. Schlegel,
Geog. Notes_, XVI.; _P. Pelliot, Bul. Ecole Franç. Ext. Orient_, II. pp.
94-96.)--H.C.]



CHAPTER IX.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF JAVA THE LESS. THE KINGDOMS OF FERLEC AND BASMA.


When you leave the Island of Pentam and sail about 100 miles, you reach
the Island of JAVA THE LESS. For all its name 'tis none so small but that
it has a compass of two thousand miles or more. Now I will tell you all
about this Island.[NOTE 1]

You see there are upon it eight kingdoms and eight crowned kings. The
people are all Idolaters, and every kingdom has a language of its own. The
Island hath great abundance of treasure, with costly spices, lign-aloes
and spikenard and many others that never come into our parts.[NOTE 2]

Now I am going to tell you all about these eight kingdoms, or at least the
greater part of them. But let me premise one marvellous thing, and that is
the fact that this Island lies so far to the south that the North Star,
little or much, is never to be seen!

Now let us resume our subject, and first I will tell you of the kingdom of
FERLEC.

This kingdom, you must know, is so much frequented by the Saracen
merchants that they have converted the natives to the Law of Mahommet--I
mean the townspeople only, for the hill-people live for all the world like
beasts, and eat human flesh, as well as all other kinds of flesh, clean or
unclean. And they worship this, that, and the other thing; for in fact the
first thing that they see on rising in the morning, that they do worship
for the rest of the day.[NOTE 3]

Having told you of the kingdom of Ferlec, I will now tell of another which
is called BASMA.

When you quit the kingdom of Ferlec you enter upon that of Basma. This
also is an independent kingdom, and the people have a language of their
own; but they are just like beasts without laws or religion. They call
themselves subjects of the Great Kaan, but they pay him no tribute; indeed
they are so far away that his men could not go thither. Still all these
Islanders declare themselves to be his subjects, and sometimes they send
him curiosities as presents.[NOTE 4] There are wild elephants in the
country, and numerous unicorns, which are very nearly as big. They have
hair like that of a buffalo, feet like those of an elephant, and a horn in
the middle of the forehead, which is black and very thick. They do no
mischief, however, with the horn, but with the tongue alone; for this is
covered all over with long and strong prickles [and when savage with any
one they crush him under their knees and then rasp him with their tongue].
The head resembles that of a wild boar, and they carry it ever bent
towards the ground. They delight much to abide in mire and mud. 'Tis a
passing ugly beast to look upon, and is not in the least like that which
our stories tell of as being caught in the lap of a virgin; in fact, 'tis
altogether different from what we fancied.[NOTE 5] There are also monkeys
here in great numbers and of sundry kinds; and goshawks as black as crows.
These are very large birds and capital for fowling.[NOTE 6]

I may tell you moreover that when people bring home pygmies which they
allege to come from India, 'tis all a lie and a cheat. For those little
men, as they call them, are manufactured on this Island, and I will tell
you how. You see there is on the Island a kind of monkey which is very
small, and has a face just like a man's. They take these, and pluck out
all the hair except the hair of the beard and on the breast, and then they
dry them and stuff them and daub them with saffron and other things until
they look like men. But you see it is all a cheat; for nowhere in India
nor anywhere else in the world were there ever men seen so small as these
pretended pygmies.

Now I will say no more of the kingdom of Basma, but tell you of the others
in succession.


NOTE 1.--Java the Less is the Island of SUMATRA. Here there is no
exaggeration in the dimension assigned to its circuit, which is about 2300
miles. The old Arabs of the 9th century give it a circuit of 800
parasangs, or say 2800 miles, and Barbosa reports the estimate of the
Mahomedan seamen as 2100 miles. Compare the more reasonable accuracy of
these estimates of Sumatra, which the navigators knew in its entire
compass, with the wild estimates of Java Proper, of which they knew but
the northern coast.

Polo by no means stands alone in giving the name of Java to the island now
called Sumatra. The terms _Jawa, Jawi_, were applied by the Arabs to the
islands and productions of the Archipelago generally (e.g., _Lubán
jawí_, "Java frankincense," whence by corruption _Benzoin_), but also
specifically to Sumatra. Thus Sumatra is the _Jáwah_ both of Abulfeda and
of Ibn Batuta, the latter of whom spent some time on the island, both in
going to China and on his return. The Java also of the Catalan Map appears
to be Sumatra. _Javaku_ again is the name applied in the Singalese
chronicles to the Malays in general. _Jáu_ and _Dawa_ are the names still
applied by the Battaks and the people of Nias respectively to the Malays,
showing probably that these were looked on as Javanese by those tribes who
did not partake of the civilisation diffused from Java. In Siamese also
the Malay language is called _Chawa_; and even on the Malay peninsula, the
traditional slang for a half-breed born from a Kling (or Coromandel)
father and a Malay mother is _Jáwí Pakan_, "a Jawi (i.e. Malay) of the
market." De Barros says that all the people of Sumatra called themselves
by the common name of _Jauijs_. (Dec. III. liv. v. cap. 1.)

There is some reason to believe that the application of the name Java to
Sumatra is of very old date. For the oldest inscription of ascertained
date in the Archipelago which has yet been read, a Sanskrit one from
Pagaroyang, the capital of the ancient Malay state of Menang-kabau in the
heart of Sumatra, bearing a date equivalent to A.D. 656, entitles the
monarch whom it commemorates, Adityadharma by name, the king of "the First
Java" (or rather Yava). This Mr. Friedrich interprets to mean Sumatra. It
is by no means impossible that the _Iabadiu_, or Yávadvípa of Ptolemy may
be Sumatra rather than Java.

An accomplished Dutch Orientalist suggests that the Arabs originally
applied the terms Great Java and Little Java to Java and Sumatra
respectively, not because of their imagined relation in size, but as
indicating the former to be Java _Proper_. Thus also, he says, there is a
_Great Acheh_ (Achin) which does not imply that the place so called is
greater than the well-known state of Achin (of which it is in fact a
part), but because it is Acheh _Proper_. A like feeling may have suggested
the Great Bulgaria, Great Hungary, Great Turkey of the mediaeval
travellers. These were, or were supposed to be, the original seats of the
Bulgarians, Hungarians, and Turks. The _Great Horde_ of the Kirghiz Kazaks
is, as regards numbers, not the greatest, but the smallest of the three.
But the others look upon it as the most ancient. The Burmese are alleged
to call the _Rakhain_ or people of Arakan _Mranma Gyí_ or Great Burmese,
and to consider their dialect the most ancient form of the language. And,
in like manner, we may perhaps account for the term of _Little Thai_,
formerly applied to the Siamese in distinction from the _Great Thai_,
their kinsmen of Laos.

In after-days, when the name of Sumatra for the Great Island had
established itself, the traditional term "Little Java" sought other
applications. Barbosa seems to apply it to _Sumbawa_; Pigafetta and
Cavendish apply it to _Bali_, and in this way Raffles says it was still
used in his own day. Geographers were sometimes puzzled about it. Magini
says Java Minor is almost _incognita_.

(_Turnour's Epitome_, p. 45; _Van der Tuuk, Bladwijzer tot de drie
Stukken van het Bataksche Leesboek_, p. 43, etc.; _Friedrich_ in _Bat.
Transactions_, XXVI.; _Levchine, Les Kirghíz Kazaks_, 300, 301.)

NOTE 2.--As regards the _treasure_, Sumatra was long famous for its
produce of gold. The export is estimated in Crawford's History at 35,530
ounces; but no doubt it was much more when the native states were in a
condition of greater wealth and civilisation, as they undoubtedly were
some centuries ago. Valentyn says that in some years Achin had exported 80
bahars, equivalent to 32,000 or 36,000 Lbs. avoirdupois (!). Of the other
products named, lign-aloes or eagle-wood is a product of Sumatra, and is
or was very abundant in Campar on the eastern coast. The _Ain-i-Akbari_
says this article was usually brought to India from _Achin_ and
Tenasserim. Both this and spikenard are mentioned by Polo's contemporary,
Kazwini, among the products of Java (probably Sumatra), viz., _Java
lign-aloes (al-' Ud al-Jáwi)_, camphor _spikenard (Sumbul)_, etc.
_Náráwastu_ is the name of a grass with fragrant roots much used as a
perfume in the Archipelago, and I see this is rendered _spikenard_ in a
translation from the Malay Annals in the _Journal of the Archipelago_.

With regard to the kingdoms of the island which Marco proceeds to
describe, it is well to premise that all the six which he specifies are to
be looked for towards the north end of the island, viz., in regular
succession up the northern part of the east coast, along the north coast,
and down the northern part of the west coast. This will be made tolerably
clear in the details, and Marco himself intimates at the end of the next
chapter that the six kingdoms he describes were all at _this_ side or end
of the island: "_Or vos avon contée de cesti roiames que sunt de ceste
partie de scele ysle, et des autres roiames de_ l'autre _partie ne voz
conteron-noz rien._" Most commentators have made confusion by scattering
them up and down, nearly all round the coast of Sumatra. The best remarks
on the subject I have met with are by Mr. Logan in his _Journal of the
Ind. Arch._ II. 610.

The "kingdoms" were certainly many more than eight throughout the island.
At a later day De Barros enumerates 29 on the coast alone. Crawford
reckons 15 different nations and languages on Sumatra and its dependent
isles, of which 11 belong to the great island itself.

(_Hist. of Ind. Arch._ III. 482; _Valentyn_, V. (Sumatra), p. 5; _Desc.
Dict._ p. 7, 417; Gildemeister, p. 193; _Crawf. Malay Dict._ 119; _J. Ind.
Arch._ V. 313.)

NOTE 3.--The kingdom of PARLÁK is mentioned in the _Shijarat Malayu_ or
Malay Chronicle, and also in a Malay History of the Kings of Pasei, of
which an abstract is given by Dulaurier, in connection with the other
states of which we shall speak presently. It is also mentioned (_Barlak_),
as a city of the Archipelago, by Rashiduddin. Of its extent we have no
knowledge, but the position (probably of its northern extremity) is
preserved in the native name, _Tanjong_ (i.e. Cape) _Parlák_ of the N.E.
horn of Sumatra, called by European seamen "Diamond Point," whilst the
river and town of _Perla_, about 32 miles south of that point, indicate, I
have little doubt, the site of the old capital.[1] Indeed in Malombra's
Ptolemy (Venice, 1574), I find the next city of Sumatra beyond _Pacen_
marked as _Pulaca_.

The form _Ferlec_ shows that Polo got it from the Arabs, who having no _p_
often replace that letter by _f_. It is notable that the Malay alphabet,
which is that of the Arabic with necessary modifications, represents the
sound _p_ not by the Persian _pe_ ([Arabic]), but by the Arabic _fe_
([Arabic]), with three dots instead of one ([Arabic]).

A Malay chronicle of Achin dates the accession of the first Mahomedan king
of that state, the nearest point of Sumatra to India and Arabia, in the
year answering to A.D. 1205, and this is the earliest conversion among the
Malays on record. It is doubtful, indeed, whether there _were_ Kings of
_Achin_ in 1205, or for centuries after (unless indeed _Lambri_ is to be
regarded as Achin), but the introduction of Islam may be confidently
assigned to that age.

The notice of the Hill-people, who lived like beasts and ate human flesh,
presumably attaches to the Battas or Bataks, occupying high table-lands in
the interior of Sumatra. They do not now extend north beyond lat. 3°. The
interior of Northern Sumatra seems to remain a _terra incognita_, and even
with the coast we are far less familiar than our ancestors were 250 years
ago. The Battas are remarkable among cannibal nations as having attained
or retained some degree of civilisation, and as being possessed of an
alphabet and documents. Their anthropophagy is now professedly practised
according to precise laws, and only in prescribed cases. Thus: (i) A
commoner seducing a Raja's wife must be eaten; (2) Enemies taken in battle
_outside their village_ must be eaten _alive_; those taken in storming a
village may be spared; (3) Traitors and spies have the same doom, but may
ransom themselves for 60 dollars a-head. There is nothing more horrible or
extraordinary in all the stories of mediaeval travellers than the _facts_
of this institution. (See _Junghuhn_, _Die Battalander_, II. 158.) And it
is evident that human flesh is also at times kept in the houses for food.
Junghuhn, who could not abide Englishmen but was a great admirer of the
Battas, tells how after a perilous and hungry flight he arrived in a
friendly village, and the food that was offered by his hosts was the flesh
of two prisoners who had been slaughtered the day before (I. 249).
Anderson was also told of one of the most powerful Batta chiefs who would
eat only such food, and took care to be supplied with it (225).

The story of the Battas is that in old times their communities lived in
peace and knew no such custom; but a Devil, _Nanalain_, came bringing
strife, and introduced this man-eating, at a period which they spoke of
(in 1840) as "three men's lives ago," or about 210 years previous to that
date. Junghuhn, with some enlargement of the time, is disposed to accept
their story of the practice being comparatively modern. This cannot be,
for their hideous custom is alluded to by a long chain of early
authorities. Ptolemy's anthropophagi may perhaps be referred to the
smaller islands. But the Arab _Relations_ of the 9th century speak of
man-eaters in Al-Ramni, undoubtedly Sumatra. Then comes our traveller,
followed by Odoric, and in the early part of the 15th century by Conti, who
names the _Batech_ cannibals. Barbosa describes them without naming them;
Galvano (p. 108) speaks of them by name; as does De Barros. (Dec. III. liv.
viii. cap. I.)

The practice of worshipping the first thing seen in the morning is related
of a variety of nations. Pigafetta tells it of the people of Gilolo, and
Varthema in his account of Java (which I fear is fiction) ascribes it to
some people of that island. Richard Eden tells it of the Laplanders.
(_Notes on Russia_, Hak. Soc. II. 224.)

NOTE 4.--_Basma_, as Valentyn indicated, seems to be the PASEI of the
Malays, which the Arabs probably called _Basam_ or the like, for the
Portuguese wrote it PACEM. [Mr. J.T. Thomson writes (_Proc.R.G.S._ XX.
p. 221) that of its actual position there can be no doubt, it being the
Passier of modern charts.--H.C.] Pasei is mentioned in the Malay
Chronicle as founded by Malik-al-Sálih, the first Mussulman sovereign of
Samudra, the next of Marco's kingdoms. He assigned one of these states to
each of his two sons, Malik al-Dháhir and Malik al-Mansúr; the former of
whom was reigning at Samudra, and apparently over the whole coast, when
Ibn Batuta was there (about 1346-47). There is also a Malay History of the
Kings of Pasei to which reference has already been made.

Somewhat later Pasei was a great and famous city. Majapahit, Malacca, and
Pasei being reckoned the three great cities of the Archipelago. The
stimulus of conversion to Islam had not taken effect on those Sumatran
states at the time of Polo's voyage, but it did so soon afterwards, and,
low as they have now fallen, their power at one time was no delusion.
Achin, which rose to be the chief of them, in 1615 could send against
Portuguese Malacca an expedition of more than 500 sail, 100 of which were
galleys larger than any then constructed in Europe, and carried from 600
to 800 men each.

[Dr. Schlegel writes to me that according to the Malay Dictionary of Von de
Wall and Van der Tuuk, n. 414-415, Polo's _Basman_ is the Arab
pronunciation of _Paseman_, the modern Ophir in West Sumatra. _Gunung
Paseman_ is Mount Ophir.--H.C.]

[Illustration: The three Asiatic Rhinoceroses, (upper) Indicus, (middle)
Sondaicus, (lower) Sumatranus.[2]]

NOTE 5.--The elephant seems to abound in the forest tracts throughout the
whole length of Sumatra, and the species is now determined to be a
distinct one (_E. Sumatranus_) from that of continental India and identical
with that of Ceylon.[3] The Sumatran elephant in former days was caught
and tamed extensively. Ibn Batuta speaks of 100 elephants in the train
of Al Dhahir, the King of Sumatra Proper, and in the 17th century Beaulieu
says the King of Achin had always 900. Giov. d'Empoli also mentions them at
Pedir in the beginning of the 16th century; and see _Pasei Chronicle_
quoted in _J. As._ sér. IV. tom. ix. pp. 258-259. This speaks of elephants
as used in war by the people of Pasei, and of elephant-hunts as a royal
diversion. The _locus_ of that best of elephant stories, the elephant's
revenge on the tailor, was at Achin.

As Polo's account of the rhinoceros is evidently from nature, it is
notable that he should not only _call_ it unicorn, but speak so precisely
of its one horn, for the characteristic, if not the only, species on the
island, is a two-horned one (_Rh. Sumatranus_),[4] and his mention of the
buffalo-like hair applies only to this one. This species exists also on
the Indo-Chinese continent and, it is believed, in Borneo. I have seen it
in the Arakan forests as high as 19° 20'; one was taken not long since
near Chittagong; and Mr. Blyth tells me a stray one has been seen in Assam
or its borders.

[Ibn Khordâdhbeh says (_De Goeje's Transl._ p. 47) that rhinoceros is to
be found in Kâmeroun (Assam), which borders on China. It has a horn, a
cubit long, and two palms thick; when the horn is split, inside is found
on the black ground the white figure of a man, a quadruped, a fish, a
peacock or some other bird.--H.C.]

[John Evelyn mentions among the curiosities kept in the Treasury at St.
Denis: "A faire unicorne's horn, sent by a K. of Persia, about 7 foote
long." _Diary_, 1643, 12th Nov.--H.C.]

What the Traveller says of the animals' love of mire and mud is well
illustrated by the manner in which the _Semangs_ or Negritoes of the Malay
Peninsula are said to destroy him: "This animal ... is found frequently
in marshy places, with its whole body immersed in the mud, and part of the
head only visible.... Upon the dry weather setting in ... the mud
becomes hard and crusted, and the rhinoceros cannot effect his escape
without considerable difficulty and exertion. The Semangs prepare
themselves with large quantities of combustible materials, with which they
quietly approach the animal, who is aroused from his reverie by an immense
fire over him, which being kept well supplied by the Semangs with fresh
fuel, soon completes his destruction, and renders him in a fit state to
make a meal of." (_J. Ind. Arch._ IV. 426.)[5] There is a great difference
in aspect between the one-horned species (_Rh. Sondaicus_ and _Rh.
Indicus_) and the two-horned. The Malays express what that difference is
admirably, in calling the last _Bádak-Karbáu_, "the Buffalo-Rhinoceros,"
and the Sondaicus _Bádak-Gájah_, "the Elephant-Rhinoceros."

The belief in the formidable nature of the tongue of the rhinoceros is
very old and wide-spread, though I can find no foundation for it but the
rough _appearance_ of the organ. ["His tongue also is somewhat of a
rarity, for, if he can get any of his antagonists down, he will lick them
so clean, that he leaves neither skin nor flesh to cover his bones." (_A.
Hamilton_, ed. 1727, II. 24. _M.S. Note of Yule_.) Compare what is said of
the tongue of the Yak, I. p. 277.--H.C.] The Chinese have the belief, and
the Jesuit Lecomte attests it from professed observation of the animal in
confinement. (_Chin. Repos._ VII. 137; _Lecomte_, II. 406.) [In a Chinese
work quoted by Mr. Groeneveldt (_T'oung Pao_, VII. No. 2, abst. p. 19) we
read that "the rhinoceros has thorns on its tongue and always eats the
thorns of plants and trees, but never grasses or leaves."--H.C.]

The legend to which Marco alludes, about the Unicorn allowing itself to be
ensnared by a maiden (and of which Marsden has made an odd perversion in
his translation, whilst indicating the true meaning in his note), is also
an old and general one. It will be found, for example, in Brunetto Latini,
in the _Image du Monde_, in the _Mirabilia of Jordanus_,[6] and in the
verses of Tzetzes. The latter represents Monoceros as attracted not by the
maiden's charms but by her perfumery. So he is inveigled and blindfolded
by a stout young knave, disguised as a maiden and drenched with scent:--

  "'Tis then the huntsmen hasten up, abandoning their ambush;
  Clean from his head they chop his horn, prized antidote to poison;
  And let the docked and luckless beast escape into the jungles."
      --V. 399, seqq.

In the cut which we give of this from a mediaeval source the horn of the
unicorn is evidently the tusk of a _narwhal_. This confusion arose very
early, as may be seen from its occurrence in Aelian, who says that the
horn of the unicorn or _Kartazonon_ (the Arab _Karkaddan_ or Rhinoceros)
was not straight but twisted ([Greek: eligmoús échon tinás], Hist. An.
xvi. 20). The mistake may also be traced in the illustrations to Cosmas
Indicopleustes from his own drawings, and it long endured, as may be seen
in Jerome Cardan's description of a unicorn's horn which he saw suspended
in the church of St. Denis; as well as in a circumstance related by P.
della Valle (II. 491; and Cardan, _de Varietate_, c. xcvii.). Indeed the
supporter of the Royal arms retains the narwhal horn. To this popular
error is no doubt due the reading in Pauthier's text, which makes the horn
_white_ instead of black.

[Illustration: Monoceros and the Maiden.[7]]

We may quote the following quaint version of the fable from the Bestiary
of Philip de Thaun, published by Mr. Wright (_Popular Treatises on
Science_, etc. p. 81):

  "Monosceros est Beste, un corne ad en la teste,
  Purceo ad si a nun, de buc ad façun;
  Par Pucele est prise; or vez en quel guise.
    Quant hom le volt cacer et prendre et enginner,
  Si vent hom al forest ù sis riparis est;
  Là met une Pucele hors de sein sa mamele,
  Et par odurement Monosceros la sent;
  Dunc vent à la Pucele, et si baiset la mamele,
  En sein devant se dort, issi vent à sa mort
  Li hom suivent atant ki l'ocit en dormant
  U trestout vif le prent, si fais puis sun talent.
  Grant chose signifie."....

And so goes on to moralise the fable.

NOTE 6.--In the _J. Indian Archip._ V. 285, there is mention of the _Falco
Malaiensis_, black, with a double white-and-brown spotted tail, said to
belong to the ospreys, "but does not disdain to take birds and other
game."


[1] See _Anderson's Missing to East Coast of Sumatra_. pp. 229, 233 and
    map. The _Ferlec_ of Polo was identified by Valentyn. (_Sumatra_, in
    vol. v. p. 21.) Marsden remarks that a terminal _k_ is in Sumatra
    always softened or omitted in pronunciation. (_H. of Sum._ 1st. ed. p.
    163.) Thus we have Perlak, and _Perla_, as we have Battak and _Batta_.

[2] Since this engraving was made a fourth species has been established,
    _Rhin lasyotis_, found near Chittagong.

[3] The elephant of India has 6 true ribs and 13 false ribs, that of
    Sumatra and Ceylon has 6 true and 14 false.

[4] Marsden, however, does say that a one-horned species (_Rh. sondaicus_?)
    is also found on Sumatra (3rd ed. of his _H. of Sumatra_, p. 116).

[5] An American writer professes to have discovered in Missouri the fossil
    remains of a bogged mastodon, which had been killed precisely in this
    way by human contemporaries. (See _Lubbock, Preh. Times_, ad ed. 279.)

[6] _Tresor_, p. 253; _N. and E._, V. 263; _Jordanus_, p. 43.

[7] Another mediaeval illustration of the subject is given in _Les Arts au
    Moyen Age_, p. 499, from the binding of a book. It is allegorical, and
    the Maiden is there the Virgin Mary.



CHAPTER X.

THE KINGDOMS OF SAMARA AND DAGROIAN.


So you must know that when you leave the kingdom of Basma you come to
another kingdom called Samara, on the same Island.[NOTE 1] And in that
kingdom Messer Marco Polo was detained five months by the weather, which
would not allow of his going on. And I tell you that here again neither
the Pole-star nor the stars of the Maestro[NOTE 2] were to be seen, much
or little. The people here are wild Idolaters; they have a king who is
great and rich; but they also call themselves subjects of the Great Kaan.
When Messer Mark was detained on this Island five months by contrary
winds, [he landed with about 2000 men in his company; they dug large
ditches on the landward side to encompass the party, resting at either end
on the sea-haven, and within these ditches they made bulwarks or stockades
of timber] for fear of those brutes of man-eaters; [for there is great
store of wood there; and the Islanders having confidence in the party
supplied them with victuals and other things needful.] There is abundance
of fish to be had, the best in the world. The people have no wheat, but
live on rice. Nor have they any wine except such as I shall now describe.

You must know that they derive it from a certain kind of tree that they
have. When they want wine they cut a branch of this, and attach a great
pot to the stem of the tree at the place where the branch was cut; in a
day and a night they will find the pot filled. This wine is excellent
drink, and is got both white and red. [It is of such surpassing virtue
that it cures dropsy and tisick and spleen.] The trees resemble small
date-palms; ... and when cutting a branch no longer gives a flow of wine,
they water the root of the tree, and before long the branches again begin
to give out wine as before.[NOTE 3] They have also great quantities of
Indian nuts [as big as a man's head], which are good to eat when fresh;
[being sweet and savoury, and white as milk. The inside of the meat of the
nut is filled with a liquor like clear fresh water, but better to the
taste, and more delicate than wine or any other drink that ever existed.]

Now that we have done telling you about this kingdom, let us quit it, and
we will tell you of Dagroian.

When you leave the kingdom of Samara you come to another which is called
DAGROIAN. It is an independent kingdom, and has a language of its own. The
people are very wild, but they call themselves the subjects of the Great
Kaan. I will tell you a wicked custom of theirs.[NOTE 4]

When one of them is ill they send for their sorcerers, and put the
question to them, whether the sick man shall recover of his sickness or
no. If they say that he will recover, then they let him alone till he gets
better. But if the sorcerers foretell that the sick man is to die, the
friends send for certain judges of theirs to put to death him who has thus
been condemned by the sorcerers to die. These men come, and lay so many
clothes upon the sick man's mouth that they suffocate him. And when he is
dead they have him cooked, and gather together all the dead man's kin, and
eat him. And I assure you they do suck the very bones till not a particle
of marrow remains in them; for they say that if any nourishment remained
in the bones this would breed worms, and then the worms would die for want
of food, and the death of those worms would be laid to the charge of the
deceased man's soul. And so they eat him up stump and rump. And when they
have thus eaten him they collect his bones and put them in fine chests,
and carry them away, and place them in caverns among the mountains where
no beast nor other creature can get at them. And you must know also that
if they take prisoner a man of another country, and he cannot pay a ransom
in coin, they kill him and eat him straightway. It is a very evil custom
and a parlous.[NOTE 5]

Now that I have told you about this kingdom let us leave it, and I will
tell you of Lambri.


NOTE 1.--I have little doubt that in Marco's dictation the name was really
_Samatra_, and it is possible that we have a trace of this in the
_Samarcha_ (for _Samartha_) of the Crusca MS.

The _Shijarat Malayu_ has a legend, with a fictitious etymology, of the
foundation of the city and kingdom of _Samudra_, or SUMATRA, by Marah
Silu, a fisherman near Pasangan, who had acquired great wealth, as wealth
is got in fairy tales. The name is probably the Sanskrit _Samudra_, "the
sea." Possibly it may have been imitated from Dwára Samudra, at that time
a great state and city of Southern India. [We read in the Malay Annals,
_Salalat al Salatin_, translated by Mr. J.T. Thomson (_Proc.R.G.S._
XX. p. 216): "Mara Silu ascended the eminence, when he saw an ant as big
as a cat; so he caught it, and ate it, and on the place he erected his
residence, which he named Samandara, which means Big Ant (_Semut besar_ in
Malay)."--H.C.] Mara Silu having become King of Samudra was converted to
Islam, and took the name of Malik-al-Sálih. He married the daughter of the
King of _Parlák_, by whom he had two sons; and to have a principality for
each he founded the city and kingdom of _Pasei_. Thus we have Marco's
three first kingdoms, Ferlec, Basma, and Samara, connected together in a
satisfactory manner in the Malayan story. It goes on to relate the history
of the two sons Al-Dháhir and Al-Mansúr. Another version is given in the
history of Pasei already alluded to, with such differences as might be
expected when the oral traditions of several centuries came to be written
down.

Ibn Batuta, about 1346, on his way to China, spent fifteen days at the
court of Samudra, which he calls _Samathrah_ or _Samuthrah_. The king whom
he found there reigning was the Sultan Al-Malik Al-Dháhir, a most zealous
Mussulman, surrounded by doctors of theology, and greatly addicted to
religious discussions, as well as a great warrior and a powerful prince.
The city was 4 miles from its port, which the traveller calls _Sarha_; he
describes the capital as a large and fine town, surrounded with an
enceinte and bastions of timber. The court displayed all the state of
Mahomedan royalty, and the Sultan's dominions extended for many days along
the coast. In accordance with Ibn Batuta's picture, the Malay Chronicle
represents the court of Pasei (which we have seen to be intimately
connected with Samudra) as a great focus of theological studies about this
time.

There can be little doubt that Ibn Batuta's Malik Al-Dháhir is the prince
of the Malay Chronicle the son of the first Mahomedan king. We find in
1292 that Marco says nothing of Mahomedanism; the people are still wild
idolaters; but the king is already a rich and powerful prince. This may
have been Malik Al-Salih before his conversion; but it may be doubted if
the Malay story be correct in representing him as the _founder_ of the
city. Nor is this apparently so represented in the Book of the Kings of
Pasei.

Before Ibn Batuta's time, Sumatra or Samudra appears in the travels of Fr.
Odoric. After speaking of _Lamori_ (to which we shall come presently), he
says: "In the same island, towards the south, is another kingdom, by name
SUMOLTRA, in which is a singular generation of people, for they brand
themselves on the face with a hot iron in some twelve places," etc. This
looks as if the conversion to Islam was still (circa 1323) very
incomplete. Rashiduddin also speaks of _Súmútra_ as lying beyond Lamuri.
(_Elliot_, I. p. 70.)

The power attained by the dynasty of Malik Al-Salih, and the number of
Mahomedans attracted to his court, probably led in the course of the 14th
century to the extension of the name of Sumatra to the whole island. For
when visited early in the next century by Nicolo Conti, we are told that
he "went to a fine city of the island of Taprobana, which island is called
by the natives _Shamuthera_." Strange to say, he speaks of the natives as
all idolaters. Fra Mauro, who got much from Conti, gives us _Isola
Siamotra_ over _Taprobana_; and it shows at once his own judgment and
want of confidence in it, when he notes elsewhere that "Ptolemy,
professing to describe Taprobana, has really only described Saylan."

We have no means of settling the exact position of the city of Sumatra,
though possibly an enquiry among the natives of that coast might still
determine the point. Marsden and Logan indicate Samarlanga, but I should
look for it nearer Pasei. As pointed out by Mr. Braddell in the _J. Ind.
Arch._, Malay tradition represents the site of Pasei as selected on a
hunting expedition from Samudra, which seems to imply tolerable proximity.
And at the marriage of the Princess of Parlak to Malik Al-Salih, we are
told that the latter went to receive her on landing at Jambu Ayer (near
Diamond Point), and thence conducted her to the city of Samudra. I should
seek Samudra near the head of the estuary-like Gulf of Pasei, called in the
charts _Telo_ (or Talak) _Samawe_; a place very likely to have been sought
as a shelter to the Great Kaan's fleet during the south-west monsoon. Fine
timber, of great size, grows close to the shore of this bay,[1] and would
furnish material for Marco's stockades.

When the Portuguese first reached those regions Pedir was the leading
state upon the coast, and certainly no state _called_ Sumatra continued to
exist. Whether the _city_ continued to exist even in decay is not easy to
discern. The _Aín-i-Akbari_ says that the best civet is that which is
brought from _the seaport town of Sumatra, in the territory of Achin_, and
is called _Sumatra Zabád_; but this may have been based on old
information. Valentyn seems to recognise the existence of a place of note
called _Samadra_ or _Samotdara_, though it is not entered on his map. A
famous mystic theologian who flourished under the great King of Achin,
Iskandar Muda, and died in 1630, bore the name of Shamsuddín _Shamatráni_,
which seems to point to the city of Sumatra as his birth place.[2] The
most distinct mention that I know of the city so called, in the Portuguese
period, occurs in the _soi-disant_ "Voyage which Juan Serano made when he
fled from Malacca," in 1512, published by Lord Stanley of Alderley, at the
end of his translation of Barbosa. This man speaks of the "island of
Samatra" as named from "_a city of this northern part_." And on leaving
Pedir, having gone down the northern coast, he says, "I drew towards the
south and south-east direction, and reached to another country and city
which is called Samatra," and so on. Now this describes the position in
which the city of Sumatra should have been if it existed. But all the rest
of the tract is mere plunder from Varthema.[3]

There is, however, a like intimation in a curious letter respecting the
Portuguese discoveries, written from Lisbon in 1515, by a German,
Valentine Moravia, who was probably the same Valentyn Fernandez, the
German, who published the Portuguese edition of Marco Polo at Lisbon in
1502, and who shows an extremely accurate conception of Indian geography.
He says: "La maxima insula la quale è chiamata da Marcho Polo Veneto Iava
Minor, et al presente si chiama _Sumotra_, da un _emporie di dicta
insula_" (printed by _De Gubernatis, Viagg. Ita._ etc., p. 170).

Several considerations point to the probability that the states of Pasei
and Sumatra had become united, and that the town of Sumatra may have been
represented by the Pacem of the Portuguese.[4] I have to thank Mr. G.
Phillips for the copy of a small Chinese chart showing the northern coast
of the island, which he states to be from "one of about the 13th century."
I much doubt the date, but the map is valuable as showing the town of
Sumatra (_Sumantala_). This seems to be placed in the Gulf of Pasei, and
very near where Pasei itself still exists. An extract of a "Chinese account
of about A.D. 1413" accompanied the map. This states that the town was
situated some distance up a river, so as to be reached in two tides. There
was a village at the mouth of the river called _Talumangkin_.[5]

[Mr. E.H. Parker writes (_China Review_, XXIV. p. 102): "Colonel Yule's
remarks about Pasei are borne out by Chinese History (Ming, 325, 20, 24),
which states that in 1521 Pieh-tu-lu (Pestrello [for Perestrello ?])
having failed in China 'went for' _Pa-si_. Again 'from Pa-si, Malacca, to
Luzon, they swept the seas, and all the other nations were afraid of
them.'"--H. C]

Among the Indian states which were prevailed on to send tribute (or
presents) to Kúblái in 1286, we find _Sumutala_. The chief of this state
is called in the Chinese record _Tu-'han-pa-ti_, which seems to be just the
Malay words _Tuan Pati_, "Lord Ruler." No doubt this was the rising state
of Sumatra, of which we have been speaking; for it will be observed that
Marco says the people of that state called themselves the Kaan's subjects.
Rashiduddin makes the same statement regarding the people of Java (i.e. the
island of Sumatra), and even of Nicobar: "They are all subject to the
Kaan." It is curious to find just the same kind of statements about the
princes of the Malay Islands acknowledging themselves subjects of Charles
V., in the report of the surviving commander of Magellan's ship to that
emperor (printed by Baldelli-Boni, I. lxvii.). Pauthier has curious Chinese
extracts containing a notable passage respecting the disappearance of
Sumatra Proper from history: "In the years _Wen-chi_ (1573-1615), the
Kingdom of Sumatra divided in two, and the new state took the name of Achi
(Achin). After that Sumatra was no more heard of." (_Gaubil_, 205; _De
Mailla_, IX. 429; _Elliot_, I. 71; _Pauthier_, pp. 605 and 567.)

NOTE 2.--"_Vos di que la Tramontaine ne part. Et encore vos di que
l'estoilles dou Meistre ne aparent ne pou ne grant_" (G.T.). The
_Tramontaine_ is the Pole star:--

  "De nostre Père l'Apostoille
  Volsisse qu'il semblast l'estoile
  Qui ne se muet ...
  Par cele estoile vont et viennent
  Et lor sen et lor voie tiennent
  Il l'apelent la _tres montaigne_."
      --_La Bible Guiot de Provins_ in _Barbazan_, by _Méon_, II. 377.

The _Meistre_ is explained by Pauthier to be Arcturus; but this makes
Polo's error greater than it is. Brunetto Latini says: "Devers la
tramontane en a il i. autre (vent) plus debonaire, qui a non _Chorus_.
Cestui apelent li marinier MAISTRE _por vij. estoiles qui sont en celui
meisme leu_," etc. (_Li Tresors_, p. 122). _Magister_ or _Magistra_ in
mediaeval Latin, _La Maistre_ in old French, signifies "the beam of a
plough." Possibly this accounts for the application of _Maistre_ to the
Great Bear, or _Plough_. But on the other hand the pilot's art is called in
old French _maistrance_. Hence this constellation may have had the name as
the pilot's guide,--like our _Lode-star_. The name was probably given to
the N.W. point under a latitude in which the Great Bear sets in that
quarter. In this way many of the points of the old Arabian _Rose des Vents_
were named from the rising or setting of certain constellations. (See
_Reinaud's Abulfeda_, Introd. pp. cxcix.-cci.)

NOTE 3.--The tree here intended, and which gives the chief supply of toddy
and sugar in the Malay Islands, is the _Areng Saccharifera_ (from the
Javanese name), called by the Malays _Gomuti_, and by the Portuguese
_Saguer_. It has some resemblance to the date-palm, to which Polo compares
it, but it is a much coarser and wilder-looking tree, with a general
raggedness, "_incompta et adspectu tristis_," as Rumphius describes it. It
is notable for the number of plants that find a footing in the joints of
its stem. On one tree in Java I have counted thirteen species of such
parasites, nearly all ferns. The tree appears in the foreground of the cut
at p. 273.

Crawford thus describes its treatment in obtaining toddy: "One of the
_spathae_, or shoots of fructification, is, on the first appearance of the
fruit, beaten for three successive days with a small stick, with the view
of determining the sap to the wounded part. The shoot is then cut off, a
little way from the root, and the liquor which pours out is received in
pots.... The _Gomuti_ palm is fit to yield toddy at 9 or 10 years old, and
continues to yield it for 2 years at the average rate of 3 quarts a day."
(_Hist. of Ind. Arch._ I. 398.)

The words omitted in translation are unintelligible to me: "_et sunt
quatre raimes trois cel en_." (G.T.)

["Polo's description of the wine-pots of Samara hung on the trees 'like
date-palms,' agrees precisely with the Chinese account of the _shu theu
tsiu_ made from 'coir trees like cocoa-nut palms' manufactured by the
Burmese. Therefore it seems more likely that Samara is Siam (still
pronounced _Shumuro_ in Japan, and _Siamlo_ in Hakka), than Sumatra."
(_Parker_, _China Review_, XIV. p. 359.) I think it useless to discuss
this theory.--H.C.]

NOTE 4.--No one has been able to identify this state. Its position,
however, must have been near PEDIR, and perhaps it was practically the
same. Pedir was the most flourishing of those Sumatran states at the
appearance of the Portuguese.

Rashiduddin names among the towns of the Archipelago _Dalmian_, which may
perhaps be a corrupt transcript of Dagroian.

Mr. Phillips's Chinese extracts, already cited, state that west of Sumatra
(proper) were two small kingdoms, the first _Nakú-urh_, the second _Liti_.
Nakú-urh, which seems to be the _Ting-'ho-'rh_ of Pauthier's extracts,
which sent tribute to the Kaan, and may probably be Dagroian as Mr.
Phillips supposes, was also called the _Kingdom of Tattooed Folk_.

[Mr. G. Phillips wrote since (_J.R.A.S._, July 1895, p. 528): "Dragoian has
puzzled many commentators, but on (a) Chinese chart ... there is a country
called _Ta-hua-mien_, which in the Amoy dialect is pronounced _Dakolien_,
in which it is very easy to recognise the Dragoian, or Dagoyam, of Marco
Polo." In his paper of _The Seaports of India and Ceylon_ (_Jour. China
B.R.A.S._, xx. 1885, p. 221), Mr. Phillips, referring to his Chinese Map,
already said: _Ta-hsiao-hua-mien_, in the Amoy dialect _Toa-sio-hoe_ (or
_Ko_)-_bin_, "The Kingdom of the Greater and Lesser Tattooed Faces." The
Toa-Ko-bin, the greater tattooed-face people, most probably represents the
Dagroian, or Dagoyum, of Marco Polo. This country was called _Na-ku-êrh_
and Ma Huan says, "the King of _Na-ku-êrh_ is also called the King of the
Tattooed Faces."--H.C.]

Tattooing is ascribed by Friar Odoric to the people of _Sumoltra_.
(_Cathay_, p. 86.) _Liti_ is evidently the _Lidé_ of De Barros, which by
his list lay immediately east of Pedir. This would place _Nakú-urh_ about
Samarlangka. Beyond _Liti_ was _Lanmoli_ (i.e. Lambri). [See _G.
Schlegel_, _Geog. Notes_, XVI. Li-taï, Nakur.--H.C.]

There is, or was fifty years ago, a small port between Ayer Labu and
Samarlangka, called _Darián_-Gadé (_Great_ Darian?). This is the nearest
approach to Dagroian that I have met with. (_N. Ann. des V._, tom. xviii.
p. 16.)

NOTE 5.--Gasparo Balbi (1579-1587) heard the like story of the Battas
under Achin. True or false, the charge against them has come down to our
times. The like is told by Herodotus of the Paddaei in India, of the
Massagetae, and of the Issedonians; by Strabo of the Caspians and of the
Derbices; by the Chinese of one of the wild tribes of Kwei-chau; and was
told to Wallace of some of the Aru Island tribes near New Guinea, and to
Bickmore of a tribe on the south coast of Floris, called _Rakka_ (probably
a form of Hindu _Rákshasa_, or ogre-goblin). Similar charges are made
against sundry tribes of the New World, from Brazil to Vancouver Island.
Odoric tells precisely Marco's story of a certain island called Dondin.
And in "King Alisaunder," the custom is related of a people of India,
called most inappropriately _Orphani_:--

  "Another Folk woneth there beside;
  _Orphani_ he hatteth wide.
  When her eldrynges beth elde,
  And ne mowen hemselven welde
  Hy hem sleeth, and bidelve
  And," etc., etc.
      --Weber, I. p. 206.

Benedetto Bordone, in his _Isolario_ (1521 and 1547), makes the same
charge against the _Irish_, but I am glad to say that this seems only
copied fiom Strabo. Such stories are still rife in the East, like those of
men with tails. I have myself heard the tale told, nearly as Raffles tells
it of the Battas, of some of the wild tribes adjoining Arakan. (_Balbi_,
f. 130; _Raffles_, Mem. p. 427; _Wallace, Malay Archip._ 281; _Bickmore's
Travels_, p. III; _Cathay_, pp. 25, 100).

The latest and most authentic statement of the kind refers to a small
tribe called _Birhors_, existing in the wildest parts of Chota Nagpúr and
Jashpúr, west of Bengal, and is given by an accomplished Indian
ethnologist, Colonel Dalton. "They were wretched-looking objects ...
assuring me that they had themselves given up the practice, they admitted
that their fathers were in the habit of disposing of their dead in the
manner indicated, viz., by feasting on the bodies; but they declared that
they never shortened life to provide such feast, and shrunk with horror at
the idea of any bodies but those of their own blood relations being served
up at them!" (_J.A.S.B._ XXXIV. Pt. II. 18.) The same practice has been
attributed recently, but only on hearsay, to a tribe of N. Guinea called
_Tarungares_.

The Battas now bury their dead, after keeping the body a considerable
time. But the people of Nias and the Batu Islands, whom Junghuhn considers
to be of common origin with the Battas, do not bury, but expose the bodies
in coffins upon rocks by the sea. And the small and very peculiar people
of the Paggi Islands expose their dead on bamboo platforms in the forest.
It is quite probable that such customs existed in the north of Sumatra
also; indeed they may still exist, for the interior seems unknown. We do
hear of pagan hill-people inland from Pedir who make descents upon the
coast, (_Junghuhn_ II. 140; _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal_, etc. 2nd
year, No. 4; _Nouv. Ann. des. V._ XVIII.)


[1] _Marsden_, 1st ed. p. 291.

[2] _Veth's Atchin_, 1873, p. 37.

[3] It might be supposed that Varthema had stolen from Serano; but the
    book of the former was _published_ in 1510.

[4] Castanheda speaks of Pacem as the best port of the land: "standing on
    the bank of a river on marshy ground about a league inland; and at
    the mouth of the river there are some houses of timber where a customs
    collector was stationed to exact duties at the anchorage from the
    ships which touched there." (Bk. II. ch. iii.) This agrees with Ibn
    Batuta's account of Sumatra, 4 miles from its port. [A village named
    _Samudra_ discovered in our days near Pasei is perhaps a remnant of the
    kingdom of Samara. (_Merveilles de l'Inde_, p. 234.)--H.C.]

[5] If Mr. Phillips had given particulars about his map and quotations, as
    to date, author, etc., it would have given them more value. He leaves
    this vague.



CHAPTER XI.

OF THE KINGDOMS OF LAMBRI AND FANSUR.


When you leave that kingdom you come to another which is called LAMBRI.
[NOTE 1] The people are Idolaters, and call themselves the subjects of the
Great Kaan. They have plenty of Camphor and of all sorts of other spices.
They also have brazil in great quantities. This they sow, and when it is
grown to the size of a small shoot they take it up and transplant it; then
they let it grow for three years, after which they tear it up by the root.
You must know that Messer Marco Polo aforesaid brought some seed of the
brazil, such as they sow, to Venice with him, and had it sown there; but
never a thing came up. And I fancy it was because the climate was too
cold.

Now you must know that in this kingdom of Lambri there are men with tails;
these tails are of a palm in length, and have no hair on them. These
people live in the mountains and are a kind of wild men. Their tails are
about the thickness of a dog's.[NOTE 2] There are also plenty of unicorns
in that country, and abundance of game in birds and beasts.

Now then I have told you about the kingdom of Lambri.

You then come to another kingdom which is called FANSUR. The people are
Idolaters, and also call themselves subjects of the Great Kaan; and
understand, they are still on the same Island that I have been telling you
of. In this kingdom of Fansur grows the best Camphor in the world called
_Canfora Fansuri_. It is so fine that it sells for its weight in fine
gold.[NOTE 3]

The people have no wheat, but have rice which they eat with milk and
flesh. They also have wine from trees such as I told you of. And I will
tell you another great marvel. They have a kind of trees that produce
flour, and excellent flour it is for food. These trees are very tall and
thick, but have a very thin bark, and inside the bark they are crammed
with flour. And I tell you that Messer Marco Polo, who witnessed all this,
related how he and his party did sundry times partake of this flour made
into bread, and found it excellent.[NOTE 4]

There is now no more to relate. For out of those eight kingdoms we have
told you about six that lie at this side of the Island. I shall tell you
nothing about the other two kingdoms that are at the other side of the
Island, for the said Messer Marco Polo never was there. Howbeit we have
told you about the greater part of this Island of the Lesser Java: so now
we will quit it, and I will tell you of a very small Island that is called
GAUENISPOLA.[NOTE 5]


NOTE 1.--The name of Lambri is not now traceable on our maps, nor on any
list of the ports of Sumatra that I have met with; but in old times the
name occurs frequently under one form or another, and its position can be
assigned generally to the north part of the west coast, commencing from
the neighbourhood of Achin Head.

De Barros, detailing the twenty-nine kingdoms which divided the coast of
Sumatra, at the beginning of the Portuguese conquests, begins with _Daya_,
and then passes round by the north. He names as next in order LAMBRIJ, and
then _Achem_. This would make Lambri lie between Daya and Achin, for which
there is but little room. And there is an apparent inconsistency; for in
coming round again from the south, his 28th kingdom is _Quinchel_
(_Singkel_ of our modern maps), the 29th _Mancopa_, "which _falls upon
Lambrij_, which adjoins Daya, the first that we named." Most of the data
about Lambri render it very difficult to distinguish it from Achin.

The name of Lambri occurs in the Malay Chronicle, in the account of the
first Mahomedan mission to convert the Island. We shall quote the passage
in a following note.

The position of Lambri would render it one of the first points of Sumatra
made by navigators from Arabia and India; and this seems at one time to
have caused the name to be applied to the whole Island. Thus Rashiduddin
speaks of the very large Island LÁMÚRI lying beyond Ceylon, and adjoining
the country of _Sumatra_; Odoric also goes from India across the Ocean to
a certain country called LAMORI, where he began to lose sight of the North
Star. He also speaks of the camphor, gold, and lign-aloes which it
produced, and proceeds thence to _Sumoltra_ in the same Island.[1] It is
probable that the _verzino_ or brazil-wood of _Ameri_ (L'Ameri, i.e.
Lambri?) which appears in the mercantile details of Pegolotti was from
this part of Sumatra. It is probable also that the country called
_Nanwuli_, which the Chinese Annals report, with _Sumuntula_ and others,
to have sent tribute to the Great Kaan in 1286, was this same Lambri which
Polo tells us called itself subject to the Kaan.

In the time of the Sung Dynasty ships from T'swan-chau (or Zayton) bound
for _Tashi_, or Arabia, used to sail in forty days to a place called
_Lanli-poï_ (probably this is also Lambri, _Lambri-puri?_). There they
passed the winter, i.e. the south-west monsoon, just as Marco Polo's
party did at Sumatra, and sailing again when the wind became fair, they
reached Arabia in sixty days. (_Bretschneider_, p. 16.)

[The theory of Sir H. Yule is confirmed by Chinese authors quoted by Mr.
Groeneveldt (_Notes on the Malay Archipelago_, pp. 98-100): "The country
of Lambri is situated due west of Sumatra, at a distance of three days
sailing with a fair wind; it lies near the sea and has a population of
only about a thousand families.... On the east the country is bordered by
Litai, on the west and the north by the sea, and on the south by high
mountains, at the south of which is the sea again.... At the north-west of
this country, in the sea, at a distance of half a day, is a flat mountain,
called the Hat-island; the sea at the west of it is the great ocean, and
is called the Ocean of Lambri. Ships coming from the west all take this
island as a landmark." Mr. Groeneveldt adds: "Lambri [according to his
extracts from Chinese authors] must have been situated on the
north-western corner of the island of Sumatra, on or near the spot of the
present Achin: we see that it was bounded by the sea on the north and the
west, and that the Indian Ocean was called after this insignificant place,
because it was considered to begin there. Moreover, the small island at
half a day's distance, called Hat-island, perfectly agrees with the small
islands Bras or Nasi, lying off Achin, and of which the former, with its
newly-erected lighthouse, is a landmark for modern navigation, just what it
is said in our text to have been for the natives then. We venture to think
that the much discussed situation of Marco Polo's Lambri is definitely
settled herewith." The Chinese author writes: "The mountains [of Lambri]
produce the fragrant wood called _Hsiang-chên Hsiang_." Mr. Groeneveldt
remarks (l.c. p. 143) that this "is the name of a fragrant wood, much used
as incense, but which we have not been able to determine. Dr. Williams says
it comes from Sumatra, where it is called laka-wood, and is the product of
a tree to which the name of _Tanarius major_ is given by him. For different
reasons, we think this identification subject to doubt."

Captain M.J.C. Lucardie mentions a village called Lamreh, situated at
Atjeh, near Tungkup, in the xxvi. Mukim, which might be a remnant of the
country of Lameri. (_Merveilles de l'Inde_, p. 235.)--H.C.]

(_De Barros_, Dec. III. Bk. V. ch. i.; _Elliot_, I. 70; _Cathay_, 84,
seqq.; _Pegol._ p. 361; _Pauthier_, p. 605.)

NOTE 2.--Stories of tailed or hairy men are common in the Archipelago, as
in many other regions. Kazwini tells of the hairy little men that are
found in Rámni (Sumatra) with a language like birds' chirping. Marsden was
told of hairy people called _Orang Gugu_ in the interior of the Island,
who differed little, except in the use of speech, from the Orang utang.
Since his time a French writer, giving the same name and same description,
declares that he saw "a group" of these hairy people on the coast of
Andragiri, and was told by them that they inhabited the interior of
Menangkabau and formed a small tribe. It is rather remarkable that this
writer makes no allusion to Marsden though his account is so nearly
identical (_L'Océanie_ in _L'Univers Pittoresque_, I. 24.) [One of the
stories of the _Merveilles de l'Inde_ (p. 125) is that there are
anthropophagi with tails at Lulu bilenk between Fansur and Lâmeri.--H.C.]
Mr. Anderson says there are "a few wild people in the Siak country, very
little removed in point of civilisation above their companions the
monkeys," but he says nothing of hairiness nor tails. For the earliest
version of the tail story we must go back to Ptolemy and the Isles of the
Satyrs in this quarter; or rather to Ctesias who tells of tailed men on an
Island in the Indian Sea. Jordanus also has the story of the hairy men.
Galvano heard that there were on the Island certain people called _Daraque
Dara_ (?), which had tails like unto sheep. And the King of Tidore told
him of another such tribe on the Isle of Batochina. Mr. St. John in Borneo
met with a trader who had seen and _felt_ the tails of such a race
inhabiting the north-east coast of that Island. The appendage was 4 inches
long and very stiff; so the people all used perforated seats. This Borneo
story has lately been brought forward in Calcutta, and stoutly maintained,
on native evidence, by an English merchant. The Chinese also have their
tailed men in the mountains above Canton. In Africa there have been many
such stories, of some of which an account will be found in the _Bulletin
de la Soc. de Géog._ sér. IV. tom. iii. p. 31. It was a story among
mediaeval Mahomedans that the members of the Imperial House of Trebizond
were endowed with short tails, whilst mediaeval Continentals had like
stories about Englishmen, as Matthew Paris relates. Thus we find in the
Romance of Coeur de Lion, Richard's messengers addressed by the "Emperor
of Cyprus":--

  "Out, _Taylards_, of my palys!
  Now go, and say your _tayled_ King
  That I owe him nothing."
      --_Weber_, II. 83.

The Princes of Purbandar, in the Peninsula of Guzerat, claim descent from
the monkey-god Hanumán, and allege in justification a spinal elongation
which gets them the name of _Púncháriah_, "Taylards."

(_Ethé's Kazwini_, p. 221; _Anderson_, p. 210; _St. John, Forests of the
Far East_, I. 40; _Galvano_, Hak. Soc. 108, 120; _Gildemeister_, 194;
_Allen's Indian Mail_, July 28, 1869; _Mid. Kingd._ I. 293; _N. et Ext._
XIII. i. 380; _Mat. Paris_ under A.D. 1250; _Tod's Rajasthan_, I. 114.)

NOTE 3.--The Camphor called _Fansúrí_ is celebrated by Arab writers at
least as old as the 9th century, e.g., by the author of the first part
of the _Relations_, by Mas'udi in the next century, also by Avicenna, by
Abulfeda, by Kazwini, and by Abul Fazl, etc. In the second and third the
name is miswritten _Kansúr_, and by the last _Kaisúri_, but there can be
no doubt of the correction required. (_Reinaud_, I. 7; _Mas._ I. 338;
_Liber Canonis_, Ven. 1544, I. 116; _Büsching_, IV. 277; _Gildem._ p. 209;
_Ain-i-Akb._ p. 78.) In Serapion we find the same camphor described as
that of _Pansor_; and when, leaving Arab authorities and the earlier
Middle Ages we come to Garcias, he speaks of the same article under the
name of camphor of _Barros_. And this is the name--_Kápúr Bárús_--derived
from the port which has been the chief shipping-place of Sumatran camphor
for _at least_ three centuries, by which the native camphor is still known
in Eastern trade, as distinguished from the _Kápúr Chíná_ or
_Kápúr-Japún_, as the Malays term the article derived in those countries by
distillation from the _Laurus Camphora_. The earliest western mention of
camphor is in the same prescription by the physician Aëtius (circa A.D.
540) that contains one of the earliest mentions of musk. (supra, I. p.
279.) The prescription ends: "and _if you have a supply of camphor_ add two
ounces of that." (_Aetii Medici Graeci Tetrabiblos_, etc., Froben, 1549, p.
910.)

It is highly probable that _Fansúr_ and _Barús_ may be not only the same
locality but mere variations of the same name.[2] The place is called in
the _Shijarat Malayu_, _Pasuri_, a name which the Arabs certainly made
into _Fansúri_ in one direction, and which might easily in another, by a
very common kind of Oriental metathesis, pass into _Barúsi_. The legend in
the Shijarat Malayu relates to the first Mahomedan mission for the
conversion of Sumatra, sent by the Sherif of Mecca via India. After
sailing from Malabar the first place the party arrived at was PASURI, the
people of which embraced Islam. They then proceeded to LAMBRI, which also
accepted the Faith. Then they sailed on till they reached _Haru_ (see on
my map _Aru_ on the East Coast), which did likewise. At this last place
they enquired for SAMUDRA, which seems to have been the special object of
their mission, and found that they had passed it. Accordingly they
retraced their course to PERLAK, and after converting that place went on
to SAMUDRA, where they converted Mara Silu the King. (See note 1, ch. x.
above.) This passage is of extreme interest as naming _four_ out of
Marco's six kingdoms, and in positions quite accordant with his
indications. As noticed by Mr. Braddell, from whose abstract I take the
passage, the circumstance of the party having passed Samudra unwittingly
is especially consistent with the site we have assigned to it near the
head of the Bay of Pasei, as a glance at the map will show.

Valentyn observes: "_Fansur_ can be nought else than the famous _Pantsur_,
no longer known indeed by that name, but a kingdom which we become
acquainted with through _Hamza Pantsuri_, a celebrated Poet, and native of
this Pantsur. It lay in the north angle of the Island, and a little west
of Achin: it formerly was rife with trade and population, but would have
been utterly lost in oblivion had not Hamza Pantsuri made us again
acquainted with it." Nothing indeed could well be "a little west of
Achin"; this is doubtless a slip for "a little down the west coast from
Achin." Hamza Fantsuri, as he is termed by Professor Veth, who also
identifies Fantsur with Bárús, was a poet of the first half of the 17th
century, who in his verses popularised the mystical theology of Shamsuddin
Shamatrani (supra, p. 291), strongly tinged with pantheism. The works of
both were solemnly burnt before the great mosque of Achin about 1640. (_J.
Ind. Arch._ V. 312 seqq; _Valentyn_, Sumatra, in Vol. V., p. 21; _Veth,
Atchin_, Leiden, 1873, p. 38.)

Mas'udi says that the Fansur Camphor was found most plentifully in years
rife with storms and earthquakes. Ibn Batuta gives a jumbled and highly
incorrect account of the product, but one circumstance that he mentions is
possibly founded on a real superstition, viz., that no camphor was formed
unless some animal had been sacrificed at the root of the tree, and the
best quality only then when a human victim had been offered. Nicolo Conti
has a similar statement: "The Camphor is found inside the tree, and if
they do not sacrifice to the gods before they cut the bark, it disappears
and is no more seen." Beccari, in our day, mentions special ceremonies
used by the Kayans of Borneo, before they commence the search. These
superstitions hinge on the great uncertainty of finding camphor in any
given tree, after the laborious process of cutting it down and splitting
it, an uncertainty which also largely accounts for the high price. By far
the best of the old accounts of the product is that quoted by Kazwini from
Mahomed Ben Zakaria Al-Rázi: "Among the number of marvellous things in
this Island" (_Zánij_ for Zábaj, i.e. Java or Sumatra) "is the Camphor
Tree, which is of vast size, insomuch that its shade will cover a hundred
persons and more. They bore into the highest part of the tree and thence
flows out the camphor-water, enough to fill many pitchers. Then they open
the tree lower down about the middle, and extract the camphor in lumps."
[This very account is to be found in Ibn Khordâdhbeh. (_De Goeje's
transl._ p. 45.)--H.C.] Compare this passage, which we may notice has
been borrowed bodily by Sindbad of the Sea, with what is probably the best
modern account, Junghuhn's: "Among the forest trees (of Tapanuli adjoining
Barus) the Camphor Tree (_Dryabalanops Camphora_) attracts beyond all the
traveller's observation, by its straight columnar and colossal grey trunk,
and its mighty crown of foliage, rising high above the canopy of the
forest. It exceeds in dimensions the _Rasamala_,[3] the loftiest tree of
Java, and is probably the greatest tree of the Archipelago, if not of the
world,[4] reaching a height of 200 feet. One of the middling size which I
had cut down measured at the base, where the camphor leaks out, 7-1/2
Paris feet in diameter (about 8 feet English); its trunk rose to 100 feet,
with an upper diameter of 5 feet, before dividing, and the height of the
whole tree to the crown was 150 feet. The precious consolidated camphor is
found in small quantities, 1/4 lb. to 1 lb. in a single tree, in
fissure-like hollows in the stem. Yet many are cut down in vain, or split
up the side without finding camphor. The camphor oil is prepared by the
natives by bruising and boiling the twigs." The oil, however, appears also
to be found in the tree, as Crawford and Collingwood mention, corroborating
the ancient Arab.

It is well known that the Chinese attach an extravagantly superior value
to the Malay camphor, and probably its value in Marco's day was higher
than it is now, but still its estimate as worth its weight in gold looks
like hyperbole. Forrest, a century ago, says Barus Camphor was in the
Chinese market worth nearly its weight in _silver_, and this is true
still. The price is commonly estimated at 100 times that of the Chinese
camphor. The whole quantity exported from the Barus territory goes to
China. De Vriese reckons the average annual export from Sumatra between
1839 and 1844 at less than 400 kilogrammes. The following table shows the
wholesale rates in the Chinese market as given by Rondot in 1848:--

    _Qualities of Camphor_.           _Per picul of 133-1/3 lbs._
    Ordinary China, 1st quality                    20 dollars.
       "       "    2nd    "                       14    "
    Formosa                                        25    "
    Japan                                          30    "
    China _ngai_ (ext. from an Artemisia)         250    "
    Barus, 1st quality                           2000    "
      "    2nd   "                               1000    "

The Chinese call the Sumatran (or Borneo) Camphor _Ping-pien_ "Icicle
flakes," and _Lung-nan_ "Dragon's Brains." [Regarding Baros Camphor, Mr.
Groeneveldt writes (_Notes_, p. 142): "This substance is generally called
_dragon's brain perfume_, or _icicles_. The former name has probably been
invented by the first dealers in the article, who wanted to impress their
countrymen with a great idea of its value and rarity. In the trade three
different qualities are distinguished: the first is called
_prune-blossoms_, being the larger pieces; the second is _rice-camphor_, so
called because the particles are not larger than a rice-kernel, and the
last quality is _golden dregs_, in the shape of powder. These names are
still now used by the Chinese traders on the west coast of Sumatra. The
_Pên-ts'au Kang-mu_ further informs us that the Camphor Baros is found in
the trunk of a tree in a solid shape, whilst from the roots an oil is
obtained called _Po-lut_ (Pa-lut) _incense_, or _Polut balm_. The name of
Polut is said to be derived from the country where it is found (Baros.)"
--H. C] It is just to remark, however, that in the _Aín Akbari_ we find the
price of the Sumatran Camphor, known to the Hindus as _Bhím Seni_, varying
from 3 rupees as high as 2 mohurs (or 20 rupees) for a rupee's weight,
which latter price would be _twice_ the weight in gold. Abul Fazl says the
worst camphor went by the name of _Bálús_. I should suspect some mistake,
as we know from Garcias that the fine camphor was already known as _Barus_.
(_Ain-i-Akb._ 75-79.)

(_Mas'udi_, I. 338; _I.B._ IV. 241; _J.A._ sér. IV. tom. viii. 216;
_Lane's Arab. Nights_ (1859), III. 21; _Battaländer_, I. 107; _Crawf.
Hist._ III. 218, and _Desc. Dict._ 81; _Hedde et Rondot, Com. de la
Chine_, 36-37; _Chin. Comm. Guide; Dr. F.A. Flückiger, Zur Geschichte des
Camphers_, in _Schweiz. Wochenschr. für Pharmacie_, Sept., Oct., 1867.)

NOTE 4.--An interesting notice of the Sago-tree, of which Odoric also
gives an account. Ramusio is, however, here fuller and more accurate:
"Removing the first bark, which is but thin, you come on the wood of the
tree which forms a thickness all round of some three fingers, but all
inside this is a pith of flour, like that of the _Carvolo_ (?). The trees
are so big that it will take two men to span them. They put this flour
into tubs of water, and beat it up with a stick, and then the bran and
other impurities come to the top, whilst the pure flour sinks to the
bottom. The water is then thrown away, and the cleaned flour that remains
is taken and made into _pasta_ in strips and other forms. These Messer
Marco often partook of, and brought some with him to Venice. It resembles
barley bread and tastes much the same. The wood of this tree is like iron,
for if thrown into the water it goes straight to the bottom. It can be
split straight from end to end like a cane. When the flour has been
removed the wood remains, as has been said, three inches thick. Of this
the people make short lances, not long ones, because they are so heavy
that no one could carry or handle them if long. One end is sharpened and
charred in the fire, and when thus prepared they will pierce any armour,
and much better than iron would do." Marsden points out that this heavy
lance-wood is not that of the true Sago-palm, but of the _Nibong_ or
Caryota urens; which does indeed give some amount of sago.

["When sago is to be made, a full-grown tree is selected just before it is
going to flower. It is cut down close to the ground, the leaves and
leaf-stalks cleared away, and a broad strip of the bark taken off the upper
side of the trunk. This exposes the pithy matter, which is of a rusty
colour near the bottom of the tree, but higher up pure white, about as hard
as a dry apple, but with woody fibres running through it about a quarter of
an inch apart. This pith is cut or broken down into a coarse powder, by
means of a tool constructed for the purpose.... Water is poured on the mass
of pith, which is kneaded and pressed against the strainer till the starch
is all dissolved and has passed through, when the fibrous refuse is thrown
away, and a fresh basketful put in its place. The water charged with sago
starch passes on to a trough, with a depression in the centre, where the
sediment is deposited, the surplus water trickling off by a shallow outlet.
When the trough is nearly full, the mass of starch, which has a slight
reddish tinge, is made into cylinders of about thirty pounds' weight, and
neatly covered with sago leaves, and in this state is sold as raw sago.
Boiled with water this forms a thick glutinous mass, with a rather
astringent taste, and is eaten with salt, limes, and chilies. Sago-bread is
made in large quantities, by baking it into cakes in a small clay oven
containing six or eight slits side by side, each about three-quarters of an
inch wide, and six or eight inches square. The raw sago is broken up, dried
in the sun, powdered, and finely sifted. The oven is heated over a clear
fire of embers, and is lightly filled with the sago powder. The openings
are then covered with a flat piece of sago bark, and in about five minutes
the cakes are turned out sufficiently baked. The hot cakes are very nice
with butter, and when made with the addition of a little sugar and grated
cocoa-nut are quite a delicacy. They are soft, and something like
corn-flour cakes, but have a slight characteristic flavour which is lost in
the refined sago we use in this country. When not wanted for immediate use,
they are dried for several days in the sun, and tied up in bundles of
twenty. They will then keep for years; they are very hard, and very rough
and dry...." (_A. R. Wallace's Malay Archipelago_, 1869, II. pp. 118-121.)
--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--In quitting the subject of these Sumatran Kingdoms it may appear
to some readers that our explanations compress them too much, especially
as Polo seems to allow only two kingdoms for the rest of the Island. In
this he was doubtless wrong, and we may the less scruple to say so as he
had _not_ visited that other portion of the Island. We may note that in
the space to which we assign the _six_ kingdoms which Polo visited, De
Barros assigns _twelve_, viz.: Bara (corresponding generally to _Ferlec_),
Pacem (_Basma_), Pirada, Lide, Pedir, Biar, Achin, _Lambri_, Daya,
Mancopa, Quinchel, Barros (_Fansur_). (_Dec._ III. v. 1.)

[Regarding these Sumatrian kingdoms, Mr. Thomson (_Proc.R.G.S._ XX. p.
223) writes that Malaiur "is no other than Singapore ... the ancient
capital of the Malays or Malaiurs of old voyagers, existent in the times
of Marco Polo [who] mentions no kingdom or city in Java Minor till he
arrives at the kingdom of Felech or Perlak. And this is just as might be
expected, as the channel in the Straits of Malacca leads on the
north-eastern side out of sight of Sumatra; and the course, after clearing
the shoals near Selangore, being direct towards Diamond Point, near which
... the tower of Perlak is situated. Thus we see that the Venetian
traveller describes the first city or kingdom in the great island that he
arrived at.... [After Basman and Samara] Polo mentions Dragoian ... from
the context, and following Marco Polo's course, we would place it west from
his last city or Kingdom Samara; and we make no doubt, if the name is not
much corrupted, it may yet be identified in one of the villages of the
coast at this present time.... By the Malay annalist, Lambri was west of
Samara; consecutively it was also westerly from Samara by Marco Polo's
enumeration. Fanfur ... is the last kingdom named by Marco Polo [coming
from the east], and the first by the Malay annalist [coming from the west];
and as it is known to modern geographers, this corroboration doubly settles
the identity and position of all. Thus all the six cities or kingdoms
mentioned by Marco Polo were situated on the north coast of Sumatra, now
commonly known as the Pedir coast." I have given the conclusion arrived at
by Mr. J.T. Thomson in his paper, _Marco Polo's Six Kingdoms or Cities in
Java Minor, identified in translations from the ancient Malay Annals_,
which appeared in the _Proc.R.G.S._ XX. pp. 215-224, after the second
edition of this Book was published and Sir H. Yule added the following note
(_Proc._, l.c., p. 224): "Mr. Thomson, as he mentions, has not seen my
edition of _Marco Polo_, nor, apparently, a paper on the subject of these
kingdoms by the late Mr. J.R. Logan, in his _Journal of the Indian
Archipelago_, to which reference is made in the notes to _Marco Polo_. In
the said paper and notes the quotations and conclusions of Mr. Thomson have
been anticipated; and _Fansúr_ also, which he leaves undetermined,
identified."--H.C.]


[1] I formerly supposed _Al-Ramni_, the oldest Arabic name of
    Sumatra, to be a corruption of Lambri; but this is more probably of
    Hindu origin. One of the _Dvípas_ of the ocean mentioned in the
    Puranas is called _Rámaníyaka_, "delightfulness." (_Williams's
    Skt. Dict._)

[2] Van der Tuuk says positively, I find: "Fantsur was the ancient name of
    Bárus." (_J.R.A.S._ n.s. II. 232.) [Professor Schlegel writes
    also (_Geog. Notes_, XVI. p. 9): "At all events, _Fansur_ or
    _Pantsur_ can be naught but Baros."--H.C.]

[3] _Liquidambar Altingiana_.

[4] The Californian and Australian giants of 400 feet were not then known.



CHAPTER XII.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF NECUVERAN.


When you leave the Island of Java (the less) and the kingdom of Lambri,
you sail north about 150 miles, and then you come to two Islands, one of
which is called NECUVERAN. In this Island they have no king nor chief, but
live like beasts. And I tell you they go all naked, both men and women,
and do not use the slightest covering of any kind. They are Idolaters.
Their woods are all of noble and valuable kinds of trees; such as Red
Sanders and Indian-nut and Cloves and Brazil and sundry other good spices.
[NOTE 1]

There is nothing else worth relating; so we will go on, and I will tell
you of an Island called Angamanain.


NOTE 1.--The end of the last chapter and the commencement of this I have
taken from the G. Text. There has been some confusion in the notes of the
original dictation which that represents, and corrections have made it
worse. Thus Pauthier's text runs: "I will tell you of two small Islands,
one called Gauenispola and the other Necouran," and then: "You sail north
about 150 miles and find two Islands, one called Necouran and the other
Gauenispola." Ramusio does not mention Gauenispola, but says in the former
passage: "I will tell you of a small Island called Nocueran"--and then:
"You find two islands, one called Nocueran and the other Angaman."

Knowing the position of Gauenispola there is no difficulty in seeing how
the passage should be explained. Something has interrupted the dictation
after the last chapter. Polo asks Rusticiano, "Where were we?" "Leaving
the Great Island." Polo forgets the "very small Island called
Gauenispola," and passes to the north, where he has to tell us of two
islands, "one called Necuveran and the other Angamanain." So, I do not
doubt, the passage should run.

Let us observe that his point of departure in sailing north to the Nicobar
Islands was the _Kingdom of Lambri_. This seems to indicate that Lambri
included Achin Head or came very near it, an indication which we shall
presently see confirmed.

As regards Gauenispola, of which he promised to tell us and forgot his
promise, its name has disappeared from our modern maps, but it is easily
traced in the maps of the 16th and 17th centuries, and in the books of
navigators of that time. The latest in which I have observed it is the
_Neptune Oriental_, Paris 1775, which calls it _Pulo Gommes_. The name is
there applied to a small island off Achin Head, outside of which lie the
somewhat larger Islands of Pulo Nankai (or Nási) and Pulo Brás, whilst
Pulo Wai lies further east.[1] I imagine, however, that the name was by
the older navigators applied to the larger Island of Pulo Bras, or to the
whole group. Thus Alexander Hamilton, who calls it _Gomus_ and _Pulo
Gomuis_, says that "from the Island of Gomus and Pulo Wey ... the
southernmost of the Nicobars may be seen." Dampier most precisely applies
the name of Pulo Gomez to the larger island which modern charts call Pulo
Bras. So also Beaulieu couples the islands of "_Gomispoda_ and Pulo Way"
in front of the roadstead of Achin. De Barros mentions that Gaspar
d'Acosta was lost on the Island of _Gomispola_. Linschoten, describing the
course from Cochin to Malacca, says: "You take your course towards the
small Isles of GOMESPOLA, which are in 6°, near the corner of Achin in the
Island of Sumatra." And the Turkish author of the _Mohit_, in speaking of
the same navigation, says: "If you wish to reach Malacca, guard against
seeing JÁMISFULAH ([Arabic]), because the mountains of LÁMRI advance into
the sea, and the flood is there very strong." The editor has misunderstood
the geography of this passage, which evidently means "Don't go near enough
to Achin Head to see even the islands in front of it." And here we see
again that Lambri is made to extend to Achin Head. The passage is
illustrated by the report of the first English Voyage to the Indies. Their
course was for the Nicobars, but "by the Master's fault in not duly
observing the South Star, they fell to the southward of them, _within
sight of the Islands of Gomes Polo_." (_Nept. Orient._ Charts 38 and 39,
and pp. 126-127; _Hamilton_, II. 66 and Map; _Dampier_, ed. 1699, II. 122;
_H. Gén. des Voyages_, XII. 310; _Linschoten_, Routier, p. 30; _De
Barros_, Dec. III. liv. iii. cap. 3; _J.A.S.B._ VI. 807; _Astley_, I.
238.)

The two islands (or rather groups of islands) _Necuveran_ and _Angamanain_
are the Nicobar and Andaman groups. A nearer trace of the form Necuveran,
or _Necouran_ as it stands in some MSS., is perhaps preserved in
_Nancouri_, the existing name of one of the islands. They are perhaps the
_Nalo-kilo-chéu_ (_Narikela-dvipa_) or Coco-nut Islands of which Hiuen
Tsang speaks as existing some thousand _li_ to the south of Ceylon. The
men, he had heard, were but 3 feet high, and had the beaks of birds. They
had no cultivation and lived on coco-nuts. The islands are also believed
to be the _Lanja bálús_ or _Lankha bálús_ of the old Arab navigators:
"These Islands support a numerous population. Both men and women go naked,
only the women wear a girdle of the leaves of trees. When a ship passes
near, the men come out in boats of various sizes and barter ambergris and
coco-nuts for iron," a description which has applied accurately for many
centuries. [Ibn Khordâdhbeh says (_De Goeje's transl._, p. 45) that the
inhabitants of Nicobar (Alankabâlous), an island situated at ten or
fifteen days from Serendib, are naked; they live on bananas, fresh fish,
and coco-nuts; the precious metal is iron in their country; they frequent
foreign merchants.--H.C.] Rashiduddin writes of them nearly in the same
terms under the name of _Lákváram_, but read NÁKAVÁRAM opposite LAMURI.
Odoric also has a chapter on the island of _Nicoveran_, but it is one full
of fable. (_H. Tsang_, III. 114 and 517; _Relations_, p. 8; _Elliot_, I.
p. 71; _Cathay_, p. 97.)

[Mr. G. Phillips writes (_J.R.A.S._, July 1895, P. 529) that the name
Tsui-lan given to the Nicobars by the Chinese is, he has but little doubt,
"a corruption of Nocueran, the name given by Marco Polo to the group. The
characters Tsui-lan are pronounced Ch'ui-lan in Amoy, out of which it is
easy to make Cueran. The Chinese omitted the initial syllable and called
them the Cueran Islands, while Marco Polo called them the Nocueran
Islands."--H.C.]

[The Nicobar Islands "are generally known by the Chinese under the name of
_Râkchas_ or Demons who devour men, from the belief that their inhabitants
were anthropophagi. In A.D. 607, the Emperor of China, Yang-ti, had sent
an envoy to Siam, who also reached the country of the Râkchas. According
to _Tu-yen's T'ung-tien_, the Nicobars lie east [west] of Poli. Its
inhabitants are very ugly, having red hair, black bodies, teeth like
beasts, and claws like hawks. Sometimes they traded with _Lin-yih_
(Champa), but then at night; in day-time they covered their faces." (_G.
Schlegel, Geog. Notes_, I. pp. 1-2).--H.C.]

Mr. Phillips, from his anonymous Chinese author, gives a quaint legend as
to the nakedness of these islanders. Sakya Muni, having arrived from
Ceylon, stopped at the islands to bathe. Whilst he was in the water the
natives stole his clothes, upon which the Buddha cursed them; and they
have never since been able to wear any clothing without suffering for it.

[Professor Schlegel gives the same legend (_Geog. Notes_, I. p. 8) with
reference to the _Andaman_ Islands from the _Sing-ch'a Shêng-lan_,
published in 1436 by Fei-sin; Mr. Phillips seems to have made a confusion
between the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. (_Doolittle's Vocab._ II. p. 556;
cf. _Schlegel_, l.c. p. 11.)--H.C.]

The chief part of the population is believed to be of race akin to the
Malay, but they seem to be of more than one race, and there is great
variety in dialect. There have long been reports of a black tribe with
woolly hair in the unknown interior of the Great Nicobar, and my friend
Colonel H. Man, when Superintendent of our Andaman Settlements, received
spontaneous corroboration of this from natives of the former island, who
were on a visit to Port Blair. Since this has been in type I have seen in
the _F. of India_ (28th July, 1874) notice of a valuable work by F.A. de
Roepstorff on the dialects and manners of the Nicobarians. This notice
speaks of an aboriginal race called _Shob'aengs_, "purely Mongolian," but
does not mention negritoes. The natives do not now go quite naked; the men
wear a narrow cloth; and the women a grass girdle. They are very skilful
in management of their canoes. Some years since there were frightful
disclosures regarding the massacre of the crews of vessels touching at
these islands, and this has led eventually to their occupation by the
Indian Government. Trinkat and Nancouri are the islands which were guilty.
A woman of Trinkat who could speak Malay was examined by Colonel Man, and
she acknowledged having seen nineteen vessels scuttled, after their
cargoes had been plundered and their crews massacred. "The natives who
were captured at Trinkat," says Colonel Man in another letter, "were a
most savage-looking set, with remarkably long arms, and very projecting
eye-teeth."

The islands have always been famous for the quality and abundance of their
"Indian Nuts," i.e. cocos. The tree of next importance to the natives is
a kind of Pandanus, from the cooked fruit of which they express an edible
substance called Melori, of which you may read in Dampier; they have the
betel and areca; and they grow yams, but only for barter. As regards the
other vegetation, mentioned by Polo, I will quote, what Colonel Man writes
to me from the Andamans, which probably is in great measure applicable to
the Nicobars also! "Our woods are very fine, and doubtless resemble those
of the Nicobars. Sapan wood (i.e. Polo's _Brazil_) is in abundance;
coco-nuts, so numerous in the Nicobars, and to the north in the Cocos, are
not found naturally with us, though they grow admirably when cultivated.
There is said to be sandal-wood in our forests, and camphor, but I have
not yet come across them. I do not believe in _cloves_, but we have lots
of the wild nutmeg."[2] The last, and cardamoms, are mentioned in the
_Voyage of the Novara_, vol. ii., in which will be found a detail of the
various European attempts to colonise the Nicobar Islands with other
particulars. (See also _J.A.S.B._ XV. 344 seqq.) [See _Schlegel's
Geog. Notes_, XVI., _The Old States in the Island of Sumatra._--H.C.]


[1] It was a mistake to suppose the name had disappeared, for it is
    applied, in the form _Pulo Gaimr_, to the small island above indicated,
    in Colonel Versteeg's map to Veth's _Atchin_ (1873). In a map chiefly
    borrowed from that, in _Ocean Highways_, August, 1873, I have ventured
    to restore the name as _Pulo Gomus_. The name is perhaps (Mal.)
    _Gamás_, "hard, rough."

[2] Kurz's _Vegetation of the Andaman Islands_ gives four _myristicae_
    (nutmegs); but no sandal-wood nor camphor-laurel. Nor do I find
    sappan-wood, though there is another Caesalpinia (_C. Nuga_).



CHAPTER XIII.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ANGAMANAIN.


Angamanain is a very large Island. The people are without a king and are
Idolaters, and no better than wild beasts. And I assure you all the men of
this Island of Angamanain have heads like dogs, and teeth and eyes
likewise; in fact, in the face they are all just like big mastiff dogs!
They have a quantity of spices; but they are a most cruel generation, and
eat everybody that they can catch, if not of their own race.[NOTE 1] They
live on flesh and rice and milk, and have fruits different from any of
ours.

Now that I have told you about this race of people, as indeed it was
highly proper to do in this our book, I will go on to tell you about an
Island called Seilan, as you shall hear.


NOTE 1.--Here Marco speaks of the remarkable population of the Andaman
Islands--Oriental negroes in the lowest state of barbarism--who have
remained in their isolated and degraded condition, so near the shores of
great civilised countries, for so many ages. "Rice and milk" they have
not, and their fruits are only wild ones.

[From the _Sing-ch'a Shêng-lan_ quoted by Professor Schlegel (_Geog.
Notes_, I. p. 8) we learn that these islanders have neither "rice or corn,
but only descend into the sea and catch fish and shrimps in their nets;
they also plant Banians and Cocoa-trees for their food."--H.C.]

I imagine our traveller's form _Angamanain_ to be an Arabic (oblique)
dual--"The two ANDAMANS," viz. The Great and The Little, the former being
in truth a chain of three islands, but so close and nearly continuous as
to form apparently one, and to be named as such.

[Illustration: The Borús. (From a Manuscript.)]

[Professor Schlegel writes (_Geog. Notes._ I. p. 12): "This etymology is
to be rejected because the old Chinese transcription gives _So_--(or
_Sun_) _damân_.... The _Pien-i-tien_ (ch. 107, I. fol. 30) gives a
description of Andaman, here called _An-to-man kwoh_, quoted from the
_San-tsai Tu-hwui_."--H.C.]

The origin of the name seems to be unknown. The only person to my
knowledge who has given a meaning to it is Nicolo Conti, who says it means
"Island of Gold"; probably a mere sailor's yarn. The name, however, is
very old, and may perhaps be traced in Ptolemy; for he names an island of
cannibals called that of _Good Fortune_, [Greek: Agathoû daímonos]. It
seems probable enough that this was [Greek: Agdaimóuos Naêsos], or the
like, "The Angdaman Island," misunderstood. His next group of Islands is
the _Barussae_, which seems again to be the Lankha _Bálús_ of the oldest
Arab navigators, since these are certainly the Nicobars. [The name first
appears distinctly in the Arab narratives of the 9th century. (_Yule,
Hobson-Jobson_.)]

The description of the natives of the Andaman Islands in the early Arab
_Relations_ has been often quoted, but it is too like our traveller's
account to be omitted: "The inhabitants of these islands eat men alive.
They are black with woolly hair, and in their eyes and countenance there
is something quite frightful.... They go naked, and have no boats. If they
had they would devour all who passed near them. Sometimes ships that are
wind-bound, and have exhausted their provision of water, touch here and
apply to the natives for it; in such cases the crew sometimes fall into
the hands of the latter, and most of them are massacred" (p. 9).

[Illustration: The Cynocephali. (From the _Livre des Merveilles_.)]

The traditional charge of cannibalism against these people used to be very
persistent, though it is generally rejected since our settlement upon the
group in 1858. Mr. Logan supposes the report was cherished by those who
frequented the islands for edible birds' nests, in order to keep the
monopoly. Of their murdering the crews of wrecked vessels, like their
Nicobar neighbours, I believe there is no doubt; and it has happened in
our own day. Cesare Federici, in Ramusio, speaks of the terrible fate of
crews wrecked on the Andamans; all such were killed and eaten by the
natives, who refused all intercourse with strangers. A. Hamilton mentions
a friend of his who was wrecked on the islands; nothing more was ever
heard of the ship's company, "which gave ground to conjecture that they
were all devoured by those savage cannibals."

They do not, in modern times, I believe, in their canoes, quit their own
immediate coast, but Hamilton says they used, in his time, to come on
forays to the Nicobar Islands; and a paper in the _Asiatic Researches_
mentions a tradition to the same effect as existing on the Car Nicobar.
They have retained all the aversion to intercourse anciently ascribed to
them, and they still go naked as of old, the utmost exception being a
leaf-apron worn by the women near the British Settlement.

The Dog-head feature is at least as old as Ctesias. The story originated,
I imagine, in the disgust with which "allophylian" types of countenance
are regarded, kindred to the feeling which makes the Hindus and other
eastern nations represent the aborigines whom they superseded as demons.
The Cubans described the Caribs to Columbus as man-eaters with dogs'
muzzles; and the old Danes had tales of Cynocephali in Finland. A curious
passage from the Arab geographer Ibn Said pays an ambiguous compliment to
the forefathers of Moltke and Von Roon: "The _Borús_ (Prussians) are a
miserable people, and still more savage than the Russians..... One reads
in some books _that the _Borús _have dogs' faces; it is a way of saying
that they are very brave"_ Ibn Batuta describes an Indo-Chinese tribe on
the coast of Arakan or Pegu as having dogs' mouths, but says the _women_
were beautiful. Friar Jordanus had heard the same of the dog-headed
islanders. And one odd form of the story, found, strange to say, both in
China and diffused over Ethiopia, represents the males as _actual_ dogs
whilst the females are women. Oddly, too, Père Barbe tells us that a
tradition of the Nicobar people themselves represent them as of canine
descent, but on the female side! The like tale in early Portuguese days
was told of the Peguans, viz. that they sprang from a dog and a Chinese
woman. It is mentioned by Camoens (X. 122). Note, however, that in Colonel
Man's notice of the wilder part of the Nicobar people the projecting
canine teeth are spoken of.

Abraham Roger tells us that the Coromandel Brahmans used to say that the
_Rákshasas_ or Demons had their abode "on the Island of Andaman lying on
the route from Pulicat to Pegu," and also that they were man-eaters. This
would be very curious if it were a genuine old Brahmanical _Saga;_ but I
fear it may have been gathered from the Arab seamen. Still it is
remarkable that a strange weird-looking island, a steep and regular
volcanic cone, which rises covered with forest to a height of 2150 feet,
straight out of the deep sea to the eastward of the Andaman group, bears
the name _Narkandam_, in which one cannot but recognise [Script], _Narak_,
"Hell"; perhaps _Naraka-kundam_, "a pit of hell." Can it be that in old
times, but still contemporary with Hindu navigation, this volcano was
active, and that some Brahman St. Brandon recognised in it the mouth of
Hell, congenial to the Rakshasas of the adjacent group?

  "Si est de saint Brandon le matère furnie;
  Qui fu si près d'enfer, à nef et à galie,
  Que déable d'enfer issirent, par maistrie,
  Getans brandons de feu, pour lui faire hasquie."
      --_Bauduin de Seboure_, I. 123.

(_Ramusio_, III. 391; _Ham._ II. 65; _Navarrete_ (Fr. Ed.), II. 101;
_Cathay_, 467; _Bullet. de la Soc. de Géog._ sér. IV. tom iii. 36-37;
_J.A.S.B._ u.s.; _Reinaud's Abulfeda_, I. 315; _J. Ind. Arch._, N.S.,
III. I. 105; _La Porte Ouverte_, p. 188.) [I shall refer to my edition of
_Odoric_, 206-217, for a long notice on dog-headed barbarians; I
reproduce here two of the cuts.--H.C.]



CHAPTER XIV.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SEILAN.


When you leave the Island of Angamanain and sail about a thousand miles in
a direction a little south of west, you come to the Island of SEILAN,
[NOTE 1] which is in good sooth the best Island of its size in the world.
You must know that it has a compass of 2400 miles, but in old times it was
greater still, for it then had a circuit of about 3600 miles, as you find
in the charts of the mariners of those seas. But the north wind there
blows with such strength that it has caused the sea to submerge a large
part of the Island; and that is the reason why it is not so big now as it
used to be. For you must know that, on the side where the north wind
strikes, the Island is very low and flat, insomuch that in approaching on
board ship from the high seas you do not see the land till you are right
upon it.[NOTE 2] Now I will tell you all about this Island.

[Illustration: MAP to Illustrate POLO'S Chapters on India
MAP to Illustrate POLO's Chapters on the Malay Countries]

They have a king there whom they call SENDEMAIN, and are tributary to
nobody.[NOTE 3] The people are Idolaters, and go quite naked except that
they cover the middle. They have no wheat, but have rice, and sesamum of
which they make their oil. They live on flesh and milk, and have tree-wine
such as I have told you of. And they have brazil-wood, much the best in
the world.[NOTE 4]

Now I will quit these particulars, and tell you of the most precious
article that exists in the world. You must know that rubies are found in
this Island and in no other country in the world but this. They find there
also sapphires and topazes and amethysts, and many other stones of price.
And the King of this Island possesses a ruby which is the finest and
biggest in the world; I will tell you what it is like. It is about a palm
in length, and as thick as a man's arm; to look at, it is the most
resplendent object upon earth; it is quite free from flaw and as red as
fire. Its value is so great that a price for it in money could hardly be
named at all. You must know that the Great Kaan sent an embassy and begged
the King as a favour greatly desired by him to sell him this ruby,
offering to give for it the ransom of a city, or in fact what the King
would. But the King replied that on no account whatever would he sell it,
for it had come to him from his ancestors.[NOTE 5]

The people of Seilan are no soldiers, but poor cowardly creatures. And
when they have need of soldiers they get Saracen troops from foreign
parts.


[NOTE 1.--Mr. Geo. Phillips gives (_Seaports of India_, p. 216 et seqq.)
the Star Chart used by Chinese Navigators on their return voyage from
Ceylon to _Su-men-tâ-la_.--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--Valentyn appears to be repeating a native tradition when he says:
"In old times the island had, as they loosely say, a good 400 miles
(i.e. Dutch, say 1600 miles) of compass, but at the north end the sea
has from time to time carried away a large part of it." (_Ceylon_, in vol.
v., p. 18.) Curious particulars touching the exaggerated ideas of the
ancients, inherited by the Arabs, as to the dimensions of Ceylon, will be
found in _Tennent's Ceylon_, ch. i. The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang has
the same tale. According to him, the circuit was 7000 _li_, or 1400 miles.
We see from Marco's curious notice of the old charts (G.T. "_selonc qe se
treuve en la mapemondi des mariner de cel mer_") that travellers had begun
to find that the dimensions _were_ exaggerated. The real circuit is under
700 miles!

On the ground that all the derivations of the name SAILAN or CEYLON from
the old _Sinhala_, _Serendib_, and what not, seem forced, Van der Tuuk has
suggested that the name may have been originally Javanese, being formed
(he says) according to the rules of that language from _Sela_, "a precious
stone," so that _Pulo Selan_ would be the "Island of Gems." [Professor
Schlegel says (_Geog. Notes_, I. p. 19, note) that "it seems better to
think of the Sanskrit _sila_, 'a stone or rock,' or _saila_, 'a mountain,'
which agree with the Chinese interpretation."--H.C.] The Island was really
called anciently _Ratnadvipa_, "the Island of Gems" (_Mém. de H.Y._, II.
125, and _Harivansa_, I. 403); and it is termed by an Arab Historian of
the 9th century _Jazírat al Yákút_, "The Isle of Rubies." [The (Chinese)
characters _ya-ku-pao-shih_ are in some accounts of Ceylon used to express
_Yákút_. (_Ma-Huan, transl. by Phillips_, p. 213.)--H.C.] As a matter of
fact, we derive originally from the Malays nearly all the forms we have
adopted for names of countries reached by sea to the _east_ of the Bay of
Bengal, e.g. _Awa_, _Barma_, _Paigu_, _Siyam_, _China_, _Japún_, _Kochi_
(Cochin China), _Champa_, _Kamboja_, _Malúka_ (properly a place in the
Island of Ceram), _Súlúk_, _Burnei_, _Tanasari_, _Martavan_, etc. That
accidents in the history of marine affairs in those seas should have led
to the adoption of the Malay and Javanese names in the case of Ceylon also
is at least conceivable. But Dr. Caldwell has pointed out to me that the
Páli form of Sinhala was _Sihalan_, and that this must have been
colloquially shortened to Sîlan, for it appears in old Tamul inscriptions
as Ilam.[1] Hence there is nothing really strained in the derivation of
_Sailán_ from Sinhala. Tennent (_Ceylon_, I. 549) and Crawford (_Malay
Dict._ p. 171) ascribe the name Selan, Zeilan, to the Portuguese, but this
is quite unfounded, as our author sufficiently testifies. The name
_Sailán_ also occurs in Rashiduddin, in Hayton, and in Jordanus (see next
note). (See _Van der Tuuk_, work quoted above (p. 287), p. 118; _J. As._
sér. IV., tom. viii. 145; _J. Ind. Arch._ IV. 187; _Elliot_, I. 70.)
[_Sinhala_ or _Sihala_, "lions' abode," with the addition of "Island,"
_Sihala-dvipa_, comes down to us in Cosmas [Greek: Sieledíba]
(_Hobson-Jobson_).]

NOTE 3.--The native king at this time was Pandita Prakrama Bahu III., who
reigned from 1267 to 1301 at Dambadenia, about 40 miles north-north-east
of Columbo. But the Tamuls of the continent had recently been in
possession of the whole northern half of the island. The Singhalese
Chronicle represents Prakrama to have recovered it from them, but they are
so soon again found in full force that the completeness of this recovery
may be doubted. There were also two invasions of Malays (_Javaku_) during
this reign, under the lead of a chief called _Chandra Banu_. On the second
occasion this invader was joined by a large Tamul reinforcement. Sir E.
Tennent suggests that this Chandra Banu may be Polo's _Sende-main_ or
_Sendernaz_, as Ramusio has it. Or he may have been the Tamul chief in the
north; the first part of the name may have been either _Chandra_ or
_Sundara_.

NOTE 4.--Kazwini names the brazil, or sapan-wood of Ceylon. Ibn Batuta
speaks of its abundance (IV. 166); and Ribeyro does the like (ed. of
Columbo, 1847, p. 16); see also _Ritter_, VI. 39, 122; and _Trans. R.A.S._
I. 539.

Sir E. Tennent has observed that Ibn Batuta is the first to speak of the
Ceylon cinnamon. It is, however, mentioned by Kazwini (circa A.D. 1275),
and in a letter written from Mabar by John of Montecorvino about the very
time that Marco was in these seas. (See _Ethe's Kazwini_, 229, and
_Cathay_, 213.)

[Mr. G. Phillips, in the _Jour. China B.R.A.Soc._, XX. 1885, pp. 209-226;
XXI. 1886, pp. 30-42, has given, under the title of _The Seaports of India
and Ceylon_, a translation of some parts of the _Ying-yai-sheng-lan_, a
work of a Chinese Mahomedan, Ma-Huan, who was attached to the suite of
Ch'êng-Ho, an envoy of the Emperor Yong-Lo (A.D. 1403-1425) to foreign
countries. Mr. Phillips's translation is a continuation of the _Notes_ of
Mr. W.P. Groeneveldt, who leaves us at Lambri, on the coast of Sumatra.
Ma-Huan takes us to the _Ts'ui-lan_ Islands (Nicobars) and to _Hsi-lan-kuo_
(Ceylon), whose "people," he says (p. 214), "are abundantly supplied with
all the necessaries of life. They go about naked, except that they wear a
green handkerchief round their loins, fastened with a waist-band. Their
bodies are clean-shaven, and only the hair of their heads is left.... They
take no meal without butter and milk, if they have none and wish to eat,
they do so unobserved and in private. The betel-nut is never out of their
mouths. They have no wheat, but have rice, sesamum, and peas. The
cocoa-nut, which they have in abundance, supplies them with oil, wine,
sugar, and food." Ma-Huan arrived at Ceylon at Pieh-lo-li, on the 6th of
the 11th moon (seventh year, Süan Têh, end of 1432). Cf. _Sylvain Lévi,
Ceylan et la Chine, J. As._, Mai-juin, 1900, p. 411 seqq.

Odoric and the Adjaîb do not mention cinnamon among the products of
Ceylon; this omission was one of the arguments of Dr. Schumann (_Ergänz._
No. 73 zu _Petermann's Mitt._, 1883, p. 46) against the authenticity of
the Adjaîb. These arguments have been refuted in the _Livre des Merveilles
de l'Inde_, p. 265 seqq.

Nicolo Conti, speaking of the "very noble island called Zeilan," says (p.
7): "Here also cinnamon grows in great abundance. It is a tree which very
much resembles our thick willows, excepting that the branches do not grow
upwards, but are spread out horizontally: the leaves are very like those
of the laurel, but are somewhat larger. The bark of the branches is the
thinnest and best, that of the trunk of the tree is thicker and inferior
in flavour. The fruit resembles the berries of the laurel; an odoriferous
oil is extracted from it adapted for ointments, which are much used by the
Indians. When the bark is stripped off, the wood is used for fuel."--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--There seems to have been always afloat among Indian travellers,
at least from the time of Cosmas (6th century), some wonderful story about
the ruby or rubies of the king of Ceylon. With Cosmas, and with the
Chinese Hiuen Tsang, in the following century, this precious object is
fixed on the top of a pagoda, "a hyacinth, they say, of great size and
brilliant ruddy colour, as big as a great pine-cone; and when 'tis seen
from a distance flashing, especially if the sun's rays strike upon it,
'tis a glorious and incomparable spectacle." Our author's contemporary,
Hayton, had heard of the great ruby: "The king of that Island of Celan
hath the largest and finest ruby in existence. When his coronation takes
place this ruby is placed in his hand, and he goes round the city on
horseback holding it in his hand, and thenceforth all recognise and obey
him as their king." Odoric too speaks of the great ruby and the Kaan's
endeavours to get it, though by some error the circumstance is referred to
Nicoveran instead of Ceylon. Ibn Batuta saw in the possession of Arya
Chakravarti, a Tamul chief ruling at Patlam, a ruby bowl as big as the
palm of one's hand. Friar Jordanus speaks of two great rubies belonging to
the king of SYLEN, each so large that when grasped in the hand it
projected a finger's breadth at either side. The fame, at least, of these
survived to the 16th century, for Andrea Corsali (1515) says: "They tell
that the king of this island possesses two rubies of colour so brilliant
and vivid that they look like a flame of fire."

Sir E. Tennent, on this subject, quotes from a Chinese work a statement
that early in the 14th century the Emperor sent an officer to Ceylon to
purchase a carbuncle of unusual lustre. This was fitted as a ball to the
Emperor's cap; it was upwards of an ounce in weight and cost 100,000
strings of cash. Every time a grand levee was held at night the red lustre
filled the palace, and hence it was designated "The Red
Palace-Illuminator." (_I.B._ IV. 174-175; _Cathay_, p. clxxvii.; _Hayton_,
ch. vi.; _Jord._ p. 30; _Ramus._ I. 180; _Ceylon_, I. 568).

["This mountain [Adam's Peak] abounds with rubies of all kinds and other
precious stones. These gems are being continually washed out of the ground
by heavy rains, and are sought for and found in the sand carried down the
hill by the torrents. It is currently reported among the people, that
these precious stones are the congealed tears of Buddha." (_Ma-Huan,
transl. by Phillips_, p. 213.)

In the Chinese work _Cho keng lu_, containing notes on different matters
referring to the time of the Mongol Dynasty, in ch. vii. entitled _Hwui
hwui shi t'ou_ ("Precious Stones of the Mohammedans") among the four kinds
of red stones is mentioned the _si-la-ni_ of a dark red colour;
_si-la-ni_, as Dr. Bretschneider observes (_Med. Res._ I. p. 174), means
probably "from Ceylon." The name for ruby in China is now-a-days _hung pao
shi_, "red precious stone." (Ibid. p. 173.)--H.C.]


[1] The old Tamul alphabet has no sibilant.



CHAPTER XV.

THE SAME CONTINUED. THE HISTORY OF SAGAMONI BORCAN AND THE BEGINNING OF
IDOLATRY.


Furthermore you must know that in the Island of Seilan there is an
exceeding high mountain; it rises right up so steep and precipitous that
no one could ascend it, were it not that they have taken and fixed to it
several great and massive iron chains, so disposed that by help of these
men are able to mount to the top. And I tell you they say that on this
mountain is the sepulchre of Adam our first parent; at least that is what
the Saracens say. But the Idolaters say that it is the sepulchre of
SAGAMONI BORCAN, before whose time there were no idols. They hold him to
have been the best of men, a great saint in fact, according to their
fashion, and the first in whose name idols were made.[NOTE 1]

He was the son, as their story goes, of a great and wealthy king. And he
was of such an holy temper that he would never listen to any worldly talk,
nor would he consent to be king. And when the father saw that his son
would not be king, nor yet take any part in affairs, he took it sorely to
heart. And first he tried to tempt him with great promises, offering to
crown him king, and to surrender all authority into his hands. The son,
however, would none of his offers; so the father was in great trouble, and
all the more that he had no other son but him, to whom he might bequeath
the kingdom at his own death. So, after taking thought on the matter, the
King caused a great palace to be built, and placed his son therein, and
caused him to be waited on there by a number of maidens, the most
beautiful that could anywhere be found. And he ordered them to divert
themselves with the prince, night and day, and to sing and dance before
him, so as to draw his heart towards worldly enjoyments. But 'twas all of
no avail, for none of those maidens could ever tempt the king's son to any
wantonness, and he only abode the firmer in his chastity, leading a most
holy life, after their manner thereof. And I assure you he was so staid a
youth that he had never gone out of the palace, and thus he had never seen
a dead man, nor any one who was not hale and sound; for the father never
allowed any man that was aged or infirm to come into his presence. It came
to pass however one day that the young gentleman took a ride, and by the
roadside he beheld a dead man. The sight dismayed him greatly, as he never
had seen such a sight before. Incontinently he demanded of those who were
with him what thing that was? and then they told him it was a dead man.
"How, then," quoth the king's son, "do all men die?" "Yea, forsooth," said
they. Whereupon the young gentleman said never a word, but rode on right
pensively. And after he had ridden a good way he fell in with a very aged
man who could no longer walk, and had not a tooth in his head, having lost
all because of his great age. And when the king's son beheld this old man
he asked what that might mean, and wherefore the man could not walk? Those
who were with him replied that it was through old age the man could walk
no longer, and had lost all his teeth. And so when the king's son had thus
learned about the dead man and about the aged man, he turned back to his
palace and said to himself that he would abide no longer in this evil
world, but would go in search of Him Who dieth not, and Who had created
him.[NOTE 2]

So what did he one night but take his departure from the palace privily,
and betake himself to certain lofty and pathless mountains. And there he
did abide, leading a life of great hardship and sanctity, and keeping
great abstinence, just as if he had been a Christian. Indeed, an he had
but been so, he would have been a great saint of Our Lord Jesus Christ, so
good and pure was the life he led.[NOTE 3] And when he died they found
his body and brought it to his father. And when the father saw dead before
him that son whom he loved better than himself, he was near going
distraught with sorrow. And he caused an image in the similitude of his
son to be wrought in gold and precious stones, and caused all his people
to adore it. And they all declared him to be a god; and so they still say.
[NOTE 4]

They tell moreover that he hath died fourscore and four times. The first
time he died as a man, and came to life again as an ox; and then he died
as an ox and came to life again as a horse, and so on until he had died
fourscore and four times; and every time he became some kind of animal.
But when he died the eighty-fourth time they say he became a god. And they
do hold him for the greatest of all their gods. And they tell that the
aforesaid image of him was the first idol that the Idolaters ever had; and
from that have originated all the other idols. And this befel in the
Island of Seilan in India.

The Idolaters come thither on pilgrimage from very long distances and with
great devotion, just as Christians go to the shrine of Messer Saint James
in Gallicia. And they maintain that the monument on the mountain is that
of the king's son, according to the story I have been telling you; and
that the teeth, and the hair, and the dish that are there were those of
the same king's son, whose name was Sagamoni Borcan, or Sagamoni the
Saint. But the Saracens also come thither on pilgrimage in great numbers,
and _they_ say that it is the sepulchre of Adam our first father, and
that the teeth, and the hair, and the dish were those of Adam.[NOTE 5]

Whose they were in truth, God knoweth; howbeit, according to the Holy
Scripture of our Church, the sepulchre of Adam is not in that part of the
world.

Now it befel that the Great Kaan heard how on that mountain there was the
sepulchre of our first father Adam, and that some of his hair and of his
teeth, and the dish from which he used to eat, were still preserved there.
So he thought he would get hold of them somehow or another, and despatched
a great embassy for the purpose, in the year of Christ, 1284. The
ambassadors, with a great company, travelled on by sea and by land until
they arrived at the island of Seilan, and presented themselves before the
king. And they were so urgent with him that they succeeded in getting two
of the grinder teeth, which were passing great and thick; and they also
got some of the hair, and the dish from which that personage used to eat,
which is of a very beautiful green porphyry. And when the Great Kaan's
ambassadors had attained the object for which they had come they were
greatly rejoiced, and returned to their lord. And when they drew near to
the great city of Cambaluc, where the Great Kaan was staying, they sent
him word that they had brought back that for which he had sent them. On
learning this the Great Kaan was passing glad, and ordered all the
ecclesiastics and others to go forth to meet these reliques, which he was
led to believe were those of Adam.

And why should I make a long story of it? In sooth, the whole population
of Cambaluc went forth to meet those reliques, and the ecclesiastics took
them over and carried them to the Great Kaan, who received them with great
joy and reverence.[NOTE 6] And they find it written in their Scriptures
that the virtue of that dish is such that if food for one man be put
therein it shall become enough for five men: and the Great Kaan averred
that he had proved the thing and found that it was really true.[NOTE 7]

So now you have heard how the Great Kaan came by those reliques; and a
mighty great treasure it did cost him! The reliques being, according to
the Idolaters, those of that king's son.


NOTE 1.--_Sagamoni Borcan_ is, as Marsden points out, SAKYA-MUNI, or
Gautama-Buddha, with the affix BURKHAN, or "Divinity," which is used by
the Mongols as the synonym of _Buddha_.

"The Dewa of Samantakúta (Adam's Peak), Samana, having heard of the
arrival of Budha (in Lanka or Ceylon) ... presented a request that he
would leave an impression of his foot upon the mountain of which he was
guardian.... In the midst of the assembled Dewas, Budha, looking towards
the East, made the impression of his foot, in length three inches less
than the cubit of the carpenter; and the impression remained as a seal to
show that Lanka is the inheritance of Budha, and that his religion will
here flourish." (_Hardy's Manual_, p. 212.)

[Ma-Huan says (p. 212): "On landing (at Ceylon), there is to be seen on
the shining rock at the base of the cliff, an impress of a foot two or
more feet in length. The legend attached to it is, that it is the imprint
of Shâkyamuni's foot, made when he landed at this place, coming from the
Ts'ui-lan (Nicobar) Islands. There is a little water in the hollow of the
imprint of this foot, which never evaporates. People dip their hands in it
and wash their faces, and rub their eyes with it, saying: 'This is
Buddha's water, which will make us pure and clean.'"--H.C.]

[Illustration: Adam's Peak.

"Or est voir qe en ceste ysle a une montagne mont haut et si degrot de les
rocches qe nul hi puent monter sus se ne en ceste mainere qe je voz
dirai"....]

"The veneration with which this majestic mountain has been regarded for
ages, took its rise in all probability amongst the aborigines of
Ceylon.... In a later age, ... the hollow in the lofty rock that crowns
the summit was said by the Brahmans to be the footstep of Siva, by the
Buddhists of Buddha, ... by the Gnostics of Ieu, by the Mahometans of
Adam, whilst the Portuguese authorities were divided between the
conflicting claims of St. Thomas and the eunuch of Candace, Queen of
Ethiopia." (_Tennent_, II. 133.)

["Near to the King's residence there is a lofty mountain reaching to the
skies. On the top of this mountain there is the impress of a man's foot,
which is sunk two feet deep in the rock, and is some eight or more feet
long. This is said to be the impress of the foot of the ancestor of
mankind, a Holy man called _A-tan_, otherwise P'an-Ku." (_Ma-Huan_, p.
213.)--H.C.]

Polo, however, says nothing of the _foot_; he speaks only of the
_sepulchre_ of Adam, or of Sakya-muni. I have been unable to find any
modern indication of the monument that was shown by the Mahomedans as the
tomb, and sometimes as the house, of Adam; but such a structure there
certainly was, perhaps an ancient _Kist-vaen_, or the like. John
Marignolli, who was there about 1349, has an interesting passage on the
subject: "That exceeding high mountain hath a pinnacle of surpassing
height, which on account of the clouds can rarely be seen. [The summit is
lost in the clouds. (_Ibn Khordâdhbeh_, p. 43.)--H.C.] But God, pitying
our tears, lighted it up one morning just before the sun rose, so that we
beheld it glowing with the brightest flame. [They say that a flame bursts
constantly, like a lightning, from the Summit of the mountain.--(_Ibn
Khordâdhbeh_, p. 44.)--H.C.] In the way down from this mountain there is
a fine level spot, still at a great height, and there you find in order:
first, the mark of Adam's foot; secondly, a certain statue of a sitting
figure, with the left hand resting on the knee, and the right hand raised
and extended towards the west; lastly, there is the house (of Adam), which
he made with his own hands. It is of an oblong quadrangular shape like a
sepulchre, with a door in the middle, and is formed of great tabular slabs
of marble, not cemented, but merely laid one upon another. (_Cathay_,
358.) A Chinese account, translated in _Amyot's Mémoires_, says that at
the foot of the mountain is a Monastery of Bonzes, in which is seen the
veritable body of Fo, in the attitude of a man lying on his side" (XIV.
25). [Ma-Huan says (p. 212): "Buddhist temples abound there. In one of
them there is to be seen a full length recumbent figure of Shâkyamuni,
still in a very good state of preservation. The dais on which the figure
reposes is inlaid with all kinds of precious stones. It is made of
sandalwood and is very handsome. The temple contains a Buddha's tooth and
other relics. This must certainly be the place where Shâkyamuni entered
Nirvâna."--H.C.] Osorio, also, in his history of Emanuel of Portugal,
says: "Not far from it (the Peak) people go to see a small temple in which
are two sepulchres, which are the objects of an extraordinary degree of
superstitious devotion. For they believe that in these were buried the
bodies of the first man and his wife" (f. 120 _v_.). A German traveller
(_Daniel Parthey_, Nurnberg, 1698) also speaks of the tomb of Adam and his
sons on the mountain. (See _Fabricius, Cod. Pseudep. Vet. Test._ II. 31;
also _Ouseley's Travels_, I. 59.)

It is a perplexing circumstance that there is a double set of indications
about the footmark. The Ceylon traditions, quoted above from Hardy, call
its length 3 inches less than a carpenter's cubit. Modern observers
estimate it at 5 feet or 5-1/2 feet. Hardy accounts for this by supposing
that the original footmark was destroyed in the end of the sixteenth
century. But Ibn Batuta, in the 14th, states it at 11 spans, or _more_
than the modern report. [Ibn Khordâdhbeh at 70 cubits.--H.C.] Marignolli,
on the other hand, says that he measured it and found it to be 2-1/2
palms, or about half a Prague ell, which corresponds in a general way with
Hardy's tradition. Valentyn calls it 1-1/2 ell in length; Knox says 2
feet; Herman Bree (De Bry ?), quoted by Fabricius, 8-1/2 spans; a Chinese
account, quoted below, 8 feet. These discrepancies remind one of the
ancient Buddhist belief regarding such footmarks, that they seemed greater
or smaller in proportion to the faith of the visitor! (See _Koeppen_, I.
529, and _Beal's Fah-hian_, p. 27.)

The chains, of which Ibn Batuta gives a particular account, exist still.
The highest was called (he says) the chain of the _Shahádat_, or Credo,
because the fearful abyss below made pilgrims recite the profession of
belief. Ashraf, a Persian poet of the 15th century, author of an
Alexandriad, ascribes these chains to the great conqueror, who devised
them, with the assistance of the philosopher _Bolinas_,[1] in order to
scale the mountain, and reach _the sepulchre of Adam_. (See _Ouseley_, I.
54 seqq.) There are inscriptions on some of the chains, but I find no
account of them. (_Skeen's Adam's Peak_, Ceylon, 1870, p. 226.)

NOTE 2.--The general correctness with which Marco has here related the
legendary history of Sakya's devotion to an ascetic life, as the
preliminary to his becoming the Buddha or Divinely Perfect Being, shows
what a strong impression the tale had made upon him. He is, of course,
wrong in placing the scene of the history in Ceylon, though probably it
was so told him, as the vulgar in all Buddhist countries do seem to
localise the legends in regions known to them.

Sakya Sinha, Sakya Muni, or Gautama, originally called Siddhárta, was the
son of Súddhodhana, the Kshatriya prince of Kapilavastu, a small state
north of the Ganges, near the borders of Oudh. His high destiny had been
foretold, as well as the objects that would move him to adopt the ascetic
life. To keep these from his knowledge, his father caused three palaces to
be built, within the limits of which the prince should pass the three
seasons of the year, whilst guards were posted to bar the approach of the
dreaded objects. But these precautions were defeated by inevitable destiny
and the power of the Devas.

When the prince was sixteen he was married to the beautiful Yasodhara,
daughter of the King of Koli, and 40,000 other princesses also became the
inmates of his harem.

"Whilst living in the midst of the full enjoyment of every kind of
pleasure, Siddhárta one day commanded his principal charioteer to prepare
his festive chariot; and in obedience to his commands four lily-white
horses were yoked. The prince leaped into the chariot, and proceeded
towards a garden at a little distance from the palace, attended by a great
retinue. On his way he saw a decrepit old man, with broken teeth, grey
locks, and a form bending towards the ground, his trembling steps
supported by a staff (a Deva had taken this form).... The prince enquired
what strange figure it was that he saw; and he was informed that it was an
old man. He then asked if the man was born so, and the charioteer answered
that he was not, as he was once young like themselves. 'Are there,' said
the prince, 'many such beings in the world?' 'Your highness,' said the
charioteer, 'there are many.' The prince again enquired, 'Shall I become
thus old and decrepit?' and he was told that it was a state at which all
beings must arrive."

The prince returns home and informs his father of his intention to become
an ascetic, seeing how undesirable is life tending to such decay. His
father conjures him to put away such thoughts, and to enjoy himself with
his princesses, and he strengthens the guards about the palaces. Four
months later like circumstances recur, and the prince sees a leper, and
after the same interval a dead body in corruption. Lastly, he sees a
religious recluse, radiant with peace and tranquillity, and resolves to
delay no longer. He leaves his palace at night, after a look at his wife
Yasodhara and the boy just born to him, and betakes himself to the forests
of Magadha, where he passes seven years in extreme asceticism. At the end
of that time he attains the Buddhahood. (See _Hardy's Manual_ p. 151
seqq.) The latter part of the story told by Marco, about the body of the
prince being brought to his father, etc., is erroneous. Sakya was 80 years
of age when he died under the sál trees in Kusinára.

The strange parallel between Buddhistic ritual, discipline, and costume,
and those which especially claim the name of CATHOLIC in the Christian
Church, has been often noticed; and though the parallel has never been
elaborated as it might be, some of the more salient facts are familiar to
most readers. Still many may be unaware that Buddha himself, Siddhárta the
son of Súddodhana, has found his way into the Roman martyrology as a Saint
of the Church.

In the first edition a mere allusion was made to this singular story, for
it had recently been treated by Professor Max Müller, with characteristic
learning and grace. (See _Contemporary Review_ for July, 1870, p. 588.)
But the matter is so curious and still so little familiar that I now
venture to give it at some length.

The religious romance called the History of BARLAAM and JOSAPHAT was for
several centuries one of the most popular works in Christendom. It was
translated into all the chief European languages, including Scandinavian
and Sclavonic tongues. An Icelandic version dates from the year 1204; one
in the Tagal language of the Philippines was printed at Manilla in 1712.[2]
The episodes and apologues with which the story abounds have furnished
materials to poets and story-tellers in various ages and of very diverse
characters; e.g. to Giovanni Boccaccio, John Gower, and to the compiler of
the _Gesta Romanorum_, to Shakspere, and to the late W. Adams, author of
the _Kings Messengers_. The basis of this romance is the story of
Siddhárta.

The story of Barlaam and Josaphat first appears among the works (in Greek)
of St. John of Damascus, a theologian of the early part of the 8th
century, who, before he devoted himself to divinity had held high office
at the Court of the Khalif Abu Jáfar Almansúr. The outline of the story is
as follows:--

St. Thomas had converted the people of India to the truth; and after the
eremitic life originated in Egypt many in India adopted it. But a potent
pagan King arose, by name ABENNER, who persecuted the Christians and
especially the ascetics. After this King had long been childless, a son,
greatly desired, is born to him, a boy of matchless beauty. The King
greatly rejoices, gives the child the name of JOSAPHAT, and summons the
astrologers to predict his destiny. They foretell for the prince glory and
prosperity beyond all his predecessors in the kingdom. One sage, most
learned of all, assents to this, but declares that the scene of these
glories will not be the paternal realm, and that the child will adopt the
faith that his father persecutes.

This prediction greatly troubled King Abenner. In a secluded city he
caused a splendid palace to be erected, within which his son was to abide,
attended only by tutors and servants in the flower of youth and health. No
one from without was to have access to the prince; and he was to witness
none of the afflictions of humanity, poverty, disease, old age, or death,
but only what was pleasant, so that he should have no inducement to think
of the future life; nor was he ever to hear a word of CHRIST or His
religion. And, hearing that some monks still survived in India, the King
in his wrath ordered that any such, who should be found after three days,
should be burnt alive.

The Prince grows up in seclusion, acquires all manner of learning, and
exhibits singular endowments of wisdom and acuteness. At last he urges his
father to allow him to pass the limits of the palace, and this the King
reluctantly permits, after taking all precautions to arrange diverting
spectacles, and to keep all painful objects at a distance. Or let us
proceed in the Old English of the Golden Legend.[3] "Whan his fader
herde this he was full of sorowe, and anone he let do make redy horses and
joyfull felawshyp to accompany him, in suche wyse that nothynge dyshonest
sholde happen to hym. And on a tyme thus as the Kynges sone wente he mette
a mesell and a blynde man, and whã he sawe them he was abasshed and
enquyred what them eyled. And his seruautes sayd: These ben passions that
comen to men. And he demaunded yf the passyons came to all men. And they
sayd nay. Thã sayd he, ben they knowen whiche men shall suffre.... And
they answered, Who is he that may knowe ye aduentures of men. And he began
to be moche anguysshous for ye incustomable thynge hereof. And another
tyme he found a man moche aged, whiche had his chere frouced, his tethe
fallen, and he was all croked for age.... And thã he demaunded what
sholde be ye ende. And they sayd deth.... And this yonge man remembered
ofte in his herte these thynges, and was in grete dyscõforte, but he
shewed hy moche glad tofore his fader, and he desyred moche to be enformed
and taught in these thyges." [Fol. ccc. lii.]

At this time BARLAAM, a monk of great sanctity and knowledge in divine
things, who dwelt in the wilderness of Sennaritis, having received a
divine warning, travels to India in the disguise of a merchant, and gains
access to Prince Josaphat, to whom he unfolds the Christian doctrine and
the blessedness of the monastic life. Suspicion is raised against Barlaam,
and he departs. But all efforts to shake the Prince's convictions are
vain. As a last resource the King sends for a magician called Theudas, who
removes the Prince's attendants and substitutes seductive girls, but all
their blandishments are resisted through prayer. The King abandons these
attempts and associates his son with himself in the government. The Prince
uses his power to promote religion, and everything prospers in his hand.
Finally King Abenner is drawn to the truth, and after some years of
penitence dies. Josaphat then surrenders the kingdom to a friend called
Barachias, and proceeds into the wilderness, where he wanders for two
years seeking Barlaam, and much buffeted by the demons. "And whan Balaam
had accomplysshed his dayes, he rested in peas about ye yere of Our Lorde.
cccc. &. Ixxx. Josaphat lefte his realme the xxv. yere of his age, and
ledde the lyfe of an heremyte xxxv. yere, and than rested in peas full of
vertues, and was buryed by the body of Balaam." [Fol. ccc. lvi.] The King
Barachias afterwards arrives and transfers the bodies solemnly to India.

This is but the skeleton of the story, but the episodes and apologues
which round its dimensions, and give it its mediaeval popularity, do not
concern our subject. In this skeleton the story of Siddhárta, _mutatis
mutandis_ is obvious.

The story was first popular in the Greek Church, and was embodied in the
lives of the saints, as recooked by Simeon the Metaphrast, an author whose
period is disputed, but was in any case not later than 1150. A Cretan monk
called Agapios made selections from the work of Simeon which were
published in Romaic at Venice in 1541 under the name of the _Paradise_,
and in which the first section consists of the story of Barlaam and
Josaphat. This has been frequently reprinted as a popular book of
devotion. A copy before me is printed at Venice in 1865.[4]

From the Greek Church the history of the two saints passed to the Latin,
and they found a place in the Roman martyrology under the 27th November.
When this first happened I have not been able to ascertain. Their history
occupies a large space in the _Speculum Historiale_ of Vincent of
Beauvais, written in the 13th century, and is set forth, as we have seen,
in the Golden Legend of nearly the same age. They are recognised by
Baronius, and are to be found at p. 348 of "The Roman Martyrology set
forth by command of Pope Gregory XIII., and revised by the authority of
Pope Urban VIII., translated out of Latin into English by G.K. of the
Society of Jesus.... and now re-edited ... by W.N. Skelly, Esq. London,
T. Richardson & Son." (Printed at Derby, 1847.) Here in Palermo is a
church bearing the dedication _Divo Iosaphat_.

Professor Müller attributes the first recognition of the identity of the
two stories to M. Laboulaye in 1859. But in fact I find that the historian
de Couto had made the discovery long before.[5] He says, speaking of
_Budão_ (Buddha), and after relating his history:

"To this name the Gentiles throughout all India have dedicated great and
superb pagodas. With reference to this story we have been diligent in
enquiring if the ancient Gentiles of those parts had in their writings any
knowledge of St. Josaphat who was converted by Barlam, who in his Legend
is represented as the son of a great King of India, and who had just the
same up-bringing, with all the same particulars, that we have recounted of
the life of the Budão.... And as a thing seems much to the purpose, which
was told us by a very old man of the Salsette territory in Baçaim, about
Josaphat, I think it well to cite it: As I was travelling in the Isle of
Salsette, and went to see that rare and admirable Pagoda (which we call
the Canará Pagoda[6]) made in a mountain, with many halls cut out of one
solid rock ... and enquiring from this old man about the work, and what he
thought as to who had made it, he told us that without doubt the work was
made by order of the father of St. Josaphat to bring him up therein in
seclusion, as the story tells. And as it informs us that he was the son of
a great King in India, it may well be, as we have just said, that _he_ was
the Budão, of whom they relate such marvels." (Dec. V. liv. vi. cap. 2.)

Dominie Valentyn, not being well read in the Golden Legend, remarks on the
subject of Buddha: "There be some who hold this Budhum for a fugitive
Syrian Jew, or for an Israelite, others who hold him for a Disciple of the
Apostle Thomas; but how in that case he could have been born 622 years
before Christ I leave them to explain. Diego de Couto stands by the belief
that he was certainly _Joshua_, which is still more absurd!" (V. deel, p.
374.)

[Since the days of Couto, who considered the Buddhist legend but an
imitation of the Christian legend, the identity of the stories was
recognised (as mentioned supra) by M. Edouard Laboulaye, in the _Journal
des Débats_ of the 26th of July, 1859. About the same time, Professor F.
Liebrecht of Liége, in _Ebert's Jahrbuch für Romanische und Englische
Literatur_, II. p. 314 seqq., comparing the Book of Barlaam and Joasaph
with the work of Barthélemy St. Hilaire on Buddha, arrived at the same
conclusion.

In 1880, Professor T.W. Rhys Davids has devoted some pages (xxxvi.-xli.)
in his _Buddhist Birth Stories; or, Jataka Tales_, to _The Barlaam and
Josaphat Literature_, and we note from them that: "Pope Sixtus the Fifth
(1585-1590) authorised a particular Martyrologium, drawn up by Cardinal
Baronius, to be used throughout the Western Church.". In that work are
included not only the saints first canonised at Rome, but all those who,
having been already canonised elsewhere, were then acknowledged by the
Pope and the College of Rites to be saints of the Catholic Church of
Christ. Among such, under the date of the 27th of November, are included
"The holy Saints Barlaam and Josaphat, of India, on the borders of Persia,
whose wonderful acts Saint John of Damascus has described. Where and when
they were first canonised, I have been unable, in spite of much
investigation, to ascertain. Petrus de Natalibus, who was Bishop of
Equilium, the modern Jesolo, near Venice, from 1370 to 1400, wrote a
Martyrology called _Catalogus Sanctorum_; and in it, among the 'Saints,'
he inserts both Barlaam and Josaphat, giving also a short account of them
derived from the old Latin translation of St. John of Damascus. It is from
this work that Baronius, the compiler of the authorised Martyrology now in
use, took over the names of these two saints, Barlaam and Josaphat. But,
so far as I have been able to ascertain, they do not occur in any
martyrologies or lists of saints of the Western Church older than that of
Petrus de Natalibus. In the corresponding manual of worship still used in
the Greek Church, however, we find, under 26th August, the name 'of the
holy Iosaph, son of Abener, King of India.' Barlaam is not mentioned, and
is not therefore recognised as a saint in the Greek Church. No history is
added to the simple statement I have quoted; and I do not know on what
authority it rests. But there is no doubt that it is in the East, and
probably among the records of the ancient church of Syria, that a final
solution of this question should be sought. Some of the more learned of
the numerous writers who translated or composed new works on the basis of
the story of Josaphat, have pointed out in their notes that he had been
canonised; and the hero of the romance is usually called St. Josaphat in
the titles of these works, as will be seen from the Table of the Josaphat
literature below. But Professor Liebrecht, when identifying Josaphat with
the Buddha, took no notice of this; and it was Professor Max Müller, who
has done so much to infuse the glow of life into the dry bones of Oriental
scholarship, who first pointed out the strange fact--almost incredible,
were it not for the completeness of the proof--that Gotama the Buddha,
under the name of St. Josaphat, is now officially recognised and honoured
and worshipped throughout the whole of Catholic Christendom as a Christian
saint!" Professor T.W. Rhys Davids gives further a Bibliography, pp.
xcv.-xcvii.

M.H. Zotenberg wrote a learned memoir (_N. et Ext._ XXVIII. Pt. I.) in
1886 to prove that the Greek Text is not a translation but the original of
the Legend. There are many MSS. of the Greek Text of the Book of Barlaam
and Joasaph in Paris, Vienna, Munich, etc., including ten MSS. kept in
various libraries at Oxford. New researches made by Professor E. Kuhn, of
Munich (_Barlaam und Joasaph. Eine Bibliographisch-literargeschichtliche
Studie_, 1893), seem to prove that during the 6th century, in that part of
the Sassanian Empire bordering on India, in fact Afghanistan, Buddhism and
Christianity were gaining ground at the expense of the Zoroastrian faith,
and that some Buddhist wrote in Pehlevi a _Book of Yûdâsaf_ (Bodhisatva); a
Christian, finding pleasant the legend, made an adaptation of it from his
own point of view, introducing the character of the monk Balauhar (Barlaam)
to teach his religion to Yûdâsaf, who could not, in his Christian disguise,
arrive at the truth by himself like a Bodhisatva. This Pehlevi version of
the newly-formed Christian legend was translated into Syriac, and from
Syriac was drawn a Georgian version, and, in the first half of the 7th
century, the Greek Text of John, a monk of the convent of St. Saba, near
Jerusalem, by some turned into St. John of Damascus, who added to the story
some long theological discussions. From this Greek, it was translated into
all the known languages of Europe, while the Pehlevi version being rendered
into Arabic, was adapted by the Mussulmans and the Jews to their own
creeds. (_H. Zotenberg, Mém. sur le texte et les versions orientales du
Livre de Barlaam et Joasaph, Not. et Ext._ XXVIII. Pt. I. pp. 1-166; _G.
Paris, Saint Josaphat_ in _Rev. de Paris_, 1'er Juin, 1895, and _Poèmes et
Légendes du Moyen Age_, pp. 181-214.)

Mr. Joseph Jacobs published in London, 1896, a valuable little book,
_Barlaam and Josaphat, English Lives of Buddha_, in which he comes to this
conclusion (p. xli.): "I regard the literary history of the Barlaam
literature as completely parallel with that of the Fables of Bidpai.
Originally Buddhistic books, both lost their specifically Buddhistic
traits before they left India, and made their appeal, by their parables,
more than by their doctrines. Both were translated into Pehlevi in the
reign of Chosroes, and from that watershed floated off into the
literatures of all the great creeds. In Christianity alone,
characteristically enough, one of them, the Barlaam book, was surcharged
with dogma, and turned to polemical uses, with the curious result that
Buddha became one of the champions of the Church. To divest the
Barlaam-Buddha of this character, and see him in his original form, we must
take a further journey and seek him in his home beyond the Himalayas."

[Illustration: Sakya Muni as a Saint of the Roman Martyrology.

"Wie des Kunigs Son in dem aufscziechen am ersten sahe in dem Weg eynen
blinden und eyn aufsmörckigen und eyen alten krummen Man."[7]]

Professor Gaston Paris, in answer to Mr. Jacobs, writes (_Poèmes et Lég.
du Moyen Age_, p. 213): "Mr. Jacobs thinks that the Book of Balauhar and
Yûdâsaf was not originally Christian, and could have existed such as it is
now in Buddhistic India, but it is hardly likely, as Buddha did not
require the help of a teacher to find truth, and his followers would not
have invented the person of Balauhar-Barlaam; on the other hand, the
introduction of the Evangelical Parable of _The Sower_, which exists in
the original of all the versions of our Book, shows that this original was
a Christian adaptation of the Legend of Buddha. Mr. Jacobs seeks vainly to
lessen the force of this proof in showing that this Parable has parallels
in Buddhistic literature."--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--Marco is not the only eminent person who has expressed this view
of Sakyamuni's life in such words. Professor Max Müller (_u.s._) says:
"And whatever we may think of the sanctity of saints, let those who doubt
the right of Buddha to a place among them, read the story of his life as
it is told in the Buddhistic canon. If he lived the life which is there
described, few saints have a better claim to the title than Buddha; and no
one either in the Greek or the Roman Church need be ashamed of having paid
to his memory the honour that was intended for St. Josaphat, the prince,
the hermit, and the saint."

NOTE 4.--This is curiously like a passage in the _Wisdom of Solomon_:
"Neque enim erant (idola) ab initio, neque erunt in perpetuum ... acerbo
enim luctu dolens pater cito sibi rapti filii fecit imaginem: et ilium qui
tune quasi homo mortuus fuerat nunc tamquam deum colere coepit, et
constituit inter servos suos sacra et sacrificia" (xiv. 13-15). Gower
alludes to the same story; I know not whence taken:--

  "Of _Cirophanes_, seith the booke,
  That he for sorow, whiche he toke
  Of that he sigh his sonne dede,
  Of comfort knewe none other rede,
  But lete do make in remembrance
  A faire image of his semblance,
  And set it in the market place:
  Whiche openly to fore his face
  Stood euery day, to done hym ease;
  And thei that than wolden please
  The Fader, shuld it obeye,
  Whan that thei comen thilke weye."
      --_Confessio Amantis_.[8]

NOTE 5.--Adam's Peak has for ages been a place of pilgrimage to Buddhists,
Hindus, and Mahomedans, and appears still to be so. Ibn Batuta says the
Mussulman pilgrimage was instituted in the 10th century. The book on the
history of the Mussulmans in Malabar, called _Tohfat-ul-Majáhidín_ (p.
48), ascribes their first settlement in that country to a party of
pilgrims returning from Adam's Peak. Marignolli, on his visit to the
mountain, mentions "another pilgrim, a Saracen of Spain; for many go on
pilgrimage to Adam."

The identification of Adam with objects of Indian worship occurs in various
forms. Tod tells how an old Rajput Chief, as they stood before a famous
temple of Mahádeo near Udipúr, invited him to enter and worship "Father
Adam." Another traveller relates how Brahmans of Bagesar on the Sarjú
identified Mahadeo and Parvati with Adam and Eve. A Malay MS., treating of
the _origines_ of Java, represents Brahma, Mahadeo, and Vishnu to be
descendants of Adam through Seth. And in a Malay paraphrase of the
Ramáyana, _Nabi Adam_ takes the place of Vishnu. (_Tod._ I. 96; _J.A.S.B._
XVI. 233; _J.R.A.S._ N.S. II. 102; _J. Asiat._ IV. s. VII. 438.)

NOTE 6.--The _Pâtra_, or alms-pot, was the most valued legacy of Buddha.
It had served the three previous Buddhas of this world-period, and was
destined to serve the future one, Maitreya. The Great Asoka sent it to
Ceylon. Thence it was carried off by a Tamul chief in the 1st century,
A.D., but brought back we know not how, and is still shown in the Malagawa
Vihara at Kandy. As usual in such cases, there were rival reliques, for
Fa-hian found the alms-pot preserved at Pesháwar. Hiuen Tsang says in his
time it was no longer there, but in Persia. And indeed the _Pâtra_ from
Pesháwar, according to a remarkable note by Sir Henry Rawlinson, is still
preserved at Kandahár, under the name of _Kashkul_ (or the Begging-pot),
and retains among the Mussulman Dervishes the sanctity and miraculous
repute which it bore among the Buddhist _Bhikshus_. Sir Henry conjectures
that the deportation of this vessel, the palladium of the true _Gandhára_
(Pesháwar), was accompanied by a popular emigration, and thus accounts for
the transfer of that name also to the chief city of Arachosia. (_Koeppen_,
I. 526; _Fah-hian_, p. 36; _H. Tsang_, II. 106; _J.R.A.S._ XI. 127.)

Sir E. Tennent, through Mr. Wylie (to whom this book owes so much),
obtained the following curious Chinese extract referring to Ceylon
(written 1350): "In front of the image of Buddha there is a sacred bowl,
which is neither made of jade nor copper, nor iron; it is of a purple
colour, and glossy, and when struck it sounds like glass. At the
commencement of the Yuen Dynasty (i.e. under Kúblái) three separate
envoys were sent to obtain it." Sanang Setzen also corroborates Marco's
statement: "Thus did the Khaghan (Kúblái) cause the sun of religion to
rise over the dark land of the Mongols; he also procured from India images
and reliques of Buddha; among others the _Pâtra_ of Buddha, which was
presented to him by the four kings (of the cardinal points), and also the
_chandana chu_" (a miraculous sandal-wood image). (_Tennent_, I. 622;
_Schmidt_, p. 119.)

The text also says that several _teeth_ of Buddha were preserved in
Ceylon, and that the Kaan's embassy obtained two molars. Doubtless the
envoys were imposed on; no solitary case in the amazing history of that
relique, for _the_ Dalada, or tooth relique, seems in all historic times
to have been unique. This, "the left canine tooth" of the Buddha, is
related to have been preserved for 800 years at Dantapura
("_Odontopolis_"), in Kalinga, generally supposed to be the modern Púri or
Jagannáth. Here the Brahmans once captured it and carried it off to
Palibothra, where they tried in vain to destroy it. Its miraculous
resistance converted the king, who sent it back to Kalinga. About A.D. 311
the daughter of King Guhasiva fled with it to Ceylon. In the beginning of
the 14th century it was captured by the Tamuls and carried to the Pandya
country on the continent, but recovered some years later by King Parakrama
III., who went in person to treat for it. In 1560 the Portuguese got
possession of it and took it to Goa. The King of Pegu, who then reigned,
probably the most powerful and wealthy monarch who has ever ruled in
Further India, made unlimited offers in exchange for the tooth; but the
archbishop prevented the viceroy from yielding to these temptations, and
it was solemnly pounded to atoms by the prelate, then cast into a charcoal
fire, and finally its ashes thrown into the river of Goa.

The King of Pegu was, however, informed by a crafty minister of the King
of Ceylon that only a sham tooth had been destroyed by the Portuguese, and
that the real relique was still safe. This he obtained by extraordinary
presents, and the account of its reception at Pegu, as quoted by Tennent
from De Couto, is a curious parallel to Marco's narrative of the Great
Kaan's reception of the Ceylon reliques at Cambaluc. The extraordinary
object still so solemnly preserved at Kandy is another forgery, set up
about the same time. So the immediate result of the viceroy's virtue was
that two reliques were worshipped instead of one!

The possession of the tooth has always been a great object of desire to
Buddhist sovereigns. In the 11th century King Anarauhta, of Burmah, sent a
mission to Ceylon to endeavour to procure it, but he could obtain only a
"miraculous emanation" of the relique. A tower to contain the sacred tooth
was (1855), however, one of the buildings in the palace court of Amarapura.
A few years ago the King of Burma repeated the mission of his remote
predecessor, but obtained only a _model_, and this has been deposited
within the walls of the palace at Mandalé, the new capital. (_Turnour_ in
_J.A.S.B._ VI. 856 seqq.; _Koeppen_, I. 521; _Tennent_, I. 388, II. 198
seqq.; _MS. Note by Sir A. Phayre; Mission to Ava_, 136.)

Of the four eye-teeth of Sakya, one, it is related, passed to the heaven
of Indra; the second to the capital of Gandhára; the third to Kalinga; the
fourth to the snake-gods. The Gandhára tooth was perhaps, like the
alms-bowl, carried off by a Sassanid invasion, and may be identical with
that tooth of Fo, which the Chinese annals state to have been brought to
China in A.D. 530 by a Persian embassy. A tooth of Buddha is now shown in a
monastery at Fu-chau; but whether this be either the Sassanian present, or
that got from Ceylon by Kúblái, is unknown. Other teeth of Buddha were
shown in Hiuen Tsang's time at Balkh, at Nagarahára (or Jalálábád), in
Kashmir, and at Kanauj. (_Koeppen_, u.s.; _Fortune_, II. 108; _H. Tsang_,
II. 31, 80, 263.)

[Illustration: Teeth of Budda.

1. At Kandy, after Tennent. 2. At Fu-Chau from Fortune.]

NOTE 7.--Fa-hian writes of the alms-pot at Pesháwar, that poor people
could fill it with a few flowers, whilst a rich man should not be able to
do so with 100, nay, with 1000 or 10,000 bushels of rice; a parable
doubtless originally carrying a lesson, like Our Lord's remark on the
widow's mite, but which hardened eventually into some foolish story like
that in the text.

The modern Mussulman story at Kandahar is that the alms-pot will contain
any quantity of liquor without overflowing.

This _Pâtra_ is the Holy Grail of Buddhism. Mystical powers of nourishment
are ascribed also to the Grail in the European legends. German scholars
have traced in the romances of the Grail remarkable indications of
Oriental origin. It is not impossible that the alms-pot of Buddha was the
prime source of them. Read the prophetic history of the _Pâtra_ as Fa-hian
heard it in India (p. 161); its mysterious wanderings over Asia till it is
taken up into the heaven _Tushita_ where Maitreya the Future Buddha
dwells. When it has disappeared from earth the Law gradually perishes, and
violence and wickedness more and more prevail:

                       --"What is it?
  The phantom of a cup that comes and goes?
  *      *      *      *      *   If a man
  Could touch or see it, he was heal'd at once,
  By faith, of all his ills. But then the times
  Grew to such evil that the holy cup
  Was caught away to Heaven, and disappear'd."
      --_Tennyson's Holy Grail_


[1] _Apollonia_ (of Macedonia) is made _Bolina_; so _Bolinas_ = Apollonius
    (Tyanaeus).

[2] In 1870 I saw in the Libary at Monte Cassino a long French poem on the
    story, in a MS. of our traveller's age. This is perhaps one referred
    to by Migne, as cited in _Hist. Litt. de la France_, XV. 484. [It "has
    even been published in the Spanish dialect used in the Philippine
    Islands!" (_Rhys Davids, Jataka Tales_, p. xxxvii.) In a MS. note, Yule
    says: "Is not this a mistake?"--H.C.]

[3] Imprynted at London in Flete Strete at the sygne of the Sonne, by
    Wynkyn de Worde (1527).

[4] The first Life is thus entitled: [Greek: Bíos kaì Politeía toû Hosíou
    Patròs haemôn kaì Isapostólon Ioásaph toû Basiléos taês Indías].
    Professor Müller says all the Greek copies have _Ioasaph_. I have
    access to no copy in the ancient Greek.

[5] Also _Migne's Dict. Légendes_, quoting a letter of C.L. Struve,
    Director of Königsberg Gymnasium, to the _Journal Général de l'Inst.
    Publ._, says that "an earlier story is entirely reproduced in the
    Barlaam," but without saying what story.

[6] The well-known Kánhari Caves. (See _Handbook for India_, p. 306.)

[7] The quotation and the cut are from an old German version of Barlaam and
    Josaphat printed by Zainer at Augsburg, circa 1477. (B.M., Grenv. Lib.,
    No. 11,766.)

[8] Ed. 1554, fol. xci. _v_. So also I find in _A. Tostati Hisp. Comment.
    in primam ptem. Exodi_, Ven. 1695, pp. 295-296: "Idola autem sculpta in
    Aegypto primo inventa sunt per _Syrophenem_ primum Idolotrarum; ante
    hoc enim pura elementa ut dii colebantur." I cannot trace the tale.



CHAPTER XVI.

CONCERNING THE GREAT PROVINCE OF MAABAR, WHICH IS CALLED INDIA THE
GREATER, AND IS ON THE MAINLAND.


When you leave the Island of Seilan and sail westward about 60 miles, you
come to the great province of MAABAR which is styled INDIA THE GREATER; it
is best of all the Indies and is on the mainland.

You must know that in this province there are five kings, who are own
brothers. I will tell you about each in turn. The Province is the finest
and noblest in the world.

At this end of the Province reigns one of those five Royal Brothers, who
is a crowned King, and his name is SONDER BANDI DAVAR. In his kingdom they
find very fine and great pearls; and I will tell you how they are
got.[NOTE 1]

You must know that the sea here forms a gulf between the Island of Seilan
and the mainland. And all round this gulf the water has a depth of no more
than 10 or 12 fathoms, and in some places no more than two fathoms. The
pearl-fishers take their vessels, great and small, and proceed into this
gulf, where they stop from the beginning of April till the middle of May.
They go first to a place called BETTELAR, and (then) go 60 miles into the
gulf. Here they cast anchor and shift from their large vessels into small
boats. You must know that the many merchants who go divide into various
companies, and each of these must engage a number of men on wages, hiring
them for April and half of May. Of all the produce they have first to pay
the King, as his royalty, the tenth part. And they must also pay those men
who charm the great fishes, to prevent them from injuring the divers
whilst engaged in seeking pearls under water, one twentieth part of all
that they take. These fish-charmers are termed _Abraiaman_; and their
charm holds good for that day only, for at night they dissolve the charm
so that the fishes can work mischief at their will. These Abraiaman know
also how to charm beasts and birds and every living thing. When the men
have got into the small boats they jump into the water and dive to the
bottom, which may be at a depth of from 4 to 12 fathoms, and there they
remain as long as they are able. And there they find the shells that
contain the pearls [and these they put into a net bag tied round the
waist, and mount up to the surface with them, and then dive anew. When
they can't hold their breath any longer they come up again, and after a
little down they go once more, and so they go on all day].[NOTE 2] The
shells are in fashion like oysters or sea-hoods. And in these shells are
found pearls, great and small, of every kind, sticking in the flesh of the
shell-fish.

In this manner pearls are fished in great quantities, for thence in fact
come the pearls which are spread all over the world. And I can tell you
the King of that State hath a very great receipt and treasure from his
dues upon those pearls.

As soon as the middle of May is past, no more of those pearl-shells are
found there. It is true, however, that a long way from that spot, some 300
miles distant, they are also found; but that is in September and the first
half of October.


NOTE 1.--MAABAR (_Ma'bar_) was the name given by the Mahomedans at this
time (13th and 14th centuries) to a tract corresponding in a general way
to what we call the Coromandel Coast. The word in Arabic signifies the
Passage or Ferry, and may have referred either to the communication with
Ceylon, or, as is more probable, to its being in that age the coast most
frequented by travellers from Arabia and the Gulf.[1] The name does not
appear in Edrisi, nor, I believe, in any of the older geographers, and the
earliest use of it that I am aware of is in Abdallatif's account of Egypt,
a work written about 1203-1204. (_De Sacy, Rel. de l'Egypte_, p. 31.)
Abulfeda distinctly names Cape Comorin as the point where Malabar ended
and Ma'bar began, and other authority to be quoted presently informs us
that it extended to _Niláwar_, i.e. Nellore.

There are difficulties as to the particular locality of the port or city
which Polo visited in the territory of the Prince whom he calls Sondar
Bandi Davar; and there are like doubts as to the identification, from the
dark and scanty Tamul records, of the Prince himself, and the family to
which he belonged; though he is mentioned by more than one foreign writer
besides Polo.

Thus Wassáf: "Ma'bar extends in length from Kaulam to Niláwar, nearly 300
parasangs along the sea-coast; and in the language of that country the
king is called Devar, which signifies, 'the Lord of Empire.' The
curiosities of Chín and Máchín, and the beautiful products of Hind and
Sind, laden on large ships which they call _Junks_, sailing like mountains
with the wings of the wind on the surface of the water, are always
arriving there. The wealth of the Isles of the Persian Gulf in particular,
and in part the beauty and adornment of other countries, from 'Irak and
Khurásán as far as Rúm and Europe, are derived from Ma'bar, which is so
situated as to be the key of Hind.

"A few years since the DEVAR was SUNDAR PANDI, who had three brothers,
each of whom established himself in independence in some different
country. The eminent prince, the Margrave (_Marzbán_) of Hind, Taki-uddin
Abdu-r Rahmán, a son of Muhammad-ut-Tíbí, whose virtues and
accomplishments have for a long time been the theme of praise and
admiration among the chief inhabitants of that beautiful country, was the
Devar's deputy, minister, and adviser, and was a man of sound judgment.
Fattan, Malifattan, and Káil[2] were made over to his possession.... In
the months of the year 692 H. (A.D. 1293) the above-mentioned Devar, the
ruler of Ma'bar, died and left behind him much wealth and treasure. It is
related by Malik-ul-Islám Jamáluddín, that out of that treasure 7000 oxen
laden with precious stones and pure gold and silver fell to the share of
the brother who succeeded him. Malik-i 'Azam Taki-uddin continued prime
minister as before, and in fact ruler of that kingdom, and his glory and
magnificence were raised a thousand times higher."[3]

Seventeen years later (1310) Wassáf introduces another king of Ma'bar
called _Kalesa Devar_, who had ruled for forty years in prosperity, and
had accumulated in the treasury of Shahr-Mandi (i.e., as Dr. Caldwell
informs me MADURA, entitled by the Mahomedan invaders Shahr-Pandi, and
still occasionally mispronounced _Shahr-Mandi_) 1200 crores (!) in gold.
He had two sons, SUNDAR BANDI by a lawful wife, and Pirabandi (Vira
Pandi?) illegitimate. He designated the latter as his successor. Sundar
Bandi, enraged at this, slew his father and took forcible possession of
Shahr-Mandi and its treasures. Pirabandi succeeded in driving him out;
Sundar Bandi went to Aláuddin, Sultan of Delhi, and sought help. The
Sultan eventually sent his general Hazárdinári (_alias_ Malik Káfúr) to
conquer Ma'bar.

In the third volume of Elliot we find some of the same main facts, with
some differences and greater detail, as recounted by Amír Khusru. Bir
Pandiya and Sundara Pandiya are the _Rais_ of Ma'bar, and are at war with
one another, when the army of Alaúddin, after reducing Bilál Deo of Dwára
Samudra, descends upon Ma'bar in the beginning of 1311 (p. 87 seqq.).

We see here two rulers in Ma'bar, within less than twenty years, bearing
the name of Sundara Pandi. And, strange to say, more than a century
before, during the continental wars of Parákráma Bahu I., the most martial
of Singhalese kings (A.D. 1153-1186), we find _another Kulasaikera_ (=
_Kalesa_ of Wassáf), King of Madura, with _another Vira Pándi_ for son,
and _another Sundara Pandi_ Rája, figuring in the history of the
_Pandionis Regio_. But let no one rashly imagine that there is a confusion
in the chronology here. The Hindu Chronology of the continental states is
dark and confused enough, but not that of Ceylon, which in this, as in
sundry other respects, comes under Indo-Chinese rather than Indian
analogies. (See _Turnour's Ceylonese Epitome_, pp. 41-43; and _J.A.S.B._
XLI. Pt. I. p. 197 seqq.)

In a note with which Dr. Caldwell favoured me some time before the first
publication of this work, he considers that the Sundar Bandi of Polo and
the Persian Historians is undoubtedly to be identified with that Sundara
Pandi Devar, who is in the Tamul Catalogues the last king of the ancient
Pandya line, and who was (says Dr. Caldwell,) "succeeded by Mahomedans, by
a new line of Pandyas, by the Náyak Kings, by the Nabobs of Arcot, and
finally by the English. He became for a time a Jaina, but was reconverted
to the worship of Siva, when his name was changed from _Kun_ or _Kubja_,
'Crook-backed,' to _Sundara_, 'Beautiful,' in accordance with a change
which then took place, the Saivas say, in his personal appearance.
Probably his name, from the beginning, was Sundara.... In the inscriptions
belonging to the period of his reign he is invariably represented, not as
a joint king or viceroy, but as an absolute monarch ruling over an
extensive tract of country, including the Chola country or Tanjore, and
Conjeveram, and as the only possessor for the time being of the title
_Pandi Devar_. It is clear from the agreement of Rashiduddin with Marco
Polo that Sundara Pandi's power was shared in some way with his brothers,
but it seems certain also from the inscription that there was a sense in
which he alone was king."

I do not give the whole of Dr. Caldwell's remarks on this subject,
because, the 3rd volume of Elliot not being then published, he had not
before him the whole of the information from the Mussulman historians,
which shows so clearly that _two_ princes bearing the name of Sundara
Pandi are mentioned by them, and because I cannot see my way to adopt his
view, great as is the weight due to his opinion on any such question.

Extraordinary darkness hangs over the chronology of the South Indian
kingdoms, as we may judge from the fact that Dr. Caldwell would have thus
placed at the end of the 13th century, on the evidence of Polo and
Rashiduddin, the reign of the last of the genuine Pandya kings, whom other
calculations place earlier even by centuries. Thus, to omit views more
extravagant, Mr. Nelson, the learned official historian of Madura,
supposes it on the whole most probable that Kun Pandya _alias_ Sundara,
reigned in the latter half of the 11th century. "The Sri Tala Book, which
appears to have been written about 60 years ago, and was probably compiled
from brief Tamil chronicles then in existence, states that the Pandya race
became extinct upon the death of Kún Pandya; and the children of
concubines and of younger brothers who (had) lived in former ages, fought
against one another, split up the country into factions, and got
themselves crowned, and ruled one in one place, another in another. But
none of these families succeeded in getting possession of Madura, the
capital, which consequently fell into decay. And further on it tells us,
rather inconsistently, that up to A.D. 1324 the kings 'who ruled the
Madura country, were part of the time Pandyas, at other times
foreigners.'" And a variety of traditions referred to by Mr. Nelson
appears to interpose such a period of unsettlement and shifting and
divided sovereignty, extending over a considerable time, between the end
of the genuine Pandya Dynasty and the Mahomedan invasion; whilst lists of
numerous princes who reigned in this period have been handed down. Now we
have just seen that the Mahomedan invasion took place in 1311, and we must
throw aside the traditions and the lists altogether if we suppose that the
Sundara Pandi of 1292 was the last prince of the Old Line. Indeed, though
the indication is faint, the manner in which Wassáf speaks of Polo's
Sundara and his brothers as having established themselves in different
territories, and as in constant war with each other, is suggestive of the
state of unsettlement which the Sri Tala and the traditions describe.

There is a difficulty in co-ordinating these four or five brothers at
constant war, whom Polo found in possession of different provinces of
Ma'bar about 1290, with the Devar Kalesa, of whom Wassáf speaks as slain
in 1310 after a prosperous reign of forty years. Possibly the brothers
were adventurers who had divided the coast districts, whilst Kalesa still
reigned with a more legitimate claim at Shahr-Mandi or Madura. And it is
worthy of notice that the Ceylon Annals call the Pandi king whose army
carried off the sacred tooth in 1303 _Kulasaikera_, a name which we may
easily believe to represent Wassáf's Kalesa. (_Nelson's Madura_, 55, 67,
71-74; _Turnour's Epitome_, p. 47.)

As regards the position of the port of Ma'bar visited, but not named, by
Marco Polo, and at or near which his Sundara Pandi seems to have resided,
I am inclined to look for it rather in Tanjore than on the Gulf of Manar,
south of the Rameshwaram shallows. The difficulties in this view are the
indication of its being "60 miles west of Ceylon," and the special mention
of the Pearl Fishery in connection with it. We cannot, however, lay much
stress upon Polo's orientation. When his general direction is from east to
west, every new place reached is for him _west_ of that last visited;
whilst the Kaveri Delta is as near the north point of Ceylon as Ramnad is
to Aripo. The pearl difficulty may be solved by the probability that the
dominion of Sonder Bandi _extended_ to the coast of the Gulf of Manar.

On the other hand Polo, below (ch. xx.), calls the province of Sundara
Pandi _Soli_, which we can scarcely doubt to be _Chola_ or _Soladesam_,
i.e. Tanjore. He calls it also "the best and noblest Province of India,"
a description which even with his limited knowledge of India he would
scarcely apply to the coast of Ramnad, but which might be justifiably
applied to the well-watered plains of Tanjore, even when as yet Arthur
Cotton was not. Let it be noticed too that Polo in speaking (ch. xix.) of
Mutfili (or Telingana) specifies its distance from Ma'bar as if he had
made the run by sea from one to the other; but afterwards when he proceeds
to speak of _Cail_, which stands on the Gulf of Manar, he does not specify
its position or distance in regard to Sundara Pandi's territory; an
omission which he would not have been likely to make had _both_ lain on
the Gulf of Manar.

Abulfeda tells us that the capital of the Prince of Ma'bar, who was the
great horse-importer, was called _Bíyardáwal_,[4] a name which now
appears in the extracts from Amír Khusru (_Elliot_, III. 90-91) as
_Birdhúl_, the capital of Bir Pandi mentioned above, whilst Madura was the
residence of his brother, the later Sundara Pandi. And from the
indications in those extracts it can be gathered, I think, that Birdhúl
was not far from the Kaveri (called Kánobari), not far from the sea, and
five or six days' march from Madura. These indications point to Tanjore,
Kombakonam, or some other city in or near the Kaveri Delta.[5] I should
suppose that this Birdhúl was the capital of Polo's Sundara Pandi, and
that the port visited was Kaveripattanam. This was a great sea-port at one
of the mouths of the Kaveri, which is said to have been destroyed by an
inundation about the year 1300. According to Mr. Burnell it was the
"_Pattanam_ 'par excellence' of the Coromandel Coast, and the great port
of the Chola kingdom."[6]

[Illustration: Chinese Pagoda (so called) at Negapatam. (From a sketch
taken in 1846 by Sir Walter Elliot.)]

Some corroboration of the supposition that the Tanjore ports were those
frequented by Chinese trade may be found in the fact that a remarkable
Pagoda of uncemented brickwork, about a mile to the north-west of
Negapatam, popularly bears (or bore) the name of _the Chinese Pagoda_. I
do not mean to imply that the building was Chinese, but that the
application of that name to a ruin of strange character pointed to some
tradition of Chinese visitors.[7] Sir Walter Elliot, to whom I am
indebted for the sketch of it given here, states that this building
differed essentially from any type of Hindu architecture with which he was
acquainted, but being without inscription or sculpture it was impossible
to assign to it any authentic origin. Negapatam was, however, celebrated
as a seat of _Buddhist_ worship, and this may have been a remnant of their
work. In 1846 it consisted of three stories divided by cornices of stepped
brickwork. The interior was open to the top, and showed the marks of a
floor about 20 feet from the ground. Its general appearance is shown by
the cut. This interesting building was reported in 1859 to be in too
dilapidated a state for repair, and now exists no longer. Sir W. Elliot
also tells me that collectors employed by him picked up in the sand, at
several stations on this coast, numerous Byzantine and _Chinese_ as well
as Hindu coins.[8] The brickwork of the pagoda, as described by him, very
fine and closely fitted but without cement, corresponds to that of the
Burmese and Ceylonese mediaeval Buddhist buildings. The _architecture_ has
a slight resemblance to that of Pollanarua in Ceylon (see _Fergusson_, II.
p. 512). (_Abulf._ in _Gildemeister_, p. 185; _Nelson_, Pt. II. p. 27
seqq.; _Taylor's Catalogue Raisonné_, III. 386-389.)

Ma'bar is mentioned (_Mà-pa-'rh_) in the Chinese Annals as one of the
foreign kingdoms which sent tribute to Kúblái in 1286 (supra, p. 296);
and Pauthier has given some very curious and novel extracts from Chinese
sources regarding the diplomatic intercourse with Ma'bar in 1280 and the
following years. Among other points these mention the "five brothers who
were Sultans" (_Suantan_), an envoy _Chamalating_ (Jumaluddín) who had
been sent from Ma'bar to the Mongol Court, etc. (See pp. 603 seqq.)

NOTE 2.--Marco's account of the pearl-fishery is still substantially
correct. _Bettelar_, the rendezvous of the fishery, was, I imagine, PATLAM
on the coast of Ceylon, called by Ibn Batuta _Batthála_. Though the centre
of the pearl-fishery is now at Aripo and Kondachi further north, its site
has varied sometimes as low as Chilaw, the name of which is a corruption
of that given by the Tamuls, _Salábham_, which means "the Diving," i.e.
the Pearl-fishery. Tennent gives the meaning erroneously as "the Sea of
Gain." I owe the correction to Dr. Caldwell. (_Ceylon_, I. 440; _Pridham_,
409; _Ibn Bat._ IV. 166; _Ribeyro_, ed. Columbo, 1847, App. p. 196.)

[Ma Huan (_J. North China B.R.A.S._ XX. p. 213) says that "the King (of
Ceylon) has had an [artificial] pearl pond dug, into which every two or
three years he orders pearl oysters to be thrown, and he appoints men to
keep watch over it. Those who fish for these oysters, and take them to the
authorities for the King's use, sometimes steal and fraudulently sell
them."--H.C.]

The shark-charmers do not now seem to have any claim to be called
Abraiaman or Brahmans, but they may have been so in former days. At the
diamond mines of the northern Circars Brahmans are employed in the
analogous office of propitiating the tutelary genii. The shark-charmers
are called in Tamul _Kadal-Katti_, "Sea-binders," and in Hindustani
_Hai-banda_ or "Shark-binders." At Aripo they belong to one family,
supposed to have the monopoly of the charm. The chief operator is (or was,
not many years ago) paid by Government, and he also received ten oysters
from each boat daily during the fishery. Tennent, on his visit, found the
incumbent of the office to be a Roman Catholic Christian, but that did not
seem to affect the exercise or the validity of his functions. It is
remarkable that when Tennent wrote, not more than one authenticated
accident from sharks had taken place, during the whole period of the
British occupation.

The time of the fishery is a little earlier than Marco mentions, viz. in
March and April, just between the cessation of the north-east and
commencement of the south-west monsoon. His statement of the depth is
quite correct; the diving is carried on in water of 4 to 10 fathoms deep,
and never in a greater depth than 13.

I do not know the site of the other fishery to which he alludes as
practised in September and October; but the time implies shelter from the
south-west Monsoon, and it was probably on the east side of the island,
where in 1750 there was a fishery, at Trincomalee. (_Stewart_ in _Trans.
R.A.S._ III. 456 seqq.; _Pridham._, u.s.; _Tennent_, II. 564-565;
_Ribeyro_, as above, App. p. 196.)


[1] So the Barbary coast from Tunis westward was called by the Arabs
    _Bár-ul-'Adwah_, "Terra Transitûs," because thence they used to
    pass into Spain. (_J. As._ for Jan. 1846, p. 228.)

[2] Wassáf has _Fitan, Mali Fitan, Kábil_ and meant the names so, as
    he shows by silly puns. For my justification in presuming to correct
    the names, I must refer to an article, in the _J. R. As. Soc._,
    N.S. IV. p. 347, on Rashiduddin's Geography.

[3] The same information is given in almost the same terms by Rashiduddin.
    (See _Elliot_, I. 69.) But he (at least in Elliot's translation)
    makes _Shaikh Jumaluddin_ the successor of the Devar, instead of
    merely the narrator of the circumstances. This is evidently a mistake,
    probably of transcription, and Wassaf gives us the true version.

    The members of the Arab family bearing the surname of At-Thaibí (or
    Thíbí) appear to have been powerful on the coasts of the Indian Sea at
    this time, (1) The Malik-ul-Islám Jamáluddin Ibrahim At Thaibi was
    Farmer-General of Fars, besides being quasi-independent Prince of Kais
    and other Islands in the Persian Gulf, and at the time of his death
    (1306) governor of Shiraz. He had the horse trade with India greatly
    in his hands, as is mentioned in a note (7) on next chapter. (2) The
    son of Jamáluddin, Fakhruddin Ahmed, goes ambassador to the Great Kaan
    in 1297, and dies near the coast of Ma'bar on his way back in 1305. A
    Fakhruddin Ahmed _Ben Ibrahim_ at-Thaibi also appears in Hammer's
    extracts as ruler of Hormuz about the time of Polo's return. (See
    _ante_, vol. i. p. 121); and though he is there represented as
    opposed by Shaikh Jumáluddin (perhaps through one of Hammer's too
    frequent confusions), one should suppose that he must be the son just
    mentioned. (3) Takiuddin Abdurrahmán, the Wazír and Marzbàn in Ma'bar;
    followed successively in that position by his son Surajuddín, and his
    grandson Nizamuddín. (_Ilchan._ II. 49-50, 197-198, 205-206;
    _Elliot_, III. 32, 34-35, 45-47.)

[4] [Arabic]

[5] My learned friend Mr. A. Burnell suggests that Birdhúl must have been
    Vriddachalam, _Virdachellam_ of the maps, which is in South Arcot,
    about 50 miles north of Tanjore. There are old and well-known temples
    there, and relics of fortifications. It is a rather famous place of
    pilgrimage.

[6] It was also perhaps the Fattan of the Mahomedan writers; but in that
    case its destruction must have been after Ibn Batuta's time (say
    middle of 14th century).

[7] I leave this passage as it stood in the first edition. It is a
    mistake, but this mistake led to the engraving of Sir W. Elliot's
    sketch (perhaps unique) of a very interesting building which has
    disappeared. Dr. Caldwell writes: "The native name was 'the _Jaina
    Tower_,' turned by the English into _China_ and _Chinese_. This I was
    told in Negapatam 30 years ago, but to make sure of the matter I have
    now written to Negapatam, and obtained from the Munsiff of the place
    confirmation of what I had heard long ago. It bore also the name of
    the Tower of the _Malla_.' The Chalukya Malla kings were at one time
    Jainas. The 'Seven Pagodas' near Madras bear their name, Ma-_Mallei_
    pûram, and their power may at one time have extended as far south as
    Negapatam." I have no doubt Dr. Caldwell is right in substance, but
    the name _China Pagoda_ at Negapatam is at least as old as Baldaeus
    (1672, p. 149), and the ascription to the Chinese is in Valentyn
    (1726, tom. v. p. 6). It is, I find, in the Atlas of India, "Jayne
    Pagoda."

[8] Colonel Mackenzie also mentions Chinese coins as found on this coast.
    (_J.R.A.S._ I. 352-353.)



CHAPTER XVII.

CONTINUES TO SPEAK OF THE PROVINCE OF MAABAR.


You must know that in all this Province of Maabar there is never a Tailor
to cut a coat or stitch it, seeing that everybody goes naked! For decency
only do they wear a scrap of cloth; and so 'tis with men and women, with
rich and poor, aye, and with the King himself, except what I am going to
mention.[NOTE 1]

It is a fact that the King goes as bare as the rest, only round his loins
he has a piece of fine cloth, and round his neck he has a necklace
entirely of precious stones,--rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and the like,
insomuch that this collar is of great value.[NOTE 2] He wears also hanging
in front of his chest from the neck downwards, a fine silk thread strung
with 104 large pearls and rubies of great price. The reason why he wears
this cord with the 104 great pearls and rubies, is (according to what they
tell) that every day, morning and evening, he has to say 104 prayers to
his idols. Such is their religion and their custom. And thus did all the
Kings his ancestors before him, and they bequeathed the string of pearls
to him that he should do the like. [The prayer that they say daily
consists of these words, _Pacauta! Pacauta! Pacauta_! And this they
repeat 104 times.[NOTE 3]]

The King aforesaid also wears on his arms three golden bracelets thickly
set with pearls of great value, and anklets also of like kind he wears on
his legs, and rings on his toes likewise. So let me tell you what this
King wears, between gold and gems and pearls, is worth more than a city's
ransom. And 'tis no wonder; for he hath great store of such gear; and
besides they are found in his kingdom. Moreover nobody is permitted to
take out of the kingdom a pearl weighing more than half a _saggio_,
unless he manages to do it secretly.[NOTE 4] This order has been given
because the King desires to reserve all such to himself; and so in fact
the quantity he has is something almost incredible. Moreover several times
every year he sends his proclamation through the realm that if any one who
possesses a pearl or stone of great value will bring it to him, he will
pay for it twice as much as it cost. Everybody is glad to do this, and
thus the King gets all into his own hands, giving every man his price.

Furthermore, this King hath some five hundred wives, for whenever he hears
of a beautiful damsel he takes her to wife. Indeed he did a very sorry
deed as I shall tell you. For seeing that his brother had a handsome wife,
he took her by force and kept her for himself. His brother, being a
discreet man, took the thing quietly and made no noise about it. The King
hath many children.

And there are about the King a number of Barons in attendance upon him.
These ride with him, and keep always near him, and have great authority in
the kingdom; they are called the King's Trusty Lieges. And you must know
that when the King dies, and they put him on the fire to burn him, these
Lieges cast themselves into the fire round about his body, and suffer
themselves to be burnt along with him. For they say they have been his
comrades in this world, and that they ought also to keep him company in
the other world.[NOTE 5]

When the King dies none of his children dares to touch his treasure. For
they say, "as our father did gather together all this treasure, so we
ought to accumulate as much in our turn." And in this way it comes to pass
that there is an immensity of treasure accumulated in this kingdom.[NOTE 6]

Here are no horses bred; and thus a great part of the wealth of the
country is wasted in purchasing horses; I will tell you how. You must know
that the merchants of KIS and HORMES, DOFAR and SOER and ADEN collect
great numbers of destriers and other horses, and these they bring to the
territories of this King and of his four brothers, who are kings likewise
as I told you. For a horse will fetch among them 500 _saggi_ of gold,
worth more than 100 marks of silver, and vast numbers are sold there every
year. Indeed this King wants to buy more than 2000 horses every year, and
so do his four brothers who are kings likewise. The reason why they want
so many horses every year is that by the end of the year there shall not
be one hundred of them remaining, for they all die off. And this arises
from mismanagement, for those people do not know in the least how to treat
a horse; and besides they have no farriers. The horse-merchants not only
never bring any farriers with them, but also prevent any farrier from
going thither, lest that should in any degree baulk the sale of horses,
which brings them in every year such vast gains. They bring these horses
by sea aboard ship.[NOTE 7]

They have in this country the custom which I am going to relate. When a
man is doomed to die for any crime, he may declare that he will put
himself to death in honour of such or such an idol; and the government
then grants him permission to do so. His kinsfolk and friends then set him
up on a cart, and provide him with twelve knives, and proceed to conduct
him all about the city, proclaiming aloud: "This valiant man is going to
slay himself for the love of (such an idol)." And when they be come to the
place of execution he takes a knife and sticks it through his arm, and
cries: "I slay myself for the love of (such a god)!" Then he takes another
knife and sticks it through his other arm, and takes a third knife and
runs it into his belly, and so on until he kills himself outright. And
when he is dead his kinsfolk take the body and burn it with a joyful
celebration.[NOTE 8] Many of the women also, when their husbands die and
are placed on the pile to be burnt, do burn themselves along with the
bodies. And such women as do this have great praise from all.[NOTE 9]

The people are Idolaters, and many of them worship the ox, because (say
they) it is a creature of such excellence. They would not eat beef for
anything in the world, nor would they on any account kill an ox. But there
is another class of people who are called _Govy_, and these are very
glad to eat beef, though they dare not kill the animal. Howbeit if an ox
dies, naturally or otherwise, then they eat him.[NOTE 10]

And let me tell you, the people of this country have a custom of rubbing
their houses all over with cow-dung.[NOTE 11] Moreover all of them, great
and small, King and Barons included, do sit upon the ground only, and the
reason they give is that this is the most honourable way to sit, because
we all spring from the Earth and to the Earth we must return; so no one
can pay the Earth too much honour, and no one ought to despise it.

And about that race of _Govis_, I should tell you that nothing on
earth would induce them to enter the place where Messer St. Thomas is--I
mean where his body lies, which is in a certain city of the province of
Maabar. Indeed, were even 20 or 30 men to lay hold of one of these
_Govis_ and to try to hold him in the place where the Body of the
Blessed Apostle of Jesus Christ lies buried, they could not do it! Such is
the influence of the Saint; for it was by people of this generation that
he was slain, as you shall presently hear.[NOTE 12]

No wheat grows in this province, but rice only.

And another strange thing to be told is that there is no possibility of
breeding horses in this country, as hath often been proved by trial. For
even when a great blood-mare here has been covered by a great blood-horse,
the produce is nothing but a wretched wry-legged weed, not fit to ride.
[NOTE 13]

The people of the country go to battle all naked, with only a lance and a
shield; and they are most wretched soldiers. They will kill neither beast
nor bird, nor anything that hath life; and for such animal food as they
eat, they make the Saracens, or others who are not of their own religion,
play the butcher.

It is their practice that every one, male and female, do wash the whole
body twice every day; and those who do not wash are looked on much as we
look on the Patarins. [You must know also that in eating they use the
right hand only, and would on no account touch their food with the left
hand. All cleanly and becoming uses are ministered to by the right hand,
whilst the left is reserved for uncleanly and disagreeable necessities,
such as cleansing the secret parts of the body and the like. So also they
drink only from drinking vessels, and every man hath his own; nor will any
one drink from another's vessel. And when they drink they do not put the
vessel to the lips, but hold it aloft and let the drink spout into the
mouth. No one would on any account touch the vessel with his mouth, nor
give a stranger drink with it. But if the stranger have no vessel of his
own they will pour the drink into his hands and he may thus drink from his
hands as from a cup.]

They are very strict in executing justice upon criminals, and as strict in
abstaining from wine. Indeed they have made a rule that wine-drinkers and
seafaring men are never to be accepted as sureties. For they say that to
be a seafaring man is all the same as to be an utter desperado, and that
his testimony is good for nothing.[1] Howbeit they look on lechery as no
sin.

[They have the following rule about debts. If a debtor shall have been
several times asked by his creditor for payment, and shall have put him
off from day to day with promises, then if the creditor can once meet the
debtor and succeed in drawing a circle round him, the latter must not pass
out of this circle until he shall have satisfied the claim, or given
security for its discharge. If he in any other case presume to pass the
circle he is punished with death as a transgressor against right and
justice. And the said Messer Marco, when in this kingdom on his return
home, did himself witness a case of this. It was the King, who owed a
foreign merchant a certain sum of money, and though the claim had often
been presented, he always put it off with promises. Now, one day when the
King was riding through the city, the merchant found his opportunity, and
drew a circle round both King and horse. The King, on seeing this, halted,
and would ride no further; nor did he stir from the spot until the
merchant was satisfied. And when the bystanders saw this they marvelled
greatly, saying that the King was a most just King indeed, having thus
submitted to justice.[NOTE 14]]

You must know that the heat here is sometimes so great that 'tis something
wonderful. And rain falls only for three months in the year, viz. in June,
July, and August. Indeed but for the rain that falls in these three
months, refreshing the earth and cooling the air, the drought would be so
great that no one could exist.[NOTE 15]

They have many experts in an art which they call Physiognomy, by which
they discern a man's character and qualities at once. They also know the
import of meeting with any particular bird or beast; for such omens are
regarded by them more than by any people in the world. Thus if a man is
going along the road and hears some one sneeze, if he deems it (say) a
good token for himself he goes on, but if otherwise he stops a bit, or
peradventure turns back altogether from his journey.[NOTE 16]

As soon as a child is born they write down his nativity, that is to say
the day and hour, the month, and the moon's age. This custom they observe
because every single thing they do is done with reference to astrology,
and by advice of diviners skilled in Sorcery and Magic and Geomancy, and
such like diabolical arts; and some of them are also acquainted with
Astrology.

[All parents who have male children, as soon as these have attained the
age of 13, dismiss them from their home, and do not allow them further
maintenance in the family. For they say that the boys are then of an age
to get their living by trade; so off they pack them with some twenty or
four-and-twenty groats, or at least with money equivalent to that. And
these urchins are running about all day from pillar to post, buying and
selling. At the time of the pearl-fishery they run to the beach and
purchase, from the fishers or others, five or six pearls, according to
their ability, and take these to the merchants, who are keeping indoors
for fear of the sun, and say to them: "These cost me such a price; now
give me what profit you please on them." So the merchant gives something
over the cost price for their profit. They do in the same way with many
other articles, so that they become trained to be very dexterous and keen
traders. And every day they take their food to their mothers to be cooked
and served, but do not eat a scrap at the expense of their fathers.]

In this kingdom and all over India the birds and beasts are entirely
different from ours, all but one bird which is exactly like ours, and that
is the Quail. But everything else is totally different. For example they
have bats,--I mean those birds that fly by night and have no feathers of
any kind; well, their birds of this kind are as big as a goshawk! Their
goshawks again are as black as crows, a good deal bigger than ours, and
very swift and sure.

Another strange thing is that they feed their horses with boiled rice and
boiled meat, and various other kinds of cooked food. That is the reason
why all the horses die off.[NOTE 17]

They have certain abbeys in which are gods and goddesses to whom many
young girls are consecrated; their fathers and mothers presenting them to
that idol for which they entertain the greatest devotion. And when the
[monks] of a convent[2] desire to make a feast to their god, they send
for all those consecrated damsels and make them sing and dance before the
idol with great festivity. They also bring meats to feed their idol
withal; that is to say, the damsels prepare dishes of meat and other good
things and put the food before the idol, and leave it there a good while,
and then the damsels all go to their dancing and singing and festivity for
about as long as a great Baron might require to eat his dinner. By that
time they say the spirit of the idols has consumed the substance of the
food, so they remove the viands to be eaten by themselves with great
jollity. This is performed by these damsels several times every year until
they are married.[NOTE 18]

[The reason assigned for summoning the damsels to these feasts is, as the
monks say, that the god is vexed and angry with the goddess, and will hold
no communication with her; and they say that if peace be not established
between them things will go from bad to worse, and they never will bestow
their grace and benediction. So they make those girls come in the way
described, to dance and sing, all but naked, before the god and the
goddess. And those people believe that the god often solaces himself with
the society of the goddess.

The men of this country have their beds made of very light canework, so
arranged that, when they have got in and are going to sleep, they are
drawn up by cords nearly to the ceiling and fixed there for the night.
This is done to get out of the way of tarantulas which give terrible
bites, as well as of fleas and such vermin, and at the same time to get as
much air as possible in the great heat which prevails in that region. Not
that everybody does this, but only the nobles and great folks, for the
others sleep on the streets.[NOTE 19]]

Now I have told you about this kingdom of the province of Maabar, and I
must pass on to the other kingdoms of the same province, for I have much
to tell of their peculiarities.


NOTE 1.--The non-existence of tailors is not a mere figure of speech.
Sundry learned pundits have been of opinion that the ancient Hindu knew no
needle-made clothing, and Colonel Meadows Taylor has alleged that they had
not even a word for the tailor's craft in their language. These opinions
have been patriotically refuted by Bábú Rájendralál Mitra. (_Proc. Ass.
Soc. B._ 1871, p. 100.)

Ibn Batuta describes the King of Calicut, the great "Zamorin," coming down
to the beach to see the wreck of certain Junks;--"his clothing consisted
of a great piece of white stuff rolled about him from the navel to the
knees, and a little scrap of a turban on his head; his feet were bare, and
a young slave carried an umbrella over him." (IV. 97.)

NOTE 2.--The necklace taken from the neck of the Hindu King Jaipál,
captured by Mahmúd in A.D. 1001, was composed of large pearls, rubies,
etc., and was valued at 200,000 _dinars_, or a good deal more than
100,000_l._ (_Elliot_, II. 26.) Compare Correa's account of the King of
Calicut, in _Stanley's V. da Gama_, 194.

NOTE 3.--The word is printed in Ramusio _Pacauca_, but no doubt _Pacauta_
is the true reading. Dr. Caldwell has favoured me with a note on this:
"The word ... was probably _Bagavâ_ or _Pagavâ_, the Tamil form of the
vocative of _Bhagavata_, 'Lord,' pronounced in the Tamil manner. This word
is frequently repeated by Hindus of all sects in the utterance of their
sacred formulae, especially by Vaishnava devotees, some of whom go about
repeating this one word alone. When I mentioned Marco Polo's word to two
learned Hindus at different times, they said, 'No doubt he meant
_Bagava_.'[3] The Saiva Rosary contains 32 beads; the doubled form of the
same, sometimes used, contains 64; the Vaishnava Rosary contains 108.
Possibly the latter may have been meant by Marco." [Captain Gill (_River
of Golden Sand_, II. p. 341) at Yung-Ch'ang, speaking of the beads of a
necklace, writes: "One hundred and eight is the regulation number, no one
venturing to wear a necklace, with one bead more or less."]

Ward says: "The Hindús believe the repetition of the name of God is an act
of adoration.... _Japa_ (as this act is called) makes an essential part of
the daily worship.... The worshipper, taking a string of beads, repeats
the name of his guardian deity, or that of any other god, counting by his
beads 10, 28, 108, 208, adding to every 108 not less than 100 more."
(Madras ed. 1863, pp. 217-218.)

No doubt the number in the text should have been 108, which is apparently
a mystic number among both Brahmans and Buddhists. Thus at Gautama's birth
108 Brahmans were summoned to foretell his destiny; round the great White
Pagoda at Peking are 108 pillars for illumination; 108 is the number of
volumes constituting the Tibetan scripture called _Kahgyur_; the merit of
copying this work is enhanced by the quality of the ink used, thus a copy
in red is 108 times more meritorious than one in black, one in silver
108^2 times, one in gold, 108^3 times; according to the Malabar Chronicle
Parasurama established in that country 108 Iswars, 108 places of worship,
and 108 Durga images; there are said to be 108 shrines of especial
sanctity in India; there are 108 _Upanishads_ (a certain class of mystical
Brahmanical sacred literature); 108 rupees is frequently a sum devoted to
alms; the rules of the Chinese Triad Society assign 108 blows as the
punishment for certain offences;--108, according to Athenaeus, were the
suitors of Penelope! I find a Tibetan tract quoted (by _Koeppen_, II. 284)
as entitled, "The Entire Victor over all the 104 Devils," and this is the
only example I have met with of 104 as a mystic number.

NOTE 4.--The _Saggio_, here as elsewhere, probably stands for the
_Miskál_.

NOTE 5.--This is stated also by Abu Zaid, in the beginning of the 10th
century. And Reinaud in his note refers to Mas'udi, who has a like passage
in which he gives a name to these companions exactly corresponding to
Polo's _Féoilz_ or Trusty Lieges: "When a King in India dies, many persons
voluntarily burn themselves with him. These are called _Balánjaríyah_
(sing. _Balánjar_), as if you should say 'Faithful Friends' of the
deceased, whose life was life to them, and whose death was death to them."
(_Anc. Rel._ I. 121 and note; _Mas._ II. 85.)

On the murder of Ajit Singh of Marwar, by two of his sons, there were 84
_satis_, and "so much was he beloved," says Tod, "that even men devoted
themselves on his pyre" (I. 744). The same thing occurred at the death of
the Sikh Gúrú Hargovind in 1645. (_H. of Sikhs_, p. 62.)

Barbosa briefly notices an institution like that described by Polo, in
reference to the King of Narsinga, i.e. Vijayanagar. (_Ram._ I. f. 302.)
Another form of the same bond seems to be that mentioned by other
travellers as prevalent in Malabar, where certain of the Nairs bore the
name of _Amuki_, and were bound not only to defend the King's life with
their own, but, if he fell, to sacrifice themselves by dashing among the
enemy and slaying until slain. Even Christian churches in Malabar had such
hereditary _Amuki_. (See _P. Vinc. Maria_, Bk. IV. ch. vii., and _Cesare
Federici_ in _Ram._ III. 390, also _Faria y Sousa_, by Stevens, I. 348.)
There can be little doubt that this is the Malay _Amuk_, which would
therefore appear to be of Indian origin, both in name and practice. I see
that De Gubernatis, without noticing the Malay phrase, traces the term
applied to the Malabar champions to the Sanskrit _Amokhya_,
"indissoluble," and _Amukta_, "not free, bound." (_Picc. Encic. Ind._ I,
88.) The same practice, by which the followers of a defeated prince devote
themselves in _amuk_ (_vulgo_ running _á-muck_),[4] is called in the
island of Bali _Bela_, a term applied also to one kind of female Sati,
probably from S. _Bali_, "a sacrifice." (See _Friedrich in Batavian
Trans._ XXIII.) In the first syllable of the _Balánjar_ of Mas'udi we have
probably the same word. A similar institution is mentioned by Caesar among
the Sotiates, a tribe of Aquitania. The _Féoilz_ of the chief were 600 in
number and were called _Soldurii_; they shared all his good things in
life, and were bound to share with him in death also. Such also was a
custom among the Spanish Iberians, and the name of these _Amuki_ signified
"sprinkled for sacrifice." Other generals, says Plutarch, might find a few
such among their personal staff and dependents, but Sertorius was followed
by many myriads who had thus devoted themselves. Procopius relates of the
White Huns that the richer among them used to entertain a circle of
friends, some score or more, as perpetual guests and partners of their
wealth. But, when the chief died, the whole company were expected to go
down alive into the tomb with him. The King of the Russians, in the tenth
century, according to Ibn Fozlán, was attended by 400 followers bound by
like vows. And according to some writers the same practice was common in
Japan, where the friends and vassals who were under the vow committed
_hara kiri_ at the death of their patron. The _Likamankwas_ of the
Abyssinian kings, who in battle wear the same dress with their master to
mislead the enemy--"Six Richmonds in the field"--form apparently a kindred
institution. (_Bell. Gall._ iii. c. 22; _Plutarch, in Vit. Sertorii;
Procop. De B. Pers._ I. 3: _Ibn Fozlan_ by _Fraehn_, p. 22; _Sonnerat_, I.
97.)

NOTE 6.--However frequent may have been wars between adjoining states, the
south of the peninsula appears to have been for ages free from foreign
invasion until the Delhi expeditions, which occurred a few years later
than our traveller's visit; and there are many testimonies to the enormous
accumulations of treasure. Gold, according to the _Masálak-al-Absár_, had
been flowing into India for 3000 years, and had never been exported.
Firishta speaks of the enormous spoils carried off by Malik Káfúr, every
soldier's share amounting to 25 Lbs. of gold! Some years later Mahomed
Tughlak loads 200 elephants and several thousand bullocks with the
precious spoil of a single temple. We have quoted a like statement from
Wassáf as to the wealth found in the treasury of this very Sundara Pandi
Dewar, but the same author goes far beyond this when he tells that Kales
Dewar, Raja of Ma'bar about 1309, had accumulated 1200 crores of gold,
i.e. 12,000 millions of dinars, enough to girdle the earth with a
four-fold belt of bezants! (_N. and E._ XIII. 218, 220-221, _Brigg's
Firishta_, I. 373-374; _Hammer's Ilkhans_, II. 205.)

NOTE 7.--Of the ports mentioned as exporting horses to India we have
already made acquaintance with KAIS and HORMUZ; of DOFAR and ADEN we
shall hear further on; _Soer_ is SOHÁR the former capital of Oman, and
still a place of some little trade. Edrisi calls it "one of the oldest
cities of Oman, and of the richest. Anciently it was frequented by
merchants from all parts of the world; and voyages to China used to be
made from it." (I. 152.)

Rashiduddin and Wassáf have identical statements about the horse trade,
and so similar to Polo's in this chapter that one almost suspects that he
must have been their authority. Wassáf says: "It was a matter of agreement
that Malik-ul-Islám Jamáluddín and the merchants should embark every year
from the island of KAIS and land at MA'BAR 1400 horses of his own
breed.... It was also agreed that he should embark as many as he could
procure from all the isles of Persia, such as Kátif, Lahsá, Bahrein,
Hurmuz, and Kalhátú. The price of each horse was fixed from of old at 220
dinars of red gold, on this condition, that if any horses should happen to
die, the value of them should be paid from the royal treasury. It is
related by authentic writers that in the reign of Atábek Abu Bakr of
(Fars), 10,000 horses were annually exported from these places to Ma'bar,
Kambáyat, and other ports in their neighbourhood, and the sum total of
their value amounted to 2,200,000 dinars.... They bind them for 40 days in
a stable with ropes and pegs, in order that they may get fat; and
afterwards, without taking measures for training, and without stirrups and
other appurtenances of riding, the Indian soldiers ride upon them like
demons.... In a short time, the most strong, swift, fresh, and active
horses become weak, slow, useless, and stupid. In short, they all become
wretched and good for nothing.... There is, therefore, a constant
necessity of getting new horses annually." Amír Khusru mentions among
Malik Kafúr's plunder in Ma'bar, 5000 Arab and Syrian horses. (_Elliot_,
III. 34, 93.)

The price mentioned by Polo appears to be intended for 500 dinars, which
in the then existing relations of the precious metals in Asia would be
worth just about 100 marks of silver. Wassáf's price, 220 dinars of red
gold, seems very inconsistent with this, but is not so materially, for it
would appear that the _dinar of red gold_ (so called) was worth _two
dinars_.[5]

I noted an early use of the term _Arab chargers_ in the famous Bodleian
copy of the Alexander Romance (1338):

  "Alexand' descent du destrier Arrabis."

NOTE 8.--I have not found other mention of a condemned criminal being
allowed thus to sacrifice himself; but such suicides in performance of
religious vows have occurred in almost all parts of India in all ages.
Friar Jordanus, after giving a similar account to that in the text of the
parade of the victim, represents him as _cutting off his own head_ before
the idol, with a peculiar two-handled knife "like those used in currying
leather." And strange as this sounds it is undoubtedly true. Ibn Batuta
witnessed the suicidal feat at the Court of the Pagan King of Mul-Java
(somewhere on the const of the Gulf of Siam), and Mr. Ward, without any
knowledge of these authorities, had heard that an instrument for this
purpose was formerly preserved at Kshíra, a village of Bengal near Nadiya.
The thing was called _Karavat_; it was a crescent-shaped knife, with
chains attached to it forming stirrups, so adjusted that when the fanatic
placed the edge to the back of his neck and his feet in the stirrups, by
giving the latter a violent jerk his head was cut off. Padre Tieffentaller
mentions a like instrument at Prág (or Allahabad). Durgavati, a famous
Queen on the Nerbada, who fell in battle with the troops of Akbar, is
asserted in a family inscription to have "severed her own head with a
scimitar she held in her hand." According to a wild legend told at Ujjain,
the great king Vikramajit was in the habit of cutting off his own head
_daily_, as an offering to Devi. On the last performance the head failed
to re-attach itself as usual; and it is now preserved, petrified, in the
temple of Harsuddi at that place.

I never heard of anybody in Europe performing this extraordinary feat
except Sir Jonah Barrington's Irish mower, who made a dig at a salmon with
the butt of his scythe-handle and dropt his own head in the pool! (_Jord._
33; _I.B._ IV. 246; _Ward_, Madras ed. 249-250; _J.A.S.B._ XVII. 833;
_Rás Mála_, II. 387.)

NOTE 9.--Satis were very numerous in parts of S. India. In 1815 there were
one hundred in Tanjore alone. (_Ritter_, VI. 303; _J. Cathay_, p. 80.)

NOTE 10.--"The people in this part of the country (Southern Mysore)
consider the ox as a living god, who gives them bread; and in every
village there are one or two bulls to whom weekly or monthly worship is
performed." (_F. Buchanan_, II. 174.) "The low-caste Hindus, called _Gavi_
by Marco Polo, were probably the caste now called _Paraiyar_ (by the
English, _Pariahs_). The people of this caste do not venture to kill the
cow, but when they find the carcase of a cow which has died from disease,
or any other cause, they cook and eat it. The name _Paraiyar_, which means
'Drummers,' does not appear to be ancient."[6] (_Note by the Rev. Dr.
Caldwell_.)

In the history of Sind called _Chach Namah_, the Hindus revile the
Mahomedan invaders as _Chandáls_ and cow-eaters. (_Elliot_, I. 172, 193).
The low castes are often styled from their unrestricted diet, e.g.
_Halál-Khor_ (P. "to whom all food is lawful"), _Sab-khawá_ (H.
"omnivorous").

Bábú Rájendralál Mitra has published a learned article on _Beef in ancient
India_, showing that the ancient Brahmans were far from entertaining the
modern horror of cow-killing. We may cite two of his numerous
illustrations. _Goghna_, "a guest," signifies literally "a cow-killer,"
i.e. he for whom a cow is killed. And one of the sacrifices prescribed
in the _Sútras_ bears the name of _Súla-gava_ "spit-cow," i.e.
roast-beef. (_J.A.S.B._ XLI. Pt. I. p. 174 seqq.)

NOTE 11.--The word in the G.T. is _losci dou buef_, which Pauthier's text
has converted into _suif de buef_--in reference to Hindus, a preposterous
statement. Yet the very old Latin of the Soc. Géog. also has
_pinguedinem_, and in a parallel passage about the Jogis (infra, ch.
xx.), Ramusio's text describes them as daubing themselves with powder of
ox-_bones_ (_l'ossa_). Apparently _l'osci_ was not understood (It.
_uscito_).

NOTE 12.--Later travellers describe the descendants of St. Thomas's
murderers as marked by having one leg of immense size, i.e. by
_elephantiasis_. The disease was therefore called by the Portuguese _Pejo
de Santo Toma_.

NOTE 13.--Mr. Nelson says of the Madura country: "The horse is a
miserable, weedy, and vicious pony; having but one good quality,
endurance. The breed is not indigenous, but the result of constant
importations and a very limited amount of breeding." (_The Madura
Country_, Pt. II. p. 94.) The ill success in breeding horses was
exaggerated to impossibility, and made to extend to all India. Thus a
Persian historian, speaking of an elephant that was born in the stables of
Khosru Parviz, observes that "never till then had a she-elephant borne
young in Irán, any more than a lioness in Rúm, a tabby cat in China (!),
or _a mare in India_." (_J.A.S._ sér. III. tom. iii. p. 127.)

[Major-General Crawford T. Chamberlain, C.S.I., in a report on Stud
Matters in India, 27th June 1874, writes: "I ask how it is possible that
horses could be bred at a moderate cost in the Central Division, when
everything was against success. I account for the narrow-chested,
congenitally unfit and malformed stock, also for the creaking joints,
knuckle over futtocks, elbows in, toes out, seedy toe, bad action, weedy
frames, and other degeneracy: 1st, to a damp climate, altogether inimical
to horses; 2nd, to the operations being intrusted to a race of people
inhabiting a country where horses are not indigenous, and who therefore
have no taste for them...; 5th, treatment of mares. To the impure air in
confined, non-ventilated hovels, etc.; 6th, improper food; 7th, to a
chronic system of tall rearing and forcing." (_MS. Note_.--H.Y.)]

NOTE 14.--This custom is described in much the same way by the
Arabo-Persian Zakariah Kazwini, by Ludovico Varthema, and by Alexander
Hamilton. Kazwini ascribes it to Ceylon. "If a debtor does not pay, the
King sends to him a person who draws a line round him, wheresoever he
chance to be; and beyond that circle he dares not to move until he shall
have paid what he owes, or come to an agreement with his creditor. For if
he should pass the circle the King fines him three times the amount of his
debt; one-third of this fine goes to the creditor and two-thirds to the
King." Père Bouchet describes the strict regard paid to the arrest, but
does not notice the symbolic circle. (_Gildem._ 197; _Varthema_, 147;
_Ham._ I. 318; _Lett. Edif._ XIV. 370.)

"The custom undoubtedly prevailed in this part of India at a former time.
It is said that it still survives amongst the poorer classes in
out-of-the-way parts of the country, but it is kept up by schoolboys in a
serio-comic spirit as vigorously as ever. Marco does not mention a very
essential part of the ceremony. The person who draws a circle round another
imprecates upon him the name of a particular divinity, whose curse is to
fall upon him if he breaks through the circle without satisfying the
claim." (_MS. Note by the Rev. Dr. Caldwell_.)

NOTE 15.--The statement about the only rains falling in June, July, and
August is perplexing. "It is entirely inapplicable to every part of the
Coromandel coast, to which alone the name Ma'bar seems to have been given,
but it is quite true of the _western_ coast generally." (_Rev. Dr. C._)
One can only suppose that Polo inadvertently applied to Maabar that which
he knew to be true of the regions both west of it and east of it. The
Coromandel coast derives its chief supply of rain from the north-east
monsoon, beginning in October, whereas both eastern and western India have
theirs from the south-west monsoon, between June and September.

NOTE 16.--Abraham Roger says of the Hindus of the Coromandel coast: "They
judge of lucky hours and moments also by trivial accidents, to which they
pay great heed. Thus 'tis held to be a good omen to everybody when the
bird _Garuda_ (which is a red hawk with a white ring round its neck) or
the bird _Pala_ flies across the road in front of the person from right to
left; but as regards other birds they have just the opposite notion.... If
they are in a house anywhere, and have moved to go, and then any one
should sneeze, they will go in again, regarding it as an ill omen," etc.
(_Abr. Roger_, pp. 75-76.)

NOTE 17.--Quoth Wassáf: "It is a strange thing that when these horses
arrive there, instead of giving them raw barley, they give them roasted
barley and grain dressed with butter, and boiled cow's milk to drink:--

  "Who gives sugar to an owl or a crow?
  Or who feeds a parrot with a carcase?
  A crow should be fed with carrion,
  And a parrot with candy and sugar.
  Who loads jewels on the back of an ass?
  Or who would approve of giving dressed almonds to a cow?"
      --_Elliot_, III. 33.

"Horses," says Athanasius Nikitin, "are fed on peas; also on _Kicheri_,
boiled with sugar and oil; early in the morning they get _shishenivo_."
This last word is a mystery. (_India in the XVth Century_, p. 10.)

"Rice is frequently given by natives to their horses to fatten them, and a
sheep's head occasionally to strengthen them." (_Note by Dr. Caldwell_.)

The sheep's head is peculiar to the Deccan, but _ghee_ (boiled butter) is
given by natives to their horses, I believe, all over India. Even in the
stables of Akbar an imperial horse drew daily 2 lbs. of flour, 1-1/2 lb.
of sugar, and in winter 1/2 lb. of _ghee_! (_Ain. Akb._ 134.)

It is told of Sir John Malcolm that at an English table where he was
present, a brother officer from India had ventured to speak of the sheep's
head custom to an unbelieving audience. He appealed to Sir John, who only
shook his head deprecatingly. After dinner the unfortunate story-teller
remonstrated, but Sir John's answer was only, "My dear fellow, they took
you for one Munchausen; they would merely have taken me for another!"

NOTE 18.--The nature of the institution of the Temple dancing-girls seems
to have been scarcely understood by the Traveller. The like existed at
ancient Corinth under the name of [Greek: Ieródouloi], which is nearly a
translation of the Hindi name of the girls, _Deva-dási_. (_Strabo_, VIII.
6, § 20.) "Each (Dási) is married to an idol when quite young. The female
children are generally brought up to the trade of the mothers. It is
customary with a few castes to present their superfluous daughters to the
Pagodas." (_Nelson's Madura Country_, Pt. II. 79.) A full account of this
matter appears to have been read by Dr. Shortt of Madras before the
Anthropological Society But I have only seen a newspaper notice of it.

NOTE 19.--The first part of this paragraph is rendered by Marsden: "The
natives make use of a kind of bedstead or cot of very light canework, so
ingeniously contrived that when they repose on them, and are inclined to
sleep, _they can draw close the curtains about them by pulling a string_."
This is not translation. An approximate illustration of the real statement
is found in Pyrard de Laval, who says (of the Maldive Islanders): "Their
beds are hung up by four cords to a bar supported by two pillars.... The
beds of the king, the grandees, and rich folk are made thus that they may
be swung and rocked with facility." (_Charton_, IV. 277.) In the _Rás
Mála_ swinging cots are several times alluded to. (I. 173, 247, 423.) In
one case the bed is mentioned as suspended to the ceiling by chains.

[Illustration: Pagoda at Tanjore.]


[1] "_Audax omnia perpeti_," etc.

[2] The G.T. has _nuns_, "_Li nosnain do mostier._" But in Ramusio it is
    _monks_; which is more probable, and I have adopted it.

[3] M. Pauthier has suggested the same explanation in his notes.

[4] Running _a-muck_ in the genuine Malay fashion is not unknown among the
    Rajpúts; see two notable instances in _Tod_, II. 45 and 315. [See
    _Hobson-Jobson_.]

[5] See _Journ. Asiat._ sér. VI. tom. xi. pp. 505 and 512. May not the
    _dinár_ of red gold have been the gold _mohr_ of those days, popularly
    known as the _red tanga_, which Ibn Batuta repeatedly tells us was
    equal to 2-1/2 dinárs of the west. 220 red tangas would be equivalent
    to 550 western dinárs, or _saggi_, of Polo. (_Elliot_, II. 332, III.
    582.)

[6] I observe, however, that Sir Walter Elliot thinks it possible that the
    _Paraya_ which appears on the oldest of Indian inscriptions as the name
    of a nation, coupled with Chola and Kerala (Coromandel and Malabar), is
    that of the modern despised tribe. (_J. Ethn. Soc._ n.s. I. 103.)



CHAPTER XVIII.

DISCOURSING OF THE PLACE WHERE LIETH THE BODY OF ST. THOMAS THE APOSTLE;
AND OF THE MIRACLES THEREOF.


[Illustration: Ancient Cross with Pehlevi Inscription on St. Thomas's
Mount, near Madras. (From Photograph.)]

The Body of Messer St. Thomas the Apostle lies in this province of Maabar
at a certain little town having no great population. 'Tis a place where
few traders go, because there is very little merchandize to be got there,
and it is a place not very accessible.[NOTE 1] Both Christians and
Saracens, however, greatly frequent it in pilgrimage. For the Saracens
also do hold the Saint in great reverence, and say that he was one of
their own Saracens and a great prophet, giving him the title of
_Avarian_, which is as much as to say "Holy Man."[NOTE 2] The
Christians who go thither in pilgrimage take of the earth from the place
where the Saint was killed, and give a portion thereof to any one who is
sick of a quartan or a tertian fever; and by the power of God and of St.
Thomas the sick man is incontinently cured.[NOTE 3] The earth, I should
tell you, is red. A very fine miracle occurred there in the year of
Christ, 1288, as I will now relate.

A certain Baron of that country, having great store of a certain kind of
corn that is called _rice_, had filled up with it all the houses that
belonged to the church, and stood round about it. The Christian people in
charge of the church were much distressed by his having thus stuffed their
houses with his rice; the pilgrims too had nowhere to lay their heads; and
they often begged the pagan Baron to remove his grain, but he would do
nothing of the kind. So one night the Saint himself appeared with a fork
in his hand, which he set at the Baron's throat, saying: "If thou void not
my houses, that my pilgrims may have room, thou shalt die an evil death,"
and therewithal the Saint pressed him so hard with the fork that he
thought himself a dead man. And when morning came he caused all the houses
to be voided of his rice, and told everybody what had befallen him at the
Saint's hands. So the Christians were greatly rejoiced at this grand
miracle, and rendered thanks to God and to the blessed St. Thomas. Other
great miracles do often come to pass there, such as the healing of those
who are sick or deformed, or the like, especially such as be Christians.

[The Christians who have charge of the church have a great number of the
Indian Nut trees, whereby they get their living; and they pay to one of
those brother Kings six groats for each tree every month.[1]]

Now, I will tell you the manner in which the Christian brethren who keep
the church relate the story of the Saint's death.

They tell that the Saint was in the wood outside his hermitage saying his
prayers; and round about him were many peacocks, for these are more
plentiful in that country than anywhere else. And one of the Idolaters of
that country being of the lineage of those called _Govi_ that I told
you of, having gone with his bow and arrows to shoot peafowl, not seeing
the Saint, let fly an arrow at one of the peacocks; and this arrow struck
the holy man in the right side, insomuch that he died of the wound,
sweetly addressing himself to his Creator. Before he came to that place
where he thus died he had been in Nubia, where he converted much people to
the faith of Jesus Christ.[NOTE 4]

The children that are born here are black enough, but the blacker they be
the more they are thought of; wherefore from the day of their birth their
parents do rub them every week with oil of sesamé, so that they become as
black as devils. Moreover, they make their gods black and their devils
white, and the images of their saints they do paint black all over.[NOTE 5]

They have such faith in the ox, and hold it for a thing so holy, that when
they go to the wars they take of the hair of the wild-ox, whereof I have
elsewhere spoken, and wear it tied to the necks of their horses; or, if
serving on foot, they hang this hair to their shields, or attach it to
their own hair. And so this hair bears a high price, since without it
nobody goes to the wars in any good heart. For they believe that any one
who has it shall come scatheless out of battle.[NOTE 6]


NOTE 1.--The little town where the body of St. Thomas lay was MAILAPÚR the
name of which is still applied to a suburb of Madras about 3-1/2 miles
south of Fort St. George.

NOTE 2.--The title of _Avarian_, given to St. Thomas by the Saracens, is
judiciously explained by Joseph Scaliger to be the Arabic _Hawariy_ (pl.
_Hawariyun_), 'An Apostle of the Lord Jesus Christ.' Scaliger somewhat
hypercritically for the occasion finds fault with Marco for saying the
word means "a holy man." (_De Emendatione Temporum_, Lib. VII., Geneva,
1629, p. 680.)

NOTE 3.--The use of the earth from the tomb of St Thomas for miraculous
cures is mentioned also by John Mangnolli, who was there about 1348-1349.
Assemani gives a special formula of the Nestorians for use in the
application of this dust, which was administered to the sick in place of
the unction of the Catholics. It ends with the words "_Signatur et
sanctificatur hic_ Hanana _(pulvis) cum hac_ Taibutha _(gratiâ) Sancti
Thomae Apostoli in sanitatem et medelam corporis et animae, in nomen P. et
F. et S.S._" (III. Pt. 2, 278.) The Abyssinians make a similar use of the
earth from the tomb of their national Saint Tekla Haimanot. (_J.R.G.S._
X. 483.) And the Shiahs, on solemn occasions, partake of water in which
has been mingled the dust of Kerbela.

Fa hian tells that the people of Magadha did the like, for the cure of
headache, with earth from the place where lay the body of Kasyapa, a
former Buddha. (_Beal_, p. 133.)

[Illustration: The Little Mount of St. Thomas, near Madras.]

NOTE 4.--Vague as is Polo's indication of the position of the Shrine of
St. Thomas, it is the first geographical identification of it that I know
of, save one. At the very time of Polo's homeward voyage, John of Monte
Corvino on his way to China spent thirteen months in Maabar, and in a
letter thence in 1292-1293 he speaks of the church of St. Thomas there,
having buried in it the companion of his travels, Friar Nicholas of
Pistoia.

But the tradition of Thomas's preaching in India is very old, so old that
it probably is, in its simple form, true. St. Jerome accepts it, speaking
of the Divine Word as being everywhere present in His fullness: "_cum Thomâ
in India_, cum Petro Romae, cum Paulo in Illyrico," etc. (_Scti Hieron
Epistolae_, LIX, _ad Marcetlam_.) So dispassionate a scholar as Professor
H.H. Wilson speaks of the preaching and martyrdom of St. Thomas in S.
India as "occurrences very far from invalidated by any arguments yet
adduced against the truth of the tradition." I do not know if the date is
ascertainable of the very remarkable legend of St. Thomas in the apocryphal
Acts of the Apostles, but it is presumably very old, though subsequent to
the translation of the relics (real or supposed) to Edessa, in the year
394, which is alluded to in the story. And it is worthy of note that this
legend places the martyrdom and original burial-place of the Saint _upon a
mount_. Gregory of Tours (A.D. 544-595) relates that "in that place in
India where the body of Thomas lay before it was transported to Edessa,
there is a monastery and a temple of great size and excellent structure and
ornament. In it God shows a wonderful miracle; for the lamp that stands
alight before the place of sepulture keeps burning perpetually, night and
day, by divine influence, for neither oil nor wick are ever renewed by
human hands;" and this Gregory learned from one Theodorus, who had visited
the spot.

The apocryphal history of St. Thomas relates that while the Lord was still
upon earth a certain King of India, whose name was Gondaphorus, sent to
the west a certain merchant called Abban to seek a skilful architect to
build him a palace, and the Lord sold Thomas to him as a slave of His own
who was expert in such work. Thomas eventually converts King Gondaphorus,
and proceeds to another country of India ruled by King _Meodeus_, where he
is put to death by lances. M. Reinaud first, I believe, pointed out the
remarkable fact that the name of the King Gondaphorus of the legend is the
same with that of a King who has become known from the Indo-Scythian
coins, _Gondophares_, Yndoferres, or _Gondaferres_. This gives great
interest to a votive inscription found near Pesháwar, and now in the
Lahore Museum, which appears to bear the name of the same King. This
Professor Dowson has partially read: "In the 26th year of the great King
Guna ... pharasa, on the seventh day of the month Vaisákha." ...
General Cunningham has read the date with more claim to precision: "In
the 26th year of King Guduphara, in the Samvat year 103, in the month of
Vaisákh, the 4th day." ... But Professor Dowson now comes much closer to
General Cunningham, and reads: "26th year of the King, the year 100 of
Samvat, 3rd day of Vaisákha." (See _Rep. of R. As. Soc._, 18th January,
1875.) In ordinary application of _Samvat_ (to era of Vikramaditya) A.D.
100--A.D. 43; but the era meant here is as yet doubtful. Lassen put
Yndoferres about 90 B.C., as Cunningham did formerly about 26 B.C. The
chronology is very doubtful, but the evidence does not appear to be strong
against the synchronism of the King and the legend. (See _Prinsep's
Essays_, II. 176, 177, and Mr. Thomas's remarks at p. 214; _Trübner's
Record_, 30th June, 187; Cunningham's _Desc. List of Buddhist Sculptures
in Lahore Central Museum; Reinaud, Inde_, p. 95.)

Here then may be a faint trace of a true apostolic history. But in the 16th
and 17th centuries Roman Catholic ecclesiastical story-tellers seem to have
striven in rivalry who should most recklessly expand the travels of St.
Thomas. According to an abstract given by P. Vincenzo Maria, his preaching
began in Mesopotamia, and extended through Bactria, etc., to China, "the
States of the Great Mogul" (!) and Siam; he then revisited his first
converts, and passed into Germany, thence to Brazil, "as relates P. Emanuel
Nobriga," and from that to Ethiopia. After thus carrying light to the four
quarters of the World, the indefatigable Traveller and Missionary retook
his way to India, converting Socotra as he passed, and then preached in
Malabar, and on the Coromandel Coast, where he died, as already stated.

Some parts of this strange rhapsody, besides the Indian mission, were no
doubt of old date; for the Chaldaean breviary of the Malabar Church in its
office of St. Thomas contains such passages as this: "By St. Thomas were
the Chinese and the Ethiopians converted to the Truth;" and in an Anthem:
"The Hindus, the Chinese, the Persians, and all the people of the Isles of
the Sea, they who dwell in Syria and Armenia, in Javan and Romania, call
Thomas to remembrance, and adore Thy Name, O Thou our Redeemer!"

The Roman Martyrology calls the city of Martyrdom _Calamina_, but there is
(I think) a fair presumption that the spot alluded to by Gregory of Tours
was Mailapúr, and that the Shrine visited by King Alfred's envoy, Sighelm,
may have been the same.

Marco, as we see, speaks of certain houses belonging to the church, and of
certain Christians who kept it. Odoric, some thirty years later, found
beside the church, "some 15 houses of Nestorians," but the Church itself
filled with idols. Conti, in the following century, speaks of the church in
which St. Thomas lay buried, as large and beautiful, and says there were
1000 Nestorians in the city. Joseph of Cranganore, the Malabar Christian
who came to Europe in 1501, speaks like our traveller of the worship paid
to the Saint, even by the heathen, and compares the church to that of St.
John and St. Paul at Venice. Certain Syrian bishops sent to India in 1504,
whose report is given by Assemani, heard that the church had _begun_ to be
occupied by some Christian people. But Barbosa, a few years later, found it
half in ruins and in the charge of a Mahomedan Fakir, who kept a lamp
burning.

There are two St. Thomas's Mounts in the same vicinity, the Great and the
Little Mount. A church was built upon the former by the Portuguese and
some sanctity attributed to it, especially in connection with the cross
mentioned below, but I believe there is no doubt that the _Little Mount_
was the site of the ancient church.

The Portuguese ignored the ancient translation of the Saint's remains to
Edessa, and in 1522, under the Viceroyalty of Duarte Menezes, a commission
was sent to Mailapúr, or San Tomé as they called it, to search for the
body. The narrative states circumstantially that the Apostle's bones were
found, besides those of the king whom he had converted, etc. The supposed
relics were transferred to Goa, where they are still preserved in the
Church of St. Thomas in that city. The question appears to have become a
party one among Romanists in India, in connection with other differences,
and I see that the authorities now ruling the Catholics at Madras are
strong in disparagement of the special sanctity of the localities, and of
the whole story connecting St. Thomas with Mailapúr. (_Greg. Turon. Lib.
Mirac._ I. p. 85; _Tr.R.A.S._ I. 761; _Assemani_, III. Pt. II. pp. 32,
450; _Novus Orbis_ (ed. 1555), p. 210; _Maffei_, Bk. VIII.; _Cathay_, pp.
81, 197, 374-377, etc.)

The account of the Saint's death was no doubt that current among the
native Christians, for it is told in much the same way by Marignolli and
by Barbosa, and was related also in the same manner by one Diogo
Fernandes, who gave evidence before the commission of Duarte Menezes, and
who claimed to have been the first Portuguese visitor of the site. (See
_De Couto_, Dec. V. Liv. vi. cap. 2, and Dec. VII. Liv. x. cap. 5.)

[Illustration: St. Thomas Localities at Madras.]

As Diogo de Couto relates the story of the localities, in the shape which
it had taken by the middle of the 16th century, both Little and Great
Mounts were the sites of Oratories which the Apostle had frequented;
during prayer on the Little Mount he was attacked and wounded, but fled to
the Great Mount, where he expired. In repairing a hermitage which here
existed, in 1547, the workmen came upon a stone slab with a cross and
inscription carved upon it. The story speedily developed itself that this
was the cross which had been embraced by the dying Apostle, and its
miraculous virtues soon obtained great fame. It was eventually set up over
an altar in the Church of the Madonna, which was afterwards erected on the
Great Mount, and there it still exists. A Brahman impostor professed to
give an interpretation of the inscription as relating to the death of St.
Thomas, etc., and this was long accepted. The cross seemed to have been
long forgotten, when lately Mr. Burnell turned his attention to these and
other like relics in Southern India. He has shown the inscription to be
_Pehlvi_, and probably of the 7th or 8th century. Mr. Fergusson considers
the architectural character to be of the 9th. The interpretations of the
Inscription as yet given are tentative and somewhat discrepant. Thus Mr.
Burnell reads: "In punishment (?) by the cross (was) the suffering to this
(one): (He) who is the true Christ and God above, and Guide for ever
pure." Professor Haug: "Whoever believes in the Messiah, and in God above,
and also in the Holy Ghost, is in the grace of Him who bore the pain of
the Cross." Mr. Thomas reads the central part, between two small crosses,
"+ In the Name of Messiah +." See _Kircher, China Illustrata_, p. 55
seqq.; _De Couto_, u.s. (both of these have inaccurate representations
of the cross); _Academy_, vol. v. (1874), p. 145, etc.; and Mr. Burnell's
pamphlet "_On some Pahlavi Inscriptions in South India_." To his kindness
I am indebted for the illustration (p. 351).

["E na quelle parte da tranqueira alem, do ryo de Malaca, em hum citio de
Raya Mudiliar, que depois possuyo Dona Helena Vessiva, entre os
Mangueiraes cavando ao fundo quasi 2 braças, descobrirão hua + floreada de
cobre pouco carcomydo, da forma como de cavaleyro de Calatrava de 3 palmos
de largo, e comprido sobre hua pedra de marmor, quadrada de largura e
comprimento da dìtta +, entra huas ruynas de hua caza sobterranea de
tijolos como Ermida, e parece ser a + de algum christão de Meliapor, que
veo em companhia de mercadores de Choromandel a Malaca." (_Godinho de
Eredia_, fol. 15.)--_MS. Note_.--H.Y.]

The etymology of the name _Mayiláppúr_, popular among the native
Christians, is "Peacock-Town," and the peafowl are prominent in the old
legend of St. Thomas. Polo gives it no name; Marignolli (circa 1350)
calls it _Mirapolis_, the Catalan Map (1375) _Mirapor_; Conti (circa
1440) _Malepor_; Joseph of Cranganore (1500) _Milapar_ (or _Milapor_); De
Barros and Couto, _Meliapor_. Mr. Burnell thinks it was probably
_Malai_-ppuram, "Mount-Town"; and the same as the Malifatan of the
Mahomedan writers; the last point needs further enquiry.

NOTE 5.--Dr. Caldwell, speaking of the devil-worship of the Shanars of
Tinnevelly (an important part of Ma'bar), says: "Where they erect an image
in imitation of their Brahman neighbours, the devil is generally of
Brahmanical lineage. Such images generally accord with those monstrous
figures with which all over India orthodox Hindus depict the enemies of
their gods, or the terrific forms of Siva or Durga. They are generally
made of earthenware, and _painted white to look horrible in Hindu eyes_."
(_The Tinnevelly Shanars_, Madras, 1849, p. 18.)

NOTE 6.--The use of the Yak's tail as a military ornament had nothing to
do with the sanctity of the Brahmani ox, but is one of the Pan-Asiatic
usages, of which there are so many. A vivid account of the extravagant
profusion with which swaggering heroes in South India used those ornaments
will be found in _P. della Valle_, II. 662.


[1] Should be "year" no doubt.



CHAPTER XIX.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MUTFILI.


When you leave Maabar and go about 1,000 miles in a northerly direction
you come to the kingdom of MUTFILI. This was formerly under the rule of a
King, and since his death, some forty years past, it has been under his
Queen, a lady of much discretion, who for the great love she bore him
never would marry another husband. And I can assure you that during all
that space of forty years she had administered her realm as well as ever
her husband did, or better; and as she was a lover of justice, of equity,
and of peace, she was more beloved by those of her kingdom than ever was
Lady or Lord of theirs before. The people are Idolaters, and are tributary
to nobody. They live on flesh, and rice, and milk.[NOTE 1]

It is in this kingdom that diamonds are got; and I will tell you how.
There are certain lofty mountains in those parts; and when the winter
rains fall, which are very heavy, the waters come roaring down the
mountains in great torrents. When the rains are over, and the waters from
the mountains have ceased to flow, they search the beds of the torrents
and find plenty of diamonds. In summer also there are plenty to be found
in the mountains, but the heat of the sun is so great that it is scarcely
possible to go thither, nor is there then a drop of water to be found.
Moreover in those mountains great serpents are rife to a marvellous
degree, besides other vermin, and this owing to the great heat. The
serpents are also the most venomous in existence, insomuch that any one
going to that region runs fearful peril; for many have been destroyed by
these evil reptiles.

Now among these mountains there are certain great and deep valleys, to the
bottom of which there is no access. Wherefore the men who go in search of
the diamonds take with them pieces of flesh, as lean as they can get, and
these they cast into the bottom of a valley. Now there are numbers of
white eagles that haunt those mountains and feed upon the serpents. When
the eagles see the meat thrown down they pounce upon it and carry it up to
some rocky hill-top where they begin to rend it. But there are men on the
watch, and as soon as they see that the eagles have settled they raise a
loud shouting to drive them away. And when the eagles are thus frightened
away the men recover the pieces of meat, and find them full of diamonds
which have stuck to the meat down in the bottom. For the abundance of
diamonds down there in the depths of the valleys is astonishing, but
nobody can get down; and if one could, it would be only to be
incontinently devoured by the serpents which are so rife there.

There is also another way of getting the diamonds. The people go to the
nests of those white eagles, of which there are many, and in their
droppings they find plenty of diamonds which the birds have swallowed in
devouring the meat that was cast into the valleys. And, when the eagles
themselves are taken, diamonds are found in their stomachs.

So now I have told you three different ways in which these stones are
found. No other country but this kingdom of Mutfili produces them, but
there they are found both abundantly and of large size. Those that are
brought to our part of the world are only the refuse, as it were, of the
finer and larger stones. For the flower of the diamonds and other large
gems, as well as the largest pearls, are all carried to the Great Kaan and
other Kings and Princes of those regions; in truth they possess all the
great treasures of the world.[NOTE 2]

In this kingdom also are made the best and most delicate buckrams, and
those of highest price; in sooth they look like tissue of spider's web!
There is no King nor Queen in the world but might be glad to wear them.
[NOTE 3] The people have also the largest sheep in the world, and great
abundance of all the necessaries of life.

There is now no more to say; so I will next tell you about a province
called Lar from which the Abraiaman come.


NOTE 1.--There is no doubt that the kingdom here spoken of is that of
TELINGANA (_Tiling_ of the Mahomedan writers), then ruled by the Kákateya
or Ganapati dynasty reigning at Warangol, north-east of Hyderabad. But
Marco seems to give the kingdom the name of that place in it which was
visited by himself or his informants. MUTFILI is, with the usual Arab
modification (e.g. Perlec, Ferlec--Pattan, Faitan), a port called
MOTUPALLÉ, in the Gantúr district of the Madras Presidency, about 170
miles north of Fort St. George. Though it has dropt out of most of our
modern maps it still exists, and a notice of it is to be found in W.
Hamilton, and in Milburne. The former says: "_Mutapali_, a town situated
near the S. extremity of the northern Circars. A considerable coasting
trade is carried on from hence in the craft navigated by natives," which
can come in closer to shore than at other ports on that coast.--[Cf.
_Hunter_, _Gaz. India_, _Motupalli_, "now only an obscure fishing
village."--It is marked in _Constable's Hand Atlas of India_.--H.C.]

The proper territory of the Kingdom of Warangol lay inland, but the last
reigning prince before Polo's visit to India, by name Kakateya Pratapa
Ganapati Rudra Deva, had made extensive conquests on the coast, including
Nellore, and thence northward to the frontier of Orissa. This prince left
no male issue, and his widow, RUDRAMA DEVI, daughter of the Raja of
Devagiri, assumed the government and continued to hold it for
twenty-eight, or, as another record states, for thirty-eight years, till
the son of her daughter had attained majority. This was in 1292, or by the
other account 1295, when she transferred the royal authority to this
grandson Pratapa Vira Rudra Deva, the "Luddur Deo" of Firishta, and the
last Ganapati of any political moment. He was taken prisoner by the Delhi
forces about 1323. We have evidently in Rudrama Devi the just and beloved
Queen of our Traveller, who thus enables us to attach colour and character
to what was an empty name in a dynastic list. (Compare _Wilson's
Mackenzie_, I. cxxx.; _Taylor's Or. Hist. MSS._ I. 18; _Do.'s Catalogue
Raisonné_, III. 483.)

Mutfili appears in the _Carta Catalana_ as _Butiflis_, and is there by
some mistake made the site of St. Thomas's Shrine. The distance from
Maabar is in Ramusio only 500 miles--a preferable reading.

NOTE 2.--Some of the Diamond Mines once so famous under the name of
Golconda are in the alluvium of the Kistna River, some distance above the
Delta, and others in the vicinity of Kadapa and Karnúl, both localities
being in the territory of the kingdom we have been speaking of.

The strange legend related here is very ancient and widely diffused. Its
earliest known occurrence is in the Treatise of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of
Salamis in Cyprus, concerning the twelve Jewels in the _Rationale_ or
Breastplate of the Hebrew High Priest, a work written before the end of
the 4th century, wherein the tale is told of the _Jacinth_. It is
distinctly referred to by Edrisi, who assigns its locality to the land of
the _Kirkhîr_ (probably Khirghiz) in Upper Asia. It appears in Kazwini's
_Wonders of Creation_, and is assigned by him to the Valley of the Moon
among the mountains of Serendib. Sindbad the Sailor relates the story, as
is well known, and his version is the closest of all to our author's. [So
_Les Merveilles de l'Inde_, pp. 128-129.--H.C.] It is found in the
Chinese Narrative of the Campaigns of Hulaku, translated by both Rémusat
and Pauthier. [We read in the _Si Shi Ki_, of Ch'ang Te, Chinese Envoy to
Hulaku (1259), translated by Dr. Bretschneider (_Med. Res._ I. p. 151):
"The _kinkang tsuan_ (diamonds) come from _Yin-du_ (Hindustan). The people
take flesh and throw it into the great valleys (of the mountains). Then
birds come and eat this flesh, after which diamonds are found in their
excrements."--H.C.] It is told in two different versions, once of the
Diamond, and again of the Jacinth of Serendib, in the work on precious
stones by Ahmed Taifáshi. It is one of the many stories in the scrap-book
of Tzetzes. Nicolo Conti relates it of a mountain called Albenigaras,
fifteen days' journey in a northerly Direction from Vijayanagar; and it
is told again, apparently after Conti, by Julius Caesar Scaliger. It is
related of diamonds and Balasses in the old Genoese MS., called that of
Usodimare. A feeble form of the tale is quoted contemptuously by Garcias
from one Francisco de Tamarra. And Haxthausen found it as a popular legend
in Armenia. (_S. Epiph. de_ XIII. _Gemmis_, etc., Romae, 1743; _Jaubert,
Edrisi_, I. 500; _J.A.S.B._ XIII. 657; _Lane's Ar. Nights_, ed. 1859,
III. 88; _Rém. Nouv. Mél. Asiat._ I. 183; _Raineri, Fior di Pensieri di
Ahmed Teifascite_, pp. 13 and 30; _Tzetzes, Chil._ XI. 376; _India in XVth
Cent._ pp. 29-30; _J. C. Scal. de Subtilitate_, CXIII. No. 3; _An. des
Voyages_, VIII. 195; _Garcias_, p. 71; _Transcaucasia_, p. 360; _J.A.S.B._
I. 354.)

The story has a considerable resemblance to that which Herodotus tells of
the way in which cinnamon was got by the Arabs (III. 111). No doubt the
two are ramifications of the same legend.

NOTE 3.--Here _buckram_ is clearly applied to fine cotton stuffs. The
districts about Masulipatam were long famous both for muslins and for
coloured chintzes. The fine muslins of _Masalia_ are mentioned in the
Periplus. Indeed even in the time of Sakya Muni Kalinga was already famous
for diaphanous muslins, as may be seen in a story related in the Buddhist
Annals. (_J.A.S.B._ VI. 1086.)



CHAPTER XX.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF LAR WHENCE THE BRAHMINS COME.


Lar is a Province lying towards the west when you quit the place where the
Body of St. Thomas lies; and all the _Abraiaman_ in the world come
from that province.[NOTE 1]

You must know that these Abraiaman are the best merchants in the world,
and the most truthful, for they would not tell a lie for anything on
earth. [If a foreign merchant who does not know the ways of the country
applies to them and entrusts his goods to them, they will take charge of
these, and sell them in the most loyal manner, seeking zealously the
profit of the foreigner and asking no commission except what he pleases to
bestow.] They eat no flesh, and drink no wine, and live a life of great
chastity, having intercourse with no women except with their wives; nor
would they on any account take what belongs to another; so their law
commands. And they are all distinguished by wearing a thread of cotton
over one shoulder and tied under the other arm, so that it crosses the
breast and the back.

They have a rich and powerful King who is eager to purchase precious
stones and large pearls; and he sends these Abraiaman merchants into the
kingdom of Maabar called Soli, which is the best and noblest Province of
India, and where the best pearls are found, to fetch him as many of these
as they can get, and he pays them double the cost price for all. So in
this way he has a vast treasure of such valuables.[NOTE 2]

These Abraiaman are Idolaters; and they pay greater heed to signs and
omens than any people that exists. I will mention as an example one of
their customs. To every day of the week they assign an augury of this
sort. Suppose that there is some purchase in hand, he who proposes to buy,
when he gets up in the morning takes note of his own shadow in the sun,
which he says ought to be on that day of such and such a length; and if
his shadow be of the proper length for the day he completes his purchase;
if not, he will on no account do so, but waits till his shadow corresponds
with that prescribed. For there is a length established for the shadow for
every individual day of the week; and the merchant will complete no
business unless he finds his shadow of the length set down for that
particular day. [Also to each day in the week they assign one unlucky
hour, which they term _Choiach_. For example, on Monday the hour of
Half-tierce, on Tuesday that of Tierce, on Wednesday Nones, and so
on.[NOTE 3]]

Again, if one of them is in the house, and is meditating a purchase,
should he see a tarantula (such as are very common in that country) on the
wall, provided it advances from a quarter that he deems lucky, he will
complete his purchase at once; but if it comes from a quarter that he
considers unlucky he will not do so on any inducement. Moreover, if in
going out, he hears any one sneeze, if it seems to him a good omen he will
go on, but if the reverse he will sit down on the spot where he is, as
long as he thinks that he ought to tarry before going on again. Or, if in
travelling along the road he sees a swallow fly by, should its direction
be lucky he will proceed, but if not he will turn back again; in fact
they are worse (in these whims) than so many Patarins![NOTE 4]

These Abraiaman are very long-lived, owing to their extreme abstinence in
eating. And they never allow themselves to be let blood in any part of the
body. They have capital teeth, which is owing to a certain herb they chew,
which greatly improves their appearance, and is also very good for the
health.

There is another class of people called _Chughi_, who are indeed
properly Abraiaman, but they form a religious order devoted to the Idols.
They are extremely long-lived, every man of them living to 150 or 200
years. They eat very little, but what they do eat is good; rice and milk
chiefly. And these people make use of a very strange beverage; for they
make a potion of sulphur and quicksilver mixt together and this they drink
twice every month. This, they say, gives them long life; and it is a
potion they are used to take from their childhood.[NOTE 5]

There are certain members of this Order who lead the most ascetic life in
the world, going stark naked; and these worship the Ox. Most of them have
a small ox of brass or pewter or gold which they wear tied over the
forehead. Moreover they take cow-dung and burn it, and make a powder
thereof; and make an ointment of it, and daub themselves withal, doing
this with as great devotion as Christians do show in using Holy Water.
[Also if they meet any one who treats them well, they daub a little of
this powder on the middle of his forehead.[NOTE 6]]

They eat not from bowls or trenchers, but put their victuals on leaves of
the Apple of Paradise and other big leaves; these, however, they use dry,
never green. For they say the green leaves have a soul in them, and so it
would be a sin. And they would rather die than do what they deem their Law
pronounces to be sin. If any one asks how it comes that they are not
ashamed to go stark naked as they do, they say, "We go naked because naked
we came into the world, and we desire to have nothing about us that is of
this world. Moreover, we have no sin of the flesh to be conscious of, and
therefore we are not ashamed of our nakedness, any more than you are to
show your hand or your face. You who are conscious of the sins of the
flesh do well to have shame, and to cover your nakedness."

They would not kill an animal on any account, not even a fly, or a flea,
or a louse,[NOTE 7] or anything in fact that has life; for they say these
have all souls, and it would be sin to do so. They eat no vegetable in a
green state, only such as are dry. And they sleep on the ground stark
naked, without a scrap of clothing on them or under them, so that it is a
marvel they don't all die, in place of living so long as I have told you.
They fast every day in the year, and drink nought but water. And when a
novice has to be received among them they keep him awhile in their
convent, and make him follow their rule of life. And then, when they
desire to put him to the test, they send for some of those girls who are
devoted to the Idols, and make them try the continence of the novice with
their blandishments. If he remains indifferent they retain him, but if he
shows any emotion they expel him from their society. For they say they
will have no man of loose desires among them.

They are such cruel and perfidious Idolaters that it is very devilry! They
say that they burn the bodies of the dead, because if they were not burnt
worms would be bred which would eat the body; and when no more food
remained for them these worms would die, and the soul belonging to that
body would bear the sin and the punishment of their death. And that is why
they burn their dead!

Now I have told you about a great part of the people of the great Province
of Maabar and their customs; but I have still other things to tell of this
same Province of Maabar, so I will speak of a city thereof which is called
Cail.


NOTE 1.--The form of the word _Abraiaman, -main or -min_, by which Marco
here and previously denotes the Brahmans, probably represents an incorrect
Arabic plural, such as _Abráhamin_; the correct Arabic form is
_Baráhimah_.

What is said here of the Brahmans coming from "_Lar_, a province west of
St. Thomas's," of their having a special King, etc., is all very obscure,
and that I suspect through erroneous notions.

Lar-Desa, "The Country of Lár," properly _Lát-desa_, was an early name for
the territory of Guzerat and the northern Konkan, embracing _Saimur_ (the
modern Chaul, as I believe), Tana, and Baroch. It appears in Ptolemy in
the form _Larike_. The sea to the west of that coast was in the early
Mahomedan times called the Sea of Lár, and the language spoken on its
shores is called by Mas'udi _Lári_. Abulfeda's authority, Ibn Said, speaks
of Lár and Guzerat as identical. That position would certainly be very ill
described as lying west of Madras. The kingdom most nearly answering to
that description in Polo's age would be that of the Bellál Rajas of Dwara
Samudra, which corresponded in a general way to modern Mysore. (_Mas'udi_,
I. 330, 381; II. 85; _Gildem._ 185; _Elliot_, I. 66.)

That Polo's ideas on this subject were incorrect seems clear from his
conception of the Brahmans as a class of _merchants_. Occasionally they
may have acted as such, and especially as agents; but the only case I can
find of Brahmans as a class adopting trade is that of the Konkani
Brahmans, and they are said to have taken this step when expelled from
Goa, which was their chief seat, by the Portuguese. Marsden supposes that
there has been confusion between Brahmans and Banyans; and, as Guzerat or
Lár was the country from which the latter chiefly came, there is much
probability in this.

The high virtues ascribed to the Brahmans and Indian merchants were
perhaps in part matter of tradition, come down from the stories of
Palladius and the like; but the eulogy is so constant among mediaeval
travellers that it must have had a solid foundation. In fact it would not
be difficult to trace a chain of similar testimony from ancient times down
to our own. Arrian says no Indian was ever accused of falsehood. Hiuen
Tsang ascribes to the people of India eminent uprightness, honesty, and
disinterestedness. Friar Jordanus (circa 1330) says the people of Lesser
India (Sind and Western India) were true in speech and eminent in justice;
and we may also refer to the high character given to the Hindus by Abul
Fazl. After 150 years of European trade indeed we find a sad
deterioration. Padre Vincenzo (1672) speaks of fraud as greatly prevalent
among the Hindu traders. It was then commonly said at Surat that it took
three Jews to make a Chinaman, and three Chinamen to make a Banyan. Yet
Pallas, in the last century, noticing the Banyan colony at Astrakhan, says
its members were notable for an upright dealing that made them greatly
preferable to Armenians. And that wise and admirable public servant, the
late Sir William Sleeman, in our own time, has said that he knew no class
of men in the world more strictly honourable than the mercantile classes
of India.

We know too well that there is a very different aspect of the matter. All
extensive intercourse between two races far asunder in habits and ideas,
seems to be demoralising in some degrees to both parties, especially to
the weaker. But can we say that deterioration has been all on one side? In
these days of lying labels and plastered shirtings does the character of
English trade and English goods stand as high in Asia as it did half a
century ago! (_Pèl. Boudd._ II. 83; _Jordanus_, p. 22; _Ayeen Akb._ III.
8; _P. Vincenzo_, p. 114; _Pallas, Beyträge_, III. 85; _Rambles and
Recns._ II. 143.)

NOTE 2.--The kingdom of Maabar called _Soli_ is CHOLA or SOLADESAM, of
which Kanchi (Conjeveram) was the ancient capital.[1] In the Ceylon
Annals the continental invaders are frequently termed _Solli_. The high
terms of praise applied to it as "the best and noblest province of India,"
seem to point to the well-watered fertility of Tanjore; but what is said
of the pearls would extend the territory included to the shores of the
Gulf of Manár.

NOTE 3.--Abraham Roger gives from the Calendar of the Coromandel Brahmans
the character, lucky or unlucky, of every hour of every day of the week;
and there is also a chapter on the subject in _Sonnerat_ (I. 304 seqq.).
For a happy explanation of the term _Choiach_ I am indebted to Dr.
Caldwell: "This apparently difficult word can be identified much more
easily than most others. Hindu astrologers teach that there is an unlucky
hour every day in the month, i.e. during the period of the moon's abode
in every _nákshatra_, or lunar mansion, throughout the lunation. This
inauspicious period is called _Tyâjya_, 'rejected.' Its mean length is one
hour and thirty-six minutes, European time. The precise moment when this
period commences differs in each nákshatra, or (which comes to the same
thing) in every day in the lunar month. It sometimes occurs in the daytime
and sometimes at night;--see _Colonel Warren's Kala Sankatila_, Madras,
1825, p. 388. The Tamil pronunciation of the word is _tiyâcham_, and when
the nominative case-termination of the word is rejected, as all the Tamil
case-terminations were by the Mahomedans, who were probably Marco Polo's
informants, it becomes _tiyâch_, to which form of the word Marco's
_Choiach_ is as near as could be expected." (MS. Note.)[2]

The phrases used in the passage from Ramusio to express the time of day
are taken from the canonical hours of prayer. The following passage from
_Robert de Borron's Romance of Merlin_ illustrates these terms: Gauvain
"quand il se levoit le matin, avoit la force al millor chevalier del
monde; et quant vint à heure de prime si li doubloit, et à heure de tierce
aussi; et quant il vint à eure de midi si revenoit à sa première force ou
il avoit esté le matin; et quant vint à eure de nonne et à toutes les
seures de la nuit estoit-il toudis en sa première force." (Quoted in
introd. to _Messir Gauvain_, etc., edited by _C. Hippeau_, Paris, 1862,
pp. xii.-xiii.) The term _Half Tierce_ is frequent in mediaeval Italian,
e.g. in Dante:--

  "Lèvati sut disse'l Maestro, in piede:
    La via è lunga, e'l cammino è malvagio:
  E gia il Sole a mezza terza riede." (Inf. xxxiv,)

_Half-prime_ we have in Chaucer:--

  "Say forth thy tale and tary not the time
  Lo Depeford, and it is half way prime."
      --(Reeve's Prologue.)

Definitions of these terms as given by Sir H. Nicolas and Mr. Thomas
Wright (_Chron. of Hist._ p. 195, and _Marco Polo_, p. 392) do not agree
with those of Italian authorities; perhaps in the north they were applied
with variation. Dante dwells on the matter in two passages of his
_Convito_ (Tratt. III. cap. 6, and Tratt. IV. cap. 23); and the following
diagram elucidates the terms in accordance with his words, and with other
Italian authority, oral and literary:--

  "_Te lucis ante terminum._"

                     X 12         6
                     .
  Compieta.          .
                     .
                     * 11         5
                     .
    Mezza-Vespro.    .
                     .
                     * 10         4
                     .
                     .
                     .
  Vespro.            X 9         3
                     .
                     .      E
                     .      c
                     *  8   c     2    P.M.
                     .      l
    Mezza-Nona.      .      e        C
                     .      s        i
                     *  7   i     1  v
                     .      a        i
  Nona.              .      s        l
                     .      t
                     #  6   i    12
                     .      c        H
  Sesta.             .      a        o
                     .      l        u
                     *  5        11  r
                     .      H        s
                     .      o
                     .      u          A.M.
                     *  4   r    10
                     .      s
  Terza.             .
                     .
                     X  3         9
                     .
                     .
                     .
                     *  2         8
                     .
    Mezza-Terza.     .
                     .
                     *  1         7
                     .
  Prima.             .
                     .
                     X 12         6

  "_Jam Lucis orto Sidere._"

NOTE 4.--Valentyn mentions among what the Coromandel Hindus reckon unlucky
rencounters which will induce a man to turn back on the road: an empty
can, buffaloes, donkeys, a dog or he-goat _without_ food in his mouth, a
monkey, a loose hart, a goldsmith, a carpenter, a barber, a tailor, a
cotton-cleaner, a smith, a widow, a corpse, a person coming from a funeral
without having washed or changed, men carrying butter, oil, sweet milk,
molasses, acids, iron, or weapons of war. Lucky objects to meet are an
elephant, a camel, a laden cart, an unladen horse, a cow or bullock laden
with water (if unladen 'tis an ill omen), a dog or he-goat _with_ food in
the mouth, a cat on the right hand, one carrying meat, curds, or sugar,
etc., etc. (p. 91). (See also _Sonnerat_, I. 73.)

NOTE 5.--_Chughi_ of course stands for JOGI, used loosely for any Hindu
ascetic. Arghun Khan of Persia (see Prologue, ch. xvii.), who was much
given to alchemy and secret science, had asked of the Indian Bakhshis how
they prolonged their lives to such an extent. They assured him that a
mixture of sulphur and mercury was the Elixir of Longevity. Arghun
accordingly took this precious potion for eight months;--and died shortly
after! (See _Hammer_, _Ilkhans_, I. 391-393, and _Q.R._ p. 194.) Bernier
mentions wandering Jogis who had the art of preparing mercury so admirably
that one or two grains taken every morning restored the body to perfect
health (II. 130). The _Mercurius Vitae_ of Paracelsus, which, according to
him, renewed youth, was composed chiefly of mercury and antimony.
(_Opera_, II. 20.) Sulphur and mercury, combined under different
conditions and proportions, were regarded by the Alchemists both of East
and West as the origin of all the metals. Quicksilver was called the
mother of the metals, and sulphur the father. (See _Vincent. Bellov. Spec.
Natur._ VII. c. 60, 62, and _Bl. Ain-i-Akbari_, p. 40.)

[We read in Ma Huan's account of Cochin (_J.R.A.S._ April, 1896, p.
343): "Here also is another class of men, called Chokis (Yogi), who lead
austere lives like the Taoists of China, but who, however, are married.
These men from the time they are born do not have their heads shaved or
combed, but plait their hair into several tails, which hang over their
shoulders; they wear no clothes, but round their waists they fasten a
strip of rattan, over which they hang a piece of white calico; they carry
a conch-shell, which they blow as they go along the road; they are
accompanied by their wives, who simply wear a small bit of cotton cloth
round their loins. Alms of rice and money are given to them by the people
whose houses they visit."

(See _F. Bernier_, _Voy._, ed. 1699, II., _Des Gentils de l'Hindoustan_,
pp. 97, seqq.)

We read in the _Nine Heavens_ of Amír Khusrú (_Elliot_, III. p. 563): "A
_jogí_ who could restrain his breath in this way (diminishing the daily
number of their expirations of breath) lived in an idol to an age of more
than three hundred and fifty years."

"I have read in a book that certain chiefs of Turkistán sent ambassadors
with letters to the Kings of India on the following mission, viz.: that
they, the chiefs, had been informed that in India drugs were procurable
which possessed the property of prolonging human life, by the use of which
the King of India attained to a very great age ... and the chiefs of
Turkistán begged that some of this medicine might be sent to them, and
also information as to the method by which the Ráís preserved their health
so long." (_Elliot_, II. p. 174.)--H.C.]

"The worship of the ox is still common enough, but I can find no trace of
the use of the effigy worn on the forehead. The two Tam Pundits whom I
consulted, said that there was no trace of the custom in Tamil literature,
but they added that the usage was so truly Hindu in character, and was so
particularly described, that they had no doubt it prevailed in the time of
the person who described it." (_MS. Note by the Rev. Dr. Caldwell_.)

I may add that the _Jangams_, a Linga-worshipping sect of Southern India,
wear a copper or silver _linga_ either round the neck _or on the forehead_.
The name of Jangam means "movable," and refers to their wearing and
worshipping the portable symbol instead of the fixed one like the proper
Saivas. (_Wilson, Mack. Coll._ II. 3; _J.R.A.S._ N.S.V. 142 seqq.)

NOTE 6.--In G.T. _proques_, which the Glossary to that edition absurdly
renders _porc_; it is some form apparently of _pidocchio_.

NOTE 7.--It would seem that there is no eccentricity of man in any part of
the world for which a close parallel shall not be found in some other
part. Such strange probation as is here spoken of, appears to have had too
close a parallel in the old Celtic Church, and perhaps even, at an earlier
date, in the Churches of Africa. (See _Todd's Life of St. Patrick_, p. 91,
note and references, and _Saturday Review_ of 13th July, 1867, p. 65.) The
latter describes a system absolutely like that in the text, but does not
quote authorities.


[1] From Sola was formed apparently _Sola-mandala_, or _Cholatnandala_,
    which the Portuguese made into Choromandel and the Dutch into
    Coromandel.

[2] I may add that possibly the real reading may have been _thoiach_.



CHAPTER XXI.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF CAIL.


Cail is a great and noble city, and belongs to ASHAR, the eldest of the
five brother Kings. It is at this city that all the ships touch that come
from the west, as from Hormos and from Kis and from Aden, and all Arabia,
laden with horses and with other things for sale. And this brings a great
concourse of people from the country round about, and so there is great
business done in this city of Cail.[NOTE 1]

The King possesses vast treasures, and wears upon his person great store
of rich jewels. He maintains great state and administers his kingdom with
great equity, and extends great favour to merchants and foreigners, so
that they are very glad to visit his city.[NOTE 2]

This King has some 300 wives; for in those parts the man who has most
wives is most thought of.

As I told you before, there are in this great province of Maabar five
crowned Kings, who are all own brothers born of one father and of one
mother, and this king is one of them. Their mother is still living. And
when they disagree and go forth to war against one another, their mother
throws herself between them to prevent their fighting. And should they
persist in desiring to fight, she will take a knife and threaten that if
they will do so she will cut off the paps that suckled them and rip open
the womb that bare them, and so perish before their eyes. In this way hath
she full many a time brought them to desist. But when she dies it will
most assuredly happen that they will fall out and destroy one
another.[NOTE 3]

[All the people of this city, as well as of the rest of India, have a
custom of perpetually keeping in the mouth a certain leaf called
_Tembul_, to gratify a certain habit and desire they have,
continually chewing it and spitting out the saliva that it excites. The
Lords and gentlefolks and the King have these leaves prepared with camphor
and other aromatic spices, and also mixt with quicklime. And this practice
was said to be very good for the health.[NOTE 4] If any one desires to
offer a gross insult to another, when he meets him he spits this leaf or
its juice in his face. The other immediately runs before the King, relates
the insult that has been offered him, and demands leave to fight the
offender. The King supplies the arms, which are sword and target, and all
the people flock to see, and there the two fight till one of them is
killed. They must not use the point of the sword, for this the King
forbids.][NOTE 5]


NOTE 1.--KAIL, now forgotten, was long a famous port on the coast of what
is now the Tinnevelly District of the Madras Presidency. It is mentioned
as a port of Ma'bar by our author's contemporary Rashiduddin, though the
name has been perverted by careless transcription into _Báwal_ and
_Kábal_. (See _Elliot_, I. pp. 69, 72.) It is also mistranscribed as
_Kábil_ in Quatremère's publication of Abdurrazzák, who mentions it as "a
place situated opposite the island of Serendib, otherwise called Ceylon,"
and as being the extremity of what he was led to regard as Malabar (p.
19). It is mentioned as _Cahila_, the site of the pearl-fishery, by Nicolo
Conti (p. 7). The _Roteiro_ of Vasco da Gama notes it as _Caell_, a state
having a Mussulman King and a Christian (for which read _Káfir_) people.
Here were many pearls. Giovanni d'Empoli notices it (_Gael_) also for the
pearl-fishery, as do Varthema and Barbosa. From the latter we learn that
it was still a considerable seaport, having rich Mahomedan merchants, and
was visited by many ships from Malabar, Coromandel, and Bengal. In the
time of the last writers it belonged to the King of Kaulam, who generally
resided at Kail.

The real site of this once celebrated port has, I believe, till now never
been identified in any published work. I had supposed the still existing
Káyalpattanam to have been in all probability the place, and I am again
indebted to the kindness of the Rev. Dr. Caldwell for conclusive and most
interesting information on this subject. He writes:

"There are no relics of ancient greatness in Káyalpattanam, and no
traditions of foreign trade, and it is admitted by its inhabitants to be a
place of recent origin, which came into existence after the abandonment of
the true Káyal. They state also that the name of Káyalpattanam has only
recently been given to it, as a reminiscence of the older city, and that
its original name was Sônagarpattanam.[1] There is another small port in
the same neighbourhood, a little to the north of Káyalpattanam, called
Pinna Cael in the maps, properly Punnei-Káyal, from _Punnei_, the Indian
Laurel; but this is also a place of recent origin, and many of the
inhabitants of this place, as of Káyalpattanam, state that their ancestors
came originally from Káyal, subsequently to the removal of the Portuguese
from that place to Tuticorin.

"The Cail of Marco Polo, commonly called in the neighbourhood _Old Káyal_,
and erroneously named _Koil_ in the Ordnance Map of India, is situated on
the Tâmraparnî River, about a mile and a half from its mouth. The Tamil
word _káyal_ means 'a backwater, a lagoon,' and the map shows the
existence of a large number of these _káyals_ or backwaters near the mouth
of the river. Many of these kayals have now dried up more or less
completely, and in several of them salt-pans have been established. The
name of Káyal was naturally given to a town erected on the margin of a
_káyal_; and this circumstance occasioned also the adoption of the name of
Punnei Káyal, and served to give currency to the name of Káyalpattanam
assumed by Sônagarpattanam, both those places being in the vicinity of
kayals.

"KAYAL stood originally on or near the sea-beach, but it is now about a
mile and a half inland, the sand carried down by the river having silted
up the ancient harbour, and formed a waste sandy tract between the sea and
the town. It has now shrunk into a petty village, inhabited partly by
Mahommedans and partly by Roman Catholic fishermen of the Parava caste,
with a still smaller hamlet adjoining inhabited by Brahmans and Vellalars;
but unlikely as the place may now seem to have been identical with 'the
great and noble city' described by Marco Polo, its identity is established
by the relics of its ancient greatness which it still retains. Ruins of
old fortifications, temples, storehouses, wells and tanks, are found
everywhere along the coast for two or three miles north of the village of
Kayal, and a mile and a half inland; the whole plain is covered with
broken tiles and remnants of pottery, chiefly of China manufacture, and
several mounds are apparent, in which, besides the shells of the
pearl-oyster and broken pottery, mineral drugs (cinnabar, brimstone, etc.),
such as are sold in the bazaars of sea-port towns, and a few ancient coins
have been found. I send you herewith an interesting coin discovered in one
of those mounds by Mr. R. Puckle, collector of Tinnevelly.[2]

"The people of the place have forgotten the existence of any trade between
Kayal and China, though the China pottery that lies all about testifies to
its existence at some former period; but they retain a distinct tradition
of its trade with the Arabian and Persian coasts, as vouched for by Marco
Polo, that trade having in some degree survived to comparatively recent
times.... Captain Phipps, the Master Attendant at Tuticorin, says: 'The
roadstead of Old Cael (Káyal) is still used by native craft when upon the
coast and meeting with south winds, from which it is sheltered. The depth
of water is 16 to 14 feet; I fancy years ago it was deeper.... There is a
surf on the bar at the entrance (of the river), but boats go through it at
all times.'

       *       *       *       *       *

"I am tempted to carry this long account of Kayal a little further, so as
to bring to light the _Kolkhoi_ [[Greek: kólchoi empórion]] of the Greek
merchants, the situation of the older city being nearly identical with
that of the more modern one. _Kolkhoi_, described by Ptolemy and the
author of the Periplus as an emporium of the pearl-trade, as situated on
the sea-coast to the east of Cape Comorin, and as giving its name to the
Kolkhic Gulf or Gulf of Manaar, has been identified by Lassen with
Keelkarei; but this identification is merely conjectural, founded on
nothing better than a slight apparent resemblance in the names. Lassen
could not have failed to identify Kolkhoi with KORKAI, the mother-city of
Kayal, if he had been acquainted with its existence and claims. Korkai,
properly KOLKAI (the _l_ being changed into _r_ by a modern refinement--it
is still called _Kolka_ in Malayalam), holds an important place in Tamil
traditions, being regarded as the birthplace of the Pandyan Dynasty, the
place where the princes of that race ruled previously to their removal to
Madura. One of the titles of the Pandyan Kings is 'Ruler of Korkai.'
Korkai is situated two or three miles inland from Kayal, higher up the
river. It is not marked in the Ordnance Map of India, but a village in the
immediate neighbourhood of it, called _Mâramangalam_, 'the Good-fortune of
the Pandyas,' will be found in the map. This place, together with several
others in the neighbourhood, on both sides of the river, is proved by
inscriptions and relics to have been formerly included in Korkai, and the
whole intervening space between Korkai and Kayal exhibits traces of
ancient dwellings. The people of Kayal maintain that their city was
originally so large as to include Korkai, but there is much more
probability in the tradition of the people of Korkai, which is to the
effect that Korkai itself was originally a sea-port; that as the sea
retired it became less and less suitable for trade, that Kayal rose as
Korkai fell, and that at length, as the sea continued to retire, Kayal
also was abandoned. They add that the trade for which the place was famous
in ancient times was the trade in pearls." In an article in the _Madras
Journal_ (VII. 379) it is stated that at the great Siva Pagoda at
Tinnevelly the earth used ceremonially at the annual festival is brought
from Korkai, but no position is indicated.

NOTE 2.--Dr. Caldwell again brings his invaluable aid:--

"Marco Polo represents Kayal as being governed by a king whom he calls
_Asciar_ (a name which you suppose to be intended to be pronounced
_Ashar_), and says that this king of Kayal was the elder brother of
Sonderbandi, the king of that part of the district of Maabar where he
landed. There is a distinct tradition, not only amongst the people now
inhabiting Kayal, but in the district of Tinnevelly generally, that Kayal,
during the period of its greatness, was ruled by a king. This king is
sometimes spoken of as one of 'the Five Kings' who reigned in various
parts of Tinnevelly, but whether he was independent of the King of Madura,
or only a viceroy, the people cannot now say.... The tradition of the
people of Kayal is that ... _Sûr-Raja_ was the name of the last king of
the place. They state that this last king was a Mahommedan, ... but though
Sûr-Raja does not sound like the name of a Mahommedan prince, they all
agree in asserting that this was his name.... Can this Sûr be the person
whom Marco calls Asciar? Probably not, as Asciar seems to have been a
Hindu by religion. I have discovered what appears to be a more probable
identification in the name of a prince mentioned in an inscription on the
walls of a temple at Sri-Vaikuntham, a town on the Tamraparni R., about 20
miles from Kayal. In the inscription in question a donation to the temple
is recorded as having been given in the time of '_Asadia-deva called also
Surya-deva_' This name 'Asadia' is neither Sanskrit nor Tamil; and as the
hard _d_ is often changed into _r_, Marco's _Ashar_ may have been an
attempt to render this _Asad_. If this Asadia or Surya-deva were really
Sundara-pandi-deva's brother, he must have ruled over a narrow range of
country, probably over Kayal alone, whilst his more eminent brother was
alive; for there is an inscription on the walls of a temple at
Sindamangalam, a place only a few miles from Kayal, which records a
donation made to the place 'in the reign of Sundara-pandi-deva.'"[3]

NOTE 3.--["O aljofar, e perolas, que me manda que lha enuic, nom as posso
auer, que as ha em Ceylão e Caille, que são as fontes dellas: compralashia
do meu sangue, a do meu dinheiro, que o tenho porque vós me daes." (Letter
of the Viceroy Dom Francisco to the King, Anno de 1508). (_G. Correa,
Lendas da India_, I. pp. 908-909.)--_Note by Yule_.]

NOTE 4.--_Tembúl_ is the Persian name for the betel-leaf or _pán_, from
the Sanskrit _Támbúla_. The latter is also used in Tamul, though
_Vettilei_ is the proper Tamul word, whence _Betel_ (_Dr. Caldwell_).
Marsden supposes the mention of camphor among the ingredients with which
the pán is prepared to be a mistake, and suggests as a possible origin of
the error that _kápúr_ in the Malay language means not only camphor but
quicklime. This is curious, but in addition to the fact that the lime is
mentioned in the text, there seems ample evidence that his doubt about
camphor is unfounded.

Garcia de Orta says distinctly: "In chewing _betre_ ... they mix areca
with it and a little lime.... Some add _Licio_ (i.e. catechu), _but the
rich and grandees add some Borneo camphor_, and some also lign-aloes,
musk, and ambergris" (31 v. and 32). _Abdurrazzák_ also says: "The manner
of eating it is as follows: They bruise a portion of _faufel_ (areca),
otherwise called _sipari_, and put it in the mouth. Moistening a leaf of
the betel, together with a grain of lime, they rub the one upon the other,
roll them together, and then place them in the mouth. They thus take as
many as four leaves of betel at a time and chew them. _Sometimes they add
camphor to it_" (p. 32). And Abúl Fazl: "They also put some betel-nut and
_kath_ (catechu) on one leaf, and some lime-paste on another, and roll
them up; this is called _a berah. Some put camphor and musk into it_, and
tie both leaves with a silk thread," etc. (See _Blochmann's Transl._ p.
73.) Finally one of the Chinese notices of Kamboja, translated by Abel
Rémusat, says: "When a guest comes it is usual to present him with _areca,
camphor, and other aromatics_." (_Nouv. Mél._ I. 84.)

[Illustration: Map showing the position of the Kingdom of ELY in MALABAR]

[Illustration: Sketch showing the position of KÁYAL in TINNEVELLY]

NOTE 5.--This is the only passage of Ramusio's version, so far as I know,
that suggests interpolation from a recent author, as distinguished from
mere editorial modification. There is in Barbosa a description of the
_duello_ as practised in Canara, which is rather too like this one.


[1] "Sônagar or Jônagar is a Tamil corruption of _Yavanar_, the Yavanas,
    the name by which the Arabs were known, and is the name most commonly
    used in the Tamil country to designate the mixed race descended from
    Arab colonists, who are called _Mâpillas_ on the Malabar coast, and
    _Lubbies_ in the neighbourhood of Madras." (Dr. C.'s note)

[2] I am sorry to say that the coin never reached its destination. In the
    latter part of 1872 a quantity of treasure was found near Káyal by the
    labourers on irrigation works. Much of it was dispersed without coming
    under intelligent eyes, and most of the coins recovered were Arabic.
    One, however, is stated to have been a coin of "Joanna of Castille,
    A.D. 1236." (_Allen's India Mail_, 5th January, 1874.) There is no such
    queen. Qu. Joanna I. of _Navarre_ (1274-1276)? or Joanna II. of
    _Navarre_ (1328-1336)?

[3] See above, p. 334, as to Dr. Caldwell's view of Polo's Sonderbandi. May
    not _Ashar_ very well represent _Áshádha_, "invincible," among the
    applications of which Williams gives "N. of a prince". I observe also
    that _Áschar_ (Sansk. _Áschariya_ "marvellous") is the name of one of
    the objects of worship in the dark _Sakti_ system, once apparently
    potent in S. India. (See _Taylor's Catalogue Raisonné_, II. 414, 423,
    426, 443, and remark p. xlix.)

    ["Ils disent donc que Dieu qu'ils appellent _Achar_, c'est-à-dire,
    immobile ou immuable." (_F. Bernier, Voy._, ed. 1699, II. p.
    134.)--_MS. Note_.--H.Y.]



CHAPTER XXII.

OF THE KINGDOM OF COILUM.


When you quit Maabar and go 500 miles towards the south-west you come to
the kingdom of COILUM. The people are Idolaters, but there are also some
Christians and some Jews. The natives have a language of their own, and a
King of their own, and are tributary to no one.[NOTE 1]

A great deal of brazil is got here which is called _brazil Coilumin_
from the country which produces it; 'tis of very fine quality.[NOTE 2]
Good ginger also grows here, and it is known by the same name of
_Coilumin_ after the country.[NOTE 3] Pepper too grows in great
abundance throughout this country, and I will tell you how. You must know
that the pepper-trees are (not wild but) cultivated, being regularly
planted and watered; and the pepper is gathered in the months of May,
June, and July. They have also abundance of very fine indigo. This is made
of a certain herb which is gathered, and [after the roots have been
removed] is put into great vessels upon which they pour water and then
leave it till the whole of the plant is decomposed. They then put this
liquid in the sun, which is tremendously hot there, so that it boils and
coagulates, and becomes such as we see it. [They then divide it into
pieces of four ounces each, and in that form it is exported to our parts.]
[NOTE 4] And I assure you that the heat of the sun is so great there that
it is scarcely to be endured; in fact if you put an egg into one of the
rivers it will be boiled, before you have had time to go any distance, by
the mere heat of the sun!

The merchants from Manzi, and from Arabia, and from the Levant come
thither with their ships and their merchandise and make great profits both
by what they import and by what they export.

There are in this country many and divers beasts quite different from
those of other parts of the world. Thus there are lions black all over,
with no mixture of any other colour; and there are parrots of many sorts,
for some are white as snow with red beak and feet, and some are red, and
some are blue, forming the most charming sight in the world; there are
green ones too. There are also some parrots of exceeding small size,
beautiful creatures.[NOTE 5] They have also very beautiful peacocks,
larger than ours, and different; and they have cocks and hens quite
different from ours; and what more shall I say? In short, everything they
have is different from ours, and finer and better. Neither is their fruit
like ours, nor their beasts, nor their birds; and this difference all
comes of the excessive heat.

Corn they have none but rice. So also their wine they make from [palm-]
sugar; capital drink it is, and very speedily it makes a man drunk. All
other necessaries of man's life they have in great plenty and cheapness.
They have very good astrologers and physicians. Man and woman, they are
all black, and go naked, all save a fine cloth worn about the middle. They
look not on any sin of the flesh as a sin. They marry their cousins
german, and a man takes his brother's wife after the brother's death; and
all the people of India have this custom.[NOTE 6]

There is no more to tell you there; so we will proceed, and I will tell
you of another country called Comari.


NOTE 1.--Futile doubts were raised by Baldelli Boni and Hugh Murray as to
the position of COILUM, because of Marco's mentioning it before Comari or
Cape Comorin; and they have insisted on finding a Coilum to the _east_ of
that promontory. There is, however, in reality, no room for any question on
this subject. For ages Coilum, Kaulam, or, as we now write it, Quilon, and
properly Kollam, was one of the greatest ports of trade with Western
Asia.[1] The earliest mention of it that I can indicate is in a letter
written by the Nestorian Patriarch, Jesujabus of Adiabene, who died A.D.
660, to Simon Metropolitan of Fars, blaming his neglect of duty, through
which he says, not only is India, "which extends from the coast of the
Kingdom of Fars to COLON, a distance of 1200 parasangs, deprived of a
regular ministry, but Fars itself is lying in darkness." (_Assem._ III. pt.
ii. 437.) The same place appears in the earlier part of the Arab
_Relations_ (A.D. 851) as _Kaulam-Malé_, the port of India made by vessels
from Maskat, and already frequented by great Chinese Junks.

Abulfeda defines the position of Kaulam as at the extreme end of
_Balad-ul-Falfal_, i.e. the Pepper country or Malabar, as you go eastward,
standing on an inlet of the sea, in a sandy plain, adorned with many
gardens. The brazil-tree grew there, and the Mahomedans had a fine mosque
and square. Ibn Batuta also notices the fine mosque, and says the city was
one of the finest in Malabar, with splendid markets and rich merchants, and
was the chief resort of the Chinese traders in India. Odoric describes it
as "at the extremity of the Pepper Forest towards the south," and
astonishing in the abundance of its merchandise. Friar Jordanus of Séverac
was there as a missionary some time previous to 1328, in which year he was
at home; [on the 21st of August, 1329, he] was nominated Bishop of the See
of Kaulam, Latinised as _Columbum_ or _Columbus_ [created by John XXII. on
the 9th of August of the same year--H.C.]. Twenty years later John
Marignolli visited "the very noble city of Columbum, where the whole
world's pepper is produced," and found there a Latin church of St. George,
probably founded by Jordanus.[2] Kaulam or Coilon continued to be an
important place to the beginning of the 16th century, when Varthema speaks
of it as a fine port, and Barbosa as "a very great city," with a very good
haven, and with many great merchants, Moors and Gentoos, whose ships traded
to all the Eastern ports as far as Bengal, Pegu, and the Archipelago. But
after this its decay must have been rapid, and in the following century it
had sunk into entire insignificance. Throughout the Middle Ages it appears
to have been one of the chief seats of the St. Thomas Christians. Indeed
both it and Kayal were two out of the seven ancient churches which Indo
Syrian tradition ascribed to St. Thomas himself.[3]

[Illustration: Ancient Christian Church at Parur on the Malabar coast.
(After Claudius Buchanan.)]

I have been desirous to give some illustration of the churches of that
interesting body, certain of which must date from a very remote period, but
I have found unlooked for difficulties in procuring such illustration.
Several are given in the Life of Dr. Claudius Buchanan from his own
sketches, and a few others in the Life of Bishop D. Wilson. But nearly all
represent the churches as they were perverted in the 17th century and
since, by a coarse imitation of a style of architecture bad enough in its
genuine form. I give, after Buchanan, the old church at Parur, not far from
Cranganore, which had escaped masquerade, with one from Bishop Wilson's
Life, showing the quasi Jesuit deformation alluded to, and an interior also
from the latter work, which appears to have some trace of genuine
character. Parur church is probably _Palur_, or _Pazhur_, which is one of
those ascribed to St. Thomas, for Dr. Buchanan says it bears the name of
the Apostle, and "is supposed to be the oldest in Malabar." (_Christ. Res._
p. 113.)

[Quilon is "one of the oldest towns on the coast, from whose re-foundation
in 1019 A.D., Travancore reckons its era." (_Hunter_, _Gaz._, XI., p.
339.)--H.C.]

_How_ Polo comes to mention Coilum before Comari is a question that will be
treated further on, with other misplacements of like kind that occur in
succeeding chapters.

[Illustration: Syrian Church at Caranyachirra (from "Life of Bp. D.
Wilson"), showing the quasi-Jesuit façade generally adopted in modern
times.]

[Illustration: Interior of Syrian Church at Kutteiyan in Travancore. (From
"Life of Bp. D. Wilson.")]

Kúblái had a good deal of diplomatic intercourse of his usual kind with
Kaulam. De Mailla mentions the arrival at T'swan chau (or Zayton) in 1282
of envoys from KIULAN, an Indian State, bringing presents of various
rarities, including a black ape as big as a man. The Emperor had three
times sent thither an officer called Yang Ting-pi (IX. 415). Some rather
curious details of these missions are extracted by Pauthier from the
Chinese Annals. The royal residence is in these called _A-pu-'hota_[4]
The king is styled _Pinati_. I may note that Barbosa also tells us that
the King of Kaulam was called Benate-deri (_devar?_). And Dr. Caldwell's
kindness enables me to explain this title. _Pinati_ or _Benate_ represents
_Vénádan_. "the Lord of the Venádu," or _Venattu_, that being the name of
the district to which belonged the family of the old kings of Kollam, and
_Venádan_ being their regular dynastic name. The Rajas of Travancore who
superseded the Kings of Kollam, and inherit their titles, are still
poetically styled Venádan. (_Pauthier_, p. 603 seqq.; _Ram._ I. f. 304.)

NOTE 2.--The brazil-wood of Kaulam appears in the Commercial Handbook of
Pegolotti (circa 1340) as _Verzino Colombino_, and under the same name
in that of Giov. d'Uzzano a century later. Pegolotti in one passage
details kinds of brazil under the names of _Verzino salvatico_,
_dimestico_, and _columbino_. In another passage, where he enters into
particulars as to the respective values of different qualities, he names
three kinds, as _Colomni_, _Ameri_, and _Seni_, of which the _Colomni_ (or
Colombino) was worth a sixth more than the _Ameri_ and three times as much
as the _Seni_. I have already conjectured that _Ameri_ may stand for
_Lameri_ referring to Lambri in Sumatra (supra ch. xi., note 1); and
perhaps _Seni_ is _Sini_ or Chinese, indicating an article brought to
India by the Chinese traders, probably from Siam.

We have seen in the last note that the Kaulam brazil is spoken of by
Abulfeda; and Ibn Batuta, in describing his voyage by the back waters from
Calicut to Kaulam, says: "All the trees that grow by this river are either
cinnamon or brazil trees. They use these for firewood, and we cooked with
them throughout our journey." Friar Odoric makes the same hyperbolic
statement: "Here they burn brazil-wood for fuel."

It has been supposed popularly that the brazil-wood of commerce took its
name from the great country so called; but the _verzino_ of the old
Italian writers is only a form of the same word, and _bresil_ is in fact
the word used by Polo. So Chaucer:--

  "Him nedeth not his colour for to dien
  With _brazil_, ne with grain of Portingale."
      --_The Nun's Priests Tale_.

The _Eastern_ wood in question is now known in commerce by its Malay name
of _Sappan_ (properly _Sapang_), which again is identical with the Tamil
name _Sappangi_. This word properly means _Japan_, and seems to have been
given to the wood as a supposed product of that region.[5] It is the wood
of the _Caesalpinia Sapan_, and is known in Arabic (and in Hindustani) as
_Bakam_. It is a thorny tree, indigenous in Western India from Goa to
Trevandrum, and growing luxuriantly in South Malabar. It is extensively
used by native dyers, chiefly for common and cheap cloths, and for fine
mats. The dye is precipitated dark-brown with iron, and red with alum. It
is said, in Western India, to furnish the red powder thrown about on the
Hindu feast of the _Húli_. The tree is both wild and cultivated, and is
grown rather extensively by the Mahomedans of Malabar, called _Moplahs_
(_Mapillas_, see p. 372), whose custom it is to plant a number of seeds at
the birth of a daughter. The trees require fourteen or fifteen years to
come to maturity, and then become the girl's dowry.

Though to a great extent superseded by the kindred wood from Pernambuco,
the sappan is still a substantial object of importation into England. That
American dye-stuff which _now_ bears the name of brazil-wood is believed
to be the produce of at least two species of Caesalpinia, but the question
seems to partake of the singular obscurity which hangs over the origin of
so many useful drugs and dye-stuffs. The variety called _Braziletto_ is
from _C. bahamensis_, a native of the Bahamas.

The name of Brazil has had a curious history. Etymologists refer it to the
colour of braise or hot coals, and its first application was to this
dye-wood from the far East. Then it was applied to a newly-discovered tract
of South America, perhaps because producing a kindred dye-wood in large
quantities: finally the original wood is robbed of its name, which is
monopolised by that imported from the new country. The Region of Brazil had
been originally styled _Santa Cruz_, and De Barros attributes the change of
name to the suggestion of the Evil One, "as if the name of a wood for
colouring cloth were of more moment than that of the Wood which imbues the
Sacraments with the tincture of Salvation."

There may perhaps be a doubt if the Land of Brazil derived its name from
the dye-wood. For the Isle of Brazil, long before the discovery of America,
was a name applied to an imaginary Island in the Atlantic. This island
appears in the map of Andrea Bianco and in many others, down at least to
Coronelli's splendid Venetian Atlas (1696); the Irish used to fancy that
they could see it from the Isles of Arran; and the legend of this Island of
Brazil still persisted among sailors in the last century.[6] The story was
no doubt the same as that of the green Island, or Island of Youth, which
Mr. Campbell tells us the Hebrideans see to the west of their own Islands.
(See _Pop. Tales of West Highlands_, IV. 163. For previous references,
_Delia Decirna,_, III. 298, 361; IV. 60; I.B. IV. 99; _Cathay_, p. 77;
_Note by Dr. H. Gleghorn_; _Marsh's ed. of Wedgwood's Etym. Dict._ I. 123;
_Southey, H. of Brazil_, I. 22.)

NOTE 3.--This is the _Colombine_ ginger which appears not unfrequently in
mediaeval writings. Pegolotti tells us that "ginger is of several sorts,
to wit, _Belledi_, _Colombino_, and _Mecchino_. And these names are
bestowed from the producing countries, at least this is the case with the
_Colombino_ and _Mecchino_, for the _Belledi_ is produced in many
districts of India. The Colombino grows in the Island of Colombo of India,
and has a smooth, delicate, ash-coloured rind; whilst the Mecchino comes
from the districts about Mecca and is a small kind, hard to cut," etc.
(_Delia Dec._ III. 359.) A century later, in G. da Uzzano, we still find
the _Colombino_ and _Belladi_ ginger (IV. 111, 210, etc.). The _Baladi_ is
also mentioned by Rashiduddin as an export of Guzerat, and by Barbosa and
others as one of Calicut in the beginning of the 16th century. The
_Mecchino_ too is mentioned again in that era by a Venetian traveller as
grown in the Island of Camran in the Red Sea. Both Columbine (_gigembre
columbin_) and Baladi ginger (_gig. baladit_) appear among the purchases
for King John of France, during his captivity in England. And we gather
from his accounts that the price of the former was 13_d._ a pound, and of
the latter 12_d._, sums representing three times the amount of silver that
they now indicate, with a higher value of silver also, and hence
equivalent to about 4_s._ and 4_s._ 4_d._ a pound. The term _Baladi_
(Ar.), Indigenous or "Country" ginger, indicated ordinary qualities of no
particular repute. The word _Baladi_ seems to have become naturalised in
Spanish with the meaning "of small value." We have noticed on a former
occasion the decay of the demand for pepper in China. Ginger affords a
similar example. This spice, so highly prized and so well known throughout
Europe in the Middle Ages, I have found to be quite unknown by name and
qualities to servants in Palermo of more than average intelligence.
(_Elliot_, I. 67; _Ramusio_, I. f. 275, v. 323; _Dozy and Engelm._ pp.
232-233; _Douet d'Arcq_, p. 218; _Philobiblon Soc. Miscellanies_, vol. ii.
p. 116.)

NOTE 4.--In Bengal Indigo factories artificial heat is employed to promote
the drying of the precipitated dye; but this is not essential to the
manufacture. Marco's account, though grotesque in its baldness, does
describe the chief features of the manufacture of Indigo by fermentation.
The branches are cut and placed stem upwards in the vat till it is three
parts full; they are loaded, and then the vat is filled with water.
Fermentation soon begins and goes on till in 24 hours the contents of the
vat are so hot that the hand cannot be retained in it. This is what Marco
ascribes to the sun's heat. The liquor is then drawn off to another
cistern and there agitated; the indigo separates in flakes. A quantity of
lime-water then is added, and the blue is allowed to subside. The clear
water is drawn off; the sediment is drained, pressed, and cut into small
squares, etc. (See _Madras Journal_, vol. viii. 198.)

Indigo had been introduced into Sicily by the Jews during the time of
Frederick II., in the early part of Polo's century. Jews and Indigo have
long vanished from Sicily. The dye is often mentioned in Pegolotti's Book;
the finest quality being termed _Indaco Baccadeo_ a corruption of
_Bághdádi_. Probably it came from India by way of Baghdad. In the
Barcelona Tariffs it appears as Indigo de _Bagadel_. Another quality often
mentioned is Indigo _di Golfo_. (See _Capmany, Memorias_ II. App. p. 73.)
In the bye-laws of the London Painters' Guild of the 13th century, quoted
by Sir F. Palgrave from the _Liber Horne_, it is forbidden to paint on
gold or silver except with fine (mineral) colours, "_e nient de_ brasil,
_ne de_ inde de Baldas, _ne de nul autre mauveise couleur_." (_The
Merchant and the Friar_, p. xxiii.) There is now no indigo made or
exported at Quilon, but there is still some feeble export of sappanwood,
ginger, and pepper. These, and previous particulars as to the present
Quilon, I owe to the kindness of Mr. Ballard, British Resident at
Trevandrum.

NOTE 5.--Black Tigers and black Leopards are not very rare in Travancore
(See _Welsh's Mil. Reminiscences_, II. 102.)

NOTE 6.--Probably founded on local or caste customs of marriage, several
of which in South India are very peculiar; e.g., see _Nelson's Madura_,
Pt. II. p. 51.


[1] The etymology of the name seems to be doubtful. Dr. Caldwell tells me
    it is an error to connect it (as in the first edition) with the word
    for a Tank, which is _Kulam_. The apparent meaning of _Kollam_ is
    "slaughter," but he thinks the name is best explained as "Palace" or
    "Royal Residence."

[2] There is still a _Syrian_ church of St. George at Quilon, and a
    mosque of some importance;--the representatives at least of those
    noted above, though no actual trace of antiquity of any kind remains
    at the place. A vague tradition of extensive trade with China yet
    survives. The form _Columbum_ is accounted for by an inscription,
    published by the Prince of Travancore (_Ind. Antiq._ II. 360), which
    shows that the city was called in Sanskrit _Kolamba_. May not the real
    etymology be Sansk. _Kolam_, "Black Pepper"?

    On the suggestion ventured in this note Dr. Caldwell writes:

    "I fancy _Kôla_, a name for pepper in Sanskrit, may be derived from
    the name of the country _Kôlam_, North Malabar, which is much more
    celebrated for its pepper than the country around Quilon. This
    _Kôlam_, though resembling _Kollam_, is really a separate word, and
    never confounded with the latter by the natives. The prince of Kôlam
    (North Malabar) is called _Kolastri_ or _Kolattiri_[A]. Compare also
    _Kôlagiri_, the name of a hill in the Sanskrit dictionaries, called
    also the _Kôlla giri_. The only possible derivations for the Tamil and
    Malayalim name of Quilon that I am acquainted with are these: (1)
    From _Kolu_, the 'Royal Presence' or presence-chamber, or hall of
    audience. _Kollam_ might naturally be a derivation of this word; and
    in confirmation I find that other residences of Malabar kings were
    also called Kollam, e.g. Kodungalur or Cranganore. (2) From _Kolu_,
    the same word, but with the meaning 'a height' or 'high-ground'. Hence
    _Kollei_, a very common word in Tamil for a 'dry grain field, a
    back-yard'. _Kolli_ is also, in the Tamil poets, said to be the name of
    a hill in the Chera country, i.e. the Malabar coast. _Kôlam_ in
    Tamil has not the meaning of pepper; it means 'beauty', and it is said
    also to mean the fruit of the jujuba. (3) It might possibly be derived
    from _Kol_, to slay;--_Kollam_, slaughter, or a place where some
    slaughter happened ... in the absence, however, of any tradition to
    this effect, this derivation seems improbable."

        [A] see II. 387.

[3] Burnell.

[4] The translated passage about _'Apuhota_ is a little obscure. The
    name looks like _Kapukada_, which was the site of a palace north
    of _Calicut_ (not in Kaulam), the _Capucate_ of the
    Portuguese.

[5] _Dr. Caldwell_.

[6] Indeed, Humboldt speaks of Brazil Isle as appearing to the west of
    Ireland in a modern English map-_Purdy's_; but I do not know its
    date. (See _Examen_, etc., II. 244-245)



CHAPTER XXIII.

OF THE COUNTRY CALLED COMARI


Comari is a country belonging to India, and there you can see something of
the North Star, which we had not been able to see from the Lesser Java
thus far. In order to see it you must go some 30 miles out to sea, and
then you see it about a cubit above the water.[NOTE 1]

This is a very wild country, and there are beasts of all kinds there,
especially monkeys of such peculiar fashion that you would take them for
men! There are also _gatpauls_[NOTE 2] in wonderful diversity, with
bears, lions, and leopards, in abundance.


NOTE 1.--_Kumári_ is in some versions of the Hindu cosmography the most
southerly of the nine divisions of Jambodvipa, the Indian world. Polo's
Comari can only be the country about Cape COMORIN, the [Greek:
komária ákron] of Ptolemy, a name derived from the Sanskrit _Kumári_, "a
Virgin," an appellation of the goddess Durgá. The monthly bathing in her
honour, spoken of by the author of the _Periplus_, is still continued,
though now the pilgrims are few. Abulfeda speaks of _Rás Kumhari_ as the
limit between Malabar and Ma'bar. _Kumari_ is the Tamul pronunciation of
the Sanskrit word and probably _Comari_ was Polo's pronunciation.

At the beginning of the Portuguese era in India we hear of a small Kingdom
of COMORI, the prince of which had succeeded to the kingdom of Kaulam. And
this, as Dr. Caldwell points out, must have been the state which is now
called Travancore. Kumari has been confounded by some of the Arabian
Geographers, or their modern commentators, with _Kumár_, one of the
regions supplying aloes-wood, and which was apparently _Khmer_ or Kamboja.
(_Caldwell's Drav. Grammar_, p. 67; _Gildem._ 185; _Ram._ I. 333.)

The cut that we give is, as far as I know, the first genuine view of Cape
Comorin ever published.

[Mr. Talboys Wheeler, in his _History of India_, vol. iii. (p. 386), says
of this tract:

"The region derives its name from a temple which was erected there in
honour of Kumárí, 'the Virgin'; the infant babe who had been exchanged for
Krishna, and ascended to heaven at the approach of Kansa." And in a note:

"Colonel Yule identifies Kumárí with Durgá. This is an error. The temple
of Kumárí was erected by Krishna Raja of Narsinga, a zealous patron of the
Vaishnavas."

Mr. Wheeler quotes Faria y Souza, who refers the object of worship to what
is meant for this story (II. 394), but I presume from Mr. Wheeler's
mention of the builder of the temple, which does not occur in the
Portuguese history, that he has other information. The application of the
Virgin title connected with the name of the place, may probably have
varied with the ages, and, as there is no time to obtain other evidence, I
have removed the words which identified the _existing temple_ with that of
Durgá. But my authority for identifying the _object of worship_, in whose
honour the pilgrims bathe monthly at Cape Comorin, with Durgá, is the
excellent one of Dr. Caldwell. (See his _Dravidian Grammar_ as quoted in
the passage above.) Krishna Raja of whom Mr. Wheeler speaks, reigned after
the Portuguese were established in India, but it is not probable that the
Krishna stories of that class were even known in the Peninsula (or perhaps
anywhere else) in the time of the author of the _Periplus_, 1450 years
before; and 'tis as little likely that the locality owed its name to
Yasoda's Infant, as that it owed it to the Madonna in St. Francis Xavier's
Church that overlooks the Cape.

Fra Paolino, in his unsatisfactory way (_Viaggio_, p. 68), speaks of Cape
Comorin, "which the Indians call _Canyamuri_, _Virginis Promontorium_, or
simply _Comarí_ or _Cumarí_ 'a Virgin,' because they pretend that
anciently the goddess _Comari_ 'the Damsel,' who is the Indian Diana or
Hecate, used to bathe" etc. However, we can discover from his book
elsewhere (see pp. 79, 285) that by the Indian Diana he means Párvatí,
i.e. Durgá.

Lassen at first[1] identified the Kumárí of the Cape with Párvatí; but
afterwards connected the name with a story in the Mahábhárata about
certain _Apsarases_ changed into Crocodiles.[2] On the whole there does
not seem sufficient ground to deny that Párvatí was the _original_ object
of worship at Kumárí, though the name may have lent itself to various
legends.]

[Illustration: Cape Comorin (From a sketch by Mr. Foote, of the Geological
Survey of India)]

NOTE 2.--I have not been able to ascertain with any precision what animal
is meant by _Gat-paul_. The term occurs again, coupled with monkeys as
here, at p. 240 of the Geog. Text, where, speaking of Abyssinia, it is
said: "_Il ont_ gat paulz _et autre gat-maimon si divisez_," etc. _Gatto
maimone_, for an ape of some kind, is common in old Italian, the latter
part of the term, from the Pers. _Maimún_, being possibly connected with
our _Baboon_. And that the _Gat-paul_ was also some kind of ape is
confirmed by the Spanish Dictionaries. Cobarrubias gives: "_Gato-Paus_, a
kind of tailed monkey. _Gato-paus, Gato pablo_; perhaps as they call a
monkey 'Martha,' they may have called this particular monkey 'Paul,'" etc.
(f. 431 v.). So also the _Diccion. de la Lengua Castellana comp. por la
Real Academia_ (1783) gives: "_Gato Paul_, a kind of monkey of a grey
colour, black muzzle and very broad tail." In fact, the word is used by
Columbus, who, in his own account of his third voyage, describes a hill on
the coast of Paria as covered with a species of _Gatos Paulos_. (See
_Navarrete_, Fr. ed. III. 21, also 147-148.) It also occurs in _Marmol,
Desc. General de Affrica_, who says that one kind of monkeys has a black
face; "_y estas comunemente se llaman en España_ Gatos Paules, _las quales
se crian en la tierra de los Negros_" (I. f. 27). It is worth noting that
the revisers of the text adopted by Pauthier have not understood the word.
For they substitute for the "_Il hi a_ gat paul _si divisez qe ce estoit
mervoille_" of the Geog. Text, "_et si a moult de_ granz paluz _et moult
grans pantains à merveilles_"--wonderful swamps and marshes! The Pipino
Latin has adhered to the correct reading--"_Ibi sunt_ cati qui dicuntur
pauli, _valde diversi ab aliis_."


[1] _Ind. Alt._ 1st ed. I. 158.

[2] Id. 564; and 2nd ed. I. 103.



CHAPTER XXIV.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF ELI.


Eli is a kingdom towards the west, about 300 miles from Comari. The people
are Idolaters and have a king, and are tributary to nobody; and have a
peculiar language. We will tell you particulars about their manners and
their products, and you will better understand things now because we are
drawing near to places that are not so outlandish.[NOTE 1]

There is no proper harbour in the country, but there are many great rivers
with good estuaries, wide and deep.[NOTE 2] Pepper and ginger grow there,
and other spices in quantities.[NOTE 3] The King is rich in treasure, but
not very strong in forces. The approach to his kingdom however is so
strong by nature that no one can attack him, so he is afraid of nobody.

And you must know that if any ship enters their estuary and anchors there,
having been bound for some other port, they seize her and plunder the
cargo. For they say, "You were bound for somewhere else, and 'tis God has
sent you hither to us, so we have a right to all your goods." And they
think it no sin to act thus. And this naughty custom prevails all over
these provinces of India, to wit, that if a ship be driven by stress of
weather into some other port than that to which it was bound, it is sure
to be plundered. But if a ship come bound originally to the place they
receive it with all honour and give it due protection.[NOTE 4] The ships
of Manzi and other countries that come hither in summer lay in their
cargoes in 6 or 8 days and depart as fast as possible, because there is no
harbour other than the river-mouth, a mere roadstead and sandbanks, so
that it is perilous to tarry there. The ships of Manzi indeed are not so
much afraid of these roadsteads as others are, because they have such huge
wooden anchors which hold in all weather.[NOTE 5]

There are many lions and other wild beasts here and plenty of game, both
beast and bird.


NOTE 1.--No city or district is now known by the name of ELY, but the name
survives in that of Mount _Dely_, properly Monte d'ELY, the _Yeli-mala_ of
the Malabar people, and called also in the legends of the coast
_Sapta-shaila_, or the Seven Hills. This is the only spur of the Gháts that
reaches the sea within the Madras territory. It is an isolated and very
conspicuous hill, or cluster of hills, forming a promontory some 16 miles
north of Cananore, the first Indian land seen by Vasco da Gama, on that
memorable August morning in 1498, and formerly very well known to
navigators, though it has been allowed to drop out of some of our most
ambitious modern maps. Abulfeda describes it as "a great mountain
projecting into the sea, and descried from a great distance, called _Ras
Haili_"; and it appears in Fra Mauro's map as _Cavo de Eli_.

Rashiduddin mentions "the country of Hili," between _Manjarúr_ (Mangalore)
and Fandaraina (miswritten in Elliot's copy _Sadarsa_). Ibn Batuta speaks
of Hili, which he reached on leaving Manjarúr, as "a great and well-built
city, situated on a large estuary accessible to great ships. The vessels
of China come hither; this, Kaulam, and Kalikut, are the only ports that
they enter." From Hili he proceeds 12 miles further down the coast to
_Jor-fattan_, which probably corresponds to Baliapatan. ELLY appears in
the Carta Catalana, and is marked as a Christian city. Nicolo Conti is the
last to speak distinctly of the city. Sailing from Cambay, in 20 days he
arrived at two cities on the sea-shore, _Pacamuria_ (_Faknúr_, of Rashid
and Firishta, _Baccanor_ of old books, and now _Bárkúr_, the Malayálim
_Vákkanúr_) and HELLI. But we read that in 1527 Simon de Melo was sent to
burn ships in the River of _Marabia_ and at _Monte d'Elli_.[1] When Da
Gama on his second voyage was on his way from Baticala (in Canara) to
Cananor, a squall having sprung his mainmast just before reaching Mt.
d'Ely, "the captain-major anchored in the Bay of Marabia, because he saw
there several Moorish ships, in order to get a mast from them." It seems
clear that this was the bay just behind Mt. d'Ely.

Indeed the name of Marabia or _Máráwí_ is still preserved in _Mádávi_ or
Mádái, corruptly termed _Maudoy_ in some of our maps, a township upor the
river which enters the bay about 7 or 8 miles south-east of Mt. d'Ely, and
which is called by De Barros the _Rio Marabia_. Mr. Ballard informs me
that he never heard of ruins of importance at Madai, but there is a place
on the river just mentioned, and within the Madai township, called
_Payangádi_ ("Old Town"), which has the remains of an old fort of the
Kolastri (or Kolatiri) Rajas. A _palace_ at Madai (perhaps this fort) is
alluded to by Dr. Gundert in the _Madras Journal_, and a Buddhist Vihara
is spoken of in an old Malayalim poem as having existed at the same place.
The same paper speaks of "the famous emporium of Cachilpatnam near Mt.
d'Ely," which may have been our city of Hili, as the cities Hili and
Marawi were apparently separate though near.[2]

[Illustration: Mount d'Ely, from the Sea, in last century.]

The state of _Hílí-Máráwi_ is also mentioned in the Arabic work on the
early history of the Mahomedans in Malabar, called _Tuhfat-al-Mujáhidín_,
and translated by Rowlandson; and as the Prince is there called
_Kolturee_, this would seem to identify him either in family or person
with the Raja of Cananor, for that old dynasty always bore the name of
_Kolatiri_.[3]

The Ramusian version of Barbosa is very defective here, but in Stanley's
version (Hak. Soc. _East African and Malabar Coasts_, p. 149) we find the
topography in a passage from a Munich MS. clear enough: "After passing
this place" (the river of Nirapura or Nileshwaram) "along the coast is the
mountain Dely (of Ely) on the edge of the sea; it is a round mountain,
very lofty, in the midst of low land; all the ships of the Moors and
Gentiles that navigate in this sea of India sight this mountain when
coming from without, and make their reckoning by it; ... after this, at
the foot of the mountain to the south, is a town called _Marave_, very
ancient and well off, in which live Moors and Gentiles and Jews; these
Jews are of the language of the country; it is a long time that they have
dwelt in this place."

(_Stanley's Correa_, Hak. Soc. pp. 145, 312-313; _Gildem._ p. 185;
_Elliot_, I. 68; _I.B._ IV. 81; _Conti_, p. 6; _Madras Journal_, XIII.
No. 31, pp. 14, 99, 102, 104; _De Barros_, III. 9, cap. 6, and IV. 2, cap.
13; _De Couto_, IV. 5, cap. 4.)

NOTE 2.--This is from Pauthier's text, and the map with ch. xxi.
illustrates the fact of the many wide rivers. The G.T. has "a good river
with a very good estuary" or mouth. The latter word is in the G.T.
_faces_, afterwards more correctly _foces_, equivalent to _fauces_. We
have seen that Ibn Batuta also speaks of the estuary or inlet at Hili. It
may have been either that immediately east of Mount d'Ely, communicating
with Kavváyi and the Nileshwaram River, or the Madai River. Neither could
be entered by vessels now, but there have been great littoral changes. The
land joining Mt. d'Ely to the main is mere alluvium.

NOTE 3.--Barbosa says that throughout the kingdom of Cananor the pepper
was of excellent quality, though not in great quantity. There was much
ginger, not first-rate, which was called _Hely_ from its growing about
Mount d'Ely, with cardamoms (names of which, _Elá_ in Sanskrit, _Hel_
Persian, I have thought might be connected with that of the hill),
mirobolans, cassia fistula, zerumbet, and zedoary. The two last items are
two species of _curcuma_, formerly in much demand as aromatics; the last
is, I believe, the _setewale_ of Chaucer:--

  "There was eke wexing many a spice,
  As clowe gilofre and Licorice,
    Ginger and grein de Paradis,
  Canell and setewale of pris,
  And many a spice delitable
  To eaten when men rise from table."--_R. of the Rose_.

The Hely ginger is also mentioned by Conti.

NOTE 4.--This piratical practice is noted by Abdurrazzak also: "In other
parts (than Calicut) a strange practice is adopted. When a vessel sets
sail for a certain point, and suddenly is driven by a decree of Divine
Providence into another roadstead, the inhabitants, under the pretext that
the wind has driven it thither, plunder the ship. But at Calicut every
ship, whatever place it comes from, or wherever it may be bound, when it
puts into this port, is treated like other vessels, and has no trouble of
any kind to put up with" (p. 14). In 1673 Sivaji replied to the pleadings
of an English embassy, that it was "against the Laws of Conchon"
(Ptolemy's _Pirate Coast!_) "to restore any ships or goods that were
driven ashore." (_Fryer_, p. 261.)

NOTE 5.--With regard to the anchors, Pauthier's text has just the opposite
of the G.T. which we have preferred: "_Les nefs du Manzi portent si grans
ancres de fust_, que il seuffrent moult _de grans fortunes aus plajes_" De
Mailla says the Chinese consider their ironwood anchors to be much better
than those of iron, because the latter are subject to strain. (_Lett.
Edif._ XIV. 10.) Capt. Owen has a good word for wooden anchors. (_Narr. of
Voyages_, etc., I. 385.)


[1] The Town of Monte d'Ely appears (_Monte Dil_) in Coronelli's Atlas
    (1690) from some older source. Mr. Burnell thinks Baliapatan (properly
    _Valarpattanam_) which is still a prosperous Máppila town, on a broad
    and deep river, must be Hili. I see a little difficulty in this.
    [Marabia at Monte Dely is often mentioned in _Correa_, as one of the
    ports of the Kingdom of Cananor.]

[2] Mr. Burnell thinks _Kachchil_pattanam must be an error (easy in
    Malayálim) for _Kavvil_pattanam, i.e. Kavváyi (Kanwai in our map).

[3] As _printed_ by Rowlandson, the name is corrupt (like many others in
    the book), being given as _Hubaee Murawee_. But suspecting what this
    pointed to, I examined the MS. in the R.A. Society's Library. The
    knowledge of the Arabic _character_ was quite sufficient to enable me
    to trace the name as [Arabic], _Hílí Máráwi_. (See _Rowlandson_, pp.
    54, 58-59, and MS. pp. 23 and 26, also _Indian Antiquary_, III. p.
    213.)



CHAPTER XXV.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF MELIBAR.


Melibar is a great kingdom lying towards the west. The people are
Idolaters; they have a language of their own, and a king of their own, and
pay tribute to nobody.[NOTE 1]

In this country you see more of the North Star, for it shows two cubits
above the water. And you must know that from this kingdom of Melibar, and
from another near it called Gozurat, there go forth every year more than a
hundred corsair vessels on cruize. These pirates take with them their
wives and children, and stay out the whole summer. Their method is to join
in fleets of 20 or 30 of these pirate vessels together, and then they form
what they call a sea cordon,[NOTE 2] that is, they drop off till there is
an interval of 5 or 6 miles between ship and ship, so that they cover
something like an hundred miles of sea, and no merchant ship can escape
them. For when any one corsair sights a vessel a signal is made by fire or
smoke, and then the whole of them make for this, and seize the merchants
and plunder them. After they have plundered them they let them go, saying:
"Go along with you and get more gain, and that mayhap will fall to us
also!" But now the merchants are aware of this, and go so well manned and
armed, and with such great ships, that they don't fear the corsairs. Still
mishaps do befall them at times.[NOTE 3]

There is in this kingdom a great quantity of pepper, and ginger, and
cinnamon, and turbit, and of nuts of India.[NOTE 4] They also manufacture
very delicate and beautiful buckrams. The ships that come from the east
bring copper in ballast. They also bring hither cloths of silk and gold,
and sendels; also gold and silver, cloves and spikenard, and other fine
spices for which there is a demand here, and exchange them for the
products of these countries.

Ships come hither from many quarters, but especially from the great
province of Manzi.[NOTE 5] Coarse spices are exported hence both to Manzi
and to the west, and that which is carried by the merchants to Aden goes
on to Alexandria, but the ships that go in the latter direction are not
one to ten of those that go to the eastward; a very notable fact that I
have mentioned before.

Now I have told you about the kingdom of Melibar; we shall now proceed and
tell you of the kingdom of Gozurat. And you must understand that in
speaking of these kingdoms we note only the capitals; there are great
numbers of other cities and towns of which we shall say nothing, because
it would make too long a story to speak of all.


NOTE 1.--Here is another instance of that confusion which dislocates
Polo's descriptions of the Indian coast; we shall recur to it under ch.
xxx.

Malabar is a name given by the Arabs, and varies in its form: Ibn Batuta
and Kazwini write it [Arabic], _al-Malíbár_, Edrisi and Abulfeda [Arabic],
_al-Maníbár_, etc., and like variations occur among the old European
travellers. The country so-called corresponded to the _Kerala_ of the
Brahmans, which in its very widest sense extended from about lat. 15° to
Cape Comorin. This, too, seems to be the extension which Abulfeda gives to
Malabar, viz., from Hunáwar to Kumhári; Rashiduddin includes Sindábúr,
i.e. Goa. But at a later date a point between Mt. d'Ely and Mangalore on
the north, and Kaulam on the south, were the limits usually assigned to
Malabar.

NOTE 2.--"_Il font_ eschiel _en la mer_" (G.T.). _Eschiel_ is the
equivalent of the Italian _schera_ or _schiera_, a troop or squadron, and
thence applied to order of battle, whether by land or sea.

NOTE 3.--The northern part of Malabar, Canara, and the Konkan, have been
nests of pirates from the time of the ancients to a very recent date.
Padre Paolino specifies the vicinity of Mt. d'Ely as a special haunt of
them in his day, the latter half of last century. Somewhat further north
Ibn Batuta fell into their hands, and was stripped to his drawers.

NOTE 4.--There is something to be said about these Malabar spices. The
cinnamon of Malabar is what we call cassia, the _canella grossa_ of Conti,
the _canela brava_ of the Portuguese. Notices of it will be found in
_Rheede_ (I. 107) and in _Garcia_ (f. 26 seqq.). The latter says the
Ceylon cinnamon exceeded it in value as 4:1. Uzzano discriminates
_canella_ lunga, _Salami_, and _Mabari_. The _Salami_, I have no doubt, is
_Sailani_, Ceylonese; and as we do not hear of any cassia from Mabar,
probably the last was _Malabar_ cinnamon.

_Turbit: Radex Turpethi_ is still known in pharmacy, at least in some
parts of the Continent and in India, though in England obsolete. It is
mentioned in the _Pharmacopoeia of India_ (1868) as derived from _Ipomoea
Turpethum_.

But it is worthy of note that Ramusio has _cubebs_ instead of _turbit_.
The former does not seem now to be a product of Western India, though
Garcia says that a small quantity grew there, and a Dutch report of 1675
in Valentyn also mentions it as an export of Malabar. (_V., Ceylon_, p.
243.) There is some ambiguity in statements about it, because its popular
name _Kábab-chíní_ seems to be also applied to the cassia bud. Cubeb
pepper was much used in the Middle Ages as a spice, and imported into
Europe as such. But the importation had long practically ceased, when its
medical uses became known during the British occupation of Java, and the
demand was renewed.

Budaeus and Salmasius have identified this drug with the [Greek: kómakon],
which Theophrastus joins with cinnamomum and cassia as an ingredient in
aromatic confections. The inducement to this identification was no doubt
the singular resemblance which the word bears to the Javanese name of
cubeb pepper, viz., _Kumukus_. If the foundation were a little firmer this
would be curious evidence of intercourse and trade with Java in a time
earlier than that of Theophrastus, viz., the 4th century B.C.

In the detail of 3 cargoes from Malabar that arrived at Lisbon in
September 1504 we find the following proportions: Pepper, 10,000
_cantars_; cinnamon, 500; cloves, 450; _zz._ (i.e. _zenzaro_, ginger),
130; lac and brazil, 750; camphor, 7; cubebs, 191; mace, 2-1/2; spikenard,
3; lign-aloes, 1-1/3.

(_Buchanan's Mysore_, II. 31, III. 193, and App. p. v.; _Garcia_, Ital.
version, 1576, f. 39-40; _Salmas. Exerc. Plin._ p. 923; _Bud. on Theoph._
1004 and 1010; _Archiv. St. Ital._, Append. II. p. 19.)

NOTE 5.--We see that Marco speaks of the merchants and ships of Manzi, or
Southern China, as frequenting Kaulam, Hili, and now Malabar, of which
Calicut was the chief port. This quite coincides with Ibn Batuta, who says
those were the three ports of India which the Chinese junks frequented,
adding Fandaraina (i.e. Pandarani, or Pantaláni, 16 miles north of
Calicut), as a port where they used to moor for the winter when they spent
that season in India. By the winter he means the rainy season, as
Portuguese writers on India do by the same expression (IV. 81, 88, 96). I
have been unable to find anything definite as to the date of the cessation
of this Chinese navigation to Malabar, but I believe it may be placed
about the beginning of the 15th century. The most distinct allusion to it
that I am aware of is in the information of Joseph of Cranganore, in the
_Novus Orbis_ (Ed. of 1555, p. 208). He says: "These people of Cathay are
men of remarkable energy, and formerly drove a first-rate trade at the
city of Calicut. But the King of Calicut having treated them badly, they
quitted that city, and returning shortly after inflicted no small
slaughter on the people of Calicut, and after that returned no more. After
that they began to frequent Mailapetam, a city subject to the king of
Narsingha; a region towards the East, ... and there they now drive their
trade." There is also in Caspar Correa's account of the Voyages of Da Gama
a curious record of a tradition of the arrival in Malabar more than four
centuries before of a vast merchant fleet "from the parts of Malacca, and
China, and the Lequeos" (Lewchew); many from the company on board had
settled in the country and left descendants. In the space of a hundred
years none of these remained; but their sumptuous idol temples were still
to be seen. (_Stanley's Transl., Hak. Soc._, p. 147.)[1] It is probable
that both these stories must be referred to those extensive expeditions to
the western countries with the object of restoring Chinese influence which
were despatched by the Ming Emperor Ch'êng-Tsu (or Yung-lo), about 1406,
and one of which seems actually to have brought _Ceylon_ under a partial
subjection to China, which endured half a century. (See _Tennent_, I. 623
seqq.; and _Letter of P. Gaubil_ in _J.A._ sér. II. tom. x. pp. 327-328.)
["So that at this day there is great memory of them in the ilands
Philippinas, and on the cost of Coromande, which is the cost against the
kingdome of Norsinga towards the sea of Cengala: whereas is a towne called
unto this day the soile of the Chinos, for that they did reedifie and make
the same. The like notice and memory is there in the kingdom of Calicut,
whereas be many trees and fruits, that the naturals of that countrie do
say, were brought thither by the Chinos, when that they were lords and
gouernours of that countrie." (_Mendoza, Parke's transl._ p. 71.)] De
Barros says that the famous city of Diu was built by one of the Kings of
Guzerat whom he calls in one place _Dariar Khan_, and in another
_Peruxiah_, in memory of victory in a sea-fight with the Chinese who then
frequented the Indian shores. It is difficult to identify this King, though
he is represented as the father of the famous toxicophagous Sultan Mahmúd
Begara (1459-1511). De Barros has many other allusions to Chinese
settlements and conquests in India which it is not very easy to account
for. Whatever basis of facts there is must probably refer to the
expeditions of Ch'êng-Tsu, but not a little probably grew out of the
confusion of _Jainas_ and _Chinas_ already alluded to; and to this I
incline to refer Correa's "sumptuous idol-temples."

There must have been some revival of Chinese trade in the last century, if
P. Paolino is correct in speaking of Chinese vessels frequenting
Travancore ports for pepper. (_De Barros_, Dec. II. Liv. ii. cap. 9, and
Dec. IV. Liv. v. cap. 3; _Paolino_, p. 74.)


[1] It appears from a paper in the Mackenzie MSS. that down to Colonel
    Mackenzie's time there was a tribe in Calicut whose ancestors were
    believed to have been Chinese. (See _Taylor's Catal. Raisonné_,
    III. 664.) And there is a notable passage in Abdurrazzak which says
    the seafaring population of Calicut were nicknamed _Chíní
    bachagán_, "China boys." (_India in XVth Cent._ p. 19.)



CHAPTER XXVI.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF GOZURAT.


Gozurat is a great kingdom. The people are Idolaters and have a peculiar
language, and a king of their own, and are tributary to no one. It lies
towards the west, and the North Star is here still more conspicuous,
showing itself at an altitude of about 6 cubits.[NOTE 1]

The people are the most desperate pirates in existence, and one of their
atrocious practices is this. When they have taken a merchant-vessel they
force the merchants to swallow a stuff called _Tamarindi_ mixed in
sea-water, which produces a violent purging.[NOTE 2] This is done in case
the merchants, on seeing their danger, should have swallowed their most
valuable stones and pearls. And in this way the pirates secure the whole.

In this province of Gozurat there grows much pepper, and ginger, and
indigo. They have also a great deal of cotton. Their cotton trees are of
very great size, growing full six paces high, and attaining to an age of
20 years. It is to be observed however that, when the trees are so old as
that, the cotton is not good to spin, but only to quilt or stuff beds
withal. Up to the age of 12 years indeed the trees give good spinning
cotton, but from that age to 20 years the produce is inferior.[NOTE 3]

[Illustration: Mediaeval Architecture in Guzerat. (From Fergusson.)]

They dress in this country great numbers of skins of various kinds,
goat-skins, ox-skins, buffalo and wild ox-skins, as well as those of
unicorns and other animals. In fact so many are dressed every year as to
load a number of ships for Arabia and other quarters. They also work here
beautiful mats in red and blue leather, exquisitely inlaid with figures of
birds and beasts, and skilfully embroidered with gold and silver wire.
These are marvellously beautiful things; they are used by the Saracens to
sleep upon, and capital they are for that purpose. They also work cushions
embroidered with gold, so fine that they are worth six marks of silver a
piece, whilst some of those sleeping-mats are worth ten marks.[NOTE 4]


NOTE 1.--Again we note the topographical confusion. Guzerat is mentioned
as if it were a province adjoining Malabar, and before arriving at Tana,
Cambay, and Somnath; though in fact it includes those three cities, and
Cambay was then its great mart. Wassáf, Polo's contemporary, perhaps
acquaintance, speaks of Gujarat which is commonly called Kambáyat.
(_Elliot_, III. 31.)

NOTE 2.--["The origin of the name [_Tamarina_] is curious. It is Ar.
_tamar-u'l-Hind_, 'date of India,' or perhaps rather, in Persian form,
_tamar-i-Hindí_. It is possible that the original name may have been
_thamar_, ('fruit') of India, rather than _tamar_, ('date')."
(_Hobson-Jobson_.)]

NOTE 3.--The notice of pepper here is hard to explain. But Hiuen Tsang
also speaks of Indian pepper and incense (see next chapter) as grown at
_'Ochali_ which seems to be some place on the northern border of Guzerat
(II. 161).

Marsden, in regard to the cotton, supposes here some confused introduction
of the silk-cotton tree (_Bombax_ or _Salmalia_, the Semal of Hindustan),
but the description would be entirely inapplicable to that great forest
tree. It is remarkable that nearly the same statement with regard to
Guzerat occurs in Rashiduddin's sketch of India, as translated in Sir H.
Elliot's _History of India_ (_ed. by Professor Dowson_, I. 67): "Grapes
are produced twice during the year, and the strength of the soil is such
that cotton-plants grow like willows and plane-trees, and yield produce
ten years running." An author of later date, from whom extracts are given
in the same work, viz., Mahommed Masúm in his _History of Sind_,
describing the wonders of Síwí, says: "In Korzamin and Chhatur, which are
districts of Siwi, cotton-plants grow as large as trees, insomuch that men
pick the cotton mounted" (p. 237).

These would appear to have been plants of the species of true cotton
called by Royle _Gossipium arboreum_ and sometimes termed _G. religiosum_,
from its being often grown in South India near temples or abodes of
devotees; though the latter name has been applied also to the nankeen
cotton. That of which we speak is, however, according to Dr. Cleghorn,
termed in Mysore _Deo kapás_, of which _G. religiosum_ would be a proper
translation. It is grown in various parts of India, but generally rather
for ornament than use. It is stated, however, to be specially used for the
manufacture of turbans, and for the Brahmanical thread, and probably
afforded the groundwork of the story told by Philostratus of the _wild_
cotton which was used only for the sacred vestments of the Brahmans, and
refused to lend itself to other uses. One of Royle's authorities (Mr.
Vaupell) mentions that it was grown near large towns of Eastern Guzerat,
and its wool regarded as the finest of any, and only used in delicate
muslins. Tod speaks of it in Bikanír, and this kind of cotton appears to
be grown also in China, as we gather from a passage in _Amyot's Mémoires_
(II. 606), which speaks of the "Cotonniers arbres, qui ne devoient être
fertiles qu'après un bon nombre d'années."

The height appears to have been a difficulty with Marsden, who refers to
the _G. arboreum_, but does not admit that it could be intended. Yet I see
in the _English Cyclopaedia_ that to this species is assigned a height of
15 to 20 feet. Polo's six paces therefore, even if it means 30 feet as I
think, is not a great exaggeration. (_Royle, Cult. of Cotton_, 144, 145,
152; _Eng. Cycl._ art. _Gossypium_.)

NOTE 4.--Embroidered and Inlaid leather-work for bed-covers, palankin mats
and the like, is still a great manufacture in Rajkot and other places of
Kattiawar in Peninsular Guzerat, as well as in the adjoining region of
Sind. (Note from _Sir Bartle Frere_.) The _embroidery_ of Guzerat is
highly commended by Barbosa, Linschoten, and A. Hamilton.

The G.T. adds at the end of this passage: "E qe voz en diroi? Sachíés
tout voiremant qe en ceste reingne se labore _roiaus dereusse_ de cuir et
plus sotilment que ne fait en tout lo monde, e celz qe sunt de greingnors
vailance."



CHAPTER XXVII.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF TANA.


Tana is a great kingdom lying towards the west, a kingdom great both in
size and worth. The people are Idolaters, with a language of their own,
and a king of their own, and tributary to nobody.[NOTE 1] No pepper grows
there, nor other spices, but plenty of incense; not the white kind
however, but brown.[NOTE 2]

There is much traffic here, and many ships and merchants frequent the
place; for there is a great export of leather of various excellent kinds,
and also of good buckram and cotton. The merchants in their ships also
import various articles, such as gold, silver, copper, and other things in
demand.

With the King's connivance many corsairs launch from this port to plunder
merchants. These corsairs have a covenant with the King that he shall get
all the horses they capture, and all other plunder shall remain with them.
The King does this because he has no horses of his own, whilst many are
shipped from abroad towards India; for no ship ever goes thither without
horses in addition to other cargo. The practice is naughty and unworthy of
a king.


NOTE 1.--The town of THÁNA, on the landward side of the island of
Salsette, still exists, about 20 miles from Bombay. The Great Peninsular
Railroad here crosses the strait which separates Salsette from the
Continent.

The _Konkan_ is no doubt what was intended by the kingdom of _Thána_.
Albiruni speaks of that city as the capital of Konkan; Rashiduddin calls
it _Konkan-Tána_, Ibn Batuta _Kúkin-Tána_, the last a form which appears
in the Carta Catalana as _Cucintana_. Tieffentaller writes _Kokan_, and
this is said (_Cunningham's Anc. Geog._ 553) to be the local
pronunciation. Abulfeda speaks of it as a very celebrated place of trade,
producing a kind of cloth which was called _Tánasi_, bamboos, and
_Tabashír_ derived from the ashes of the bamboo.

As early as the 16th year of the Hijra (A.D. 637) an Arab fleet from Oman
made a hostile descent on the Island of Thána, i.e. Salsette. The place
(_Sri Sthánaka_) appears from inscriptions to have been the seat of a
Hindu kingdom of the Konkan, in the 11th century. In Polo's time Thána
seems to have been still under a Hindu prince, but it soon afterwards
became subject to the Delhi sovereigns; and when visited by Jordanus and
by Odoric some thirty years after Polo's voyage, a Mussulman governor was
ruling there, who put to death four Franciscans, the companions of
Jordanus. Barbosa gives it the compound name of TANA-MAIAMBU, the latter
part being the first indication I know of the name of Bombay (_Mambai_).
It was still a place of many mosques, temples, and gardens, but the trade
was small. Pirates still did business from the port, but on a reduced
scale. Botero says that there were the remains of an immense city to be
seen, and that the town still contained 5000 velvet-weavers (p. 104). Till
the Mahrattas took Salsette in 1737, the Portuguese had many fine villas
about Thána.

Polo's dislocation of geographical order here has misled Fra Mauro into
placing Tana to the west of Guzerat, though he has a duplicate Tana nearer
the correct position.

NOTE 2.--It has often been erroneously supposed that the frankincense
(_olibanum_) of commerce, for which Bombay and the ports which preceded it
in Western India have for centuries afforded the chief mart, was an Indian
product. But Marco is not making that mistake; he calls the incense of
Western India _brown_, evidently in contrast with the _white_ incense or
olibanum, which he afterwards assigns to its true locality (infra. ch.
xxxvii., xxxviii.). Nor is Marsden justified in assuming that the brown
incense of Tana must needs have been _Benzoin_ imported from Sumatra,
though I observe Dr. Birdwood considers that the term _Indian
Frankincense_ which occurs in Dioscorides must have _included_ Benzoin.
Dioscorides describes the so-called Indian Frankincense as _blackish_; and
Garcia supposes the name merely to refer to the colour, as he says the
Arabs often gave the name of Indian to things of a dark colour.

There seems to be no proof that Benzoin was known even to the older Arab
writers. Western India supplies a variety of aromatic gum-resins, one of
which was probably intended by our traveller:

I. BOSWELLIA THURIFERA of Colebrooke, whose description led to a general
belief that this tree produced the Frankincense of commerce. The tree is
found in Oudh and Rohilkhand, in Bahár, Central India, Khandesh, and
Kattiawár, etc. The gum-resin is used and sold locally as an incense, but
is soft and sticky, and is _not_ the olibanum of commerce; nor is it
collected for exportation.

The Coromandel _Boswellia glabra_ of Roxburgh is now included (see Dr.
Birdwood's Monograph) as a variety under the _B. thurifera_. Its gum-resin
is a good deal used as incense, in the Tamul regions, under the name of
_Kundrikam_, with which is apparently connected _Kundur_, one of the
Arabic words for _olibanum_ (see ch. xxxviii., note 2).

II. _Vateria Indica_ (Roxb.), producing a gum-resin which when recent is
known as _Piney Varnish_, and when hardened, is sold for export under the
names of _Indian Copal_, _White Dammar_, and others. Its northern limit of
growth is North but the gum is exported from Bombay. The tree is the
_Chloroxylon Dupada_ of Buchanan, and is, I imagine, the _Dupu_ or Incense
Tree of Rheede. (_Hort. Malab._ IV.) The tree is a fine one, and forms
beautiful avenues in Malabar and Canara. The Hindus use the resin as an
incense, and in Malabar it is also made into candles which burn fragrantly
and with little smoke. It is, or was, also used as pitch, and is probably
the _thus_ with which Indian vessels, according to Joseph of Cranganore
(in _Novus Orbis_), were payed. Garcia took it for the ancient _Cancamum_,
but this Dr. Birdwood identifies with the next, viz.:--

III. _Gardenia lucida_ (Roxb.). It grows in the Konkan districts,
producing a fragrant resin called _Dikamáli_ in India, and by the Arabs
_Kankham_.

IV. _Balsamodendron Mukul_, growing in Sind, Kattiawár and the Deesa
District, and producing the Indian _Bdellium, Mukl_ of the Arabs and
Persians, used as an incense and as a cordial medicine. It is believed to
be the [Greek: Bdélla] mentioned in the _Periplus_ as exported from the
Indus, and also as brought down with _Costus_ through _Ozene_ (Ujjain) to
_Barygaza_ (Baroch--see Müller's _Geog. Graec. Minor._ I. 287, 293). It is
mentioned also (_Mukl_) by Albiruni as a special product of Kachh, and is
probably the incense of that region alluded to by Hiuen Tsang. (See last
chapter, note 3.) It is of a yellow, red, or brownish colour. (_Eng. Cyc._
art. _Bdellium_; _Dowson's Elliot_, I. 66; _Reinaud_ in _J. As._ sér. IV.
tom. iv. p. 263).

V. _Canarium strictum_ (Roxb.), of the Western Ghats, affording the _Black
Dammar_ of Malabar, which when fresh is aromatic and yellow in colour. It
abounds in the country adjoining Tana. The natives use it as incense, and
call the tree _Dhúp_ (incense) and _Gugul_ (Bdellum).

Besides these resinous substances, the _Costus_ of the Ancients may be
mentioned (Sansk. _Kushth_), being still exported from Western India, as
well as from Calcutta, to China, under the name of _Putchok_, to be burnt
as incense in Chinese temples. Its identity has been ascertained in our
own day by Drs. Royle and Falconer, as the root of a plant which they
called _Aucklandia Costus_. But the identity of the _Pucho_ (which he
gives as the Malay name) with Costus was known to Garcia. Alex. Hamilton,
at the beginning of last century, calls it _Ligna Dulcis (sic)_, and
speaks of it as an export from Sind, as did the author of the _Periplus_
1600 years earlier.

My own impression is that _Mukl_ or _Bdellium_ was the brown incense of
Polo, especially because we see from Albiruni that this was regarded as a
staple export from neighbouring regions. But Dr. Birdwood considers that
the Black Dammar of _Canarium strictum_ is in question. (_Report on Indian
Gum-Resins_, by _Mr. Dalzell_ of Bot. Gard. Bombay, 1866; _Birdwood's
Bombay Products_, 2nd ed. pp. 282, 287, etc.; _Drury's Useful Plants of
India_, 2nd ed.; _Garcia; A. Hamilton_, I. 127; _Eng. Cyc._, art.
_Putchuk; Buchanan's Journey_, II. 44, 335, etc.)



CHAPTER XXVIII.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF CAMBAET.


Cambaet is a great kingdom lying further west. The people are Idolaters,
and have a language of their own, and a king of their own, and are
tributary to nobody.[NOTE 1]

The North Star is here still more clearly visible; and henceforward the
further you go west the higher you see it.

There is a great deal of trade in this country. It produces indigo in
great abundance; and they also make much fine buckram. There is also a
quantity of cotton which is exported hence to many quarters; and there is
a great trade in hides, which are very well dressed; with many other kinds
of merchandize too tedious to mention. Merchants come here with many ships
and cargoes, but what they chiefly bring is gold, silver, copper [and
tutia].

There are no pirates from this country; the inhabitants are good people,
and live by their trade and manufactures.


NOTE 1.--CAMBAET is nearer the genuine name of the city than our CAMBAY.
Its proper Hindu name was, according to Colonel Tod, _Khambavati_, "the
City of the Pillar." The inhabitants write it _Kambáyat_. The ancient city
is 3 miles from the existing Cambay, and is now overgrown with jungle. It
is spoken of as a flourishing place by Mas'udi, who visited it in A.D.
915. Ibn Batuta speaks of it also as a very fine city, remarkable for the
elegance and solidity of its mosques, and houses built by wealthy foreign
merchants. _Cambeth_ is mentioned by Polo's contemporary Marino Sanudo, as
one of the two chief Ocean Ports of India; and in the 15th century Conti
calls it 14 miles in circuit. It was still in high prosperity in the early
part of the 16th century, abounding in commerce and luxury, and one of the
greatest Indian marts. Its trade continued considerable in the time of
Federici, towards the end of that century; but it has now long
disappeared, the local part of it being transferred to Gogo and other
ports having deeper water. Its chief or sole industry now is in the
preparation of ornamental objects from agates, cornelians, and the like.

The Indigo of Cambay was long a staple export, and is mentioned by Conti,
Nikitin, Santo Stefano, Federici, Linschoten, and Abu'l Fazl.

The independence of Cambay ceased a few years after Polo's visit; for it
was taken in the end of the century by the armies of Aláuddín Khilji of
Delhi, a king whose name survived in Guzerat down to our own day as
_Aláuddín Khúní_--Bloody Aláuddín. (_Rás Málá_, I. 235.)



CHAPTER XXIX.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF SEMENAT.


Semenat is a great kingdom towards the west. The people are Idolaters, and
have a king and a language of their own, and pay tribute to nobody. They
are not corsairs, but live by trade and industry as honest people ought.
It is a place of very great trade. They are forsooth cruel Idolaters.
[NOTE 1]

[Illustration: 'The Gates of Somnath,' preserved in the British Arsenal at
Agra, from a photograph (converted into elevation)]


NOTE 1.--SOMNATH is the site of the celebrated Temple on the coast of
Sauráshtra, or Peninsular Guzerat, plundered by Mahmúd of Ghazni on his
sixteenth expedition to India (A.D. 1023). The term "great kingdom" is
part of Polo's formula. But the place was at this time of some importance
as a commercial port, and much visited by the ships of Aden, as Abulfeda
tells us. At an earlier date Albiruni speaks of it both as the seat of a
great Mahadeo much frequented by Hindu pilgrims, and as a port of call for
vessels on their way from Sofala in Africa to China,--a remarkable
incidental notice of departed trade and civilisation! He does not give
Somnath so good a character as Polo does; for he names it as one of the
chief pirate-haunts. And Colonel Tod mentions that the sculptured memorial
stones on this coast frequently exhibit the deceased as a pirate in the
act of boarding. In fact, piratical habits continued in the islands off
the coast of Kattiawár down to our own day.

Properly speaking, three separate things are lumped together as Somnáth:
(1) The Port, properly called Veráwal, on a beautiful little bay; (2) the
City of Deva-Pattan, Somnáth-Pattan, or Prabhás, occupying a prominence on
the south side of the bay, having a massive wall and towers, and many
traces of ancient Hindu workmanship, though the vast multitude of tombs
around shows the existence of a large Mussulman population at some time;
and among these are dates nearly as old as our Traveller's visit; (3) The
famous Temple (or, strictly speaking, the object of worship in that
Temple) crowning a projecting rock at the south-west angle of the city,
and close to the walls. Portions of columns and sculptured fragments strew
the soil around.

Notwithstanding the famous story of Mahmúd and the image stuffed with
jewels, there is little doubt that the idol really termed Somnáth (Moon's
Lord) was nothing but a huge columnar emblem of Mahadeo. Hindu authorities
mention it as one of the twelve most famous emblems of that kind over
India, and Ibn Ásir's account, the oldest extant narrative of Mahmúd's
expedition, is to the same effect. Every day it was washed with water
newly brought from the Ganges. Mahmúd broke it to pieces, and with a
fragment a step was made at the entrance of the Jámi' Mosque at Ghazni.

The temples and idols of Pattan underwent a second visitation at the hands
of Aláuddin's forces a few years after Polo's visit (1300),[1] and this
seems in great measure to have wiped out the memory of Mahmúd. The temple,
as it now stands deserted, bears evident tokens of having been converted
into a mosque. A good deal of old and remarkable architecture remains, but
mixed with Moslem work, and no part of the building as it stands is
believed to be a survival from the time of Mahmúd; though part may belong
to a reconstruction which was carried out by Raja Bhima Deva of Anhilwara
about twenty-five years after Mahmúd's invasion. It is remarkable that Ibn
Ásir speaks of the temple plundered by Mahmúd as "built upon 56 pillars of
teak-wood covered with lead." Is it possible that it was a wooden
building?

In connection with this brief chapter on Somnáth we present a faithful
representation of those Gates which Lord Ellenborough rendered so
celebrated in connection with that name, when he caused them to be removed
from the Tomb of Mahmúd, on the retirement of our troops from Kabul in
1842. His intention, as announced in that once famous _paean_ of his, was
to have them carried solemnly to Guzerat, and there restored to the (long
desecrated) temple. Calmer reflection prevailed, and the Gates were
consigned to the Fort of Agra, where they still remain.

Captain J.D. Cunningham, in his _Hist. of the Sikhs_ (p. 209), says that
in 1831, when Sháh Shúja treated with Ranjít Singh for aid to recover his
throne, one of the Mahárája's conditions was the restoration of the Gates
to Somnáth. This probably put the scheme into Lord Ellenborough's head.
But a remarkable fact is, that the Sháh reminded Ranjít of _a prophecy
that foreboded the downfall of the Sikh Empire on the removal of the
Ghazni Gates_. This is quoted from a report of Captain Wade's, dated 21st
November, 1831. The gates were removed to India in the end of 1842. The
"Sikh Empire" practically collapsed with the murder of Sher Singh in
September, 1843.

It is not probable that there was any _real_ connection between these
Gates, of Saracenic design, carved (it is said) in Himalayan cedar, and
the Temple of Somnáth. But tradition did ascribe to them such a
connection, and the eccentric prank of a clever man in high place made
this widely known. Nor in any case can we regard as alien to the scope of
this book the illustration of a work of mediaeval Asiatic art, which is
quite as remarkable for its own character and indisputable history, as for
the questionable origin ascribed to it. (_Tod's Travels_, 385, 504;
_Burgess, Visit to Somnath_, etc.; _Jacob's Report on Kattywar_, p. 18;
_Gildemeister_, 185; _Dowson's Elliot_, II. 468 seqq.; _Asiatic
Journal_, 3rd series, vol. I.).


[1] So in _Elliot_, II. 74. But Jacob says there is an inscription of
    a Mussulman Governor in Pattan of 1297.



CHAPTER XXX.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF KESMACORAN.


Kesmacoran is a kingdom having a king of its own and a peculiar language.
[Some of] the people are Idolaters, [but the most part are Saracens]. They
live by merchandize and industry, for they are professed traders, and
carry on much traffic by sea and land in all directions. Their food is
rice [and corn], flesh and milk, of which they have great store. There is
no more to be said about them.[NOTE 1]

And you must know that this kingdom of Kesmacoran is the last in India as
you go towards the west and north-west. You see, from Maabar on, this
province is what is called the GREATER INDIA, and it is the best of all
the Indies. I have now detailed to you all the kingdoms and provinces and
(chief) cities of this India the Greater, that are upon the seaboard; but
of those that lie in the interior I have said nothing, because that would
make too long a story.[NOTE 2]

And so now let us proceed, and I will tell you of some of the Indian
Islands. And I will begin by two Islands which are called Male and Female.


NOTE 1.--Though M. Pauthier has imagined objections there is no room for
doubt that _Kesmacoran_ is the province of Mekran, known habitually all
over the East as Kij-Makrán, from the combination with the name of the
country of that of its chief town, just as we lately met with a converse
combination in _Konkan-tana_. This was pointed out to Marsden by his
illustrious friend Major Rennell. We find the term _Kij Makrán_ used by
Ibn Batuta (III. 47); by the Turkish Admiral Sidi 'Ali (_J. As._, sér. I.
tom. ix. 72; and _J.A.S.B._ V. 463); by Sharifuddin (_P. de la Croix_,
I. 379, II. 417-418); in the famous Sindian Romeo-and-Juliet tale of Sassi
and Pannún (_Elliot_, I. 333); by Pietro della Valle (I. 724, II. 358); by
Sir F. Goldsmid (_J.R.A.S._, N.S., I. 38); and see for other examples,
_J.A.S.B._ VII. 298, 305, 308; VIII. 764; XIV. 158; XVII. pt. ii. 559:
XX. 262, 263.

The argument that Mekrán was not a province of India only amounts to
saying that Polo has made a mistake. But the fact is that it often _was_
reckoned to belong to India, from ancient down to comparatively modern
times. Pliny says: "Many indeed do not reckon the Indus to be the western
boundary of India, but include in that term also four satrapies on this
side the river, the Gedrosi, the Arachoti, the Arii, and the Parapomisadae
(i.e. Mekran, Kandahar, Herat, and Kabul) .... whilst others class all
these together under the name of Ariana" (VI. 23). Arachosia, according to
Isidore of Charax, was termed by the Parthians "White India." Aelian calls
Gedrosia a part of India. (_Hist. Animal._ XVII. 6.) In the 6th century
the Nestorian Patriarch Jesujabus, as we have seen (supra, ch. xxii.
note 1), considered all to be India from the coast of Persia, i.e. of
Fars, beginning from near the Gulf. According to Ibn Khordâdbeh, the
boundary between Persia and India was seven days' sail from Hormuz and
eight from Daibul, or less than half-way from the mouth of the Gulf to the
Indus. (_J. As._ sér. VI. tom. v. 283.) Beladhori speaks of the Arabs in
early expeditions as invading Indian territory about the Lake of Sijistan;
and Istakhri represents this latter country as bounded on the north and
_partly on the west_ by portions of India. Kabul was still reckoned in
India. Chach, the last Hindu king of Sind but one, is related to have
marched through Mekrán to a river which formed the limit between Mekrán
and Kermán. On its banks he planted date-trees, and set up a monument
which bore: _"This was the boundary of_ Hind in the time of Chach, the son
of Sfláij, the son of Basábas." In the Geography of Bakui we find it
stated that "Hind is a great country which begins at the province of
Mekrán." (_N. and E._ II. 54.) In the map of Marino Sanuto India begins
from Hormuz; and it is plain from what Polo says in quitting that city
that he considered the next step from it south-eastward would have taken
him to India (supra, I. p. 110).

["The name Mekran has been commonly, but erroneously, derived from Mahi
Khoran, i.e. the fish-eaters, or _ichthyophagi_, which was the title
given to the inhabitants of the Beluchi coast-fringe by Arrian. But the
word is a Dravidian name, and appears as Makara in the _Brhat Sanhita_ of
Varaha Mihira in a list of the tribes contiguous to India on the west. It
is also the [Greek: Makaraénae] of Stephen of Byzantium, and the Makuran
of Tabari, and Moses of Chorene. Even were it not a Dravidian name, in no
old Aryan dialect could it signify fish-eaters." (_Curzon, Persia_, II. p.
261, note.)

"It is to be noted that Kesmacoran is a combination of Kech or Kej and
Makrán, and the term is even to-day occasionally used." (_Major P.M.
Sykes, Persia_, p. 102.)--H.C.]

We may add a Romance definition of India from _King Alisaunder_:--

  "Lordynges, also I fynde,
  _At Mede so bigynneth Ynde_:
  Forsothe ich woot, it stretcheth ferest
  Of alle the Londes in the Est,
  And oth the South half sikerlyk,
  To the cee taketh of Affryk;
  And the north half to a Mountayne,
  That is yclepèd Caucasayne."--L 4824-4831.

It is probable that Polo merely coasted Mekrán; he seems to know nothing
of the Indus, and what he says of Mekrán is vague.

NOTE 2.--As Marco now winds up his detail of the Indian coast, it is
proper to try to throw some light on his partial derangement of its
geography. In the following columns the first shows the _real_
geographical order from east to west of the Indian provinces as named by
Polo, and the second shows the order as _he_ puts them. The Italic names
are brief and general identifications.

                  _Real order_.               _Polo's order_.
              1. Mutfili (_Telingana_)        1. Mutfili
MAABAR,    /  2. St. Thomas's (_Madras_).     2. St. Thomas's
including  |  3. Maabar Proper, Kingdom of       (Lar, west of do.).
           |     Sonder Bandi (_Tanjore_)     3. Maabar proper, or Soli.
           \  4. Cail (_Tinnevelly_).         4. Cail.
              5. Comari (_C. Comorin_).       5. Coilum.
MELIBAR,   /  6. Coilum (_Travancore_).       6. Comari.
including  \  7. Eli (_Cananore_).            7. Eli.
GUZERAT,   /  8. Tana (_Bombay_).             8. (MELIBAR).
or LAR,    |  9. Canbaet (_Cambay_).          9. (GOZURAT).
including  | 10. Semenat (_Somnath_).        10. Tana.
           \ 11. Kesmacoran (_Mekran_).      11. Canbaet.
                                             12. Semenat.
                                             13. Kesmacoran.

It is difficult to suppose that the fleet carrying the bride of Arghun
went out of its way to Maabar, St. Thomas's, and Telingana. And on the
other hand, what is said in chapter xxiii. on Comari, about the North Star
not having been visible since they approached the Lesser Java, would have
been grossly inaccurate if in the interval the travellers had been north
as far as Madras and Motupalle. That passage suggests to me strongly that
Comari was the first Indian land made by the fleet on arriving from the
Archipelago (exclusive _perhaps_ of Ceylon). Note then that the position
of Eli is marked by its distance of 300 miles from Comari, evidently
indicating that this was a run made by the traveller _on some occasion_
without an intermediate stoppage. Tana, Cambay, Somnath, would follow
naturally as points of call.

In Polo's order, again, the positions of Comari and Coilum are transposed,
whilst Melibar is introduced as if it were a country _westward_ (as Polo
views it, northward we should say)[1] of Coilum and Eli, instead of
including them, and Gozurat is introduced as a country lying _eastward_
(or southward, as we should say) of Tana, Cambaet, and Semenat, instead of
including them, or at least the two latter. Moreover, he names no cities
in connection with those two countries.

The following hypothesis, really not a complex one, is the most probable
that I can suggest to account for these confusions.

I conceive, then, that Cape Comorin (Comari) was the first Indian land
made by the fleet on the homeward voyage, and that Hili, Tana, Cambay,
Somnath, were touched at successively as it proceeded towards Persia.

I conceive that in a former voyage to India on the Great Kaan's business
Marco had visited Maabar and Kaulam, and gained partly from actual visits
and partly from information the substance of the notices he gives us of
Telingana and St Thomas's on the one side and of Malabar and Guzerat on
the other, and that in combining into one series the results of the
information acquired on two different voyages he failed rightly to
co-ordinate the material, and thus those dislocations which we have noticed
occurred, as they very easily might, in days when maps had practically no
existence; to say nothing of the accidents of dictation.

The expression in this passage for "the cities that lie in the interior,"
is in the G.T. "_celz qe sunt_ en fra terres"; see I. 43. Pauthier's text
has "_celles qui sont_ en ferme terre," which is nonsense here.


[1] Abulfeda's orientation is the same as Polo's.



CHAPTER XXXI.

DISCOURSETH OF THE TWO ISLANDS CALLED MALE AND FEMALE, AND WHY THEY ARE SO
CALLED.


When you leave this kingdom of Kesmacoran, which is on the mainland, you
go by sea some 500 miles towards the south; and then you find the two
Islands, MALE and FEMALE, lying about 30 miles distant from one another.
The people are all baptized Christians, but maintain the ordinances of the
Old Testament; thus when their wives are with child they never go near
them till their confinement, or for forty days thereafter.

In the Island however which is called Male, dwell the men alone, without
their wives or any other women. Every year when the month of March arrives
the men all set out for the other Island, and tarry there for three
months, to wit, March, April, May, dwelling with their wives for that
space. At the end of those three months they return to their own Island,
and pursue their husbandry and trade for the other nine months.

They find on this Island very fine ambergris. They live on flesh and milk
and rice. They are capital fishermen, and catch a great quantity of fine
large sea-fish, and these they dry, so that all the year they have plenty
of food, and also enough to sell to the traders who go thither. They have
no chief except a bishop, who is subject to the archbishop of another
Island, of which we shall presently speak, called SCOTRA. They have also a
peculiar language.

As for the children which their wives bear to them, if they be girls they
abide with their mothers; but if they be boys the mothers bring them up
till they are fourteen, and then send them to the fathers. Such is the
custom of these two Islands. The wives do nothing but nurse their children
and gather such fruits as their Island produces; for their husbands do
furnish them with all necessaries.[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--It is not perhaps of much use to seek a serious identification of
the locality of these Islands, or, as Marsden has done, to rationalise the
fable. It ran from time immemorial, and as nobody ever found the Islands,
their locality shifted with the horizon, though the legend long hung about
Socotra and its vicinity. Coronelli's Atlas (Venice, 1696) identifies
these islands with those called Abdul Kuri near Cape Gardafui, and the
same notion finds favour with Marsden. No islands indeed exist in the
position indicated by Polo if we look to his direction "south of
Kesmacoran," but if we take his indication of "half-way between Mekrán and
Socotra," the Kuria Muria Islands on the Arabian coast, in which M.
Pauthier longs to trace these veritable Male and Female Isles, will be
nearer than any others. Marco's statement that they had a bishop subject
to the metropolitan of Socotra certainly looks as if certain concrete
islands had been associated with the tale. Friar Jordanus (p. 44) also
places them between India the Greater and India Tertia (i.e. with him
Eastern Africa). Conti locates them not more than 5 miles from Socotra,
and yet 100 mile distant from one another. "Sometimes the men pass over to
the women, and sometimes the women pass over to the men, and each return
to their own respective island before the expiration of six months. Those
who remain on the island of the others beyond this fatal period die
immediately" (p. 21). Fra Mauro places the islands to the south of
Zanzibar, and gives them the names of _Mangla_ and _Nebila_. One is
curious to know whence came these names, one of which seems to be
Sanskrit, the other (also in Sanudo's map) Arabic; (_Nabílah_, Ar.,
"Beautiful"; _Mangala_, Sansk. "Fortunate").

A savour of the story survived to the time of the Portuguese discoveries,
and it had by that time attached itself to Socotra. (_De Barros_, Dec. II.
Liv. i. cap. 3; _Bartoli, H. della Comp. di Gesù_, Asia, I. p. 37; _P.
Vincenzo_, p. 443.)

The story was, I imagine, a mere ramification of the ancient and
wide-spread fable of the Amazons, and is substantially the same that
Palladius tells of the Brahmans; how the men lived on one side of the
Ganges and the women on the other. The husbands visited their wives for 40
days only in June, July, and August, "those being their cold months, as the
sun was then to the north." And when a wife had once borne a child the
husband returned no more. (_Müller's Ps. Callisth._ 105.) The Mahábhárata
celebrates the Amazon country of Ráná Paramitá, where the regulations were
much as in Polo's islands, only male children were put to death, and men if
they overstayed a month. (_Wheelers India_, I. 400.)

Hiuen Tsang's version of the legend agrees with Marco's in placing the
Woman's Island to the south of Persia. It was called the _Kingdom of
Western Women_. There were none but women to be seen. It was under _Folin_
(the Byzantine Empire), and the ruler thereof sent husbands every year; if
boys were born, the law prohibited their being brought up. (_Vie et
Voyages_, p. 268.) Alexander, in Ferdúsi's poem, visits the City of Women
on an island in the sea, where no man was allowed.

The Chinese accounts, dating from the 5th century, of a remote Eastern
Land called Fusang, which Neumann fancied to have been Mexico, mention
that to the east of that region again there was a Woman's Island, with the
usual particulars. (_Lassen_, IV. 751.) [Cf. _G. Schlegel, Niu Kouo,
T'oung Pao_, III. pp. 495-510.--H.C.] Oddly enough, Columbus heard the
same story of an island called Matityna or Matinino (apparently
Martinique) which he sighted on his second voyage. The Indians on board
"asserted that it had no inhabitants but women, who at a certain time of
the year were visited by the Cannibals (Caribs); if the children born were
boys they were brought up and sent to their fathers, if girls they were
retained by the mothers. They reported also that these women had certain
subterranean caverns in which they took refuge if any one went thither
except at the established season," etc. (_P. Martyr_ in _Ramusio_, III. 3
v. and see 85.) Similar Amazons are placed by Adam of Bremen on the Baltic
Shores, a story there supposed to have originated in a confusion between
Gwenland, i.e. Finland, and a land of _Cwens_ or Women.

Mendoza heard of the like in the vicinity of Japan (perhaps the real
Fusang story), though he opines judiciously that "this is very doubtful
to be beleeved, although I have bin certified by religious men that have
talked with persons that within these two yeares have beene at the saide
ilands, and have seene the saide women." (_H. of China_, II. 301.) Lane
quotes a like tale about a horde of Cossacks whose wives were said to live
apart on certain islands in the Dnieper. (_Arab. Nights_, 1859, III. 479.)
The same story is related by a missionary in the _Lettres Édifiantes_ of
certain unknown islands supposed to lie south of the Marian group.
Pauthier, from whom I derive this last instance, draws the conclusion: "On
voit que le récit de Marc Pol est loin d'être imaginaire." Mine from the
premises would be different!

Sometimes the fable took another form; in which the women are entirely
isolated, as in that which Mela quotes from Hanno (III. 9). So with the
Isle of Women which Kazwini and Bakui place to the South of China. They
became enceinte by the Wind, or by eating a particular fruit [or by
plunging into the sea; cf. _Schlegel_, l.c.--H.C.], or, as in a Chinese
tradition related by Magaillans, by looking at their own faces in a well!
The like fable is localised by the Malays in the island of Engano off
Sumatra, and was related to Pigafetta of an island under Great Java called
Ocoloro, perhaps the same.

(_Magail._ 76; _Gildem._ 196; _N. et Ex._ II. 398; _Pigafetta_, 173;
_Marsden's Sumatra_, 1st ed. p. 264.)



CHAPTER XXXII.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF SCOTRA.


When you leave those two Islands and go about 500 miles further towards
the south, then you come to an Island called SCOTRA. The people are all
baptized Christians; and they have an Archbishop. They have a great deal
of ambergris; and plenty also of cotton stuffs and other merchandize;
especially great quantities of salt fish of a large and excellent kind.
They also eat flesh and milk and rice, for that is their only kind of
corn; and they all go naked like the other Indians.

[The ambergris comes from the stomach of the whale, and as it is a great
object of trade, the people contrive to take the whales with barbed iron
darts, which, once they are fixed in the body, cannot come out again. A
long cord is attached to this end, to that a small buoy which floats on
the surface, so that when the whale dies they know where to find it. They
then draw the body ashore and extract the ambergris from the stomach and
the oil from the head.[NOTE 1]]

There is a great deal of trade there, for many ships come from all
quarters with goods to sell to the natives. The merchants also purchase
gold there, by which they make a great profit; and all the vessels bound
for Aden touch at this Island.

Their Archbishop has nothing to do with the Pope of Rome, but is subject
to the great Archbishop who lives at Baudas. He rules over the Bishop of
that Island, and over many other Bishops in those regions of the world,
just as our Pope does in these.[NOTE 2]

A multitude of corsairs frequent the Island; they come there and encamp
and put up their plunder to sale; and this they do to good profit, for the
Christians of the Island purchase it, knowing well that it is Saracen or
Pagan gear.[NOTE 3]

And you must know that in this Island there are the best enchanters in the
world. It is true that their Archbishop forbids the practice to the best
of his ability; but 'tis all to no purpose, for they insist that their
forefathers followed it, and so must they also. I will give you a sample
of their enchantments. Thus, if a ship be sailing past with a fair wind
and a strong, they will raise a contrary wind and compel her to turn back.
In fact they make the wind blow as they list, and produce great tempests
and disasters; and other such sorceries they perform, which it will be
better to say nothing about in our Book.[NOTE 4]


NOTE 1.--Mr. Blyth appears to consider that the only whale met with
nowadays in the Indian Sea _north of the line_ is a great Rorqual or
_Balaenoptera_, to which he gives the specific name of _Indica_. (See
_J.A.S.B._ XXVIII. 481.) The text, however (from Ramusio), clearly points
to the Spermaceti whale; and Maury's Whale-Chart consists with this.

"The best ambergris," says Mas'udi, "is found on the islands and coasts of
the Sea of Zinj (Eastern Africa); it is round, of a pale blue, and
sometimes as big as an ostrich egg.... These are morsels which have been
swallowed by the fish called _Awál_. When the sea is much agitated it
casts up fragments of amber almost like lumps of rock, and the fish
swallowing these is choked thereby, and floats on the surface. The men of
Zinj, or wherever it be, then come in their canoes, and fall on the
creature with harpoons and cables, draw it ashore, cut it up, and extract
the ambergris" (I. 134).

Kazwini speaks of whales as often imprisoned by the ebb tide in the
channels about Basra. The people harpooned them, and got much oil _out of
the brain_, which they used for lamps, and smearing their ships. This also
is clearly the sperm whale. (_Ethé_, p. 268.)

After having been long doubted, scientific opinion seems to have come back
to the opinion that ambergris is an excretion from the whale. "Ambergris
is a morbid secretion in the intestines of the cachalot, deriving its
origin either from the stomach or biliary ducts, and allied in its nature
to gall-stones, ... whilst the masses found floating on the sea are those
that have been voided by the whale, or liberated from the dead animal by
the process of putrefaction." (_Bennett, Whaling Voyage Round the Globe_,
1840, II. 326.)

["The _Pen ts'ao_, ch. xliii. fol. 5, mentions ambergris under the name
_lung sien hiang_ (dragon's saliva perfume), and describes it as a
sweet-scented product, which is obtained from the south-western sea. It is
greasy, and at first yellowish white; when dry, it forms pieces of a
yellowish black colour. In spring whole herds of dragons swim in that sea,
and vomit it out. Others say that it is found in the belly of a large fish.
This description also doubtless points to ambergris, which in reality is a
pathological secretion of the intestines of the spermaceti whale (_Physeter
macrocephalus_), a large cetaceous animal. The best ambergris is collected
on the Arabian coast. In the _Ming shi_ (ch. cccxxvi.) _lung sien hiang_ is
mentioned as a product of _Bu-la-wa_ (_Brava_ on the east coast of Africa),
and _an-ba-rh_ (evidently also ambergris) amongst the products of
_Dsu-fa-rh_ (_Dsahfar_, on the south coast of Arabia)." (_Bretschneider,
Med. Res._ I. p. 152, note.)--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--_Scotra_ probably represented the usual pronunciation of the name
SOCOTRA, which has been hypothetically traced to a Sanskrit original,
_Dvípa-Sukhádhára_, "the Island Abode of Bliss," from which (contracted
_Diuskadra_) the Greeks made "the island of _Dioscorides_."

So much painful interest attaches to the history of a people once
Christian, but now degenerated almost to savagery, that some detail maybe
permitted on this subject.

The _Periplus_ calls the island very large, but desolate; ... the
inhabitants were few, and dwelt on the north side. They were of foreign
origin, being a mixture of Arabs, Indians, and Greeks, who had come
thither in search of gain.... The island was under the king of the Incense
Country.... Traders came from _Muza_ (near Mocha) and sometimes from
_Limyrica_ and _Barygaza_ (Malabar and Guzerat), bringing rice, wheat, and
Indian muslins, with female slaves, which had a ready sale. Cosmas (6th
century) says there was in the island a bishop, appointed from Persia. The
inhabitants spoke Greek, having been originally settled there by the
Ptolemies. "There are clergy there also, ordained and sent from Persia to
minister among the people of the island, and a multitude of Christians. We
sailed past the island, but did not land. I met, however, with people from
it who were on their way to Ethiopia, and they spoke Greek."

The ecclesiastical historian Nicephorus Callistus seems to allude to the
people of Socotra, when he says that among the nations visited by the
missionary Theophilus, in the time of Constantius, were "the Assyrians on
the verge of the outer ocean towards the East ... whom Alexander the
Great, after driving them from Syria, sent thither to settle, and to this
day they keep their mother tongue, though all of the blackest, through the
power of the sun's rays." The Arab voyagers of the 9th century say that
the island was colonised with Greeks by Alexander the Great, in order to
promote the culture of the Socotrine aloes; when the other Greeks adopted
Christianity these did likewise, and they had continued to retain their
profession of it. The colonising by Alexander is probably a fable, but
invented to account for facts.

[Edrisi says (_Jaubert's transl._ pp. 47, seqq.) that the chief produce
of Socotra is aloes, and that most of the inhabitants of this island are
Christians; for this reason: when Alexander had subjugated Porus, his
master Aristotle gave him the advice to seek after the island producing
aloes; after his conquest of India, Alexander remembered the advice, and
on his return journey from the Sea of India to the Sea of Oman, he stopped
at Socotra, which he greatly admired for its fertility and the
pleasantness of its climate. Acting on the advice of Aristotle, Alexander
removed the inhabitants from their island, and established in their place
a colony of Ionians, to whom he entrusted the care of cultivating aloes.
These Greeks were converted when the Christian religion was preached to
them, and their descendants have remained Christians.--H.C.]

In the list of the metropolitan Sees of the Nestorian Church we find one
called _Kotrobah_, which is supposed to stand for Socotra. According to
Edrisi, Kotrobah was an island inhabited by Christians; he speaks of
Socotra separately, but no island suits his description of Kotrobah but
Socotra itself; and I suspect that we have here geography in duplicate, no
uncommon circumstance. There is an epistle extant from the Nestorian
Patriarch Jesujabus (A.D. 650-660), _ad Episcopos Catarensium_, which
Assemani interprets of the Christians in Socotra and the adjacent coasts
of Arabia (III. 133).[1] Abulfeda says the people of Socotra were
Nestorian Christians and pirates. Nicolo Conti, in the first half of the
15th century, spent two months on the island (_Sechutera_). He says it was
for the most part inhabited by Nestorian Christians.

[Professor W.R. Smith, in a letter to Sir H. Yule, dated Cambridge, 15th
June, 1886, writes: "The authorities for Kotrobah seem to be (1) Edrisi,
(2) the list of Nestorian Bishops in Assemani. There is no trace of such a
name anywhere else that I can find. But there is a place called Katar
about which most of the Arab Geographers know very little, but which is
mentioned in poetry. Bekri, who seems best informed, says that it lay
between Bahrain and Oman.... Istakhri and Ibn Haukal speak of the Katar
pirates. Their collective name is the Kataríya."]

Some indications point rather to a connection of the island's Christianity
with the Jacobite or Abyssinian Church. Thus they practised circumcision,
as mentioned by Maffei in noticing the proceedings of Alboquerque at
Socotra. De Barros calls them Jacobite Christians of the Abyssinian stock.
Barbosa speaks of them as an olive-coloured people, Christian only in
name, having neither baptism nor Christian knowledge, and having for many
years lost all acquaintance with the Gospel. Andrea Corsali calls them
Christian shepherds of Ethiopian race, like Abyssinians. They lived on
dates, milk, and butter; some rice was imported. They had churches like
mosques, but with altars in Christian fashion.

When Francis Xavier visited the island there were still distinct traces of
the Church. The people reverenced the cross, placing it on their altars,
and hanging it round their necks. Every village had its minister, whom
they called _Kashís_ (_Ar._ for a Christian Presbyter), to whom they paid
tithe. No man could read. The Kashís repeated prayers antiphonetically in
a forgotten tongue, which De Barros calls Chaldee, frequently scattering
incense; a word like _Alleluia_ often recurred. For bells they used wooden
rattles. They assembled in their churches four times a day, and held St.
Thomas in great veneration. The Kashíses married, but were very
abstemious. They had two Lents, and then fasted strictly from meat, milk,
and fish.

The last vestiges of Christianity in Socotra, so far as we know, are those
traced by P. Vincenzo, the Carmelite, who visited the island after the
middle of the 17th century. The people still retained a profession of
Christianity, but without any knowledge, and with a strange jumble of
rites; sacrificing to the moon; circumcising; abominating wine and pork.
They had churches which they called _Moquame_ (_Ar. Makám_, "Locus,
Statio"?), dark, low, and dirty, daily anointed with butter. On the altar
was a cross and a candle. The cross was regarded with ignorant reverence,
and carried in processions. They assembled in their churches three times
in the day, and three times in the night, and in their worship burned much
incense, etc. The priests were called _Odambo_, elected and consecrated by
the people, and changed every year. Of baptism and other sacraments they
had no knowledge.

There were two races: one, black with crisp hair; the other, less black,
of better aspect, and with straight hair. Each family had a cave in which
they deposited their dead. They cultivated a few palms, and kept flocks;
had no money, no writing, and kept tale of their flocks by bags of stones.
They often committed suicide in age, sickness, or defeat. When rain failed
they selected a victim by lot, and placing him within a circle, addressed
prayers to the moon. If without success they cut off the poor wretch's
hands. They had many who practised sorcery. The women were all called
_Maria_, which the author regarded as a relic of Christianity; this De
Barros also notices a century earlier.

Now, not a trace of former Christianity can be discovered--unless it be in
the name of one of the villages on the coast, _Colesseeah_, which looks as
if it faintly commemorated both the ancient religion and the ancient
language ([Greek: ékklaesía]). The remains of one building, traditionally
a place of worship, were shown to Wellsted; he could find nothing to
connect it with Christianity.

The social state of the people is much as Father Vincenzo described it;
lower it could scarcely be. Mahomedanism is now the universal profession.
The people of the interior are still of distinct race, with curly hair,
Indian complexion, regular features. The coast people are a mongrel body,
of Arab and other descent. Probably in old times the case was similar, and
the civilisation and Greek may have been confined to the littoral
foreigners. (_Müller's Geog. Gr. Minores_, I. pp. 280-281; _Relations_, I.
139-140; _Cathay_, clxxi., ccxlv. 169; _Conti_, 20; _Maffei_, lib. III.;
_Büsching_, IV. 278; _Faria_, I. 117-118; _Ram._ I. f. 181 v. and 292;
_Jarric, Thes. Rer. Indic._ I. 108-109; _P. Vinc._ 132, 442; _J.R.G.S._
V. 129 seqq.)

NOTE 3.--As far back as the 10th century Socotra was a noted haunt of
pirates. Mas'udi says: "Socotra is one of the stations frequented by the
Indian corsairs called _Bawárij_, which chase the Arab ships bound for
India and China, just as the Greek galleys chase the Mussulmans in the sea
of Rúm along the coasts of Syria and Egypt" (III. 37). The _Bawárij_ were
corsairs of Kach'h and Guzerat, so called from using a kind of war-vessel
called _Bárja_. (_Elliot_, I. 65.) Ibn Batuta tells a story of a friend of
his, the Shaikh Sa'íd, superior of a convent at Mecca, who had been to
India and got large presents at the court of Delhi. With a comrade called
Hajji Washl, who was also carrying a large sum to buy horses, "when they
arrived at the island of Socotra ... they were attacked by Indian corsairs
with a great number of vessels.... The corsairs took everything out of the
ship, and then left it to the crew with its tackle, so that they were able
to reach Aden." Ibn Batuta's remark on this illustrates what Polo has said
of the Malabar pirates, in ch. xxv. supra: "The custom of these pirates
is not to kill or drown anybody when the actual fighting is over. They
take all the property of the passengers, and then let them go whither they
will with their vessel" (I. 362-363).

NOTE 4.--We have seen that P. Vincenzo alludes to the sorceries of the
people; and De Barros also speaks of the _feiticeria_ or witchcraft by
which the women drew ships to the island, and did other marvels (u.s.).


[1] [Assemani, in his corrections (III. p. 362), gives up _Socotra_
    in favour of _Bactria_.]



CHAPTER XXXIII.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF MADEIGASCAR.


Madeigascar is an Island towards the south, about a thousand miles from
Scotra. The people are all Saracens, adoring Mahommet. They have four
_Esheks_, i.e. four Elders, who are said to govern the whole
Island. And you must know that it is a most noble and beautiful Island,
and one of the greatest in the world, for it is about 4000 miles in
compass. The people live by trade and handicrafts.

In this Island, and in another beyond it called ZANGHIBAR, about which we
shall tell you afterwards, there are more elephants than in any country in
the world. The amount of traffic in elephants' teeth in these two Islands
is something astonishing.

In this Island they eat no flesh but that of camels; and of these they
kill an incredible number daily. They say it is the best and wholesomest
of all flesh; and so they eat of it all the year round.[NOTE 1]

They have in this Island many trees of red sanders, of excellent quality;
in fact, all their forests consist of it.[NOTE 2] They have also a
quantity of ambergris, for whales are abundant in that sea, and they catch
numbers of them; and so are _Oil-heads_, which are a huge kind of
fish, which also produce ambergris like the whale.[NOTE 3] There are
numbers of leopards, bears, and lions in the country, and other wild
beasts in abundance. Many traders, and many ships go thither with cloths
of gold and silk, and many other kinds of goods, and drive a profitable
trade.

You must know that this Island lies so far south that ships cannot go
further south or visit other Islands in that direction, except this one,
and that other of which we have to tell you, called Zanghibar. This is
because the sea-current runs so strong towards the south that the ships
which should attempt it never would get back again. Indeed, the ships of
Maabar which visit this Island of Madeigascar, and that other of
Zanghibar, arrive thither with marvellous speed, for great as the distance
is they accomplish it in 20 days, whilst the return voyage takes them more
than 3 months. This (I say) is because of the strong current running
south, which continues with such singular force and in the same direction
at all seasons.[NOTE 4]

'Tis said that in those other Islands to the south, which the ships are
unable to visit because this strong current prevents their return, is
found the bird _Gryphon_, which appears there at certain seasons.
The description given of it is however entirely different from what our
stories and pictures make it. For persons who had been there and had seen
it told Messer Marco Polo that it was for all the world like an eagle, but
one indeed of enormous size; so big in fact that its wings covered an
extent of 30 paces, and its quills were 12 paces long, and thick in
proportion. And it is so strong that it will seize an elephant in its
talons and carry him high into the air, and drop him so that he is smashed
to pieces; having so killed him the bird gryphon swoops down on him and
eats him at leisure. The people of those isles call the bird _Ruc_,
and it has no other name.[NOTE 5] So I wot not if this be the real
gryphon, or if there be another manner of bird as great. But this I can
tell you for certain, that they are not half lion and half bird as our
stories do relate; but enormous as they be they are fashioned just like an
eagle.

The Great Kaan sent to those parts to enquire about these curious matters,
and the story was told by those who went thither. He also sent to procure
the release of an envoy of his who had been despatched thither, and had
been detained; so both those envoys had many wonderful things to tell the
Great Kaan about those strange islands, and about the birds I have
mentioned. [They brought (as I heard) to the Great Kaan a feather of the
said Ruc, which was stated to measure 90 spans, whilst the quill part was
two palms in circumference, a marvellous object! The Great Kaan was
delighted with it, and gave great presents to those who brought it.
[NOTE 6]] They also brought two boars' tusks, which weighed more than 14
lbs. apiece; and you may gather how big the boar must have been that had
teeth like that! They related indeed that there were some of those boars as
big as a great buffalo. There are also numbers of giraffes and wild asses;
and in fact a marvellous number of wild beasts of strange aspect.[NOTE 7]


NOTE 1.--Marco is, I believe, the first writer European or Asiatic, who
unambiguously speaks of MADAGASCAR; but his information about it was very
incorrect in many particulars. There are no elephants nor camels in the
island, nor any leopards, bears, or lions.

Indeed, I have no doubt that Marco, combining information from different
sources, made some confusion between _Makdashau_ (Magadoxo) and
_Madagascar_, and that particulars belonging to both are mixed up here.
This accounts for Zanghibar being placed entirely _beyond_ Madagascar, for
the entirely Mahomedan character given to the population, for the
hippopotamus-teeth and staple trade in ivory, as well for the lions,
elephants, and other beasts. But above all the camel-killing indicates
Sumáli Land and Magadoxo as the real locality of part of the information.
Says Ibn Batuta: "After leaving Zaila we sailed on the sea for 15 days,
and arrived at Makdashau, an extremely large town. The natives keep
camels in great numbers, _and they slaughter several hundreds daily_" (II.
181). The slaughter of camels for food is still a Sumáli practice. (See
_J.R.G.S._ VI. 28, and XIX. 55.) Perhaps the _Shaikhs_ (_Esceqe_) also
belong to the same quarter, for the Arab traveller says that the Sultan of
Makdashau had no higher title than _Shaikh_ (183); and Brava, a
neighbouring settlement, was governed by 12 shaikhs. (_De Barros_, I.
viii. 4.) Indeed, this kind of local oligarchy still prevails on that
coast.

We may add that both Makdashau and Brava are briefly described in the
Annals of the Ming Dynasty. The former _Mu-ku-tu-su_, lies on the sea, 20
days from _Siao-Kolan_ (Quilon?), a barren mountainous country of wide
extent, where it sometimes does not rain for years. In 1427 a mission
came from this place to China. _Pu-la-wa_ (Brava, properly Baráwa) adjoins
the former, and is also on the sea. It produces olibanum, myrrh, and
_ambergris_; and among animals elephants, camels, rhinoceroses, spotted
animals like asses, etc.[1]

It is, however, true that there are traces of a considerable amount of
ancient Arab colonisation on the shores of Madagascar. Arab descent is
ascribed to a class of the people of the province of Matitánana on the
east coast, in lat. 21°-23° south, and the Arabic writing is in use there.
The people of the St. Mary's Isle of our maps off the east coast, in lat.
17°, also call themselves the children of Ibrahim, and the island
_Nusi-Ibrahim_. And on the north-west coast, at Bambeluka Bay, Captain Owen
found a large Arab population, whose forefathers had been settled there
from time immemorial. The number of tombs here and in Magambo Bay showed
that the Arab population had once been much greater. The government of this
settlement, till conquered by Radama, was vested in three persons: one a
Malagash, the second an Arab, the third as guardian of strangers; a fact
also suggestive of Polo's four sheikhs (_Ellis_, I. 131; _Owen_, II. 102,
132. See also _Sonnerat_, II. 56.) Though the Arabs were in the habit of
navigating to Sofala, in about lat. 20° south, in the time of Mas'udi
(beginning of 10th century), and must have then known Madagascar, there is
no intelligible indication of it in any of their geographies that have been
translated.[2]

[M. Alfred Grandidier, in his _Hist. de la Géog. de Madagascar_, p. 31,
comes to the conclusion that Marco Polo has given a very exact description
of Magadoxo, but that he did not know the island of Madagascar. He adds in
a note that Yule has shown that the description of Madeigascar refers
partly to Magadoxo, but that notwithstanding he (Yule) believed that Polo
spoke of Madagascar when the Venetian traveller does not. I must say that
I do not see any reason why Yule's theory should not be accepted.

M.G. Ferrand, formerly French Agent at Fort Dauphin, has devoted ch. ix.
(pp. 83-90) of the second part of his valuable work _Les Musulmans à
Madagascar_ (Paris, 1893), to the "Etymology of Madagascar." He believes
that M. Polo really means the great African Island. I mention from his
book that M. Guët (_Origines de l'île Bourbon_, 1888) brings the
Carthaginians to Madagascar, and derives the name of this island from
_Madax-Aschtoret_ or _Madax-Astarté_, which signifies _Isle of Astarté_
and _Isle of Tanit_! Mr. I. Taylor (_The origin of the name_ 'Madagascar,'
in _Antananarivo Annual_, 1891) gives also some fancy etymologies; it is
needless to mention them. M. Ferrand himself thinks that very likely
Madagascar simply means _Country of the Malagash_ (Malgaches), and is only
a bad transcription of the Arabic _Madagasbar_.--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--There is, or used to be, a trade in sandal-wood from Madagascar.
(See _Owen_, II. 99.) In the map of S. Lorenzo (or Madagascar) in the
_Isole_ of Porcacchi (1576), a map evidently founded on fact, I observe
near the middle of the Island: _quivi sono boschi di sandari rossi_.

NOTE 3.--"The coast of this province" (Ivongo, the N.E. of the Island)
"abounds with whales, and during a certain period of the year Antongil Bay
is a favourite resort for whalers of all nations. The inhabitants of
Titingue are remarkably expert in spearing the whales from their slight
canoes." (_Lloyd_ in _J.R.G.S._ XX. 56.) A description of the
whale-catching process practised by the Islanders of St. Mary's, or Nusi
Ibrahim, is given in the _Quinta Pars Indiae Orientalis_ of _De Bry_, p. 9.
Owen gives a similar account (I. 170).

The word which I have rendered _Oil-heads_ is _Capdoilles_ or _Capdols_,
representing _Capidoglio_, the appropriate name still applied in Italy to
the Spermaceti whale. The _Vocab. Ital. Univ._ quotes Ariosto (VII. 36):--

    --"_I_ Capidogli _co' vecchi marini
  Vengon turbati dal lor pigro sonno_."

The Spermaceti-whale is described under this name by Rondeletius, but from
his cut it is clear he had not seen the animal.

NOTE 4.--De Barros, after describing the dangers of the Channel of
Mozambique, adds: "And as the Moors of this coast of Zanguebar make their
voyages in ships and sambuks sewn with coir, instead of being nailed like
ours, and thus strong enough to bear the force of the cold seas of the
region about the Cape of Good Hope,.. they never dared to attempt the
exploration of the regions to the westward of the Cape of Currents,
although they greatly desired to do so." (Dec. I. viii. 4; and see also
IV. i. 12.) Kazwini says of the Ocean, quoting Al Biruni: "Then it extends
to the sea known as that of Berbera, and stretches from Aden to the
furthest extremity of Zanjibar; beyond this goes no vessel on account of
the great current. Then it extends to what are called the Mountains of the
Moon, whence spring the sources of the Nile of Egypt, and thence to
Western Sudan, to the Spanish Countries and the (Western) Ocean." There
has been recent controversy between Captain A.D. Taylor and Commodore
Jansen of the Dutch navy, regarding the Mozambique currents, and
(incidentally) Polo's accuracy. The currents in the Mozambique Channel
vary with the monsoons, but from Cape Corrientes southward along the coast
runs the permanent Lagullas current, and Polo's statement requires but
little correction. (_Ethé_ pp. 214-215; see also _Barbosa_ in _Ram._ I.
288; _Owen_, I. 269; _Stanley's Correa_, p. 261; _J.R.G.S._ II. 91;
_Fra Mauro_ in _Zurla_, p. 61; see also _Reinaud's Abulfeda_, vol. i. pp.
15-16; and _Ocean Highways_, August to November, 1873.)

[Illustration: The Rukh (from Lane's "Arabian Nights"), after a Persian
drawing.]

NOTE 5.--The fable of the RUKH was old and widely spread, like that of the
Male and Female Islands, and, just as in that case, one accidental
circumstance or another would give it a local habitation, now here now
there. The _Garuda_ of the Hindus, the _Simurgh_ of the old Persians, the
_'Angka_ of the Arabs, the _Bar Yuchre_ of the Rabbinical legends, the
_Gryps_ of the Greeks, were probably all versions of the same original
fable.

Bochart quotes a bitter Arabic proverb which says, "Good-Faith, the Ghul,
and the Gryphon (_'Angka_) are three names of things that exist nowhere."
And Mas'udi, after having said that whatever country he visited he always
found that the people believed these monstrous creatures to exist in
regions as remote as possible from their own, observes: "It is not that our
reason absolutely rejects the possibility of the existence of the _Nesnás_
(see vol. i. p. 206) or of the _'Angka_, and other beings of that rare and
wondrous order; for there is nothing in their existence incompatible with
the Divine Power; but we decline to believe in them because their existence
has not been manifested to us on any irrefragable authority."

[Illustration: Frontispiece showing the Bird _Rukh_.]

The circumstance which for the time localized the Rukh in the direction of
Madagascar was perhaps some rumour of the great fossil _Aepyornis_ and its
colossal eggs, found in that island. According to Geoffroy St. Hilaire,
the Malagashes assert that the bird which laid those great eggs still
exists, that it has an immense power of flight, and preys upon the greater
quadrupeds. Indeed the continued existence of the bird has been alleged as
late as 1861 and 1863!

On the great map of Fra Mauro (1459) near the extreme point of Africa
which he calls _Cavo de Diab_, and which is suggestive of the Cape of Good
Hope, but was really perhaps Cape Corrientes, there is a rubric inscribed
with the following remarkable story: "About the year of Our Lord 1420 a
ship or junk of India in crossing the Indian Sea was driven by way of the
Islands of Men and Women beyond the Cape of Diab, and carried between the
Green Islands and the Darkness in a westerly and south-westerly direction
for 40 days, without seeing anything but sky and sea, during which time
they made to the best of their judgment 2000 miles. The gale then ceasing
they turned back, and were seventy days in getting to the aforesaid Cape
Diab. The ship having touched on the coast to supply its wants, the
mariners beheld there the egg of a certain bird called _Chrocho_, which
egg was as big as a butt.[3] And the bigness of the bird is such that
between the extremities of the wings is said to be 60 paces. They say too
that it carries away an elephant or any other great animal with the
greatest ease, and does great injury to the inhabitants of the country,
and is most rapid in its flight."

G.-St. Hilaire considered the Aepyornis to be of the Ostrich family;
Prince C. Buonaparte classed it with the _Inepti_ or Dodos; Duvernay of
Valenciennes with aquatic birds! There was clearly therefore room for
difference of opinion, and Professor Bianconi of Bologna, who has written
much on the subject, concludes that it was most probably a bird of the
vulture family. This would go far, he urges, to justify Polo's account of
the Ruc as a bird of prey, though the story of it's _lifting_ any large
animal could have had no foundation, as the feet of the vulture kind are
unfit for such efforts. Humboldt describes the habit of the condor of the
Andes as that of worrying, wearying, and frightening its four-footed prey
until it drops; sometimes the condor drives its victim over a precipice.

Bianconi concludes that on the same scale of proportion as the condor's,
the great quills of the Aepyornis would be about 10 feet long, and the
spread of the wings about 32 feet, whilst the height of the bird would be
at least four times that of the condor. These are indeed little more than
conjectures. And I must add that in Professor Owen's opinion there is no
reasonable doubt that the Aepyornis was a bird allied to the Ostriches.

We gave, in the first edition of this work, a drawing of the great
Aepyornis egg in the British Museum of its true size, as the nearest
approach we could make to an illustration of the _Rukh_ from nature. The
actual contents of this egg will be about 2.35 gallons, which may be
compared with Fra Mauro's _anfora_! Except in this matter of size, his
story of the ship and the egg may be true.

A passage from Temple's Travels in Peru has been quoted as exhibiting
exaggeration in the description of the condor surpassing anything that can
be laid to Polo's charge here; but that is, in fact, only somewhat heavy
banter directed against our traveller's own narrative. (See _Travels in
Various Parts of Peru_, 1830, II. 414-417.)

Recently fossil bones have been found in New Zealand, which seem to bring
us a step nearer to the realization of the Rukh. Dr. Haast discovered in a
swamp at Glenmark in the province of Otago, along with remains of the
_Dinornis_ or Moa, some bones (femur, ungual phalanges, and rib) of a
gigantic bird which he pronounces to be a bird of prey, apparently allied
to the Harriers, and calls _Harpagornis_. He supposes it to have preyed
upon the Moa, and as that fowl is calculated to have been 10 feet and
upwards in height, we are not so very far from the elephant-devouring
Rukh. (See _Comptes Rendus, Ac. des Sciences_ 1872, p. 1782; and _Ibis_,
October 1872, p. 433.) This discovery may possibly throw a new light on
the traditions of the New Zealanders. For Professor Owen, in first
describing the _Dinornis_ in 1839, mentioned that the natives had a
tradition that the bones belonged _to a bird of the eagle kind_. (See
_Eng. Cyc._ Nat. Hist. sub. v. _Dinornis_.) And Sir Geo. Grey appears to
have read a paper, 23rd October 1872,[4] which was the description by a
Maori of the _Hokiol_, an extinct gigantic bird of prey of which that
people have traditions come down from their ancestors, said to have been a
black hawk of great size, as large as the Moa.

I have to thank Mr. Arthur Grote for a few words more on that most
interesting subject, the discovery of a real fossil _Ruc_ in New Zealand.
He informs me (under date 4th December 1874) that Professor Owen is now
working on the huge bones sent home by Dr. Haast, "and is convinced that
they belonged to a bird of prey, probably (as Dr. Haast suggested) a
Harrier, _double the weight of the Moa_, and quite capable therefore of
preying on the young of that species. Indeed, he is disposed to attribute
the extinction of the Harpagornis to that of the Moa, which was the only
victim in the country which could supply it with a sufficiency of food."

One is tempted to add that if the Moa or Dinornis of New Zealand had its
_Harpagornis_ scourge, the still greater Aepyornis of Madagascar may have
had a proportionate tyrant, whose bones (and quills ?) time may bring to
light. And the description given by Sir Douglas Forsyth on page 542, of
the action of the Golden Eagle of Kashgar in dealing with a wild boar,
illustrates how such a bird as our imagined _Harpagornis Aepyornithon_
might master the larger pachydermata, even the elephant himself, without
having to treat him precisely as the Persian drawing at p. 415 represents.

Sindbad's adventures with the Rukh are too well known for quotation. A
variety of stories of the same tenor hitherto unpublished, have been
collected by M. Marcel Devic from an Arabic work of the 10th century on
the "_Marvels of Hind_," by an author who professes only to repeat the
narratives of merchants and mariners whom he had questioned. A specimen of
these will be found under Note 6. The story takes a peculiar form in the
Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela. He heard that when ships were in
danger of being lost in the stormy sea that led to China the sailors were
wont to sew themselves up in hides, and so when cast upon the surface they
were snatched up by great eagles called gryphons, which carried their
supposed prey ashore, etc. It is curious that this very story occurs in a
Latin poem stated to be _at least_ as old as the beginning of the 13th
century, which relates the romantic adventures of a certain Duke Ernest of
Bavaria; whilst the story embodies more than one other adventure belonging
to the History of Sindbad.[5] The Duke and his comrades, navigating in
some unknown ramification of the Euxine, fall within the fatal attraction
of the Magnet Mountain. Hurried by this augmenting force, their ship is
described as crashing through the rotten forest of masts already drawn to
their doom:--

  "Et ferit impulsus majoris verbere montem
  Quam si diplosas impingat machina turres."

There they starve, and the dead are deposited on the lofty poop to be
carried away by the daily visits of the gryphons:--

  --"Quae grifae membra leonis
  Et pennas aquilae simulantes unguibus atris
  Tollentes miseranda suis dant prandia pullis."

When only the Duke and six others survive, the wisest of the party
suggests the scheme which Rabbi Benjamin has related:--

  --"Quaeramus tergora, et armis
  Vestiti prius, optatis volvamur in illis,
  Ut nos tollentes mentita cadavera Grifae
  Pullis objiciant, a queis facientibus armis
  Et cute dissutâ, nos, si volet, Ille Deorum
  Optimus eripiet."

Which scheme is successfully carried out. The wanderers then make a raft
on which they embark on a river which plunges into a cavern in the heart
of a mountain; and after a time they emerge in the country of Arimaspia
inhabited by the Cyclopes; and so on. The Gryphon story also appears in
the romance of Huon de Bordeaux, as well as in the tale called 'Hasan of
el-Basrah' in Lane's Version of the _Arabian Nights_.

It is in the China Seas that Ibn Batuta beheld the Rukh, first like a
mountain in the sea where no mountain should be, and then "when the sun
rose," says he, "we saw the mountain aloft in the air, and the clear sky
between it and the sea. We were in astonishment at this, and I observed
that the sailors were weeping and bidding each other adieu, so I called
out, 'What is the matter?' They replied, 'What we took for a mountain is
"the Rukh." If it sees us, it will send us to destruction.' It was then
some 10 miles from the junk. But God Almighty was gracious unto us, and
sent us a fair wind, which turned us from the direction in which the Rukh
was; so we did not see him well enough to take cognizance of his real
shape." In this story we have evidently a case of abnormal refraction,
causing an island to appear suspended in the air.[6]

The Archipelago was perhaps the legitimate habitat of the Rukh, before
circumstances localised it in the direction of Madagascar. In the Indian
Sea, says Kazwini, is a bird of size so vast that when it is dead men take
the half of its bill and make a ship of it! And there too Pigafetta heard
of this bird, under its Hindu name of _Garuda_, so big that it could fly
away with an elephant.[7] Kazwini also says that the 'Angka carries off
an elephant as a hawk flies off with a mouse; his flight is like the loud
thunder. Whilom he dwelt near the haunts of men, and wrought them great
mischief. But once on a time it had carried off a bride in her bridal
array, and Hamd Allah, the Prophet of those days, invoked a curse upon the
bird. Wherefore the Lord banished it to an inaccessible Island in the
Encircling Ocean.

The Simurgh or 'Angka, dwelling behind veils of Light and Darkness on the
inaccessible summits of Caucasus, is in Persian mysticism an emblem of the
Almighty.

In Northern Siberia the people have a firm belief in the former existence
of birds of colossal size, suggested apparently by the fossil bones of
great pachyderms which are so abundant there. And the compressed
sabre-like horns of _Rhinoceros tichorinus_ are constantly called, even by
Russian merchants, _birds' claws_. Some of the native tribes fancy the
vaulted skull of the same rhinoceros to be the bird's head, and the
leg-bones of other pachyderms to be its quills; and they relate that their
forefathers used to fight wonderful battles with this bird. Erman
ingeniously suggests that the Herodotean story of the Gryphons, _from under
which_ the Arimaspians drew their gold, grew out of the legends about these
fossils.

I may add that the name of our _rook_ in chess is taken from that of this
same bird; though first perverted from (Sansk.) _rath_, a chariot.

Some Eastern authors make the _Rukh_ an enormous beast instead of a bird.
(See _J.R.A.S._ XIII. 64, and _Elliot_, II. 203.) A Spanish author of
the 16th century seems to take the same view of the Gryphon, but he is
prudently vague in describing it, which he does among the animals of
Africa: "The _Grifo which some call_ CAMELLO PARDAL ... is called by the
Arabs _Yfrit_(!), and is made just in that fashion in which we see it
painted in pictures." (_Marmol, Descripcion General de Africa_, Granada,
1573, I. f. 30.) The _Zorafa_ is described as a different beast, which it
certainly is!

(_Bochart, Hierozoica_, II. 852 seqq.; _Mas'udi_, IV. 16; _Mem. dell'
Acad. dell' Instit. di Bologna_, III. 174 seqq., V. 112 seqq.; _Zurla_
on _Fra Mauro_, p. 62; _Lane's Arabian Nights_, Notes on Sindbad; _Benj.
of Tudela_, p. 117; _De Varia Fortuna Ernesti Bavariae Ducis_, in
_Thesaurus Novus Anecdotorum_ of Martene and Durand, vol. III. col. 353
seqq.; _I.B._ IV. 305; _Gildem._ p. 220; _Pigafetta_, p. 174; _Major's
Prince Henry_, p. 311; _Erman_, II. 88; _Garcin de Tassy, La Poésie
philos. etc., chez les Persans_, 30 seqq.)

[In a letter to Sir Henry Yule, dated 24th March 1887, Sir (then Dr.) John
Kirk writes: "I was speaking with the present Sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyed
Barghash, about the great bird which the natives say exists, and in doing
so I laughed at the idea. His Highness turned serious and said that indeed
he believed it to be quite true that a great bird visited the Udoe
country, and that it caused a great shadow to fall upon the country; he
added that it let fall at times large rocks. Of course he did not pretend
to know these things from his own experience, for he has never been
inland, but he considered he had ample grounds to believe these stones
from what he had been told of those who travelled. The Udoe country lies
north of the River Wami opposite the island of Zanzibar and about two days
going inland. The people are jealous of strangers and practise cannibalism
in war. They are therefore little visited, and although near the coast we
know little of them. The only members of their tribe I have known have
been converted to Islam, and not disposed to say much of their native
customs, being ashamed of them, while secretly still believing in them.
The only thing I noticed was an idea that the tribe came originally from
the West, from about Manyema; now the people of that part are cannibals,
and cannibalism is almost unknown except among the _Wadoe_, nearer the
east coast. It is also singular that the other story of a gigantic bird
comes from near Manyema and that the _whalebone_ that was passed off at
Zanzibar as the wing of a bird, came, they said, from Tanganyika. As to
rocks falling in East Africa, I think their idea might easily arise from
the fall of meteoric stones."]

[M. Alfred Grandidier (_Hist. de la Géog. de Madagascar_, p. 31) thinks
that the Rukh is but an image; it is a personification of water-spouts,
cyclones, and typhoons.--H.C.]

NOTE 6.--Sir Thomas Brown says that if any man will say he desires before
belief to behold such a creature as is the _Rukh_ in Paulus Venetus, for
his own part he will not be angry with his incredulity. But M. Pauthier is
of more liberal belief; for he considers that, after all, the dimensions
which Marco assigns to the wings and quills of the Rukh are not so
extravagant that we should refuse to admit their possibility.

Ludolf will furnish him with corroborative evidence, that of Padre
Bolivar, a Jesuit, as communicated to Thévenot; the assigned position will
suit well enough with Marco's report: "The bird condor differs in size in
different parts of the world. The greater species was seen by many of the
Portuguese in their expedition against the Kingdoms of Sofala and Cuama
and the Land of the Caffres from Monomotapa to the Kingdom of Angola and
the Mountains of Teroa. In some countries I have myself seen the
wing-feathers of that enormous fowl, although the bird itself I never
beheld. The feather in question, as could be deduced from its form, was one
of the middle ones, and it was 28 palms in length and three in breadth. The
quill part, from the root to the extremity, was five palms in length, of
the thickness of an average man's arm, and of extreme strength and
hardness. [M. Alfred Grandidier (_Hist. de la Géog. de Madagascar_, p. 25)
thinks that the quill part of this feather was one of the bamboo shoots
formerly brought to Yemen to be used as water-jars and called there
_feathers of Rukh_, the Arabs looking upon these bamboo shoots as the quill
part of the feathers of the Rukh.--H.C.] The fibres of the feather were
equal in length and closely fitted, so that they could scarcely be parted
without some exertion of force; and they were jet black, whilst the quill
part was white. Those who had seen the bird stated that it was bigger than
the bulk of a couple of elephants, and that hitherto nobody had succeeded
in killing one. It rises to the clouds with such extraordinary swiftness
that it seems scarcely to stir its wings. _In form it is like an eagle_.
But although its size and swiftness are so extraordinary, it has much
trouble in procuring food, on account of the density of the forests with
which all that region is clothed. Its own dwelling is in cold and desolate
tracts such as the Mountains of Teroa, i.e. of the Moon; and in the valleys
of that range it shows itself at certain periods. Its black feathers are
held in very high estimation, and it is with the greatest difficulty that
one can be got from the natives, for _one_ such serves to fan ten people,
and to keep off the terrible heat from them, as well as the wasps and
flies" (_Ludolf, Hist. Aethiop._ Comment, p. 164.)

Abu Mahomed, of Spain, relates that a merchant arrived in Barbary who had
lived long among the Chinese. He had with him the quill of a chick Rukh,
and this held nine skins of water. He related the story of how he came by
this,--a story nearly the same as one of Sindbad's about the Rukh's egg.
(_Bochart_, II. 854.)

Another story of a seaman wrecked on the coast of Africa is among those
collected by M. Marcel Devic. By a hut that stood in the middle of a field
of rice and _durra_ there was a trough. "A man came up leading a pair of
oxen, laden with 12 skins of water, and emptied these into the trough. I
drew near to drink, and found the trough to be polished like a steel
blade, quite different from either glass or pottery. 'It is the hollow of
a quill,' said the man. I would not believe a word of the sort, until,
after rubbing it inside and outside, I found it to be transparent, and to
retain the traces of the barbs." (_Comptes Rendus_, etc., ut supra; and
_Livre des Merveilles de L'Inde_, p. 99.)

Fr. Jordanus also says: "In this _India Tertia_ (Eastern Africa) are
certain birds which are called _Roc_, so big that they easily carry an
elephant up into the air. I have seen a certain person who said that he
had seen one of those birds, one wing only of which stretched to a length
of 80 palms" (p. 42).

The Japanese Encyclopaedia states that in the country of the _Tsengsz'_
(Zinjis) in the South-West Ocean, there is a bird called _pheng_, which in
its flight eclipses the sun. It can swallow a camel; and its quills are
used for water-casks. This was probably got from the Arabs. (_J. As._,
sèr. 2, tom. xii. 235-236.)

I should note that the _Geog. Text_ in the first passage where the
feathers are spoken of says: "_e ce qe je en vi voz dirai en autre leu,
por ce qe il convient ensi faire à nostre livre_,"--"that which _I have
seen_ of them I will tell you elsewhere, as it suits the arrangement of
our book." No such other detail is found in that text, but we have in
Ramusio this passage about the quill brought to the Great Kaan, and I
suspect that the phrase, "as I have heard," is an interpolation, and that
Polo is here telling _ce qe il en vit_. What are we to make of the story?
I have sometimes thought that possibly some vegetable production, such as
a great frond of the _Ravenala_, may have been cooked to pass as a Rukh's
quill. [See _App._ L.]

NOTE 7.--The giraffes are an error. The _Eng. Cyc._ says that wild asses
and zebras (?) do exist in Madagascar, but I cannot trace authority for
this.

The great boar's teeth were indubitably hippopotamus-teeth, which form a
considerable article of export from Zanzibar[8] (not Madagascar). Burton
speaks of their reaching 12 lbs in weight. And Cosmas tells us: "The
hippopotamus I have not seen indeed, but I had some great teeth of his
_that weighed thirteen pounds_, which I sold here (in Alexandria). And I
have seen many such teeth in Ethiopia and in Egypt." (See _J.R.G.S._
XXIX. 444; _Cathay_, p. clxxv.)


[1] Bretschneider, _On the knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chinese of
    the Arabs_, etc. London, 1871, p. 21.

[2] Mas'udi speaks of an island _Kanbalú_, well cultivated and populous,
    one or two days from the Zinj coast, and the object of voyages from
    Oman, from which it was about 500 parasangs distant. It was conquered
    by the Arabs, who captured the whole Zinj population of the island,
    about the beginning of the Abasside Dynasty (circa A.D. 750). Barbier
    de Meynard thinks this may be Madagascar. I suspect it rather to be
    _Pemba_, (See _Prairies d'Or_, I. 205, 232, and III. 31.)

[3] "_De la grandeza de una bota d'anfora_." The lowest estimate that I
    find of the Venetian anfora makes it equal to about 108 imperial
    gallons, a little less than the English butt. This seems intended. The
    _ancient_ amphora would be more reasonable, being only 5.66 gallons.

[4] The friend who noted this for me, omitted to name the Society.

[5] I got the indication of this poem, I think, in Bochart. But I have
    since observed that its coincidences with Sindbad are briefly noticed
    by Mr. Lane (ed. 1859, III. 78) from an article in the "_Foreign
    Quarterly Review_."

[6] An intelligent writer, speaking of such effects on the same sea, says:
    "The boats floating on a calm sea, at a distance from the ship, were
    magnified to a great size; the crew standing up in them appeared as
    masts or trees, and their arms in motion as the wings of windmills;
    whilst the surrounding islands (especially at their low and tapered
    extremities) seemed to be suspended in the air, some feet above the
    ocean's level." (_Bennett's Whaling Voyage_, II. 71-72.)

[7] An epithet of the _Garuda_ is _Gajakúrmásin_,
    "elephant-cum-tortoise-devourer," because said to have swallowed both
    when engaged in a contest with each other.

[8] The name as pronounced seems to have been _Zangibár_ (hard _g_), which
    polite Arabic changed into _Zanjibár_, whence the Portuguese made
    _Zanzibar_.



CHAPTER XXXIV.

CONCERNING THE ISLAND OF ZANGHIBAR. A WORD ON INDIA IN GENERAL.


Zanghibar is a great and noble Island, with a compass of some 2000
miles.[NOTE 1] The people are all Idolaters, and have a king and a
language of their own, and pay tribute to nobody. They are both tall and
stout, but not tall in proportion to their stoutness, for if they were,
being so stout and brawny, they would be absolutely like giants; and they
are so strong that they will carry for four men and eat for five.

They are all black, and go stark naked, with only a little covering for
decency. Their hair is as black as pepper, and so frizzly that even with
water you can scarcely straighten it. And their mouths are so large, their
noses so turned up, their lips so thick, their eyes so big and bloodshot,
that they look like very devils; they are in fact so hideously ugly that
the world has nothing to show more horrible.

Elephants are produced in this country in wonderful profusion. There are
also lions that are black and quite different from ours. And their sheep
and wethers are all exactly alike in colour; the body all white and the
head black; no other kind of sheep is found there, you may rest
assured.[NOTE 2] They have also many giraffes. This is a beautiful
creature, and I must give you a description of it. Its body is short and
somewhat sloped to the rear, for its hind legs are short whilst the
fore-legs and the neck are both very long, and thus its head stands about
three paces from the ground. The head is small, and the animal is not at
all mischievous. Its colour is all red and white in round spots, and it is
really a beautiful object.[NOTE 3]

**The women of this Island are the ugliest in the world, with their great
mouths and big eyes and thick noses; their breasts too are four times
bigger than those of any other women; a very disgusting sight.

The people live on rice and flesh and milk and dates; and they make wine
of dates and of rice and of good spices and sugar. There is a great deal
of trade, and many merchants and vessels go thither. But the staple trade
of the Island is in elephants' teeth, which are very abundant; and they
have also much ambergris, as whales are plentiful.[NOTE 4]

They have among them excellent and valiant warriors, and have little fear
of death. They have no horses, but fight mounted on camels and elephants.
On the latter they set wooden castles which carry from ten to sixteen
persons, armed with lances, swords, and stones, so that they fight to
great purpose from these castles. They wear no armour, but carry only a
shield of hide, besides their swords and lances, and so a marvellous
number of them fall in battle. When they are going to take an elephant
into battle they ply him well with their wine, so that he is made half
drunk. They do this because the drink makes him more fierce and bold, and
of more service in battle.[NOTE 5]

As there is no more to say on this subject I will go on to tell you about
the Great Province of ABASH, which constitutes the MIDDLE INDIA;--but I
must first say something about India in general.

You must understand that in speaking of the Indian Islands we have
described only the most noble provinces and kingdoms among them; for no
man on earth could give you a true account of the whole of the Islands of
India. Still, what I have described are the best, and as it were the
Flower of the Indies. For the greater part of the other Indian Islands
that I have omitted are subject to those that I have described. It is a
fact that in this Sea of India there are 12,700 Islands, inhabited and
uninhabited, according to the charts and documents of experienced mariners
who navigate that Indian Sea.[NOTE 6]

INDIA THE GREATER is that which extends from Maabar to Kesmacoran; and it
contains 13 great kingdoms, of which we have described ten. These are all
on the mainland.

INDIA THE LESSER extends from the Province of Champa to Mutfili, and
contains eight great kingdoms. These are likewise all on the mainland. And
neither of these numbers includes the Islands, among which also there are
very numerous kingdoms, as I have told you.[NOTE 7]


NOTE 1.--ZANGIBAR, "the Region of the Blacks," known to the ancients as
_Zingis_ and _Zingium_. The name was applied by the Arabs, according to De
Barros, to the whole stretch of coast from the Kilimanchi River, which
seems to be the Jubb, to Cape Corrientes beyond the Southern Tropic,
i.e. as far as Arab traffic extended; Burton says now from the Jubb to
Cape Delgado. According to Abulfeda, the King of Zinjis dwelt at Mombasa.
In recent times the name is by Europeans almost appropriated to the Island
on which resides the Sultan of the Maskat family, to whom Sir B. Frere
lately went as envoy. Our author's "Island" has no reference to this; it
is an error simply.

Our traveller's information is here, I think, certainly at second hand,
though no doubt he had seen the negroes whom he describes with such
disgust, and apparently the sheep and the giraffes.

NOTE 2.--These sheep are common at Aden, whither they are imported from
the opposite African coast. They have hair like smooth goats, no wool.
Varthema also describes them (p. 87). In the Cairo Museum, among ornaments
found in the mummy-pits, there is a little figure of one of these sheep,
the head and neck in some blue stone and the body in white agate. (_Note
by Author of the sketch on next page._)

NOTE 3.--A giraffe--made into a _seraph_ by the Italians--had been
frequently seen in Italy in the early part of the century, there being one
in the train of the Emperor Frederic II. Another was sent by Bibars to the
Imperial Court in 1261, and several to Barka Khan at Sarai in 1263; whilst
the King of Nubia was bound by treaty in 1275 to deliver to the Sultan
three elephants, three giraffes, and five she-panthers. (_Kington_, I.
471; _Makrizi_, I. 216; II. 106, 108.) The giraffe is sometimes wrought in
the patterns of mediaeval Saracenic damasks, and in Sicilian ones imitated
from the former. Of these there are examples in the Kensington Collection.

I here omit a passage about the elephant. It recounts an old and
long-persistent fable, exploded by Sir T. Brown, and indeed before him by
the sensible Garcia de Orta.

NOTE 4.--The port of Zanzibar is probably the chief ivory mart in the
world. Ambergris is mentioned by Burton among miscellaneous exports, but
it is not now of any consequence. Owen speaks of it as brought for sale at
Delagoa Bay in the south.

NOTE 5.--Mas'udi more correctly says: "The country abounds with wild
elephants, but you don't find a single tame one. The Zinjes employ them
neither in war nor otherwise, and if they hunt them 'tis only to kill
them" (III. 7). It is difficult to conceive how Marco could have got so
much false information. The only beast of burden in Zanzibar, at least
north of Mozambique, is the ass. His particulars seem jumbled from various
parts of Africa. The camel-riders suggest the _Bejas_ of the Red Sea
coast, of whom there were in Mas'udi's time 30,000 warriors so mounted,
and armed with lances and bucklers (III. 34). The elephant stories may
have arisen from the occasional use of these animals by the Kings of
Abyssinia. (See Note 4 to next chapter.)

[Illustration: Ethiopian Sheep.]

NOTE 6.--An approximation to 12,000 as a round number seems to have been
habitually used in reference to the Indian Islands; John of Montecorvino
says they are many more than 12,000; Jordanus had heard that there were
10,000 _inhabited_. Linschoten says some estimated the Maldives at 11,100.
And we learn from Pyrard de Laval that the Sultan of the Maldives called
himself Ibrahim Sultan of Thirteen Atollons (or coral groups) and of
12,000 Islands! This is probably the origin of the proverbial number. Ibn
Batuta, in his excellent account of the Maldives, estimates them at only
about 2000. But Captain Owen, commenting on Pyrard, says that he believes
the actual number of islands to be treble or fourfold of 12,000. (_P. de
Laval_ in _Charton_, IV. 255; _I.B._ IV. 40; _J.R.G.S._ II. 84.)

NOTE 7.--The term "India" became very vague from an early date. In fact,
Alcuin divides the whole world into three parts, Europe, Africa, and
India. Hence it was necessary to discriminate different Indias, but there
is very little agreement among different authors as to this
discrimination.

The earliest use that I can find of the terms India Major and Minor is in
the _Liber Junioris Philosophi_ published by Hudson, and which is believed
to be translated from a lost Greek original of the middle of the 4th
century. In this author India Minor adjoins Persia. So it does with Friar
Jordanus. His India Minor appears to embrace Sind (possibly Mekran), and
the western coast exclusive of Malabar. India Major extends from Malabar
indefinitely eastward. His _India Tertia_ is Zanjibar. The Three Indies
appear in a map contained in a MS. by Guido Pisanus, written in 1118.
Conti divides India into three: (1) From Persia to the Indus (i.e.
Mekran and Sind); (2) From the Indus to the Ganges; (3) All that is beyond
Ganges (Indo-China and China).

In a map of Andrea Bianco at Venice (No. 12) the divisions are--(1) India
Minor, extending westward to the Persian Gulf; (2) India Media,
"containing 14 regions and 12 nations;" and (3) India Superior, containing
8 regions and 24 nations.

Marino Sanuto places immediately east of the Persian Gulf "India Minor
_quae et Ethiopia_."

John Marignolli again has three Indias: (1) Manzi or India Maxima (S.
China); (2) Mynibar (Malabar); (3) Maabar. The last two with Guzerat are
Abulfeda's divisions, exclusive of Sind.

We see that there was a traditional tendency to make out _Three Indies_,
but little concord as to their identity. With regard to the expressions
_Greater_ and _Lesser_ India, I would recall attention to what has been
said about Greater and Lesser Java (supra, chap. ix. note 1). Greater
India was originally intended, I imagine, for the _real_ India, what our
maps call Hindustan. And the threefold division, with its inclination to
place one of the Indies in Africa, I think may have originated with the
Arab _Hind_, _Sind_, and _Zinj_. I may add that our vernacular expression
"the Indies" is itself a vestige of the twofold or threefold division of
which we have been speaking.

The partition of the Indies made by King Sebastian of Portugal in 1571,
when he constituted his eastern possessions into three governments,
recalled the old division into Three Indias. The first, INDIA, extending
from Cape Gardafui to Ceylon, stood in a general way for Polo's India
Major; the second MONOMOTAPA, from Gardafui to Cape Corrientes (India
Tertia of Jordanus); the third MALACCA, from Pegu to China (India Minor).
(_Faria y Souza_, II. 319.)

Polo's knowledge of India, _as a whole_, is so little exact that it is too
indefinite a problem to consider which are the three kingdoms that he has
_not_ described. The ten which he has described appear to be--(1) Maabar,
(2) Coilum, (3) Comari, (4) Eli, (5) Malabar, (6) Guzerat, (7) Tana, (8)
Canbaet, (9) Semenat, (10) Kesmacoran. On the one hand, this distribution
in itself contains serious misapprehensions, as we have seen, and on the
other there must have been many dozens of kingdoms in India Major instead
of 13, if such states as Comari, Hili, and Somnath were to be separately
counted. Probably it was a common saying that there were 12 kings in
India, and the fact of his having himself described so many, which he knew
did not nearly embrace the whole, may have made Polo convert this into 13.
Jordanus says: "In this Greater India are 12 idolatrous kings and more;"
but his Greater India is much more extensive than Polo's. Those which he
names are _Molebar_ (probably the kingdom of the Zamorin of Calicut),
_Singuyli_ (Cranganor), _Columbum_ (Quilon), _Molephatan_ (on the east
coast, uncertain, see above pp. 333, 391), and _Sylen_ (Ceylon), _Java_,
three or four kings, _Telenc_ (Polo's Mutfili), _Maratha_ (Deogir),
_Batigala_ (in Canara), and in _Champa_ (apparently put for all
Indo-China) many kings. According to Firishta there were about a dozen
_important_ principalities in India at the time of the Mahomedan conquest
of which he mentions _eleven_, viz.: (1) _Kanauj_, (2) _Mírat_ (or Delhi),
(3) _Mahávan_ (Mathra), (4) _Lahore_, (5) _Malwa_, (6) _Guzerat_, (7)
_Ajmir_, (8) _Gwalior_, (9) _Kalinjar_, (10) _Multán_, (11) _Ujjain_.
(_Ritter_, V. 535.) This omits Bengal, Orissa, and all the Deccan. _Twelve_
is a round number which constantly occurs in such statements. Ibn Batuta
tells us there were 12 princes in Malabar alone. Chinghiz, in
Sanang-Setzen, speaks of his vow to subdue the _twelve_ kings of the human
race (91). Certain figures in a temple at Anhilwara in Guzerat are said by
local tradition to be the effigies of the _twelve_ great kings of Europe.
(_Todd's Travels_, p. 107.) The King of Arakan used to take the title of
"Lord of the 12 provinces of Bengal" (_Reinaud, Inde_, p. 139.)

The _Masálak-al-Absár_ of Shihabuddin Dimishki, written some forty years
after Polo's book, gives a list of the provinces (twice twelve in number)
into which India was then considered to be divided. It runs--(1) _Delhi_,
(2) _Deogír_, (3) _Multán_, (4) _Kehran_ (_Kohrám_, in Sirhind Division of
Province of Delhi?), (5) _Sámán_ (Samána, N.W. of Delhi?), (6) _Siwastán_
(Sehwán), (7) _Ujah_ (Uchh), (8) _Hási_ (Hansi), (9) _Sarsati_ (Sirsa),
(10) _Ma'bar_, (11) _Tiling_, (12) _Gujerat_, (13) _Badáún_, (14) _Audh_,
(15) _Kanauj_, (16) _Laknaoti_ (Upper Bengal), (17) _Bahár_, (18) _Karráh_
(in the Doab), (19) _Maláwa_, (Málwa), (20) _Lahaur_, (21) _Kálánúr_ (in
the Bári Doáb, above Lahore), (22) _Jájnagar_ (according to Elphinstone,
Tipura in Bengal), (23) _Tilinj_ (a repetition or error), (24) _Dursamand_
(Dwara Samudra, the kingdom of the Belláls in Mysore). Neither Malabar nor
Orissa is accounted for. (See _Not. et Ext._ XIII. 170). Another list,
given by the historian Zíá-uddín Barni some years later, embraces again
only _twelve_ provinces. These are (1) Delhi, (2) Gujerat, (3) Málwah, (4)
Deogír, (5) Tiling, (6) Kampilah (in the Doáb, between Koil and
Farakhábád), (7) Dur Samandar, (8) Ma'bar, (9) _Tirhut_, (10) Lakhnaoti,
(11) _Satgánw_, (12) _Sunárgánw_ (these two last forming the Western and
Eastern portions of Lower Bengal).[1]


[1] _E. Thomas_, Chronicles of the Pathán Kings of Delhi, p. 203.



CHAPTER XXXV.

TREATING OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OF ABASH WHICH IS MIDDLE INDIA, AND IS ON
THE MAINLAND.


Abash is a very great Province, and you must know that it constitutes the
MIDDLE INDIA; and it is on the mainland. There are in it six great Kings
with six great Kingdoms; and of these six Kings there are three that are
Christians and three that are Saracens; but the greatest of all the six is
a Christian, and all the others are subject to him.[NOTE 1]

The Christians in this country bear three marks on the face;[NOTE 2] one
from the forehead to the middle of the nose, and one on either cheek.
These marks are made with a hot iron, and form part of their baptism; for
after that they have been baptised with water, these three marks are made,
partly as a token of gentility, and partly as the completion of their
baptism. There are also Jews in the country, and these bear two marks, one
on either cheek; and the Saracens have but one, to wit, on the forehead
extending halfway down the nose.

The Great King lives in the middle of the country, the Saracens towards
Aden. St. Thomas the Apostle preached in this region, and after he had
converted the people he went away to the province of Maabar, where he
died; and there his body lies, as I have told you in a former place.

The people here are excellent soldiers, and they go on horseback, for they
have horses in plenty. Well they may; for they are in daily war with the
Soldan of ADEN, and with the Nubians, and a variety of other nations.
[NOTE 3] I will tell you a famous story of what befel in the year of
Christ, 1288.

You must know that this Christian King, who is the Lord of the Province of
Abash, declared his intention to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem to adore
the Holy Sepulchre of Our Lord God Jesus Christ the Saviour. But his
Barons said that for him to go in person would be to run too great a risk;
and they recommended him to send some bishop or prelate in his stead. So
the King assented to the counsel which his Barons gave, and despatched a
certain Bishop of his, a man of very holy life. The Bishop then departed
and travelled by land and by sea till he arrived at the Holy Sepulchre,
and there he paid it such honour as Christian man is bound to do, and
presented a great offering on the part of his King who had sent him in his
own stead.

And when he had done all that behoved him, he set out again and travelled
day by day till he got to Aden. Now that is a Kingdom wherein Christians
are held in great detestation, for the people are all Saracens, and their
enemies unto the death. So when the Soldan of Aden heard that this man was
a Christian and a Bishop, and an envoy of the Great King of Abash, he had
him seized and demanded of him if he were a Christian? To this the Bishop
replied that he was a Christian indeed. The Soldan then told him that
unless he would turn to the Law of Mahommet he should work him great shame
and dishonour. The Bishop answered that they might kill him ere he would
deny his Creator.

When the Soldan heard that he waxed wroth, and ordered that the Bishop
should be circumcised. So they took and circumcised him after the manner
of the Saracens. And then the Soldan told him that he had been thus put to
shame in despite to the King his master. And so they let him go.

The Bishop was sorely cut to the heart for the shame that had been wrought
him, but he took comfort because it had befallen him in holding fast by
the Law of Our Lord Jesus Christ; and the Lord God would recompense his
soul in the world to come.

So when he was healed he set out and travelled by land and by sea till he
reached the King his Lord in the Kingdom of Abash. And when the King
beheld him, he welcomed him with great joy and gladness. And he asked him
all about the Holy Sepulchre; and the Bishop related all about it truly,
the King listening the while as to a most holy matter in all faith. But
when the Bishop had told all about Jerusalem, he then related the outrage
done on him by the Soldan of Aden in the King's despite. Great was the
King's wrath and grief when he heard that; and it so disturbed him that he
was like to die of vexation. And at length his words waxed so loud that
all those round about could hear what he was saying. He vowed that he
would never wear crown or hold kingdom if he took not such condign
vengeance on the Soldan of Aden that all the world should ring
therewithal, even until the insult had been well and thoroughly redressed.

And what shall I say of it? He straightway caused the array of his horse
and foot to be mustered, and great numbers of elephants with castles to be
prepared to accompany them;[NOTE 4] and when all was ready he set out with
his army and advanced till he entered the Kingdom of Aden in great force.
The Kings of this province of Aden were well aware of the King's advance
against them, and went to encounter him at the strongest pass on their
frontier, with a great force of armed men, in order to bar the enemy from
entering their territory. When the King arrived at this strong pass where
the Saracens had taken post, a battle began, fierce and fell on both
sides, for they were very bitter against each other. But it came to pass,
as it pleased our Lord God Jesus Christ, that the Kings of the Saracens,
who were three in number, could not stand against the Christians, for they
are not such good soldiers as the Christians are. So the Saracens were
defeated, and a marvellous number of them slain, and the King of Abash
entered the Kingdom of Aden with all his host. The Saracens made various
sallies on them in the narrow defiles, but it availed nothing; they were
always beaten and slain. And when the King had greatly wasted and
destroyed the kingdom of his enemy, and had remained in it more than a
month with all his host, continually slaying the Saracens, and ravaging
their lands (so that great numbers of them perished), he thought it time
to return to his own kingdom, which he could now do with great honour.
Indeed he could tarry no longer, nor could he, as he was aware, do more
injury to the enemy; for he would have had to force a way by still
stronger passes, where, in the narrow defiles, a handful of men might
cause him heavy loss. So he quitted the enemy's Kingdom of Aden and began
to retire. And he with his host got back to their own country of Abash in
great triumph and rejoicing; for he had well avenged the shame cast on him
and on his Bishop for his sake. For they had slain so many Saracens, and
so wasted and harried the land, that 'twas something to be astonished at.
And in sooth 'twas a deed well done! For it is not to be borne that the
dogs of Saracens should lord it over good Christian people! Now you have
heard the story.[NOTE 5]

I have still some particulars to tell you of the same province. It abounds
greatly in all kinds of victual; and the people live on flesh and rice and
milk and sesame. They have plenty of elephants, not that they are bred in
the country, but they are brought from the Islands of the other India.
They have however many giraffes, which are produced in the country;
besides bears, leopards, lions in abundance, and many other passing
strange beasts. They have also numerous wild asses; and cocks and hens the
most beautiful that exist, and many other kind of birds. For instance,
they have ostriches that are nearly as big as asses; and plenty of
beautiful parrots, with apes of sundry kinds, and baboons and other
monkeys that have countenances all but human.[NOTE 6]

There are numerous cities and villages in this province of Abash, and many
merchants; for there is much trade to be done there. The people also
manufacture very fine buckrams and other cloths of cotton.

There is no more to say on the subject; so now let us go forward and tell
you of the province of Aden.


NOTE 1.--_Abash_ (Abasce) is a close enough representation of the Arabic
_Habsh_ or _Habash_, i.e. Abyssinia. He gives as an alternative title
_Middle_ India. I am not aware that the term India is applied to Abyssinia
by any Oriental (Arabic or Persian) writer, and one feels curious to know
where our Traveller got the appellation. We find nearly the same
application of the term in Benjamin of Tudela:

"Eight days from thence is Middle India, which is Aden, and in Scripture
Eden in Thelasar. This country is very mountainous, and contains many
independent Jews who are not subject to the power of the Gentiles, but
possess cities and fortresses on the summits of the mountains, from whence
they descend into the country of Maatum, with which they are at war.
Maatum, called also Nubia, is a Christian kingdom and the inhabitants are
called Nubians," etc. (p. 117). Here the Rabbi seems to transfer Aden to
the west of the Red Sea (as Polo also seems to do in this chapter); for
the Jews warring against Nubian Christians must be sought in the Falasha
strongholds among the mountains of Abyssinia. His Middle India is
therefore the same as Polo's or nearly so. In Jordanus, as already
mentioned, we have _India Tertia_, which combines some characters of
Abyssinia and Zanjibar, but is distinguished from the Ethiopia of Prester
John, which adjoins it.

But for the occurrence of the name in R. Benjamin I should have supposed
the use of it to have been of European origin and current at most among
Oriental Christians and Frank merchants. The _European_ confusion of India
and Ethiopia comes down from Virgil's time, who brings the Nile from
India. And Servius (4th century) commenting on a more ambiguous passage--

    --"_Sola India nigrum
  Fert ebenum_,"

says explicitly "_Indiam omnem plagam Aethiopiae accipimus_." Procopius
brings the Nile into Egypt [Greek: ex Indôn]; and the Ecclesiastical
Historians Sozomen and Socrates (I take these citations, like the last,
from Ludolf), in relating the conversion of the Abyssinians by Frumentius,
speak of them only as of the [Greek: Indôn tôn endotéro], "Interior
Indians," a phrase intended to imply _remoter_, but which might perhaps
give rise to the term _Middle India_. Thus Cosmas says of China: "[Greek:
aês endotéro], there is no other country"; and Nicolo Conti calls the
Chinese _Interiores Indi_, which Mr. Winter Jones misrenders "natives of
Central India."[1] St. Epiphanius (end of 4th century) says _India_ was
formerly divided into nine kingdoms, viz., those of the (1) _Alabastri_,
(2) _Homeritae_, (3) _Azumiti_, and _Dulites_, (4) _Bugaei_, (5) _Taiani_,
(6) _Isabeni_, and so on, several of which are manifestly provinces
subject to Abyssinia.[2] Roger Bacon speaks of the "Ethiopes de Nubiâ et
ultimi illi _qui vocantur Indi, propter approximationem ad Indiam_." The
term _India Minor_ is applied to some Ethiopic region in a letter which
Matthew Paris gives under 1237. And this confusion which prevailed more or
less till the 16th century was at the bottom of that other confusion,
whatever be its exact history, between Prester John in remote Asia, and
Prester John in Abyssinia. In fact the narrative by Damian de Goës of the
Embassy from the King of Abyssinia to Portugal in 1513, which was printed
at Antwerp in 1532, bears the title "_Legatio Magni_ Indorum
_Imperatoris_," etc. (_Ludolf, Comment._ p. 2 and 75-76; _Epiph. de
Gemmis_, etc., p. 15; _R. Bacon, Opus Majus_, p. 148; _Matt. Paris_, p.
372.)

Wadding gives a letter from the Pope (Alex. II.) under date 3rd Sept.
1329, addressed to the _Emperor of Ethiopia_, to inform him of the
appointment of a Bishop of Diagorgan. As this place is the capital of a
district near Tabriz (Dehi-Khorkhán) the papal geography looks a little
hazy.

NOTE 2.--The allegation against the Abyssinian Christians, sometimes
extended to the whole Jacobite Church, that they accompanied the rite of
Baptism by branding with a hot iron on the face, is pretty old and
persistent.

The letter quoted from Matt. Paris in the preceding note relates of the
Jacobite Christians "who occupy the kingdoms between Nubia and India,"
that some of them brand the foreheads of their children before Baptism
with a hot iron (p. 302). A quaint Low-German account of the East, in a
MS. of the 14th century, tells of the Christians of India that when a
Bishop ordains a priest he fires him with a sharp and hot iron from the
forehead down the nose, and the scar of this wound abides till the day of
his death. And this they do for a token that the Holy Ghost came on the
Apostles with fire. Frescobaldi says those called the Christians of the
Girdle were the sect which baptized by branding on the head and temples.
Clavijo says there is such a sect among the Christians of India, but they
are despised by the rest. Barbosa, speaking of the Abyssinians, has this
passage: "According to what is said, their baptism is threefold, viz., by
blood, by fire, and by water. For they use circumcision like the Jews,
they brand on the forehead with a hot iron, and they baptize with water
like Catholic Christians." The respectable Pierre Belon speaks of the
Christians of Prester John, called Abyssinians, as baptized with fire and
branded in three places, i.e. between the eyes and on either cheek.
Linschoten repeats the like, and one of his plates is entitled _Habitus
Abissinorum quibus loco Baptismatis frons inuritur_. Ariosto, referring to
the Emperor of Ethiopia, has:--

  "_Gli è, s' io non piglio errore, in questo loco
  Ove al baltesimo loro usano il fuoco._"

As late as 1819 the traveller Dupré published the same statement about the
Jacobites generally. And so sober and learned a man as Assemani, himself
an Oriental, says: "Aethiopes vero, seu Abissini, praeter circumcisionem
adhibent etiam ferrum candens, quo pueris notam inurunt."

Yet Ludolf's Abyssinian friend, Abba Gregory, denied that there was any
such practice among them. Ludolf says it is the custom of various African
tribes, both Pagan and Mussulman, to cauterize their children in the veins
of the temples, in order to inure them against colds, and that this, being
practised by some Abyssinians, was taken for a religious rite. In spite of
the terms "Pagan and Mussulman," I suspect that Herodotus was the
authority for this practice. He states that many of the nomad Libyans,
when their children reached the age of four, used to burn the veins at the
top of the head with a flock of wool; others burned the veins about the
temples. And this they did, he says, to prevent their being troubled with
rheum in after life.

Indeed Andrea Corsali denies that the branding had aught to do with
baptism, "but only to observe Solomon's custom of marking his slaves, the
King of Ethiopia claiming to be descended from him." And it is remarkable
that Salt mentions that most of the people of Dixan had a cross marked
(i.e. branded) on the breast, right arm, or forehead. This he elsewhere
explains as a mark of their attachment to the ancient metropolitan church
of Axum, and he supposes that such a practice may have originated the
stories of fire-baptism. And we find it stated in Marino Sanudo that "some
of the Jacobites and Syrians _who had crosses branded on them_ said this
was done for the destruction of the Pagans, and out of reverence to the
Holy Rood." Matthew Paris, commenting on the letter quoted above, says
that many of the Jacobites _before baptism_ brand their children on the
forehead with a hot iron, whilst others brand a cross upon the cheeks or
temples. He had seen such marks also on the arms of both Jacobites and
Syrians who dwelt among the Saracens. It is clear, from Salt, that such
branding _was_ practised by many Abyssinians, and that to a recent date,
though it may have been entirely detached from baptism. A similar practice
is followed at Dwárika and Koteswar (on the old Indus mouth, now called
Lakpat River), where the Hindu pilgrims to these sacred sites are branded
with the mark of the god.

(_Orient und Occident_, Göttingen, 1862, I. 453; _Frescob._ 114;
_Clavijo_, 163; _Ramus._ I. f. 290, v., f. 184; _Marin. Sanud._ 185, and
Bk. iii. pt. viii. ch. iv.; _Clusius, Exotica_, pt. ii. p. 142; _Orland.
Fur._ XXXIII. st. 102; _Voyage en Perse, dans les Années_ 1807-1809;
_Assemani_, II. c.; _Ludolf_, iii. 6, § 41; _Salt_, in _Valentia's Trav._
II. p. 505, and his _Second Journey_, French Tr., II. 219; _M. Paris_, p.
373; _J.R.A.S._ I. 42.)

NOTE 3.--It is pretty clear from what follows (as Marsden and others have
noted) that the narrative requires us to conceive of the Sultan of Aden as
dominant over the territory between Abyssinia and the sea, or what was in
former days called ADEL, between which and _Aden_ confusion seems to have
been made. I have noticed in Note 1 the appearance of this confusion in R.
Benjamin; and I may add that also in the Map of Marino Sanudo Aden is
represented on the western shore of the Red Sea. But is it not possible
that in the origin of the Mahomedan States of Adel the Sultan of Aden had
some power over them? For we find in the account of the correspondence
between the King of Abyssinia and Sultan Bibars, quoted in the next Note
but one, that the Abyssinian letters and presents for Egypt were sent to
the Sultan of Yemen or Aden to be forwarded.

NOTE 4.--This passage is not authoritative enough to justify us in
believing that the mediaeval Abyssinians or Nubians did use elephants in
war, for Marco has already erred in ascribing that practice to the Blacks
of Zanjibar.

There can indeed be no doubt that elephants from the countries on the west
of the Red Sea were caught and tamed and used for war, systematically and
on a great scale, by the second and third Ptolemies, and the latter
(Euergetes) has commemorated this, and his own use of _Troglodytic_ and
_Ethiopic_ elephants, and the fact of their encountering the elephants of
India, in the Adulitic Inscription recorded by Cosmas.

This author however, who wrote about A.D. 545, and had been at the Court
of Axum, then in its greatest prosperity, says distinctly: "The Ethiopians
do not understand the art of taming elephants; but if their King should
want one or two for show they catch them young, and bring them up in
captivity." Hence, when we find a few years later (A.D. 570) that there
was one great elephant, and some say _thirteen_ elephants,[3] employed in
the army which Abraha, the Abyssinian Ruler of Yemen led against Mecca, an
expedition famous in Arabian history as the War of the Elephant, we are
disposed to believe that these must have been elephants imported from
India. There is indeed a notable statement quoted by Ritter, which if
trustworthy would lead to another conclusion: "Already in the 20th year of
the Hijra (A.D. 641) had the _Nubas_ and _Bejas_ hastened to the help of
the Greek Christians of Oxyrhynchus (_Bahnasa_ of the Arabs) ... against
the first invasion of the Mahommedans, and according to the exaggerated
representations of the Arabian Annalists, the army which they brought
consisted of 50,000 men and 1300 _war-elephants_."[4] The Nubians
certainly must have tamed elephants _on some scale_ down to a late period
in the Middle Ages, for elephants,--in one case three annually,--formed a
frequent part of the tribute paid by Nubia to the Mahomedan sovereigns of
Egypt at least to the end of the 13th century; but the passage quoted is
too isolated to be accepted without corroboration. The only approach to
such a corroboration that I know of is a statement by Poggio in the matter
appended to his account of Conti's Travels. He there repeats some
information derived from the Abyssinian envoys who visited Pope Eugenius
IV. about 1440, and one of his notes is: "They have elephants very large
and in great numbers; some kept for ostentation or pleasure, some as
useful in war. They are hunted; the old ones killed, the young ones taken
and tamed." But the facts on which this was founded probably amounted to
no more than what Cosmas had stated. I believe no trustworthy authority
since the Portuguese discoveries confirms the use of the elephant in
Abyssinia;[5] and Ludolf, whose information was excellent, distinctly
says that the Abyssinians did not tame them. (_Cathay_, p. clxxxi.;
_Quat., Mém., sur l'Égypte_, II. 98, 113; _India in XVth Century_, 37;
_Ludolf_, I. 10, 32; _Armandi, H. Militaire des Éléphants_, p. 548.)

NOTE 5.--To the 10th century at least the whole coast country of the Red
Sea, from near Berbera probably to Suákin, was still subject to Abyssinia.
At this time we hear only of "Musalman families" residing in Zaila' and
the other ports, and tributary to the Christians (see _Mas'udi_, III. 34).

According to Bruce's abstract of the Abyssinian chronicles, the royal line
was superseded in the 10th century by Falasha Jews, then by other
Christian families, and three centuries of weakness and disorder
succeeded. In 1268, according to Bruce's chronology, Icon Amlac of the
House of Solomon, which had continued to rule in Shoa, regained the
empire, and was followed by seven other princes whose reigns come down to
1312. The history of this period is very obscure, but Bruce gathers that
it was marked by civil wars, during which the Mahomedan communities that
had by this time grown up in the coast-country became powerful and
expelled the Abyssinians from the sea-ports. Inland provinces of the low
country also, such as Ifat and Dawaro, had fallen under Mahomedan
governors, whose allegiance to the Negush, if not renounced, had become
nominal.

One of the principal Mahomedan communities was called _Adel_, the name,
according to modern explanation, of the tribes now called Danákíl. The
capital of the Sultan of Adel was, according to Bruce at Aussa, some
distance inland from the port of Zaila', which also belonged to Adel.

Amda Zion, who succeeded to the Abyssinian throne, according to Bruce's
chronology, in 1312, two or three years later, provoked by the Governor of
Ifat, who had robbed and murdered one of his Mahomedan agents in the
Lowlands, descended on Ifat, inflicted severe chastisement on the
offenders, and removed the governor. A confederacy was then formed against
the Abyssinian King by several of the Mahomedan States or chieftainships,
among which Adel is conspicuous. Bruce gives a long and detailed account
of Amda Zion's resolute and successful campaigns against this confederacy.
It bears a strong general resemblance to Marco's narrative, always
excepting the story of the Bishop, of which Bruce has no trace, and always
admitting that our traveller has confounded Aden with Adel.

But the chronology is obviously in the way of identification of the
histories. Marco could not have related in 1298 events that did not occur
till 1315-16. Mr. Salt however, in his version of the chronology, not only
puts the accession of Amda Zion eleven years earlier than Bruce, but even
then has so little confidence in its accuracy, and is so much disposed to
identify the histories, that he suggests that the Abyssinian dates should
be carried back further still by some 20 years, on the authority of the
narrative in our text. M. Pauthier takes a like view.

I was for some time much disposed to do likewise, but after examining the
subject more minutely, I am obliged to reject this view, and to abide by
Bruce's Chronology. To elucidate this I must exhibit the whole list of the
Abyssinian Kings from the restoration of the line of Solomon to the middle
of the 16th century, at which period Bruce finds a check to the chronology
in the record of a solar eclipse. The chronologies have been extracted
independently by Bruce, Rüppell, and Salt; the latter using a different
version of the Annals from the other two. I set down all three.

           BRUCE.                    RÜPPEL.   SALT.

Reigns.         Duration    Dates.   Duration  Reigns.    Duration   Dates.
                of reign.            of reign.            of reign.
                Years.               Years.               Years.

Icon Amlac         15     1268-1283     15       ..   ..     14   1255-1269
Igba Zion           9     1283-1292      9     Woudem Arad   15   1269-1284
Bahar Segued   \                               Kudma Asgud
Tzenaff  "     |                               Asfa    "      3   1284-1287
Jan      "     |    5     1292-1297      5     Sinfa   "
Hazeb Araad    |                               Bar     "      5   1287-1292
Kedem Segued   /                               Igba Zion      9   1292-1301
Wedem Arad         15     1297-1312     15       ..   ..     ..      ..
Amda Zion          30     1312-1342     30       ..   ..     30   1301-1331
Saif Arad          28     1342-1370     28       ..   ..     28   1331-1359
Wedem Asferi       10     1370-1380     10       ..   ..     10   1359-1369
David II           29     1380-1409     29       ..   ..     32   1369-1401
Theodorus           3     1409-1412      3       ..   ..      1   1401-1402
Isaac              17     1412-1429     15       ..   ..     15   1402-1417
Andreas          0-7/12     1429       0-7/12    ..   ..      7   1417-1424
Haseb Nanya         4     1429-1433      4       ..   ..      5   1424-1429
Sarwe Yasus    \
               | 1-1/12   1433-1434      1       ..   ..      5   1429-1434
Ameda Yasus    /
Zara Jacob         34     1434-1468    34-1/8    ..   ..     34   1434-1468
Beda Mariam        10     1468-1478     10       ..   ..     10   1468-1478
Iskander       \
               |   17     1478-1495   17-7/12    ..   ..     16   1478-1494
Ameda Zion     /
Naod               13     1495-1508     13       ..   ..     13   1494-1507
David III          32     1508-1540     32       ..   ..     32   1507-1536
Claudius           ..       1540        ..       ..   ..     ..      ..

Bruce checks his chronology by an eclipse which took place in 1553, and
which the Abyssinian chronicle assigns to the 13th year of Claudius. This
alone would be scarcely satisfactory as a basis for the retrospective
control of reigns extending through nearly three centuries; but we find
some other checks.

Thus in Quatremère's Makrizi we find a correspondence between Sultan
Bibars and the King of Habasha, or of Amhara, _Mahar_ AMLÁK, which
occurred in A.H. 672 or 673, i.e. A.D. 1273-1274. This would fall within
the reign of Icon AMLAK according to Bruce's chronology, but not according
to Salt's, and _à fortiori_ not according to any chronology throwing the
reigns further back still.

In Quatremère's _Égypte_ we find another notice of a letter which came to
the Sultan of Egypt from the King of Abyssinia, IAKBA SIUN, in Ramadhan
689, i.e. in the end of A.D. 1289.

Again, this is perfectly consistent with Bruce's order and dates, but not
with Salt's.

The same work contains a notice of an inroad on the Mussulman territory of
Assuan by David (II.), the son of Saif Arad, in the year 783 (A.D.
1381-1382).

In Rink's translation of a work of Makrizi's it is stated that this same
King David died in A.H. 812, i.e. A.D. 1409; that he was succeeded by
Theodorus, whose reign was very brief, and he again by Isaac, who died in
Dhulkada 833, i.e. July-August 1430. These dates are in close or
substantial agreement with Bruce's chronology, but not at all with Salt's
or any chronology throwing the reigns further back. Makrizi goes on to say
that Isaac was succeeded by Andreas, who reigned only four months, and
then by Hazbana, who died in Ramadhan 834, i.e. May-June 1431. This last
date does not agree, but we are now justified in suspecting an error in
the Hijra date,[6] whilst the 4 _months'_ reign ascribed to Andreas shows
that Salt again is wrong in extending it to 7 _years_, and Bruce
presumably right in making it 7 _months_.

These coincidences seem to me sufficient to maintain the substantial
accuracy of Bruce's chronology, and to be fatal to the identification of
Marco's story with that of the wars of Amda Zion. The general identity in
the duration of reigns as given by Rüppell shows that Bruce did not tamper
with these. It is remarkable that in Makrizi's report of the letter of
Igba Zion in 1289 (the very year when according to the text this
anti-Mahomedan war was going on), that Prince tells the Sultan that he is a
protector of the Mahomedans in Abyssinia, acting in that respect _quite
differently from his Father who had been so hostile to them_.

I suspect therefore that _Icon Amlàk_ must have been the true hero of
Marco's story, and that the date must be thrown back, probably to 1278.

Rüppell is at a loss to understand where Bruce got the long story of Amda
Zion's heroic deeds, which enters into extraordinary detail, embracing
speeches after the manner of the Roman historians and the like, and
occupies some 60 pages in the French edition of Bruce which I have been
using. The German traveller could find no trace of this story in any of
the versions of the Abyssinian chronicle which he consulted, nor was it
known to a learned Abyssinian whom he names. Bruce himself says that the
story, which he has "a little abridged and accommodated to our manner of
writing, was derived from a work written in very pure Gheez, in Shoa,
under the reign of Zara Jacob"; and though it is possible that his
amplifications outweigh his abridgments, we cannot doubt that he had an
original groundwork for his narrative.

The work of Makrizi already quoted speaks of seven kingdoms in Zaila'
(here used for the Mahomedan low country) originally tributary to the Hati
(or Negush) of Amhara, viz., _Aufat_,[7] _Dawaro_, Arababni, _Hadiah_,
Shirha, Bali, Darah. Of these Ifat, Dawaro, and Hadiah repeatedly occur in
Bruce's story of the war. Bruce also tells us that Amda Zion, when he
removed _Hakeddin_, the Governor of Ifat, who had murdered his agent,
replaced him by his brother _Sabreddin_. Now we find in Makrizi that
_about_ A.H. 700, the reigning governor of Aufat under the Hati was
_Sabreddin_ Mahomed Valahui; and that it was 'Ali, the son of this
Sabreddin, who first threw off allegiance to the Abyssinian King, then
Saif Arad (son of Amda Zion). The latter displaces 'Ali and gives the
government to his son Ahmed. After various vicissitudes Hakeddin, the son
of Ahmed, obtains the mastery in Aufat, defeats Saif Arad completely, and
founds a city in Shoa called Vahal, which superseded Aufat or Ifat. Here
the _Sabreddin_ of Makrizi appears to be identical with Amda Zion's
governor in Bruce's story, whilst the _Hakeddins_ belong to two different
generations of the same family. But Makrizi does not notice the wars of
Amda Zion any more than the Abyssinian Chronicles notice the campaign
recorded by Marco Polo.

(_Bruce_, vol. III. and vol. IV., pp. 23-90, and _Salt's Second Journey to
Abyssinia_, II. 270, etc.; both these are quoted from French versions
which are alone available to me, the former by _Castera_, Londres, 1790,
the latter by _P. Henry_, Paris, 1816; _Fr. Th. Rink, Al Macrisi, Hist.
Rerum Islamiticarum in Abyssinia_, etc., Lugd. Bat. 1798; _Rüppell_,
Dissert. on Abyss. Hist. and Chronology in his work on that country;
_Quat. Makr._ II. 122-123; _Quat. Mém. sur l'Égypte_, II. 268, 276.)

NOTE 6.--The last words run in the G.T.: "_Il ont singles de plosors
maineres. Il ont_ gat paulz (see note 2, ch. xxiii. supra), _et autre
gat maimon si devisez qe pou s'en faut de tiel hi a qe ne senblent a vix
d'omes._" The beautiful cocks and hens are, I suppose, Guinea fowl.

[We read in the _Si Shi ki_: "There is (in Western Asia) a large bird,
above 10 feet high, with feet like a camel, and of bluish-grey colour. When
it runs it flaps the wings. It eats fire, and its eggs are of the size of a
_sheng_" (a certain measure for grain). (_Bretschneider, Med. Res._, I. pp.
143-144.) Dr. Bretschneider gives a long note on the ostrich, called in
Persian _shutur-murg_ (camel-bird), from which we gather the following
information: "The ostrich, although found only in the desert of Africa and
Western Asia, was known to the Chinese in early times, since their first
intercourse with the countries of the far west. In the History of the Han
(_T'sien Han shu_, ch. xcvi.) it is stated that the Emperor _Wu-ti_, B.C.
140-186, first sent an embassy to _An-si_, a country of Western Asia,
which, according to the description given of it, can only be identified
with ancient _Parthia_, the empire of the dynasty of the Arsacides. In this
country, the Chinese chronicler records, a large bird from 8 to 9 feet high
is found, the feet, the breast, and the neck of which make it resemble the
camel. It eats barley. The name of this bird is _ta ma tsio_ (the bird of
the great horse). It is further stated that subsequently the ruler of An-si
sent an embassy to the Chinese emperor, and brought as a present the eggs
of this great bird. In the _Hou Han shu_, ch. cxviii., an embassy from
An-si is mentioned again in A.D. 101. They brought as presents a lion and a
large bird. In the History of the _Weí_ Dynasty, A.D. 386-558, where for
the first time the name of _Po-sz'_ occurs, used to designate Persia, it is
recorded that in that country there is a large bird resembling a camel and
laying eggs of large size. It has wings and cannot fly far. It eats grass
and flesh, and swallows men. In the History of the _T'ang_ (618-907) the
camel-bird is again mentioned as a bird of Persia. It is also stated there
that the ruler of _T'u-huo-lo_ (Tokharestan) sent a camel-bird to the
Chinese emperor. The Chinese materia medica, _Pen ts'ao Kang mu_, written
in the 16th century, gives (ch. xlix.) a good description of the ostrich,
compiled from ancient authors. It is said, amongst other things, to eat
copper, iron, stones, etc., and to have only two claws on its feet. Its
legs are so strong that it can dangerously wound a man by jerking. It can
run 300 _li_ a day. Its native countries are _A-dan_ (Aden) _Dju-bo_ (on
the Eastern African coast). A rude but tolerably exact drawing of the
camel-bird in the Pen-ts'ao proves that the ostrich was well known to the
Chinese in ancient times, and that they paid great attention to it. In the
History of the _Ming_ Dynasty, ch. cccxxvi., the country of _Hu-lu-mo-sz'_
(Hormuz on the Persian Gulf) is mentioned as producing ostriches."--H.C.]


[1] Reinaud (_Abulf._ I. 81) says the word _Interior_ applied by the Arabs
    to a country, is the equivalent of _citerior_, whilst by _exterior_
    they mean _ulterior_. But the truth is just the reverse, even in the
    case before him, where _Bolghár-al-Dakhila_, 'Bulgari Interiores,' are
    the Volga Bulgars. So also the Arabs called Armenia on the Araxes
    _Interior_, Armenia on Lake Van _Exterior_ (_St. Martin_, I. 31).

[2] Thus (2) the Homeritae of Yemen, (3) the people of Axum, and Adulis or
    Zulla, (5) the _Bugaei_ or Bejahs of the Red Sea coast, (6) _Taiani_ or
    Tiamo, appear in Salt's Axum Inscription as subject to the King of Axum
    in the middle of the 4th century.

[3] _Muir's Life of Mahomet_, I. cclxiii.

[4] _Ritter, Africa_, p. 605. The statement appears to be taken from
    Burckhardt's _Nubia_, but the reference is not quite clear. There is
    nothing about this army in Quatremère's _Mém. sur la Nubie_. (_Mém. sur
    l'Égypte_, vol. ii.)

[5] Armandi indeed quotes a statement in support of such use from a
    Spaniard, _Marmol_, who travelled (he says) in Abyssinia in the
    beginning of the 16th century. But the author in question, already
    quoted at pp. 368 and 407, was no traveller, only a compiler; and the
    passage cited by Armandi is evidently made up from the statement in
    Poggio and from what our traveller has said about Zanjibar. (Supra, p.
    422. See _Marmol, Desc. de Affrica_, I. f. 27, v.)

[6] 834 for 836.

[7] On Aufat, see De Sacy, _Chrestom. Arabe_, I. 457.



CHAPTER XXXVI.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ADEN.


You must know that in the province of ADEN there is a Prince who is called
the Soldan. The people are all Saracens and adorers of Mahommet, and have
a great hatred of Christians. There are many towns and villages in the
country.

This Aden is the port to which many of the ships of India come with their
cargoes; and from this haven the merchants carry the goods a distance of
seven days further in small vessels. At the end of those seven days they
land the goods and load them on camels, and so carry them a land journey
of 30 days. This brings them to the river of ALEXANDRIA, and by it they
descend to the latter city. It is by this way through Aden that the
Saracens of Alexandria receive all their stores of pepper and other
spicery; and there is no other route equally good and convenient by which
these goods could reach that place.[NOTE 1]

And you must know that the Soldan of Aden receives a large amount in
duties from the ships that traffic between India and his country,
importing different kinds of goods; and from the exports also he gets a
revenue, for there are despatched from the port of Aden to India a very
large number of Arab chargers, and palfreys, and stout nags adapted for
all work, which are a source of great profit to those who export them.
[NOTE 2] For horses fetch very high prices in India, there being none bred
there, as I have told you before; insomuch that a charger will sell there
for 100 marks of silver and more. On these also the Soldan of Aden
receives heavy payments in port charges, so that 'tis said he is one of
the richest princes in the world.[NOTE 3]

And it is a fact that when the Soldan of Babylon went against the city of
Acre and took it, this Soldan of Aden sent to his assistance 30,000
horsemen and full 40,000 camels, to the great help of the Saracens and the
grievous injury of the Christians. He did this a great deal more for the
hate he bears the Christians than for any love he bears the Soldan of
Babylon; for these two do hate one another heartily.[NOTE 4]

Now we will have done with the Soldan of Aden, and I will tell you of a
city which is subject to Aden, called Esher.


NOTE 1.--This is from Pauthier's text, which is here superior to the G.T.
The latter has: "They put the goods in small vessels, which proceed _on a
river_ about seven days." _Ram._ has, "in other smaller vessels, with
which they make a voyage on a gulf of the sea for 20 days, more or less,
as the weather may be. On reaching a certain port they load the goods on
camels, and carry them a 30 days' journey by land to the River Nile, where
they embark them in small vessels called _Zerms_, and in these descend the
current to Cairo, and thence by an artificial cut, called _Calizene_, to
Alexandria." The last looks as if it had been _edited_; Polo never uses
the name _Cairo_. The canal, the predecessor of the _Mahmúdíah_, is also
called _Il Caligine_ in the journey of Simon Sigoli (_Frescobaldi_ p.
168). Brunetto Latini, too, discoursing of the Nile, says:--

  "Così serva su' filo,
  Ed è chiamato Nilo.
  D'un su' ramo si dice,
  Ch' è chiamato _Calice_."
      --_Tesoretto_, pp. 81-82.

Also in the _Sfera_ of Dati:--

  --"Chiamasi il _Caligine_
  Egion e Nilo, e non si sa l'origine." P. 9.

The word is (Ar.) _Khalíj_, applied in one of its senses specially to the
canals drawn from the full Nile. The port on the Red Sea would be either
Suákin or Aidháb; the 30 days' journey seems to point to the former.
Polo's contemporary, Marino Sanudo, gives the following account of the
transit, omitting _entirely_ the Red Sea navigation, though his line
correctly represented would apparently go by Kosseir: "The fourth haven is
called AHADEN, and stands on a certain little island joining, as it were,
to the main, in the land of the Saracens. The spices and other goods from
India are landed there, loaded on camels, and so carried by a journey of
nine days to a place on the River Nile, called _Chus_ (_Kús_, the ancient
_Cos_ below Luqsor), where they are put into boats and conveyed in 15 days
to Babylon. But in the month of October and thereabouts the river rises to
such an extent that the spices, etc., continue to descend the stream from
Babylon and enter a certain long canal, and so are conveyed over the 200
miles between Babylon and Alexandria." (Bk. I. pt. i. ch. i.)

Makrizi relates that up to A.H. 725 (1325), from time immemorial the
Indian ships had discharged at Aden, but in that year the exactions of the
Sultan induced a shipmaster to pass on into the Red Sea, and eventually
the trade came to Jidda. (See _De Sacy, Chrest. Arabe_, II. 556.)

+Aden is mentioned (_A-dan_) in ch. cccxxxvi. of the Ming History as
having sent an embassy to China in 1427. These embassies were subsequently
often repeated. The country, which lay 22 days' voyage west of _Kuli_
(supposed Calicut, but perhaps Káyal), was devoid of grass or trees.
(_Bretschneider, Med. Res._, II. pp. 305-306.)

[Ma-huan (transl. by Phillips) writes (_J.R.A.S._, April 1896): "In the
nineteenth year of Yung-lo (1422) an Imperial Envoy, the eunuch Li, was
sent from China to this country with a letter and presents to the King. On
his arrival he was most honourably received, and was met by the king on
landing and conducted by him to his palace."--H.C.]

NOTE 2.--The words describing the horses are (P.'s text): "_de bons
destriers Arrabins et chevaux et grans roncins_ à ij selles." The meaning
seems to be what I have expressed in the text, fit either for saddle or
pack-saddle.

[_Roncins à deux selles_. Littré's great Dictionary supplies an apt
illustration of this phrase. A contemporary _Eloge de Charles VII._ says:
"_Jamais il chevauchoit mule ne haquenée, mais_ un bas cheval trotier
entre deux selles" (a cob?).]

In one application the _Deux selles_ of the old riding-schools were the
two styles of riding, called in Spanish _Montar á la Gineta_ and _Montar á
la Brida_. The latter stands for the old French style, with heavy bit and
saddle, and long stirrups just reached by the toes; the former the Moorish
style, with short stirrups and lighter bit. But the phrase would also seem
to have meant _saddle and pack-saddle_. Thus Cobarruvias explains the
phrase _Hombre de dos sillas_, "Conviene saber de la gineta y brida, _ser
de silla y albarda_ (pack-saddle), _servir de todo_," and we find the
converse expression, _No ser para silla ni para albarda_, good for
nothing.

But for an example of the exact phrase of the French text I am indebted to
P. della Valle. Speaking of the Persian horses, he says: "Few of them are
of any great height, and you seldom see thoroughbreds among them; probably
because here they have no liking for such and don't seek to breed them.
For the most part they are of that very useful style that we call horses
for both saddles (_che noi chiamiamo da due selle_)" etc. (See
_Cobarruvias_, under _Silla_ and _Brida; Dice. de la Lengua Castellana por
la Real Academia Española_, under _Silla, Gineta, Brida; P. della Valle_,
Let. XV. da Sciraz, § 3, vol. ii, p. 240.)

NOTE 3.--The supposed confusion between Adel and Aden does not affect this
chapter.

The "Soldan of Aden" was the Sultan of Yemen, whose chief residence was at
Ta'izz, North-East of Mokha. The prince reigning in Polo's day was Malik
Muzaffar Shamsuddín Abul Mahasen Yusuf. His father, Malik Mansúr, a
retainer of the Ayubite Dynasty, had been sent by Saladin as Wazir to
Yemen, with his brother Malik Muazzam Turan Shah. After the death of the
latter, and of his successor, the Wazir assumed the government and became
the founder of a dynasty. Aden was the chief port of his dominions. It had
been a seat of direct trade with China in the early centuries of Islam.

Ibn Batuta speaks of it thus correctly: "It is enclosed by mountains, and
you can enter by one side only. It is a large town, but has neither corn
nor trees, nor fresh water, except from reservoirs made to catch the
rain-water; for other drinking water is at a great distance from the town.
The Arabs often prevent the townspeople coming to fetch it until the latter
have come to terms with them, and paid them a bribe in money or cloths. The
heat at Aden is great. It is the port frequented by the people from India,
and great ships come thither from Kunbáyat, Tána, Kaulam, Kalikút,
Fandaráina, Sháliát, Manjarúr, Fákanúr, Hinaur, Sindábúr,[1] etc. There are
Indian merchants residing in the city, and Egyptian merchants as well."

[Illustration: Attempted Escalade of ADEN by the Portuguese under
ALBOQUERQUE in 1513 (Reduced Facsimile of a large Contemporary Wood
Engraving in the Map Department of the BRITISH MUSEUM supposed to have
been executed at Antwerp) Size of the Original (in 6 Sheets) 12 Inches by
19-1/2 Inches]

The tanks of which the Moor speaks had been buried by débris; of late
years they have been cleared and repaired. They are grand works. They are
said to have been formerly 50 in number, with a capacity of 30 million
gallons.

[Illustration: Attempted Escalade of ADEN by the Portuguese under
ALBOQUERQUE in 1513 (Reduced Facsimile of a large Contemporary Wood
Engraving in the Map Department of the BRITISH MUSEUM supposed to have
been executed at Antwerp) Size of the Original (in 6 Sheets) 12 Inches by
19-1/2 Inches]

[Illustration: View of Aden in 1840.]

This cut, from a sketch by Dr. Kirk, gives an excellent idea of Aden as
seen by a ship approaching from India. The large plate again, reduced from
a grand and probably unique contemporary wood-engraving of great size,
shows the impression that the city made upon European eyes in the
beginning of the 16th century. It will seem absurd, especially to those
who knew Aden in the early days of our occupation, and no doubt some of
the details are extravagant, but the general impression is quite consonant
with that derived from the description of De Barros and Andrea Corsali:
"In site and aspect from the seaward," says the former, "the city forms a
beautiful object, for besides the part which lies along the shore with its
fine walls and towers, its many public buildings and rows of houses rising
aloft in many stories, with terraced roofs, you have all that ridge of
mountain facing the sea and presenting to its very summit a striking
picture of the operations of Nature, and still more of the industry of
man." This historian says that the prosperity of Aden increased on the
arrival of the Portuguese in those seas, for the Mussulman traders from
Jidda and the Red Sea ports now dreaded these western corsairs, and made
Aden an entrepôt, instead of passing it by as they used to do in days of
unobstructed navigation. This prosperity, however, must have been of very
brief duration. Corsali's account of Aden (in 1517) is excellent, but too
long for extract, _Makrizi_, IV. 26-27; _Playfair, H. of Yemen_, p. 7;
_Ibn Batuta_, II. 177; _De Barros_, II. vii. 8; _Ram._ I. f. 182.

NOTE 4.--I have not been able to trace any other special notice of the
part taken by the Sultan of Yemen in the capture of Acre by the Mameluke
Sultan, Malik Ashraf Khalil, in 1291. Ibn Ferat, quoted by Reinaud, says
that the Sultan sent into all the provinces the most urgent orders for the
supply of troops and machines; and there gathered from all sides the
warriors of Damascus, of Hamath, and the rest of Syria, of Egypt, and of
_Arabia_. (_Michaud, Bibl. des Croisades_, 1829, IV. 569.)

"I once" (says Joinville) "rehearsed to the Legate two cases of sin that a
priest of mine had been telling me of, and he answered me thus: 'No man
knows as much of the heinous sins that are done in Acre as I do; and it
cannot be but God will take vengeance on them, in such a way that the city
of Acre shall be washed in the blood of its inhabitants, and that another
people shall come to occupy after them.' The good man's prophecy hath come
true in part, for of a truth the city hath been washed in the blood of its
inhabitants, but those to replace them are not yet come: may God send them
good when it pleases Him!" (p. 192).


[1] All ports of Western India: Pandarani, Shalia (near Calicut),
    Mangalore, Baccanore, Onore, Goa.



CHAPTER XXXVII.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF ESHER.


Esher is a great city lying in a north-westerly direction from the last,
and 400 miles distant from the Port of Aden. It has a king, who is subject
to the Soldan of Aden. He has a number of towns and villages under him,
and administers his territory well and justly.

The people are Saracens. The place has a very good haven, wherefore many
ships from India come thither with various cargoes; and they export many
good chargers thence to India.[NOTE 1]

A great deal of white incense grows in this country, and brings in a great
revenue to the Prince; for no one dares sell it to any one else; and
whilst he takes it from the people at 10 livres of gold for the
hundredweight, he sells it to the merchants at 60 livres, so his profit is
immense.[NOTE 2]

Dates also grow very abundantly here. The people have no corn but rice,
and very little of that; but plenty is brought from abroad, for it sells
here at a good profit. They have fish in great profusion, and notably
plenty of tunny of large size; so plentiful indeed that you may buy two
big ones for a Venice groat of silver. The natives live on meat and rice
and fish. They have no wine of the vine, but they make good wine from
sugar, from rice, and from dates also.

And I must tell you another very strange thing. You must know that their
sheep have no ears, but where the ear ought to be they have a little horn!
They are pretty little beasts.[NOTE 3]

And I must not omit to tell you that all their cattle, including horses,
oxen, and camels, live upon small fish and nought besides, for 'tis all
they get to eat. You see in all this country there is no grass or forage
of any kind; it is the driest country on the face of the earth. The fish
which are given to the cattle are very small, and during March, April, and
May, are caught in such quantities as would astonish you. They are then
dried and stored, and the beasts are fed on them from year's end to year's
end. The cattle will also readily eat these fish all alive and just out of
the water.[NOTE 4]

The people here have likewise many other kinds of fish of large size and
good quality, exceedingly cheap; these they cut in pieces of about a pound
each, and dry them in the sun, and then store them, and eat them all the
year through, like so much biscuit.[NOTE 5]


NOTE 1.--_Shihr_ or _Shehr_, with the article, ES-SHEHR, still exists on
the Arabian coast, as a town and district about 330 m. east of Aden. In
1839 Captain Haines described the modern town as extending in a scattered
manner for a mile along the shore, the population about 6000, and the
trade considerable, producing duties to the amount of 5000_l._ a year. It
was then the residence of the Sultan of the Hamúm tribe of Arabs. There is
only an open roadstead for anchorage. Perhaps, however, the old city is to
be looked for about ten miles to the westward, where there is another
place bearing the same name, "once a thriving town, but now a desolate
group of houses with an old fort, formerly the residence of the chief of
the _Kasaidi_ tribe." (_J.R.G.S._ IX. 151-152.) Shehr is spoken of by
Barbosa (_Xaer_ in Lisbon ed.; _Pecher_ in Ramusio; _Xeher_ in Stanley; in
the two last misplaced to the east of Dhofar): "It is a very large place,
and there is a great traffic in goods imported by the Moors of Cambaia,
Chaul, Dabul, Batticala, and the cities of Malabar, such as cotton-stuffs
... strings of garnets, and many other stones of inferior value; also much
rice and sugar, and spices of all sorts, with coco-nuts; ... their money
they invest in horses for India, which are here very large and good. Every
one of them is worth in India 500 or 600 ducats." (_Ram._ f. 292.) The
name Shehr in some of the Oriental geographies, includes the whole coast
up to Omán.

NOTE 2.--The hills of the Shehr and Dhafár districts were the great source
of produce of the Arabian frankincense. Barbosa says of Shehr: "They carry
away much incense, which is produced at this place and in the interior; ...
it is exported hence all over the world, and here it is used to pay ships
with, for on the spot it is worth only 150 farthings the hundredweight."
See note 2, ch. xxvii. supra; and next chapter, note 2.

NOTE 3.--This was no doubt a breed of four-horned sheep, and Polo, or his
informant, took the lower pair of horns for abnormal ears. Probably the
breed exists, but we have little information on details in reference to
this coast. The Rev. G.P. Badger, D.C.L., writes: "There are sheep on the
eastern coast of Arabia, and as high up as Mohammerah on the
Shatt-al-Arab, _with very small ears indeed;_ so small as to be almost
imperceptible at first sight near the projecting horns. I saw one at
Mohammerah having _six_ horns." And another friend, Mr. Arthur Grote, tells
me he had for some time at Calcutta a 4-horned sheep from Aden.

NOTE 4.--This custom holds more or less on all the Arabian coast from
Shehr to the Persian Gulf, and on the coast east of the Gulf also. Edrisi
mentions it at Shehr (printed _Shajr_, I. 152), and the Admiral Sidi 'Ali
says: "On the coast of Shehr, men and animals all live on fish" (_J.A.S.B._
V. 461). Ibn Batuta tells the same of Dhafár, the subject of next chapter:
"The fish consist for the most part of sardines, which are here of the
fattest. The surprising thing is that all kinds of cattle are fed on these
sardines, and sheep likewise. I have never seen anything like that
elsewhere" (II. 197). Compare Strabo's account of the Ichthyophagi on the
coast of Mekran (XV. 11), and the like account in the life of Apollonius of
Tyana (III. 56).

[Burton, quoted by Yule, says (_Sind Revisited_, 1877, I. p. 33): "The
whole of the coast, including that of Mekrán, the land of the _Máhi
Khárán_ or Ichthyophagi." Yule adds: "I have seen this suggested also
elsewhere. It seems a highly probable etymology." See note, p. 402.
--H.C.]

NOTE 5.--At Hásik, east of Dhafár, Ibn Batuta says: "The people here live
on a kind of fish called _Al-Lukham_, resembling that called the sea-dog.
They cut it in slices and strips, dry it in the sun, salt it, and feed on
it. Their houses are made with fish-bones, and their roofs with
camel-hides" (II. 214).



CHAPTER XXXVIII.

CONCERNING THE CITY OF DUFAR.


Dufar is a great and noble and fine city, and lies 500 miles to the
north-west of Esher. The people are Saracens, and have a Count for their
chief, who is subject to the Soldan of Aden; for this city still belongs to
the Province of Aden. It stands upon the sea and has a very good haven, so
that there is a great traffic of shipping between this and India; and the
merchants take hence great numbers of Arab horses to that market, making
great profits thereby. This city has under it many other towns and
villages.[NOTE 1]

Much white incense is produced here, and I will tell you how it grows. The
trees are like small fir-trees; these are notched with a knife in several
places, and from these notches the incense is exuded. Sometimes also it
flows from the tree without any notch; this is by reason of the great heat
of the sun there.[NOTE 2]


NOTE 1.--_Dufar_. The name [Arabic] is variously pronounced Dhafár,
DHOFAR, Zhafár, and survives attached to a well-watered and fertile plain
district opening on the sea, nearly 400 miles east of Shehr, though
according to Haines there is now no _town_ of the name. Ibn Batuta speaks
of the city as situated at the extremity of Yemen ("the province of
Aden"), and mentions its horse-trade, its unequalled dirt, stench, and
flies, and consequent diseases. (See II. 196 seqq.) What he says of the
desert character of the tract round the town is not in accordance with
modern descriptions of the plain of Dhafár, nor seemingly with his own
statements of the splendid bananas grown there, as well as other Indian
products, betel, and coco-nut. His account of the Sultan of Zhafár in his
time corroborates Polo's, for he says that prince was the son of a cousin
of the King of Yemen, who had _been chief of Zhafár under the suzeraineté
of that King and tributary to him_. The only ruins mentioned by Haines are
extensive ones near Haffer, towards the _western_ part of the plain; and
this Fresnel considers to be the site of the former city. A lake which
exists here, on the landward side of the ruins, was, he says, formerly a
gulf, and formed the port, "the very good haven," of which our author
speaks.

A quotation in the next note however indicates Merbát, which is at the
eastern extremity of the plain, as having been the port of Dhafár in the
Middle Ages. Professor Sprenger is of opinion that the city itself was in
the eastern part of the plain. The matter evidently needs further
examination.

This Dhafár, or the bold mountain above it, is supposed to be the _Sephar_
of Genesis (x. 30). But it does not seem to be the _Sapphara metropolis_
of Ptolemy, which is rather an inland city of the same name: "Dhafár was
the name of _two_ cities of Yemen, one of which was near Sana'á ... it was
the residence of the Himyarite Princes; some authors allege that it is
identical with Sana'á" (_Marásid-al-Ittila_', in Reinaud's Abulfeda, I. p.
124).

_Dofar_ is noted by Camoens for its fragrant incense. It was believed in
Malabar that the famous King Cheram Perumal, converted to Islám, died on
the pilgrimage to Mecca and was buried at Dhafár, where his tomb was much
visited for its sanctity.

The place is mentioned (_Tsafarh_) in the Ming Annals of China as a
Mahomedan country lying, with a fair wind, 10 days N.W. of _Kuli_
(supra, p. 440). Ostriches were found there, and among the products are
named drugs which Dr. Bretschneider renders as _Olibanum_, _Storax
liquida_, _Myrrh_, _Catechu_(?), _Dragon's blood_. This state sent an
embassy (so-called) to China in 1422. (_Haines_ in _J.R.G.S._ XV. 116
seqq.; _Playfair's Yemen_, p. 31; _Fresnel_ in _J. As._ sér. 3, tom. V.
517 seqq.; _Tohfut-ul-Mujahideen_, p. 56; _Bretschneider_, p. 19.)

NOTE 2.--Frankincense presents a remarkable example of the obscurity which
so often attends the history of familiar drugs; though in this case the
darkness has been, like that of which Marco spoke in his account of the
Caraonas (vol. i. p. 98), much of man's making.

This coast of Hadhramaut is the true and ancient [Greek: chóra
libanophóros] or [Greek: libanotophóros], indicated or described under
those names by Theophrastus, Ptolemy, Pliny, Pseudo-Arrian, and other
classical writers; i.e. the country producing the fragrant gum-resin called
by the Hebrews _Lebonah_, by the Brahmans apparently _Kundu_ and _Kunduru_,
by the Arabs _Lubán_ and _Kundur_, by the Greeks _Libanos_, by the Romans
_Thus_, in mediaeval Latin _Olibanum_, and in English _Frankincense_, i.e.
I apprehend, "Genuine incense," or "Incense Proper."[1] It is still
produced in this region and exported from it: but the larger part of that
which enters the markets of the world is exported from the roadsteads of
the opposite Sumálí coast. In ancient times also an important quantity was
exported from the latter coast, immediately west of Cape Gardafui
(_Aromatum Prom._), and in the Periplus this frankincense is distinguished
by the title _Peratic_, "from over the water."

The _Marásid-al-Ittila'_, a Geog. Dictionary of the end of the 14th
century, in a passage of which we have quoted the commencement in the
preceding note, proceeds as follows: "The other Dhafár, which still
subsists, is on the shore of the Indian Sea, distant 5 parasangs from
Mérbáth in the province of Shehr. Merbath lies below Dhafár, and serves as
its port. Olibanum is found nowhere except in the mountains of Dhafár, in
the territory of Shehr; in a tract which extends 3 days in length and the
same in breadth. The natives make incisions in the trees with a knife, and
the incense flows down. This incense is carefully watched, and can be
taken only to Dhafár, where the Sultan keeps the best part for himself;
the rest is made over to the people. But any one who should carry it
elsewhere than to Dhafár would be put to death."

The elder Niebuhr seems to have been the first to disparage the Arabian
produce of olibanum. He recognises indeed its ancient celebrity, and the
fact that it was still to some extent exported from Dhafár and other
places on this coast, but he says that the Arabs preferred foreign kinds
of incense, especially benzoin; and also repeatedly speaks of the
superiority of that from India (_des Indes_ and _de l'Inde_), by which it
is probable that he meant the same thing--viz., benzoin from the Indian
Archipelago. Niebuhr did not himself visit Hadhramaut.

Thus the fame of Arabian olibanum was dying away, and so was our knowledge
of that and the opposite African coast, when Colebrooke (1807) published
his Essay on Olibanum, in which he showed that a gum-resin, identical as
he considered with frankincense, and so named (_Kundur_), was used in
India, and was the produce of an indigenous tree, _Boswellia serrata_ of
Roxburgh, but thereafter known as _B. thurifera_. This discovery,
connecting itself, it may be supposed, with Niebuhr's statements about
Indian olibanum (though probably misunderstood), and with the older
tradition coming down from Dioscorides of a so-called Indian _libanos_
(supra p. 396), seems to have induced a hasty and general assumption
that the Indian resin was the olibanum of commerce; insomuch that the very
existence of Arabian olibanum came to be treated as a matter of doubt in
some respectable books, and that down to a very recent date.

In the Atlas to Bruce's Travels is figured a plant under the name of
_Angoua_, which the Abyssinians believed to produce true olibanum, and
which Bruce says did really produce a gum resembling it.

In 1837 Lieut. Cruttenden of the Indian Navy saw the frankincense tree of
Arabia on a journey inland from Merbát, and during the ensuing year the
trees of the Sumálí country were seen, and partially described by
Kempthorne, and Vaughan of the same service, and by Cruttenden himself.
Captain Haines also in his report of the Survey of the Hadhramaut coast in
1843-1844[2] speaks, apparently as an eyewitness, of the frankincense
trees about Dhafár as extremely numerous, and adds that from 3000 to
10,000 _maunds_ were annually exported "from Merbát and Dhafár." "3 to 10"
is vague enough; but as the kind of _maund_ is not specified it is vaguer
still. Maunds differ as much as _livres Français_ and _livres sterling_.
In 1844 and 1846 Dr. Carter also had opportunities of examining olibanum
trees on this coast, which he turned to good account, sending to
Government cuttings, specimens, and drawings, and publishing a paper on
the subject in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of the R. As. Society
(1847).

[Illustration: The Harvest of Frankincense in Arabia. Facsimile of an
engraving in Thevet's _Cosmographie Universelle_ (1575), reproduced from
the _Bible Educator_.[3]]

But neither Dr. Carter's paper and specimens, nor the previous looser
notices of the naval officers, seemed to attract any attention, and men of
no small repute went on repeating in their manuals the old story about
Indian olibanum. Dr. G. Birdwood however, at Bombay, in the years
following 1859, took up the subject with great zeal and intelligence,
procuring numerous specimens of the Sumálí trees and products; and his
monograph of the genus _Boswellia_ in the Linnaean Transactions (read
April 1869), to which this note is very greatly indebted, is a most
interesting paper, and may be looked on, I believe, as embodying the most
correct knowledge as yet attainable. The species as ranked in his table
are the following:

[Illustration: Boswellia Frereana (_Birdw._).
1. _Boswellia Carterii_ (Birdw.), including the Arabian tree of
Dhafár, and the larger variety called _Mohr Madau_ by the Sumálís.
2. _B. Bhau-dajiana_ (Birdw.), _Mohr A'd_ of the Sumálís.
3. _B. papyrifera_ (Richard). Abyssinian species.
4. _B. thurifera_ (Colebr.), see p. 396 supra.
5. _B. Frereana_ (Birdw.), _Yegár_ of the Sumálís--named after
Mr. William Frere, Member of Council at Bombay. No. 2 was named from Bhau
Dáji, a very eminent Hindu scholar and physician at Bombay (Birdw.).]

No. 1 produces the Arabian olibanum, and Nos. 1 and 2 together the bulk of
the olibanum exported from the Sumálí coast under the name _Lubán-Shehri_.
Both are said to give an inferior kind besides, called _L. Bedawi_. No. 3
is, according to Birdwood, the same as Bruce's _Angoua_. No. 5 is
distinctly a new species, and affords a highly fragrant resin sold under
the name of _Lubán Méti_.

Bombay is now the great mart of frankincense. The quantity exported thence
in 1872-1873 was 25,000 _cwt._, of which nearly one quarter went to China.

Frankincense when it first exudes is milky white; whence the name "White
Incense" by which Polo speaks of it. And the Arabic name _lúbán_
apparently refers to milk. The Chinese have so translated, calling
_Ju-siang_ or Milk-perfume.

Polo, we see, says the tree was like a fir tree; and it is remarkable that
a Chinese Pharmacology quoted by Bretschneider says the like, which looks
as if their information came from a common source. And yet I think Polo's
must have been oral. One of the meanings of _Lubán_, from the Kámús, is
_Pinus (Freytag)_. This may have to do with the error. Dr. Birdwood, in a
paper _Cassells' Bible Educator_, has given a copy of a remarkable wood
engraving from Thevet's _Cosmographie Universelle_ (1575), representing
the collection of Arabian olibanum, and this through his kind intervention
I am able to reproduce here. The text (probably after Polo) speaks of the
tree as resembling a fir, but in the cut the firs are in the background;
the incense trees have some real suggestion of _Boswellia_, and the whole
design has singular spirit and verisimilitude.

Dr. Birdwood thus speaks of the _B. Frereana_, the only species that he
has seen in flower: "As I saw the plant in Playfair's garden at Aden ... in
young leaf and covered with bloom, I was much struck by its elegant
singularity. The long racemes of green star-like flowers, tipped with the
red anthers of the stamens (like aigrettes of little stars of emerald set
with minute rubies), droop gracefully over the clusters of glossy,
glaucous leaves; and every part of the plant (bark, leaves, and flowers)
gives out the most refreshing lemon-like fragrance." (_Birdwood_ in
Linnaean Transactions for 1869, pp. 109 seqq.; _Hanbury and Flückiger's
Pharmacographia_, pp. 120 seqq.; _Ritter_, xii. 356 seqq.; _Niebuhr,
Desc. de l'Arabie_, I. p. 202, II. pp. 125-132.)


[1] "_Drogue franche_:--Qui a les qualités requises sans mélange"
    (_Littré_). "_Franc_ ... Vrai, véritable" (_Raynouard_).

    The mediaeval _Olibanum_ was probably the Arabic _Al-lubán_, but was
    popularly interpreted as _Oleum Libani_. Dr. Birdwood saw at the Paris
    Exhibition of 1867 samples of frankincense solemnly labelled as the
    produce of Mount Lebanon!

    "Professor Dümichen, of Strasburg, has discovered at the Temple of
    Daïr-el-Báhri, in Upper Egypt, paintings illustrating the traffic
    carried on between Egypt and Arabia, as early as the 17th century B.C.
    In these paintings there are representations, not only of bags of
    olibanum, but also of olibanum-trees planted in tubs or boxes, being
    conveyed by ship from Arabia to Egypt." (_Hanbury_ and _Flückiger_,
    _Pharmacographia_, p. 121.)

[2] Published in _J.R.G.S._, vol. XV. (for 1845).

[3] By courtesy of the publishers, Messrs. Cassell, Petter, & Galpin.



CHAPTER XXXIX.

CONCERNING THE GULF OF CALATU AND THE CITY SO CALLED.


Calatu is a great city, within a gulf which bears the name of the Gulf of
Calatu. It is a noble city, and lies 600 miles from Dufar towards the
north-west, upon the sea-shore. The people are Saracens, and are subject
to Hormos. And whenever the Melic of Hormos is at war with some prince
more potent than himself, he betakes himself to this city of Calatu,
because it is very strong, both from its position and its fortifications.
[NOTE 1]

They grow no corn here, but get it from abroad; for every merchant-vessel
that comes brings some. The haven is very large and good, and is
frequented by numerous ships with goods from India, and from this city the
spices and other merchandize are distributed among the cities and towns of
the interior. They also export many good Arab horses from this to India.
[NOTE 2] For, as I have told you before, the number of horses exported
from this and the other cities to India yearly is something astonishing.
One reason is that no horses are bred there, and another that they die as
soon as they get there, through ignorant handling; for the people there do
not know how to take care of them, and they feed their horses with cooked
victuals and all sorts of trash, as I have told you fully heretofore; and
besides all that they have no farriers.

This City of Calatu stands at the mouth of the Gulf, so that no ship can
enter or go forth without the will of the chief. And when the Melic of
Hormos, who is Melic of Calatu also, and is vassal to the Soldan of
Kerman, fears anything at the hand of the latter, he gets on board his
ships and comes from Hormos to Calatu. And then he prevents any ship from
entering the Gulf. This causes great injury to the Soldan of Kerman; for
he thus loses all the duties that he is wont to receive from merchants
frequenting his territories from India or elsewhere; for ships with
cargoes of merchandize come in great numbers, and a very large revenue is
derived from them. In this way he is constrained to give way to the
demands of the Melic of Hormos.

This Melic has also a castle which is still stronger than the city, and
has a better command of the entry to the Gulf.[NOTE 3]

The people of this country live on dates and salt fish, which they have in
great abundance; the nobles, however, have better fare.

There is no more to say on this subject. So now let us go on and speak of
the city of Hormos, of which we told you before.


NOTE 1.--_Kalhát_, the _Calaiate_ of the old Portuguese writers, is about
500 m by shortest _sea-line_ north-east of Dhafár. "The city of Kalhát,"
says Ibn Batuta, "stands on the shore; it has fine bazaars, and one of the
most beautiful mosques that you could see anywhere, the walls of which are
covered with enamelled tiles of Káshán.... The city is inhabited by
merchants, who draw their support from Indian import trade.... Although
they are Arabs, they don't speak correctly. After every phrase they have a
habit of adding the particle _no_. Thus they will say 'You are eating,--
no?' 'You are walking,--no?' 'You are doing this or that,--no?' Most of
them are schismatics, but they cannot openly practise their tenets, for
they are under the rule of Sultan Kutbuddin Tehemten Malik, of Hormuz, who
is orthodox" (II. 226).

_Calaiate_, when visited by d'Alboquerque, showed by its buildings and
ruins that it had been a noble city. Its destruction was ascribed to an
earthquake. (_De Barros_, II. ii. 1.) It seems to exist no longer.
Wellsted says its remains cover a wide space; but only one building, an
old mosque, has escaped destruction. Near the ruins is a small fishing
village, the people of which also dig for gold coins. (_J.R.G.S_. VII.
104.)

What is said about the Prince of Hormuz betaking himself to Kalhát in
times of trouble is quite in accordance with what we read in Teixeira's
abstract of the Hormuz history. When expelled by revolution at Hormuz or
the like, we find the princes taking refuge at Kalhát.

NOTE 2.--"Of the interior." Here the phrase of the G.T. is again "en fra
tere _a mainte cité et castiaus_." (See supra, Bk. I. ch. i. note 2.)

There was still a large horse-trade from Kalhát in 1517, but the
Portuguese compelled all to enter the port of Goa, where according to
Andrea Corsali they had to pay a duty of 40 _saraffi_ per head. If these
_ashrafis_ were pagodas, this would be about 15_l._ a head; if they were
_dinárs_, it would be more than 20_l._ The term is _now_ commonly applied
in Hindustan to the gold mohr.

NOTE 3.--This no doubt is Maskat.



CHAPTER XL.

RETURNS TO THE CITY OF HORMOS WHEREOF WE SPOKE FORMERLY.


When you leave the City of Calatu, and go for 300 miles between north-west
and north, you come to the city of Hormos; a great and noble city on the
sea.[NOTE 1] It has a _Melic_, which is as much as to say a King,
and he is under the Soldan of Kerman.

There are a good many cities and towns belonging to Hormos, and the people
are Saracens. The heat is tremendous, and on that account their houses are
built with ventilators to catch the wind. These ventilators are placed on
the side from which the wind comes, and they bring the wind down into the
house to cool it. But for this the heat would be utterly unbearable.
[NOTE 2]

I shall say no more about these places, because I formerly told you in
regular order all about this same city of Hormos, and about Kerman as
well. But as we took one way to go, and another to come back, it was
proper that we should bring you a second time to this point.

Now, however, we will quit this part of the world, and tell you about
Great Turkey. First, however, there is a point that I have omitted; to
wit, that when you leave the City of Calatu and go between west and
north-west, a distance of 500 miles, you come to the city of Kis.[NOTE 3]
Of that, however, we shall say no more now, but pass it with this brief
mention, and return to the subject of Great Turkey, of which you shall now
hear.


NOTE 1.--The distance is very correct; and the bearing fairly so for the
first time since we left Aden. I have tried in my map of Polo's Geography
to realise what seems to have been his idea of the Arabian coast.

NOTE 2.--These ventilators are a kind of masonry windsail, known as
_Bád-gír_, or "wind-catchers," and in general use over Oman, Kerman, the
province of Baghdad, Mekrán, and Sind. A large and elaborate example, from
Hommaire de Hell's work on Persia, is given in the cut above. Very
particular accounts of these ventilators will be found in P. della Valle,
and in the embassy of Don Garcias de Silva Figueroa. (_Della Val._ II.
333-335; _Figueroa_, Fr. Trans. 1667, p. 38; _Ramus._ I. 293 v.; _Macd.
Kinneir_, p. 69.) A somewhat different arrangement for the same purpose is
in use in Cairo, and gives a very peculiar character to the city when seen
from a moderate height.

["The structures [at Gombroon] are all plain atop, only _Ventoso's_, or
Funnels, for to let in the Air, the only thing requisite to living in this
fiery Furnace with any comfort; wherefore no House is left without this
contrivance; which shews gracefully at a distance on Board Ship, and makes
the Town appear delightful enough to Beholders, giving at once a pleasing
Spectacle to Strangers, and kind Refreshment to the Inhabitants; for they
are not only elegantly Adorned without, but conveniently Adapted for every
Apartment to receive the cool Wind within." (_John Fryer, Nine Years'
Travels_, Lond., 1698, p. 222.)]

NOTE 3.--On _Kish_ see Book I. ch. vi. note 2.

[Chao Ju-kua (transl. in German by Dr. F. Hirth, _T'oung Pao_, V. Supp. p.
40), a Chinese Official of the Sung Dynasty, says regarding Kish: "The
land of _Ki-shih_ (Kish) lies upon a rocky island in the sea, in sight of
the coast of Ta-shih, at half-a-day's journey. There are but four towns in
its territories. When the King shows himself out of doors, he rides a
horse under a black canopy, with an escort of 100 servants. The
inhabitants are white and of a pure race and eight Chinese feet tall. They
wear under a Turban their hair loose partly hanging on their neck. Their
dress consists of a foreign jacket and a light silk or cotton overcoat,
with red leather shoes. They use gold and silver coins. Their food
consists of wheaten bread, mutton, fish and dates; they do not eat rice.
The country produces pearls and horses of a superior quality."--H.C.]

[Illustration: A Persian Wind-Catcher.]

The Turkish Admiral Sidi 'Ali, who was sent in 1553 to command the Ottoman
fleet in the Persian Gulf, and has written an interesting account of his
disastrous command and travels back to Constantinople from India, calls
the Island Kais, or "_the old Hormuz_." This shows that the traditions of
the origin of the island of Hormuz had grown dim. _Kish_ had preceded
Hormuz as the most prominent port of Indian trade, but old Hormuz, as we
have seen (Bk. I. ch. xix.), was quite another place. (_J. As._ sér. i,
tom. ix. 67.)



BOOK FOURTH

WARS AMONG THE TARTAR PRINCES AND SOME ACCOUNT OF THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES


_Note_.--A considerable number of the quasi-historical chapters in
this section (which I have followed M. Pauthier in making into a Fourth
Book) are the merest verbiage and repetition of narrative formulae without
the slightest value. I have therefore thought it undesirable to print all
at length, and have given merely the gist (marked thus <+>), or an
extract, of such chapters. They will be found entire in English in H.
Murray's and Wright's editions, and in the original French in the edition
of the Société de Géographie, in Bartoli, and in Pauthier.



BOOK IV.



CHAPTER I.

CONCERNING GREAT TURKEY.


In GREAT TURKEY there is a king called CAIDU, who is the Great Kaan's
nephew, for he was the grandson of CHAGATAI, the Great Kaan's own brother.
He hath many cities and castles, and is a great Prince. He and his people
are Tartars alike; and they are good soldiers, for they are constantly
engaged in war.[NOTE 1]

Now this King Caidu is never at peace with his uncle the Great Kaan, but
ever at deadly war with him, and he hath fought great battles with the
Kaan's armies. The quarrel between them arose out of this, that Caidu
demanded from the Great Kaan the share of his father's conquests that of
right belonged to him; and in particular he demanded a share of the
Provinces of Cathay and Manzi. The Great Kaan replied that he was willing
enough to give him a share such as he gave to his own sons, but that he
must first come on summons to the Council at the Kaan's Court, and present
himself as one of the Kaan's liegemen. Caidu, who did not trust his uncle
very far, declined to come, but said that where he was he would hold
himself ready to obey all the Kaan's commands.

In truth, as he had several times been in revolt, he dreaded that the Kaan
might take the opportunity to destroy him. So, out of this quarrel between
them, there arose a great war, and several great battles were fought by
the host of Caidu against the host of the Great Kaan, his uncle. And the
Great Kaan from year's end to year's end keeps an army watching all
Caidu's frontier, lest he should make forays on his dominions. He,
natheless, will never cease his aggressions on the Great Kaan's territory,
and maintains a bold face to his enemies.[NOTE 2]

Indeed, he is so potent that he can well do so; for he can take the field
with 100,000 horse, all stout soldiers and inured to war. He has also with
him several Barons of the imperial lineage; i.e., of the family of
Chinghis Kaan, who was the first of their lords, and conquered a great
part of the world, as I have told you more particularly in a former part
of this Book.

Now you must know that Great Turkey lies towards the north-west when you
travel from Hormos by that road I described. It begins on the further bank
of the River JON,[1] and extends northward to the territory of the Great
Kaan.

Now I shall tell you of sundry battles that the troops of Caidu fought
with the armies of the Great Kaan.


NOTE 1.--We see that Polo's error as to the relationship between Kúblái
and Kaidu, and as to the descent of the latter (see Vol I. p. 186) was not
a slip, but persistent. The name of Kaidu's grandfather is here in the G.
T. written precisely Chagatai (_Ciagatai_).

Kaidu was the son of Kashin, son of Okkodai, who was the third son of
Chinghiz and his successor in the Kaanate. Kaidu never would acknowledge
the supremacy of Kúblái, alleging his own superior claim to the Kaanate,
which Chinghiz was said to have restricted to the house of Okkodai as long
as it should have a representative. From the vicinity of Kaidu's position
to the territories occupied by the branch of Chaghatai he exercised great
influence over its princes, and these were often his allies in the
constant hostilities that he maintained against the Kaan. Such
circumstances may have led Polo to confound Kaidu with the house of
Chaghatai. Indeed, it is not easy to point out the mutual limits of their
territories, and these must have been somewhat complex, for we find Kaidu
and Borrak Khan of Chaghatai at one time exercising a kind of joint
sovereignty in the cities of Bokhara and Samarkand. Probably, indeed, the
limits were in a great measure _tribal_ rather than territorial. But it
may be gathered that Kaidu's authority extended over Kashgar and the
cities bordering the south slopes of the Thian Shan as far east as Kara
Khoja, also the valley of the Talas River, and the country north of the
Thian Shan from Lake Balkhash eastward to the vicinity of Barkul, and in
the further north the country between the Upper Yenisei and the Irtish.

Kaidu died in 1301 at a very great age. He had taken part, it was said, in
41 pitched battles. He left 14 sons (some accounts say 40), of whom the
eldest, called Shabar, succeeded him. He joined Dua Khan of Chaghatai in
making submission to Teimur Kaan, the successor of Kúblái; but before
long, on a quarrel occurring between the two former, Dua seized the
territory of Shabar, and as far as I can learn no more is heard of the
house of Kaidu. Vámbéry seems to make the Khans of Khokand to be of the
stock of Kaida; but whether they claim descent from Yúnus Khán, as he
says, or from a son of Baber left behind in his flight from Ferghána, as
Pandit Manphúl states, the genealogy would be from Chaghatai, not from
Kaidu.

NOTE 2.--"To the N.N.W. a desert of 40 days' extent divides the states of
Kúblái from those of Kaidu and Dua. This frontier extends for 30 days'
journey from east to west. From point to point," etc.; see continuation of
this quotation from Rashíduddín, in Vol. I. p. 214.


[1] The Jaihún or Oxus.



CHAPTER II.

OF CERTAIN BATTLES THAT WERE FOUGHT BY KING CAIDU AGAINST THE ARMIES OF
HIS UNCLE THE GREAT KAAN.


Now it came to pass in the year of Christ's incarnation, 1266, that this
King Caidu and another prince called YESUDAR, who was his cousin,
assembled a great force and made an expedition to attack two of the Great
Kaan's Barons who held lands under the Great Kaan, but were Caidu's own
kinsmen, for they were sons of Chagatai who was a baptized Christian, and
own brother to the Great Kaan; one of them was called CHIBAI, and the
other CHIBAN.[NOTE 1]

Caidu with all his host, amounting to 60,000 horse, engaged the Kaan's two
Barons, those cousins of his, who had also a great force amounting to more
than 60,000 horsemen, and there was a great battle. In the end the Barons
were beaten, and Caidu and his people won the day. Great numbers were
slain on both sides, but the two brother Barons escaped, thanks to their
good horses. So King Caidu returned home swelling the more with pride and
arrogance, and for the next two years he remained at peace, and made no
further war against the Kaan.

However, at the end of those two years King Caidu assembled an army
composed of a vast force of horsemen. He knew that at Caracoron was the
Great Kaan's son NOMOGAN, and with him GEORGE, the grandson of Prester
John. These two princes had also a great force of cavalry. And when King
Caidu was ready he set forth and crossed the frontier. After marching
rapidly without any adventure, he got near Caracoron, where the Kaan's son
and the younger Prester John were awaiting him with their great army, for
they were well aware of Caidu's advance in force. They made them ready for
battle like valiant men, and all undismayed, seeing that they had more
than 60,000 well-appointed horsemen. And when they heard Caidu was so near
they went forth valiantly to meet him. When they got within some 10 miles
of him they pitched their tents and got ready for battle, and the enemy
who were about equal in numbers did the same; each side forming in six
columns of 10,000 men with good captains. Both sides were well equipped
with swords and maces and shields, with bows and arrows, and other arms
after their fashion. You must know that the practice of the Tartars going
to battle is to take each a bow and 60 arrows. Of these, 30 are light with
small sharp points, for long shots and following up an enemy, whilst the
other 30 are heavy, with large broad heads which they shoot at close
quarters, and with which they inflict great gashes on face and arms, and
cut the enemy's bowstrings, and commit great havoc. This every one is
ordered to attend to. And when they have shot away their arrows they take
to their swords and maces and lances, which also they ply stoutly.

So when both sides were ready for action the Naccaras began to sound
loudly, one on either side. For 'tis their custom never to join battle
till the Great Naccara is beaten. And when the Naccaras sounded, then the
battle began in fierce and deadly style, and furiously the one host dashed
to meet the other. So many fell on either side that in an evil hour for
both it was begun! The earth was thickly strewn with the wounded and the
slain, men and horses, whilst the uproar and din of battle was so loud you
would not have heard God's thunder! Truly King Caidu himself did many a
deed of prowess that strengthened the hearts of his people. Nor less on
the other side did the Great Kaan's son and Prester John's grandson, for
well they proved their valour in the medley, and did astonishing feats of
arms, leading their troops with right good judgment.

And what shall I tell you? The battle lasted so long that it was one of
the hardest the Tartars ever fought. Either side strove hard to bring the
matter to a point and rout the enemy, but to no avail. And so the battle
went on till vesper-tide, and without victory on either side. Many a man
fell there; many a child was made an orphan there; many a lady widowed;
and many another woman plunged in grief and tears for the rest of her
days, I mean the mothers and the _araines_ of those who fell.[NOTE 2]

So when they had fought till the sun was low they left off, and retired
each side to its tents. Those who were unhurt were so dead tired that they
were like to drop, and the wounded, who were many on both sides, were
moaning in their various degrees of pain; but all were more fit for rest
than fighting, so gladly they took their repose that night. And when
morning approached, King Caidu, who had news from his scouts that the
Great Kaan was sending a great army to reinforce his son, judged that it
was time to be off; so he called his host to saddle and mounted his horse
at dawn, and away they set on their return to their own country. And when
the Great Kaan's son and the grandson of Prester John saw that King Caidu
had retired with all his host, they let them go unpursued, for they were
themselves sorely fatigued and needed rest. So King Caidu and his host
rode and rode, till they came to their own realm of Great Turkey and to
Samarcand; and there they abode a long while without again making war.
[NOTE 3]


NOTE 1.--The names are uncertain. The G.T. has "one of whom was called
Tibai or Ciban"; Pauthier, as in the text.

The phrase about their being Kaidu's kinsmen is in the G.T., "_qe_
zinzinz (?) _meisme estoient de Caidu roi_."

NOTE 2.--_Araines_ for _Haríms_, I presume. In the narrative of a merchant
in Ramusio (II. 84, 86) we find the same word represented by _Arin_ and
_Arino_.

NOTE 3.--The date at the beginning of the chapter is in G.T., and
Pauthier's MS. A, as we have given it. Pauthier substitutes 1276, as that
seems to be the date approximately connecting Prince Numughan with the
wars against Kaidu. In 1275 Kúblái appointed Numughan to the command of
his N.W. frontier, with Ngantung or 'Antung, an able general, to assist
him in repelling the aggressions of Kaidu. In the same year Kaidu and Dua
Khan entered the Uighúr country (W. and N.W. of Kamul), with more than
100,000 men. Two years later, viz., in 1277, Kaidu and Shireghi, a son of
Mangu Khan, engaged near Almalik (on the Hi) the troops of Kúblái,
commanded by Numughan and 'Antung, and took both of them prisoners. The
invaders then marched towards Karakorum. But Bayan, who was in Mongolia,
marched to attack them, and completely defeated them in several
engagements. (_Gaubil_, 69, 168, 182.)

Pauthier gives a little more detail from the Chinese annals, but throws no
new light on the discrepancies which we see between Polo's account and
theirs. 'Antung, who was the grandson of Mokli, the Jelair, one of
Chinghiz's Orlok or Marshals, seems here to take the place assigned to
Prester John's grandson, and Shireghi perhaps that of Yesudar. The only
prince of the latter name that I can find is a son of Hulaku's.

The description of the battle in this chapter is a mere formula again and
again repeated. The armies are always exactly or nearly equal, they are
always divided into corps of 10,000 (_tomans_), they always halt to
prepare for action when within ten miles of one another, and the terms
used in describing the fight are the same. We shall not inflict these
tiresome repetitions again on the reader.



CHAPTER III.

WHAT THE GREAT KAAN SAID TO THE MISCHIEF DONE BY KAIDU HIS NEPHEW.


<+> (That were Caidu not of his own Imperial blood, he would make an utter
end of him, &c.)



CHAPTER IV.

OF THE EXPLOITS OF KING CAIDU'S VALIANT DAUGHTER.


Now you must know that King Caidu had a daughter whose name was AIJARUC,
which in the Tartar is as much as to say "The Bright Moon." This damsel
was very beautiful, but also so strong and brave that in all her father's
realm there was no man who could outdo her in feats of strength. In all
trials she showed greater strength than any man of them.[NOTE 1]

Her father often desired to give her in marriage, but she would none of
it. She vowed she would never marry till she found a man who could
vanquish her in every trial; him she would wed and none else. And when her
father saw how resolute she was, he gave a formal consent in their
fashion, that she should marry whom she list and when she list. The lady
was so tall and muscular, so stout and shapely withal, that she was almost
like a giantess. She had distributed her challenges over all the kingdoms,
declaring that whosoever should come to try a fall with her, it should be
on these conditions, viz., that if she vanquished him she should
win from him 100 horses, and if he vanquished her he should win her to
wife. Hence many a noble youth had come to try his strength against her,
but she beat them all; and in this way she had won more than 10,000
horses.

Now it came to pass in the year of Christ 1280 that there presented
himself a noble young gallant, the son of a rich and puissant king, a man
of prowess and valiance and great strength of body, who had heard word of
the damsel's challenge, and came to match himself against her in the hope
of vanquishing her and winning her to wife. That he greatly desired, for
the young lady was passing fair. He, too, was young and handsome, fearless
and strong in every way, insomuch that not a man in all his father's realm
could vie with him. So he came full confidently, and brought with him 1000
horses to be forfeited if she should vanquish him. Thus might she gain
1000 horses at a single stroke! But the young gallant had such confidence
in his own strength that he counted securely to win her.

Now ye must know that King Caidu and the Queen his wife, the mother of the
stout damsel, did privily beseech their daughter to let herself be
vanquished. For they greatly desired this prince for their daughter,
seeing what a noble youth he was, and the son of a great king. But the
damsel answered that never would she let herself be vanquished if she
could help it; if, indeed, he should get the better of her then she would
gladly be his wife, according to the wager, but not otherwise.

So a day was named for a great gathering at the Palace of King Caidu, and
the King and Queen were there. And when all the company were assembled,
for great numbers flocked to see the match, the damsel first came forth in
a strait jerkin of sammet; and then came forth the young bachelor in a
jerkin of sendal; and a winsome sight they were to see. When both had
taken post in the middle of the hall they grappled each other by the arms
and wrestled this way and that, but for a long time neither could get the
better of the other. At last, however, it so befel that the damsel threw
him right valiantly on the palace pavement. And when he found himself thus
thrown, and her standing over him, great indeed was his shame and
discomfiture. He gat him up straightway, and without more ado departed
with all his company, and returned to his father, full of shame and
vexation, that he who had never yet found a man that could stand before
him should have been thus worsted by a girl! And his 1000 horses he left
behind him.

As to King Caidu and his wife they were greatly annoyed, as I can tell
you; for if they had had their will this youth should have won their
daughter.

And ye must know that after this her father never went on a campaign but
she went with him. And gladly he took her, for not a knight in all his
train played such feats of arms as she did. Sometimes she would quit her
father's side, and make a dash at the host of the enemy, and seize some
man thereout, as deftly as a hawk pounces on a bird, and carry him to her
father; and this she did many a time.

Now I will leave this story and tell you of a great battle that Caidu
fought with Argon the son of Abaga, Lord of the Tartars of the Levant.


NOTE 1.--The name of the lady is in Pauthier's MSS. _Agiaint, Agyanie_; in
the Bern, _Agyanic_; in the MS. of the G.T., distinctly _Aigiaruc_,
though printed in the edition of 1824 as _Aigiarm_. It is Oriental
Turkish, AI-YÁRÚK, signifying precisely _Lucent Lune_, as Marco explains
it. For this elucidation I am indebted to the kindness of Professor
Vámbéry, who adds that the name is in actual use among the Uzbek women.

Kaidu had many sons, but only one daughter, whom Rashiduddin (who seems to
be Hammer's authority here) calls _Kutulun_. Her father loved her above
all his sons; she used to accompany him to the field, and aid in state
affairs. Letters were exchanged between her and Ghazan Khan, in which she
assured him she would marry no one else; but her father refused her hand
to all suitors. After Kaidu's death, this ambitious lady made some attempt
to claim the succession. (_Hammer's Ilkhans_, II. 143-144.)

The story has some resemblance to what Ibn Batuta relates of another
warlike Princess, Urdúja, whom he professes to have visited in the
questionable kingdom of Tawálisi on his way to China: "I heard ... that
various sons of kings had sought Urduja's hand, but she always answered,
'I will marry no one but him who shall fight and conquer me'; so they all
avoided the trail, for fear of the shame of being beaten by her." (_I.B._
IV. 253-254.) I have given reasons (_Cathay_, p. 520) for suspecting that
this lady with a Turkish name in the Indian Archipelago is a bit of
fiction. Possibly Ibn Batuta had heard the legend of King Kaidu's
daughter.

The story of Kaidu's daughter, and still more the parallel one from Ibn
Batuta, recall what Herodotus tells of the Sauromatae, who had married the
Amazons; that no girl was permitted to marry till she had killed an enemy
(IV. 117). They recall still more closely Brunhild, in the Nibelungen:--

    --"a royal maiden who reigned beyond the sea:
  From sunrise to the sundown no paragon had she.
  All boundless as her beauty was her strength was peerless too,
  And evil plight hung o'er the knight who dared her love to woo.
  For he must try three bouts with her; the whirling spear to fling;
  To pitch the massive stone; and then to follow with a spring;
  And should he beat in every feat his wooing well has sped,
  But he who fails must lose his love, and likewise lose his head."



CHAPTER V.

HOW ABAGA SENT HIS SON ARGON IN COMMAND AGAINST KING CAIDU.


Abaga the Lord of the Levant had many districts and provinces bordering on
King Caidu's territories. These lay in the direction of the _Arbre
Sol_, which the Book of Alexander calls the _Arbre Sec_, about
which I have told you before. And Abaga, to watch against forays by
Caidu's people sent his son Argon with a great force of horsemen, to keep
the marches between the Arbre Sec and the River Jon. So there tarried
Argon with all his host.[NOTE 1]

Now it came to pass that King Caidu assembled a great army and made
captain thereof a brother of his called Barac, a brave and prudent man,
and sent his host under his brother to fight with Argon.[NOTE 2]

<+> (Barac and his army cross the Jon or Oxus and are totally routed by
Argon, to whose history the traveller now turns.)


NOTE 1.--The Government of this frontier, from Kazwin or Rei to the banks
of the Oxus, was usually, under the Mongol sovereigns of Persia, confided
to the heir of the throne. Thus, under Hulaku it was held by Ábáká, under
Ábáká by Arghún, and under Arghún by Gházán. (See _Hammer, passim._)

We have already spoken amply of the Arbre Sol (vol. i. p. 128 seqq.).

NOTE 2.--Barac or Borrak, who has been already spoken of in ch. iii. of
the Prologue (vol. i. p. 10), was no brother of Kaidu's. He was the head
of the house of Chaghatai, and in alliance with Kaidu. The invasion of
Khorasan by Borrak took place in the early part of 1269. Arghún was only
about 15, and his father Abáka came to take the command in person. The
battle seems to have been fought somewhere near the upper waters of the
Murghab, in the territory of the Badghís (north of Herat). Borrak was not
long after driven from power, and took refuge with Kaidu. He died, it is
said from poison, in 1270.



CHAPTER VI.

HOW ARGON AFTER THE BATTLE HEARD THAT HIS FATHER WAS DEAD, AND WENT TO
ASSUME THE SOVEREIGNTY AS WAS HIS RIGHT.


After Argon had gained this battle over Caidu's brother Barac and his
host, no long time passed before he had news that his father Abaga was
dead, whereat he was sorely grieved.[NOTE 1] He made ready his army and
set out for his father's Court to assume the sovereignty as was his right;
but he had a march of 40 days to reach it.

Now it befel that an uncle of Argon's whose name was ACOMAT SOLDAN (for he
had become a Saracen), when he heard of the death of his brother Abaga,
whilst his nephew Argon was so far away, thought there was a good chance
for him to seize the government. So he raised a great force and went
straight to the Court of his late brother Abaga, and seized the
sovereignty and proclaimed himself King; and also got possession of the
treasure, which was of vast amount. All this, like a crafty knave, he
divided among the Barons and the troops to secure their hearts and favour
to his cause. These Barons and soldiers accordingly, when they saw what
large spoil they had got from him, were all ready to say he was the best
of kings, and were full of love for him, and declared they would have no
lord but him. But he did one evil thing that was greatly reprobated by
all; for he took all the wives of his brother Abaga, and kept them for
himself.[NOTE 2]

Soon after he had seized the government, word came to him how Argon his
nephew was advancing with all his host. Then he tarried not, but
straightway summoned his Barons and all his people, and in a week had
fitted out a great army of horse to go to meet Argon. And he went forth
light of heart, as being confident of victory, showing no dismay, and
saying on all occasions that he desired nought so much as to take Argon,
and put him to a cruel death.[NOTE 3]


NOTE 1.--Ábáká died at Hamadan 1st April 1282, twelve years after the
defeat of Borrak.

NOTE 2.--This last sentence is in Pauthier's text, but not in the G.T. The
thing was a regular Tartar custom (vol. i. pp. 253, 256), and would
scarcely be "reprobated by all."

NOTE 3.--Acomat Soldan is AHMAD, a younger son of Hulaku, whose Mongol
name was Tigúdar, and who had been baptized in his youth by the name of
Nicolas, but went over to Islam, and thereby gained favour in Persia. On
the death of his brother Ábáká he had a strong party and seized the
throne. Arghún continued in sullen defiance, gathering means to assist his
claim.



CHAPTER VII.

HOW ACOMAT SOLDAN SET OUT WITH HIS HOST AGAINST HIS NEPHEW WHO WAS COMING
TO CLAIM THE THRONE THAT BELONGED TO HIM,


<+> (Relates how Acomat marches with 60,000 horse, and on hearing of the
approach of Argon summons his chiefs together and addresses them.)



CHAPTER VIII.

HOW ARGON TOOK COUNSEL WITH HIS FOLLOWERS ABOUT ATTACKING HIS UNCLE ACOMAT
SOLDAN.


<+> (Argon, uneasy at hearing of Acomat's approach, calls together his
Barons and counsellors and addresses them.)



CHAPTER IX.

HOW THE BARONS OF ARGON ANSWERED HIS ADDRESS.


<+> (An old Baron, as the spokesman of the rest, expresses their zeal and
advises immediate advance. On coming within ten miles of Acomat, Argon
encamps and sends two envoys to his uncle.)



CHAPTER X.

THE MESSAGE SENT BY ARGON TO ACOMAT.


<+> (A remonstrance and summons to surrender the throne.)



CHAPTER XI.

HOW ACOMAT REPLIED TO ARGON'S MESSAGE.


And when Acomat Soldan had heard the message of Argon his nephew, he thus
replied: "Sirs and envoys," quoth he, "my nephew's words are vain; for the
land is mine, not his, and I helped to conquer it as much as his father
did. So go and tell my nephew that if he will I will make him a great
Prince, and give him ample lands, and he shall be as my son, and the
greatest lord in the land after myself. But if he will not, let him be
assured that I will do my best to bring him to his death! That is my
answer to my nephew, and nought else of concession or covenant shall you
ever have from me!" With that Acomat ceased, and said no word more. And
when the Envoys had heard the Soldan's words they asked again: "Is there
no hope that we shall find you in different mind?" "Never," quoth he,
"never whilst I live shall ye find my mind changed."

<+> (Argon's wrath at the reply. Both sides prepare for battle.)



CHAPTER XII.

OF THE BATTLE BETWEEN ARGON AND ACOMAT, AND THE CAPTIVITY OF ARGON.


<+> (There is a prolix description of a battle almost identical with those
already given in Chapter II. of this Book and previously. It ends with the
rout of Argon's army, and proceeds:)

And in the pursuit Argon was taken. As soon as this happened they gave up
the chase, and returned to their camp full of joy and exultation. Acomat
first caused his nephew to be shackled and well guarded, and then, being a
man of great lechery, said to himself that he would go and enjoy himself
among the fair women of his Court. He left a great Melic[NOTE 1] in
command of his host, enjoining him to guard Argon like his own life, and
to follow to the Court by short marches, to spare the troops. And so
Acomat departed with a great following, on his way to the royal residence.
Thus then Acomat had left his host in command of that Melic whom I
mentioned, whilst Argon remained in irons, and in such bitterness of heart
that he desired to die.[NOTE 2]


NOTE 1.--This is in the original _Belic_, for Melic, i.e. Ar.
_Malik_, chief or prince.

NOTE 2.--In the spring of 1284 Ahmad marched against his nephew Arghún,
and they encountered in the plain of Ak Khoja, near Kazwin. Arghún's force
was very inferior in numbers, and he was defeated. He fled to the Castle
of Kala'at beyond Tús, but was persuaded to surrender. Ahmad treated him
kindly, and though his principal followers urged the execution of the
prisoner, he refused, having then, it is said, no thought for anything but
the charms of his new wife Tudai.



CHAPTER XIII.

HOW ARGON WAS DELIVERED FROM PRISON.


Now it befel that there was a great Tartar Baron, a very aged man, who
took pity on Argon, saying to himself that they were doing an evil and
disloyal deed in keeping their lawful lord a prisoner, wherefore he
resolved to do all in his power for his deliverance. So he tarried not,
but went incontinently to certain other Barons and told them his mind,
saying that it would be a good deed to deliver Argon and make him their
lord, as he was by right. And when the other Barons had heard what he had
to put before them, then both because they regarded him as one of the
wisest men among them, and because what he said was the truth, they all
consented to his proposal and said that they would join with all their
hearts. So when the Barons had assented, BOGA (which was he who had set
the business going), and with him ELCHIDAI, TOGAN, TEGANA, TAGACHAR,
ULATAI, and SAMAGAR,--all those whom I have now named,--proceeded to the
tent where Argon lay a prisoner. When they had got thither, Boga, who was
the leader in the business, spoke first, and to this effect: "Good my Lord
Argon," said he, "we are well aware that we have done ill in making you a
prisoner, and we come to tell you that we desire to return to Right and
Justice. We come therefore to set you free, and to make you our Liege Lord
as by right you are!" Then Boga ceased and said no more.



CHAPTER XIV.

HOW ARGON GOT THE SOVEREIGNTY AT LAST.


When Argon heard the words of Boga he took them in truth for an untimely
jest, and replied with much bitterness of soul: "Good my Lord," quoth he,
"you do ill to mock me thus! Surely it suffices that you have done me so
great wrong already, and that you hold me, your lawful Lord, here a
prisoner and in chains! Ye know well, as I cannot doubt, that you are
doing an evil and a wicked thing, so I pray you go your way, and cease to
flout me." "Good my Lord Argon," said Boga, "be assured we are not mocking
you, but are speaking in sober earnest, and we will swear it on our Law."
Then all the Barons swore fealty to him as their Lord, and Argon too swore
that he would never reckon it against them that they had taken him
prisoner, but would hold them as dear as his father before him had done.

And when these oaths had passed they struck off Argon's fetters, and
hailed him as their lord. Argon then desired them to shoot a volley of
arrows into the tent of the Melic who had held them prisoners, and who was
in command of the army, that he might be slain. At his word they tarried
not, but straightway shot a great number of arrows at the tent, and so
slew the Melic. When that was done Argon took the supreme command and gave
his orders as sovereign, and was obeyed by all. And you must know that the
name of him who was slain, whom we have called the Melic, was SOLDAN; and
he was the greatest Lord after Acomat himself. In this way that you have
heard, Argon recovered his authority.



CHAPTER XV.

HOW ACOMAT WAS TAKEN PRISONER.


<+> (A messenger breaks in upon Acomat's festivities with the news that
Soldan was slain, and Argon released and marching to attack him. Acomat
escapes to seek shelter with the Sultan of Babylon, i.e. of Egypt,
attended by a very small escort. The Officer in command of a Pass by which
he had to go, seeing the state of things, arrests him and carries him to
the Court (probably Tabriz), where Argon was already arrived.)



CHAPTER XVI.

HOW ACOMAT WAS SLAIN BY ORDER OF HIS NEPHEW.


And so when the Officer of the Pass came before Argon bringing Acomat
captive, he was in a great state of exultation, and welcomed his uncle
with a malediction,[1] saying that he should have his deserts. And he
straightway ordered the army to be assembled before him, and without
taking counsel with any one, commanded the prisoner to be put to death,
and his body to be destroyed. So the officer appointed to this duty took
Acomat away and put him to death, and threw his body where it never was
seen again.


[1] "_Il dit à son ungle qe il soit le mau-venu_" (see supra, p. 21).



CHAPTER XVII.

HOW ARGON WAS RECOGNISED AS SOVEREIGN.


And when Argon had done as you have heard, and remained in possession of
the Throne and of the Royal Palace, all the Barons of the different
Provinces, who had been subject to his father Abaga, came and performed
homage before him, and obeyed him, as was his due.[NOTE 1] And after
Argon was well established in the sovereignty he sent CASAN, his son, with
30,000 horse to the _Arbre Sec_, I mean to the region so-called, to
watch the frontier. Thus then Argon got back the government. And you must
know that Argon began his reign in the year 1286 of the Incarnation of
Jesus Christ. Acomat had reigned two years, and Argon reigned six years;
and at the end of those six years he became ill and died; but some say
'twas of poison.[NOTE 2]


NOTE 1.--Arghún, a prisoner (see last note), and looking for the worst,
was upheld by his courageous wife BULUGHÁN (see Prologue, ch. xvii.), who
shared his confinement. The order for his execution, as soon as the camp
should next move, had been issued.

BUKA the Jelair, who had been a great chief under Ábáká, and had
resentments against Ahmad, got up a conspiracy in favour of Arghún, and
effected his release as well as the death of ALINAK, Ahmad's
commander-in-chief. Ahmad fled towards Tabriz, pursued by a band of the
Karaunas, who succeeded in taking him. When Arghún came near and saw his
uncle in their hands, he called out in exultation _Morio!_--an exclamation,
says Wassáf, which the Mongols used when successful in archery,--and with a
gesture gave the signal for the prisoner's death (10th August 1284).

Buka is of course the _Boga_ of Polo; Alinak is his _Soldan_. The
conspirators along with Buka, who are named in the history of Wassáf, are
_Yesubuka_, _Gurgan_, _Aruk_, _Kurmishi_, and _Arkasun Noian_. Those named
by Polo are not mentioned on this occasion, but the names are all Mongol.
TAGÁJAR, ILCHIDAI, TUGHAN, SAMAGHAR, all appear in the Persian history of
those times. Tagajar appears to have had the honour of a letter from the
Pope (Nicolas IV.) in 1291, specially exhorting him to adopt the Christian
faith; it was sent along with letters of like tenor addressed to Arghún,
Gházán, and other members of the imperial family. Tagajar is also
mentioned by the continuator of Abulfaraj as engaged in the conspiracy to
dethrone Kaikhátu. ULATAI was probably the same who went a few years later
as Arghún's ambassador to Cambaluc (see Prologue, ch. xvii.); and Polo may
have heard the story from him on board ship.

(_Assem._ III. pt. 2, 118; _Mosheim_, p. 80; _Ilchan._, passim.)

Abulfaragius gives a fragment of a letter from Arghún to Kúblái, reporting
the deposition of Ahmad by the princes because he had "apostatized from
the law of their fathers, and adopted that of the Arabs." (_Assemani_,
_u.s._ p. 116.) The same historian says that Ahmad was kind and liberal to
the Christians, though Hayton speaks differently.

[Illustration: Facsimile of the Letters sent to Philip the Fair King of
France, by Arghun Khan in A.D. 1289 and by Oljaitu in A.D. 1305.]

NOTE 2.--Arghún obtained the throne on Ahmad's death, as just related, and
soon after named his son Gházán (born in 1271) to the Government of
Khorasan, Mazanderan, Kumis, and Rei. Buka was made Chief Minister. The
circumstances of Arghún's death have been noticed already (supra, p. 369).



CHAPTER XVIII.

HOW KIACATU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER ARGON'S DEATH.


And immediately on Argon's death, an uncle of his who was own brother[1]
to Abaga his father, seized the throne, as he found it easy to do owing to
Casan's being so far away as the _Arbre Sec_. When Casan heard of his
father's death he was in great tribulation, and still more when he heard
of KIACATU'S seizing the throne. He could not then venture to leave the
frontier for fear of his enemies, but he vowed that when time and place
should suit he would go and take as great vengeance as his father had
taken on Acomat. And what shall I tell you? Kiacatu continued to rule, and
all obeyed him except such as were along with Casan. Kiacatu took the wife
of Argon for his own, and was always dallying with women, for he was a
great lechour. He held the throne for two years, and at the end of those
two years he died; for you must know he was poisoned.[NOTE 1]


NOTE 1.--KÁIKHATÚ, of whom we heard in the Prologue (vol. i. p. 35), was
the brother, not the uncle, of Arghún. On the death of the latter there
were three claimants, viz., his son Gházán, his brother Káikhatu, and his
cousin Baidu, the son of Tarakai, one of Hulaku's sons. The party of
Káikhatu was strongest, and he was raised to the throne at Akhlath, 23rd
July 1291. He took as wives out of the Royal Tents of Arghún the Ladies
Bulughán (the 2nd, not her named in the Prologue) and Uruk. All the
writers speak of Káikhatu's character in the same way. Hayton calls him "a
man without law or faith, of no valour or experience in arms, but
altogether given up to lechery and vice, living like a brute beast,
glutting all his disordered appetites; for his dissolute life hated by his
own people, and lightly regarded by foreigners." (_Ram._ II. ch. xxiv.)
The continuator of Abulfaraj, and Abulfeda in his Annals, speak in like
terms. (_Assem._ III. Pt. 2nd, 119-120; _Reiske_, _Ann. Abulf._ III. 101.)

Baidu rose against him; most of his chiefs abandoned him, and he was put
to death in March-April, 1295. He reigned therefore nearly four years, not
_two_ as the text says.


[1] _Frer carnaus_ (I. p. 187).



CHAPTER XIX.

HOW BAIDU SEIZED THE SOVEREIGNTY AFTER THE DEATH OF KIACATU.


When Kiacatu was dead, BAIDU, who was his uncle, and was a Christian,
seized the throne.[NOTE 1] This was in the year 1294 of Christ's
Incarnation. So Baidu held the government, and all obeyed him, except only
those who were with Casan.

And when Casan heard that Kiacatu was dead, and Baidu had seized the
throne, he was in great vexation, especially as he had not been able to
take his vengeance on Kiacatu. As for Baidu, Casan swore that he would
take such vengeance on him that all the world should speak thereof; and he
said to himself that he would tarry no longer, but would go at once
against Baidu and make an end of him. So he addressed all his people, and
then set out to get possession of his throne.

And when Baidu had intelligence thereof he assembled a great army and got
ready, and marched ten days to meet him, and then pitched his camp, and
awaited the advance of Casan to attack him; meanwhile addressing many
prayers and exhortations to his own people. He had not been halted two
days when Casan with all his followers arrived. And that very day a fierce
battle began. But Baidu was not fit to stand long against Casan, and all
the less that soon after the action began many of his troops abandoned him
and took sides with Casan. Thus Baidu was discomfited and put to death,
and Casan remained victor and master of all. For as soon as he had won the
battle and put Baidu to death, he proceeded to the capital and took
possession of the government; and all the Barons performed homage and
obeyed him as their liege lord. Casan began to reign in the year 1294 of
the Incarnation of Christ.

Thus then you have had the whole history from Abaga to Casan, and I should
tell you that Alaü, the conqueror of Baudac, and the brother of the Great
Kaan Cublay, was the progenitor of all those I have mentioned. For he was
the father of Abaga, and Abaga was the father of Argon, and Argon was the
father of Casan who now reigns.[NOTE 2]

Now as we have told you all about the Tartars of the Levant, we will quit
them and go back and tell you more about Great Turkey--But in good sooth
we _have_ told you all about Great Turkey and the history of Caidu,
and there is really no more to tell. So we will go on and tell you of the
Provinces and nations in the far North.


NOTE 1.--The Christian writers often ascribe Christianity to various
princes of the Mongol dynasties without any good grounds. Certain coins of
the Ilkhans of Persia, up to the time of Gházán's conversion to Islam,
exhibit sometimes Mahomedan and sometimes Christian formulae, but this is
no indication of the religion of the prince. Thus coins not merely of the
heathen Khans Abaka and Arghún, but of Ahmad Tigudar, the fanatical
Moslem, are found inscribed "In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost." Raynaldus, under 1285, gives a fragment of a letter addressed by
Arghún to the European Powers, and dated from Tabriz, "in the year of the
Cock," which begins "_In Christi Nomen, Amen!_" But just in like
manner some of the coins of Norman kings of Sicily are said to bear the
Mahomedan profession of faith; and the copper money of some of the
Ghaznevide sultans bears the pagan effigy of the bull _Nandi_,
borrowed from the coinage of the Hindu kings of Kabul.

The European Princes could not get over the belief that the Mongols were
necessarily the inveterate enemies of Mahomedanism and all its professors.
Though Gházán was professedly a zealous Mussulman, we find King James of
Aragon, in 1300, offering _Cassan Rey del Mogol_ amity and alliance with
much abuse of the infidel Saracens; and the same feeling is strongly
expressed in a letter of Edward II. of England to the "Emperor of the
Tartars," which apparently was meant for Oljaitu, the successor of Gházán.
(_Fraehn de Ilchan. Nummis_, vi. and _passim_; _Raynald._ III. 619;
_J.A.S.B._ XXIV. 490; _Kington's Frederick II._ I. 396; _Capmany_,
_Antiguos Tratados_, etc. p. 107; _Rymer_, 2d Ed. III. 34; see also p. 20.)

There are other assertions, besides our author's, that Baidu professed
Christianity. Hayton says so, and asserts that he prohibited Mahomedan
proselytism among the Tartars. The continuator of Abulfaraj says that
Baidu's long acquaintance with the Greek _Despina Khatun_, the wife of
Ábáká, had made him favourable to Christians, so that he willingly allowed
a church to be carried about with the camp, and bells to be struck
therein, but he never openly professed Christianity. In fact at this time
the whole body of Mongols in Persia was passing over to Islam, and Baidu
also, to please them, adopted Mahomedan practices. But he would only
employ Christians as Ministers of State. His rival Gházán, on the other
hand, strengthened his own influence by adopting Islam, Baidu's followers
fell off from him, and delivered him into Ghazan's power. He was put to
death 4th of October, 1295, about seven months after the death of his
predecessor. D'Ohsson's authorities seem to mention no battle such as the
text speaks of, but Mirkhond, as abridged by Teixeira, does so, and puts
it at Nakshiwan on the Araxes (p. 341).

NOTE 2.--Hayton testifies from his own knowledge to the remarkable
personal beauty of Arghún, whilst he tells us that the son Ghazan was as
notable for the reverse. After recounting with great enthusiasm instances
which he had witnessed of the daring and energy of Ghazan, the Armenian
author goes on, "And the most remarkable thing of all was that within a
frame so small, and ugly almost to monstrosity, there should be assembled
nearly all those high qualities which nature is wont to associate with a
form of symmetry and beauty. In fact among all his host of 200,000 Tartars
you should scarcely find one of smaller stature or of uglier and meaner
aspect than this Prince."

[Illustration: Tomb of Oljaitu Khan, the brother of Polo's "Casan" at
Sultaniah. (From Fergusson.)]

Pachymeres says that Gházán made Cyrus, Darius, and Alexander his
patterns, and delighted to read of them. He was very fond of the mechanical
arts; "no one surpassed him in making saddles, bridles, spurs, greaves,
and helmets; he could hammer, stitch, and polish, and in such occupations
employed the hours of his leisure from war." The same author speaks of the
purity and beauty of his coinage, and the excellence of his legislation.
Of the latter, so famous in the East, an account at length is given by
D'Ohsson. (_Hayton_ in _Ramus._ II. ch. xxvi., _Pachym. Andron. Palaeol._
VI. 1; _D'Ohsson_, vol iv.)

Before finally quitting the "Tartars of the Levant," we give a
representation of the finest work of architecture that they have left
behind them, the tomb built for himself by Oljaitu (see on this page), or,
as his Moslem name ran, Mahomed Khodabandah, in the city of Sultaniah,
which he founded. Oljaitu was the brother and successor of Marco Polo's
friend Ghazan, and died in 1316, eight years before our traveller.



CHAPTER XX.

CONCERNING KING CONCHI WHO RULES THE FAR NORTH.


You must know that in the far north there is a King called CONCHI. He is a
Tartar, and all his people are Tartars, and they keep up the regular
Tartar religion. A very brutish one it is, but they keep it up just the
same as Chinghis Kaan and the proper Tartars did, so I will tell you
something of it.

You must know then that they make them a god of felt, and call him
NATIGAI; and they also make him a wife; and then they say that these two
divinities are the gods of the Earth who protect their cattle and their
corn and all their earthly goods. They pray to these figures, and when
they are eating a good dinner they rub the mouths of their gods with the
meat, and do many other stupid things.

The King is subject to no one, although he is of the Imperial lineage of
Chinghis Kaan, and a near kinsman of the Great Kaan.[NOTE 1] This King
has neither city nor castle; he and his people live always either in the
wide plains or among great mountains and valleys. They subsist on the milk
and flesh of their cattle, and have no corn. The King has a vast number
of people, but he carries on no war with anybody, and his people live in
great tranquillity. They have enormous numbers of cattle, camels, horses,
oxen, sheep, and so forth.

You find in their country immense bears entirely white, and more than 20
palms in length. There are also large black foxes, wild asses, and
abundance of sables; those creatures I mean from the skins of which they
make those precious robes that cost 1000 bezants each. There are also
vairs in abundance; and vast multitudes of the Pharaoh's rat, on which the
people live all the summer time. Indeed they have plenty of all sorts of
wild creatures, for the country they inhabit is very wild and trackless.
[NOTE 2]

And you must know that this King possesses one tract of country which is
quite impassable for horses, for it abounds greatly in lakes and springs,
and hence there is so much ice as well as mud and mire, that horses cannot
travel over it. This difficult country is 13 days in extent, and at the
end of every day's journey there is a post for the lodgement of the
couriers who have to cross this tract. At each of these post-houses they
keep some 40 dogs of great size, in fact not much smaller than donkeys,
and these dogs draw the couriers over the day's journey from post-house to
post-house, and I will tell you how. You see the ice and mire are so
prevalent, that over this tract, which lies for those 13 days' journey in
a great valley between two mountains, no horses (as I told you) can
travel, nor can any wheeled carriage either. Wherefore they make sledges,
which are carriages without wheels, and made so that they can run over the
ice, and also over mire and mud without sinking too deep in it. Of these
sledges indeed there are many in our own country, for 'tis just such that
are used in winter for carrying hay and straw when there have been heavy
rains and the country is deep in mire. On such a sledge then they lay a
bear-skin on which the courier sits, and the sledge is drawn by six of
those big dogs that I spoke of. The dogs have no driver, but go straight
for the next post-house, drawing the sledge famously over ice and mire.
The keeper of the post-house however also gets on a sledge drawn by dogs,
and guides the party by the best and shortest way. And when they arrive at
the next station they find a new relay of dogs and sledges ready to take
them on, whilst the old relay turns back; and thus they accomplish the
whole journey across that region, always drawn by dogs.[NOTE 3]

The people who dwell in the valleys and mountains adjoining that tract of
13 days' journey are great huntsmen, and catch great numbers of precious
little beasts which are sources of great profit to them. Such are the
Sable, the Ermine, the Vair, the _Erculin_, the Black Fox, and many
other creatures from the skins of which the most costly furs are prepared.
They use traps to take them, from which they can't escape.[NOTE 4] But in
that region the cold is so great that all the dwellings of the people are
underground, and underground they always live.[NOTE 5]

There is no more to say on this subject, so I shall proceed to tell you of
a region in that quarter, in which there is perpetual darkness.


NOTE 1.--There are two KUWINJIS, or KAUNCHIS, as the name, from Polo's
representation of it, probably ought to be written, mentioned in
connection with the Northern Steppes, if indeed there has not been
confusion about them; both are descendants of Juji, the eldest son of
Chinghiz. One was the twelfth son of Shaibani, the 5th son of Juji.
Shaibani's Yurt was in Siberia, and his family seem to have become
predominant in that quarter. Arghún, on his defeat by Ahmad (supra p.
470), was besought to seek shelter with Kaunchi. The other Kaunchi was the
son of Sirtaktai, the son of Orda, the eldest son of Juji, and was, as
well as his father and grandfather, chief of the White Horde, whose
territory lay north-east of the Caspian. An embassy from this Kaunchi is
mentioned as having come to the court of Kaikhatu at Siah-Kuh (north of
Tabriz) with congratulations, in the summer of 1293. Polo may very
possibly have seen the members of this embassy, and got some of his
information from them. (See _Gold. Horde_, 149, 249; _Ilkhans_, I. 354,
403; II. 193, where Hammer writes the name of _Kandschi_.)

It is perhaps a trace of the lineage of the old rulers of Siberia that the
old town of Tyuman in Western Siberia is still known to the Tartars as
_Chinghiz Tora_, or the Fort of Chinghiz. (_Erman_, I. 310.)

NOTE 2.--We see that Polo's information in this chapter extends over the
whole latitude of Siberia; for the great White Bears and the Black Foxes
belong to the shores of the Frozen Ocean; the Wild Asses only to the
southern parts of Siberia. As to the Pharaoh's Rat, see vol. i. p. 254.

[Illustration: The Siberian Dog-sledge.

"E sus ceste treies hi se mete sus un cuir d'ors, e puis hi monte sus un
mesaje; e ceste treies moinent six chiens de celz grant qe je vos ai
contés; et cesti chienz ne les moine nulz, mès il vont tout droit jusque à
l'autre poste, et trainent la treies mout bien."]

NOTE 3.--No dog-sledges are now known, I believe, on this side of the
course of the Obi, and there not south of about 61° 30'. But in the 11th
century they were in general use between the Dwina and Petchora. And Ibn
Batuta's account seems to imply that in the 14th they were in use far to
the south of the present limit: "It had been my wish to visit the Land of
Darkness, which can only be done from Bolghar. There is a distance of 40
days' journey between these two places. I had to give up the intention
however on account of the great difficulty attending the journey and the
little fruit that it promised. In that country they travel only with small
vehicles drawn by great dogs. For the steppe is covered with ice, and the
feet of men or the shoes of horses would slip, whereas the dogs having
claws their paws don't slip upon the ice. The only travellers across this
wilderness are rich merchants, each of whom owns about 100 of these
vehicles, which are loaded with meat, drink, and firewood. In fact, on
this route there are neither trees nor stones, nor human dwellings. The
guide of the travellers is a dog who has often made the journey before!
The price of such a beast is sometimes as high as 1000 dinárs or
thereabouts. He is yoked to the vehicle by the neck, and three other dogs
are harnessed along with him. He is the chief, and all the other dogs with
their carts follow his guidance and stop when he stops. The master of this
animal never ill-uses him nor scolds him, and at feeding-time the dogs are
always served before the men. If this be not attended to, the chief of the
dogs will get sulky and run off, leaving the master to perdition" (II.
399-400).

[Mr. Parker writes (_China Review_, xiv. p. 359), that dog-sledges appear
to have been known to the Chinese, for in a Chinese poem occurs the line:
"Over the thick snow in a dog-cart."--H.C.]

The bigness attributed to the dogs by Polo, Ibn Batuta, and Rubruquis, is
an imagination founded on the work ascribed to them. Mr. Kennan says they
are simply half-domesticated Arctic wolves. Erman calls them the height of
European spaniels (qu. setters?), but much slenderer and leaner in the
flanks. A good draught-dog, according to Wrangell, should be 2 feet high
and 3 feet in length. The number of dogs attached to a sledge is usually
greater than the old travellers represent,--none of whom, however, had
_seen_ the thing.

Wrangell's account curiously illustrates what Ibn Batuta says of the Old
Dog who guides: "The best-trained and most intelligent dog is often yoked
in front.... He often displays extraordinary sagacity and influence over
the other dogs, e.g. in keeping them from breaking after game. In such a
case he will sometimes turn and bark in the opposite direction; ... and in
crossing a naked and boundless _tundra_ in darkness or snow-drift he will
guess his way to a hut that he has never visited but once before" (I.
159). Kennan also says: "They are guided and controlled entirely by the
voice and by a lead-dog, who is especially trained for the purpose." The
like is related of the Esquimaux dogs. (_Kennarts Tent Life in Siberia_,
pp. 163-164; _Wood's Mammalia_, p. 266.)

NOTE 4.--On the _Erculin_ and _Ercolin_ of the G.T., written Arculin in
next chapter, _Arcolino_ of Ramusio, _Herculini_ of Pipino, no light is
thrown by the Italian or other editors. One supposes of course some animal
of the ermine or squirrel kinds affording valuable fur, but I can find no
similar name of any such animal. It may be the Argali or Siberian Wild
Sheep, which Rubruquis mentions: "I saw another kind of beast which is
called _Arcali_; its body is just like a ram's, and its horns spiral like
a ram's also, only they are so big that I could scarcely lift a pair of
them with one hand. They make huge drinking-vessels out of these" (p.
230). [See I. p. 177.]

_Vair_, so often mentioned in mediaeval works, appears to have been a name
appropriate to the fur as prepared rather than to the animal. This appears
to have been the Siberian squirrel called in French _petit-gris_, the back
of which is of a fine grey and the belly of a brilliant white. In the
_Vair_ (which is perhaps only _varius_ or variegated) the backs and
bellies were joined in a kind of checquer; whence the heraldic checquer
called by the same name. There were two kinds, _menu-vair_ corrupted into
_minever_, and _gros-vair_, but I cannot learn clearly on what the
distinction rested. (See _Douet d'Arcq_, p. xxxv.) Upwards of 2000
_ventres de menuvair_ were sometimes consumed in one complete suit of
robes (Ib. xxxii.).

The traps used by the Siberian tribes to take these valuable animals are
described by Erman (I. 452), only in the English translation the
description is totally incomprehensible; also in Wrangell, I. 151.

NOTE 5.--The country chiefly described in this chapter is probably that
which the Russians, and also the Arabian Geographers, used to term
_Yugria_, apparently the country of the Ostyaks on the Obi. The
winter-dwellings of the people are not, strictly speaking, underground, but
they are flanked with earth piled up against the walls. The same is the
case with those of the Yakuts in Eastern Siberia, and these often have the
floors also sunk 3 feet in the earth. Habitations really subterranean, of
some previous race, have been found in the Samoyed country. (_Klaproth's
Mag. Asiatique, II. 66._)



CHAPTER XXI.

CONCERNING THE LAND OF DARKNESS.


Still further north, and a long way beyond that kingdom of which I have
spoken, there is a region which bears the name of DARKNESS, because
neither sun nor moon nor stars appear, but it is always as dark as with us
in the twilight. The people have no king of their own, nor are they
subject to any foreigner, and live like beasts. [They are dull of
understanding, like half-witted persons.[NOTE 1]]

The Tartars however sometimes visit the country, and they do it in this
way. They enter the region riding mares that have foals, and these foals
they leave behind. After taking all the plunder that they can get they
find their way back by help of the mares, which are all eager to get back
to their foals, and find the way much better than their riders could do.
[NOTE 2]

Those people have vast quantities of valuable peltry; thus they have those
costly Sables of which I spoke, and they have the Ermine, the Arculin, the
Vair, the Black Fox, and many other valuable furs. They are all hunters by
trade, and amass amazing quantities of those furs. And the people who are
on their borders, where the Light is, purchase all those furs from them;
for the people of the Land of Darkness carry the furs to the Light country
for sale, and the merchants who purchase these make great gain thereby, I
assure you.[NOTE 3]

The people of this region are tall and shapely, but very pale and
colourless. One end of the country borders upon Great Rosia. And as there
is no more to be said about it, I will now proceed, and first I will tell
you about the Province of Rosia.


NOTE 1.--In the Ramusian version we have a more intelligent representation
of the facts regarding the _Land of Darkness_: "Because for most part of
the winter months the sun appears not, and the air is dusky, as it is just
before the dawn when you see and yet do not see;" and again below it
speaks of the inhabitants catching the fur animals "in summer when they
have continuous daylight." It is evident that the writer of this version
_did_ and the writer of the original French which we have translated from
_did not_ understand what he was writing. The whole of the latter account
implies belief in the perpetuity of the darkness. It resembles Pliny's
hazy notion of the northern regions:[1] "pars mundi damnata a rerum natura
et densa mersa caligine." Whether the fault is due to Rustician's
ignorance or is Polo's own, who can say? We are willing to debit it to the
former, and to credit Marco with the improved version in Ramusio. In the
_Masálak-al-Absár_, however, we have the following passage in which the
conception is similar: "Merchants do not ascend (the Wolga) beyond
Bolghar; from that point they make excursions through the province of
Julman (supposed to be the country on the Kama and Viatka). The merchants
of the latter country penetrate to Yughra, which is the extremity of the
North. Beyond that you see no trace of habitation except a great Tower
built by Alexander, after which there is nothing but Darkness." The
narrator of this, being asked what he meant, said: "It is a region of
desert mountains, where frost and snow continually reign, where the sun
never shines, no plant vegetates, and no animal lives. Those mountains
border on the Dark Sea, on which rain falls perpetually, fogs are ever
dense, and the sun never shows itself, and on tracts perpetually covered
with snow." (_N. et Ex._ XIII. i. 285.)

NOTE 2.--This is probably a story of great antiquity, for it occurs in the
legends of the mythical _Ughuz_, Patriarch of the Turk and Tartar nations,
as given by Rashiduddin. In this hero's campaign towards the far north, he
had ordered the old men to be left behind near Almalik; but a very ancient
sage called Bushi Khwaja persuaded his son to carry him forward in a box,
as they were sure sooner or later to need the counsel of experienced age.
When they got to the land of _Kará Hulun_, Ughuz and his officers were
much perplexed about finding their way, as they had arrived at the Land of
Darkness. The old Bushi was then consulted, and his advice was that they
should take with them 4 mares and 9 she-asses that had foals, and tie up
the foals at the entrance to the Land of Darkness, but drive the dams
before them. And when they wished to return they would be guided by the
scent and maternal instinct of the mares and she-asses. And so it was
done. (See _Erdmann Temudschin_, p. 478.) Ughuz, according to the
Mussulman interpretation of the Eastern Legends, was the great-grandson of
Japhet.

The story also found its way into some of the later Greek forms of the
Alexander Legends. Alexander, when about to enter the Land of Darkness,
takes with him only picked young men. Getting into difficulties, the King
wants to send back for some old sage who should advise. Two young men had
smuggled their old father with them in anticipation of such need, and on
promise of amnesty they produce him. He gives the advice to use the mares
as in the text. (See _Müller's ed._ of _Pseudo-Callisthenes_, Bk. II. ch.
xxxiv.)

NOTE 3.--Ibn Batuta thus describes the traffic that took place with the
natives of the Land of Darkness: "When the Travellers have accomplished a
journey of 40 days across this Desert tract they encamp near the borders
of the Land of Darkness. Each of them then deposits there the goods that
he has brought with him, and all return to their quarters. On the morrow
they come back to look at their goods, and find laid beside them skins of
the Sable, the Vair, and the Ermine. If the owner of the goods is
satisfied with what is laid beside his parcel he takes it, if not he
leaves it there. The inhabitants of the Land of Darkness may then (on
another visit) increase the amount of their deposit, or, as often happens,
they may take it away altogether and leave the goods of the foreign
merchants untouched. In this way is the trade conducted. The people who go
thither never know whether those with whom they buy and sell are men or
goblins, for they never see any one!" (II. 401.)

["Ibn Batuta's account of the market of the 'Land of Darkness' ... agrees
almost word for word with Dr. Mirth's account of the 'Spirit Market, taken
from the Chinese.'" (_Parker, China Review_, XIV. p. 359.)--H.C.]

Abulfeda gives exactly the same account of the trade; and so does
Herberstein. Other Oriental writers ascribe the same custom to the _Wisu_,
a people three months' journey from Bolghar. These Wisu have been
identified by Fraehn with the _Wesses_, a people spoken of by Russian
historians as dwelling on the shores of the Bielo Osero, which Lake indeed
is alleged by a Russian author to have been anciently called _Wüsu_,
misunderstood into _Weissensee_, and thence rendered into Russian Bielo
Osero ("White Lake"). (_Golden Horde_, App. p. 429; _Büsching_, IV.
359-360; _Herberstein_ in _Ram._ II. 168 v.; _Fraehn, Bolghar_, pp. 14, 47;
Do., _Ibn Fozlan_, 205 seqq., 221.) Dumb trade of the same kind is a
circumstance related of very many different races and periods, e.g., of a
people beyond the Pillars of Hercules by Herodotus, of the Sabaean dealers
in frankincense by Theophrastus, of the Seres by Pliny, of the Sasians far
south of Ethiopia by Cosmas, of the people of the Clove Islands by Kazwini,
of a region beyond Segelmessa by Mas'udi, of a people far beyond Timbuctoo
by Cadamosto, the Veddas of Ceylon by Marignolli and more modern writers,
of the Poliars of Malabar by various authors, by Paulus Jovius of the
Laplanders, etc. etc.

Pliny's attribution, surely erroneous, of this custom to the Chinese [see
supra, H.C.], suggests that there may have been a misunderstanding by
which this method of trade was confused with that other curious system of
dumb higgling, by the pressure of the knuckles under a shawl, a masonic
system in use from Peking to Bombay, and possibly to Constantinople.

The term translated here "Light," and the "Light Country," is in the G.T.
"_a la Carte_," "_a la Cartes_." This puzzled me for a long time, as I
see it puzzled Mr. Hugh Murray, Signor Bartoli, and Lazari (who passes it
over). The version of Pipino, "_ad_ Lucis _terras finitimas deferunt_,"
points to the true reading;--_Carte_ is an error for _Clarté_.

The reading of this chapter is said to have fired Prince Rupert with the
scheme which resulted in the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company.


[1] That is, in one passage of Pliny (iv. 12); for in another passage from
    his multifarious note book, where Thule is spoken of, the Arctic day
    and night are much more distinctly characterised (IV. 16).



CHAPTER XXII.

DESCRIPTION OF ROSIA AND ITS PEOPLE. PROVINCE OF LAC.


Rosia is a very great province, lying towards the north. The people are
Christians, and follow the Greek doctrine. There are several kings in the
country, and they have a language of their own. They are a people of
simple manners, but both men and women very handsome, being all very white
and [tall, with long fair hair]. There are many strong defiles and passes
in the country; and they pay tribute to nobody except to a certain Tartar
king of the Ponent, whose name is TOCTAI; to him indeed they pay tribute,
but only a trifle. It is not a land of trade, though to be sure they have
many fine and valuable furs, such as Sables, in abundance, and Ermine,
Vair, Ercolin, and Fox skins, the largest and finest in the world [and
also much wax]. They also possess many Silver-mines, from which they
derive a large amount of silver.[NOTE 1]

There is nothing else worth mentioning; so let us leave Rosia, and I will
tell you about the Great Sea, and what provinces and nations lie round
about it, all in detail; and we will begin with Constantinople.--First,
however, I should tell you of a province that lies between north and
north-west. You see in that region that I have been speaking of, there is
a province called LAC, which is conterminous with Rosia, and has a king of
its own. The people are partly Christians and partly Saracens. They have
abundance of furs of good quality, which merchants export to many
countries. They live by trade and handicrafts.[NOTE 2]

There is nothing more worth mentioning, so I will speak of other subjects;
but there is one thing more to tell you about Rosia that I had forgotten.
You see in Rosia there is the greatest cold that is to be found anywhere,
so great as to be scarcely bearable. The country is so great that it
reaches even to the shores of the Ocean Sea, and 'tis in that sea that
there are certain islands in which are produced numbers of gerfalcons and
peregrine falcons, which are carried in many directions. From Russia also
to OROECH it is not very far, and the journey could be soon made, were it
not for the tremendous cold; but this renders its accomplishment almost
impossible.[NOTE 3]

Now then let us speak of the Great Sea, as I was about to do. To be sure
many merchants and others have been there, but still there are many again
who know nothing about it, so it will be well to include it in our Book.
We will do so then, and let us begin first with the Strait of
Constantinople.


NOTE 1.--Ibn Fozlan, the oldest Arabic author who gives any detailed
account of the Russians (and a very remarkable one it is), says he "never
saw people of form more perfectly developed; they were tall as palm-trees,
and ruddy of countenance," but at the same time "the most uncleanly people
that God hath created," drunken, and frightfully gross in their manners.
(_Fraehn's Ibn Fozlan_, p. 5 seqq.) Ibn Batuta is in some respects less
flattering; he mentions the silver-mines noticed in our text: "At a day's
distance from Ukak[1] are the hills of the Russians, who are Christians.
They have red hair and blue eyes; ugly to look at, and crafty to deal
with. They have silver-mines, and it is from their country that are
brought the _saum_ or ingots of silver with which buying and selling is
carried on in this country (Kipchak or the Ponent of Polo). The weight of
each _saumah_ is 5 ounces" (II. 414). Mas'udi also says: "The Russians
have in their country a silver-mine similar to that which exists in
Khorasan, at the mountain of Banjhir" (i.e. _Panjshir_; II. 15; and see
supra, vol. i. p. 161). These positive and concurrent testimonies as to
Russian silver-mines are remarkable, as modern accounts declare that no
silver is found in Russia. And if we go back to the 16th century,
Herberstein says the same. There was no silver, he says, except what was
imported; silver money had been in use barely 100 years; previously they
had used oblong ingots of the value of a ruble, without any figure or
legend. (_Ram._ II. 159.)

But a welcome communication from Professor Bruun points out that the
statement of Ibn Batuta identifies the silver-mines in question with
certain mines of argentiferous lead-ore near the River Mious (a river
falling into the sea of Azof, about 22 miles west of Taganrog); an ore
which even in recent times has afforded 60 per cent. of lead, and 1/24 per
cent. of silver. And it was these mines which furnished the ancient
Russian _rubles_ or ingots. Thus the original _ruble_ was the _saumah_ of
Ibn Batuta, the _sommo_ of Pegolotti. A ruble seems to be still called by
some term like _saumah_ in Central Asia; it is printed _soom_ in the
Appendix to Davies's Punjab Report, p. xi. And Professor Bruun tells me
that the silver ruble is called _Som_ by the Ossethi of Caucasus.[2]

Franc.-Michel quotes from Fitz-Stephen's Desc. of London (_temp._ Henry
II.):--

  "_Aurum mittit Arabs ...
  Seres purpureas vestes; Galli sua vina;
  Norwegi_, Russi, varium, grysium, sabelinas."

Russia was overrun with fire and sword as far as Tver and Torshok by Batu
Khan (1237-1238), some years before his invasion of Poland and Silesia.
Tartar tax-gatherers were established in the Russian cities as far north
as Rostov and Jaroslawl, and for many years Russian princes as far as
Novgorod paid homage to the Mongol Khans in their court at Sarai. Their
subjection to the Khans was not such a trifle as Polo seems to imply; and
at least a dozen Russian princes met their death at the hands of the
Mongol executioner.

[Illustration: Mediaeval Russian Church. (From Fergusson.)]

NOTE 2.--The _Lac_ of this passage appears to be WALLACHIA. Abulfeda calls
the Wallachs _Aulák_; Rubruquis _Illac_, which he says is the same word as
_Blac_ (the usual European form of those days being _Blachi, Blachia_), but
the Tartars could not pronounce the B (p. 275). Abulghazi says the original
inhabitants of Kipchak were the _Urús_, the Olaks, _the Majars_, and the
_Bashkirs_.

Rubruquis is wrong in placing _Illac_ or Wallachs in Asia; at least the
people near the Ural, who he says were so-called by the Tartars, cannot
have been Wallachs. Professor Bruun, who corrects my error in following
Rubruquis, thinks those Asiatic _Blac_ must have been _Polovtzi_, or
Cumanians.

[Mr. Rockhill (_Rubruck_, p. 130, note) writes: "A branch of the Volga
Bulgars occupied the Moldo-Vallach country in about A.D. 485, but it was
not until the first years of the 6th century that a portion of them passed
the Danube under the leadership of Asparuk, and established themselves in
the present Bulgaria, Friar William's 'Land of Assan.'"--H.C.]

NOTE 3.--_Oroech_ is generally supposed to be a mistake for _Noroech_,
NORWEGE or Norway, which is probable enough. But considering the Asiatic
sources of most of our author's information, it is also possible that
_Oroech_ represents WAREG. The _Waraegs_ or _Warangs_ are celebrated in the
oldest Russian history as a race of warlike immigrants, of whom came Rurik,
the founder of the ancient royal dynasty, and whose name was long preserved
in that of the Varangian guards at Constantinople. Many Eastern
geographers, from Al Biruni downwards, speak of the Warag or Warang as a
nation dwelling in the north, on the borders of the Slavonic countries, and
on the shores of a great arm of the Western Ocean, called the _Sea of
Warang_, evidently the Baltic. The Waraegers are generally considered to
have been Danes or Northmen, and Erman mentions that in the bazaars of
Tobolsk he found Danish goods known as _Varaegian_. Mr. Hyde Clark, as I
learn from a review, has recently identified the Warangs or Warings with
the _Varini_, whom Tacitus couples with the Angli, and has shown probable
evidence for their having taken part in the invasion of Britain. He has
also shown that many points of the laws which they established in Russia
were purely Saxon in character. (_Bayer_ in _Comment. Acad. Petropol._ IV.
276 seqq.; _Fraehn_ in App. to _Ibn Fozlan_, p. 177 seqq.; _Erman_, I. 374;
_Sat. Review_, 19th June, 1869; _Gold. Horde_, App. p. 428.)


[1] This Ukak of Ibn Batuta is not, as I too hastily supposed (vol. i. p.
    8) the _Ucaca_ of the Polos on the Volga, but a place of the same name
    on the Sea of Azof, which appears in some mediaeval maps as _Locac_ or
    _Locaq_ (_i.e. l'Ocac_), and which Elle de Laprimaudaie in his
    Periplus of the Mediaeval Caspian, locates at a place called Kaszik, a
    little east of Mariupol. (_Et. sur le Comm. au Moyen. Age_, p. 230.) I
    owe this correction to a valued correspondent, Professor Bruun, of
    Odessa.

[2] The word is, however, perhaps Or. Turkish; _Som_, "pure, solid."
    (See _Pavet de Courteille_, and _Vámbéry_, s.v.)



CHAPTER XXIII.

HE BEGINS TO SPEAK OF THE STRAITS OF CONSTANTINOPLE, BUT DECIDES TO LEAVE
THAT MATTER.


At the straits leading into the Great Sea, on the west side, there is a
hill called the FARO.--But since beginning on this matter I have changed
my mind, because so many people know all about it, so we will not put it
in our description, but go on to something else. And so I will tell you
about the Tartars of the Ponent, and the lords who have reigned over them.



CHAPTER XXIV.

CONCERNING THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT AND THEIR LORDS.


The first lord of the Tartars of the Ponent was SAIN, a very great and
puissant king, who conquered ROSIA and COMANIA, ALANIA, LAC, MENJAR, ZIC,
GOTHIA, and GAZARIA; all these provinces were conquered by King Sain.
Before his conquest these all belonged to the Comanians, but they did not
hold well together nor were they united, and thus they lost their
territories and were dispersed over divers countries; and those who
remained all became the servants of King Sain.[NOTE 1]

After King Sain reigned King PATU, and after Patu BARCA, and after Barca
MUNGLETEMUR, and after Mungletemur King TOTAMANGUL, and then TOCTAI the
present sovereign.[NOTE 2]

Now I have told you of the Tartar kings of the Ponent, and next I shall
tell you of a great battle that was fought between Alau the Lord of the
Levant and Barca the Lord of the Ponent.

So now we will relate out of what occasion that battle arose, and how it
was fought.


NOTE 1.--+The COMANIANS, a people of Turkish race, the _Polovtzi_[or
"Dwellers of the Plain" of Nestor, the Russian Annalist] of the old
Russians, were one of the chief nations occupying the plains on the north
of the Black Sea and eastward to the Caspian, previous to the Mongol
invasion. Rubruquis makes them identical with the KIPCHAK, whose name is
generally attached to those plains by Oriental writers, but Hammer
disputes this. [See a note, pp. 92-93 of _Rockhill's Rubruck_.--H.C.]

ALANIA, the country of the Alans on the northern skirts of the Caucasus
and towards the Caspian; LAC, the Wallachs as above. MENJAR is a subject
of doubt. It may be _Májar_, on the Kuma River, a city which was visited
by Ibn Batuta, and is mentioned by Abulfeda as _Kummájar_. It was in the
14th century the seat of a Franciscan convent. Coins of that century, both
of Majar and New Majar, are given by Erdmann. The building of the
fortresses of Kichi Majar and Ulu Majar (little and great) is ascribed in
the _Derbend Nameh_ to Naoshirwan. The ruins of Majar were extensive when
seen by Gmelin in the last century, but when visited by Klaproth in the
early part of the present one there were few buildings remaining.
Inscriptions found there are, like the coins, Mongol-Mahomedan of the 14th
century. Klaproth, with reference to these ruins, says that _Majar_ merely
means in "old Tartar" a stone building, and denies any connection with the
_Magyars_ as a nation. But it is possible that the Magyar country, i.e.
Hungary, is here intended by Polo, for several Asiatic writers of his
time, or near it, speak of the Hungarians as _Majár_. Thus Abulfeda speaks
of the infidel nations near the Danube as including Aulák, Majárs, and
Serbs; Rashiduddin speaks of the Mongols as conquering the country of the
Bashkirds, the Majárs, and the Sassan (probably Saxons of Transylvania).
One such mention from Abulghazi has been quoted in note 2 to ch. xxii.; in
the _Masálak-al-Absár_, the _Cherkes_, _Russians_, _Aas_ (or Alans), and
Majar are associated; the Majar _and Alán_ in Sharifuddin. Doubts indeed
arise whether in some of these instances a people located in Asia be not
intended.[1] (_Rubr._ p. 246; _D'Avezac_, p. 486 seqq.; _Golden
Horde_, p. 5; _I.B._ II. 375 seqq.; _Büsching_, IV. 359; _Cathay_, p.
233; _Numi Asiatici_, I. 333, 451; _Klaproth's Travels_, ch. xxxi.; _N. et
Ex._ XIII. i. 269, 279; _P. de la Croix_, II. 383; _Rein. Abulf._ I. 80;
_D'Ohsson_, II. 628.)

["The author of the _Tarikh Djihan Kushai_, as well as Rashid and other
Mohammedan authors of the same period, term the Hungarians _Bashkerds_
(Bashkirs). This latter name, written also _Bashkurd_, appears for the
first time, it seems, in Ibn Fozlan's narrative of an embassy to the
Bulgars on the Volga in the beginning of the 10th century (translated by
Fraehn, 'De Bashkiris,' etc., 1822).... The Hungarians arrived in Europe
in the 9th century, and then called themselves _Magyar_ (to be pronounced
Modjor), as they do down to the present time. The Russian Chronicler
Nestor mentions their passing near Kiev in 898, and terms them _Ugry_. But
the name Magyar was also known to other nations in the Middle Ages.
Abulfeda (ii. 324) notices the _Madjgars_; it would, however, seem that he
applies this name to the Bashkirs in Asia. The name _Madjar_ occurs also
in Rashid's record. In the Chinese and Mongol annals of the 13th century
the Hungarians are termed _Madja-rh_." (_Bretschneider, Med. Res._ I. pp.
326-327.)--H.C.]

ZIC is Circassia. The name was known to Pliny, Ptolemy, and other writers
of classic times. Ramusio (II. 196 _v_) gives a curious letter to Aldus
Manutius from George Interiano, "_Della vita de'_ Zychi _chiamati
Circassi_," and a great number of other references to ancient and
mediaeval use of the name will be found in D'Avezac's Essay, so often
quoted (p. 497).

GOTHIA is the southern coast of the Crimea from Sudak to Balaklava and the
mountains north of the latter, then still occupied by a tribe of the
Goths. The Genoese officer who governed this coast in the 15th century
bore the title of _Capitanus Gotiae_; and a remnant of the tribe still
survived, maintaining their Teutonic speech, to the middle of the 16th
century, when Busbeck, the emperor's ambassador to the Porte, fell in with
two of them, from whom he derived a small vocabulary and other
particulars. (_Busbequii Opera_, 1660, p. 321 seqq.; _D'Avezac_, pp.
498-499; _Heyd._, II. 123 seqq.; _Cathay_, pp. 200-201.)

GAZARIA, the Crimea and part of the northern shore of the Sea of Azov,
formerly occupied by the _Khazars_, a people whom Klaproth endeavours to
prove to have been of Finnish race. When the Genoese held their
settlements on the Crimean coast the Board at Genoa which administered the
affairs of these colonies was called _The Office of Gazaria_.

NOTE 2.--The real list of the "Kings of the Ponent," or Khans of the
Golden Horde, down to the time of Polo's narrative, runs thus: BATU,
_Sartak, Ulagchi_ (these two almost nominal), BARKA, MANGKU TIMUR, TUDAI
MANGKU, _Tulabugha_, _Tuktuka_ or TOKTAI. Polo here omits Tulabugha
(though he mentions him below in ch. xxix.), and introduces before Batu,
as a great and powerful conqueror, the founder of the empire, a prince
whom he calls _Sain_. This is in fact Batu himself, the leader of the
great Tartar invasion of Europe (1240-1242), whom he has split into two
kings. Batu bore the surname of _Sain Khan_, or "the Good Prince," by
which name he is mentioned, e.g., in Makrizi (_Quatremère's Trans._ II.
45), also in Wassáf (_Hammer's Trans._ pp. 29-30). Piano Carpini's account
of him is worth quoting: "Hominibus quidem ejus satis benignus; timetur
tamen valde ab iis; sed crudelissimus est in pugnâ; sagax est multum; et
etiam astutissimus in bello, quia longo tempore jam pugnavit." This Good
Prince was indeed _crudelissimus in pugnâ_. At Moscow he ordered a general
massacre, and 270,000 right ears are said to have been laid before him in
testimony to its accomplishment. It is odd enough that a mistake like that
in the text is not confined to Polo. The chronicle of Kazan, according to
a Russian writer, makes _Sain_ succeed _Batu_. (_Carpini_, p. 746; _J. As._
sér. IV. tom. xvii. p. 109; _Büsching_, V. 493; also _Golden Horde_,
p. 142, note.)

Batu himself, in the great invasion of the West, was with the southern
host in Hungary; the northern army which fought at Liegnitz was under
Baidar, a son of Chaghatai.

According to the _Masálak-al-Absár_, the territory of Kipchak, over which
this dynasty ruled, extended in length from the Sea of Istambul to the
River Irtish, a journey of 6 months, and in breadth from Bolghar to the
Iron Gates, 4 (?) months' journey. A second traveller, quoted in the same
work, says the empire extended from the Iron Gates to _Yughra_ (see p. 483
supra), and from the Irtish to the country of the _Nemej_. The last term
is very curious, being the Russian _Niemicz_, "Dumb," a term which in
Russia is used as a proper name of the Germans; a people, to wit, unable
to speak Slavonic. (_N. et Ex._ XIII. i. 282, 284.)

["An allusion to the Mongol invasion of Poland and Silesia is found in the
_Yuen-shi_, ch. cxxi., biography of Wu-liang-ho t'ai (the son of
Su-bu-t'ai). It is stated there that Wu-liang-ho t'ai [Urtangcadai]
accompanied Badu when he invaded the countries of _Kin ch'a_ (Kipchak) and
_Wu-la-sz'_ (Russia). Subsequently he took part also in the expedition
against the _P'o-lie-rh_ and _Nie-mi-sze_." (_Dr. Bretschneider, Med. Res._
I. p. 322.) With reference to these two names, Dr. Bretschneider says, in a
note, that he has no doubt that the Poles and Germans are intended. "As to
its origin, the Russian linguists generally derive it from _nemoi_, 'dumb,'
i.e., unable to speak Slavonic. To the ancient Byzantine chroniclers the
Germans were known under the same name. Cf. _Muralt's Essai de Chronogr.
Byzant., sub anno_ 882: 'Les Slavons maltraités par les guerriers _Nemetzi_
de Swiatopolc' (King of Great Moravia, 870-894). Sophocles' Greek Lexicon
of the Roman and Byzantine periods from B.C. 146 to A.D. 1100: '_Nemitzi_'
Austrians, Germans. This name is met also in the Mohammedan authors.
According to the Masálak-al-Absár, of the first half of the 14th century
(transl. by Quatremère, _N. et Ext._ XXII. 284), the country of the
Kipchaks extended (eastward) to the country of the _Nemedj_, which
separates the Franks from the Russians. The Turks still call the Germans
_Niemesi_; the Hungarians term them _Nemet_."--H.C.]

[Illustration: Figure of a Tartar under the feet of Henry II, Duke of
Silesia, Cracow, and Poland, from the tomb at Breslau of that Prince,
killed in battle with the Tartar host at Liegnitz, 9th April, 1241.]


[1] This doubt arises also where Abulfeda speaks of _Majgaria_ in the
    far north, "the capital of the country of the _Madjgars_, a Turk race"
    of pagan nomads, by whom he seems to mean the _Bashkirs_. (_Reinaud's
    Abulf._ I. 324.) For it is to the Bashkir country that the Franciscan
    travellers apply the term Great Hungary, showing that they were led to
    believe it the original seat of the _Magyars_. (_Rubr._ 274, _Plan.
    Carpin._ 747; and in same vol. _D'Avezac_, p. 491.) Further confusion
    arises from the fact that, besides the Uralian Bashkirs, there were,
    down to the 13th century, Bashkirs recognised as such, and as distinct
    from the Hungarians though akin to them, dwelling in _Hungarian
    territory_. Ibn Said, speaking of Sebennico (the cradle of the Polo
    family), says that when the Tartars advanced under its walls (1242?)
    "the Hungarians, the Bashkirs, and the Germans united their forces
    near the city" and gave the invaders a signal defeat. (_Reinaud's
    Abulf._ I. 312; see also 294, 295.) One would gladly know what are the
    real names that M. Reinaud refers _Hongrois_ and _Allemands_. The
    Christian Bashkirds of Khondemir, on the borders of the Franks, appear
    to be Hungarians. (See _J. As._, sér. IV. tom. xvii. p. 111.)



CHAPTER XXV.

OF THE WAR THAT AROSE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA, AND THE BATTLES THAT THEY
FOUGHT.


It was in the year 1261 of Christ's incarnation that there arose a great
discord between King Alau the Lord of the Tartars of the Levant, and Barca
the King of the Tartars of the Ponent; the occasion whereof was a province
that lay on the confines of both.[NOTE 1]

<+>(They exchange defiances, and make vast preparations.)

And when his preparations were complete, Alau the Lord of Levant set forth
with all his people. They marched for many days without any adventure to
speak of, and at last they reached a great plain which extends between the
Iron Gates and the Sea Of Sarain.[NOTE 2] In this plain he pitched his
camp in beautiful order; and I can assure you there was many a rich tent
and pavilion therein, so that it looked indeed like a camp of the wealthy.
Alau said he would tarry there to see if Barca and his people would come;
so there they tarried, abiding the enemy's arrival. This place where the
camp was pitched was on the frontier of the two kings. Now let us speak of
Barca and his people.[NOTE 3]


NOTE 1.--"_Que_ marcesoit _à le un et à le autre_;" in Scotch phrase,
"which _marched_ with both."

NOTE 2.--Respecting the Iron Gates, see vol. i. p. 53. The Caspian is here
called the Sea of _Sarain_, probably for _Sarai_, after the great city on
the Volga. For we find it in the Catalan Map of 1375 termed the Sea of
_Sarra_. Otherwise _Sarain_ might have been taken for some corruption of
_Shirwán_. (See vol. i. p. 59, note 8.)

NOTE 3.--The war here spoken of is the same which is mentioned in the very
beginning of the book, as having compelled the two Elder Polos to travel
much further eastward than they had contemplated.

Many jealousies and heart-burnings between the cousins Hulaku and Barka
had existed for several years. The Mameluke Sultan Bibars seems also to
have stimulated Barka to hostility with Hulaku. War broke out in 1262,
when 30,000 men from Kipchak, under the command of Nogai, passed Derbend
into the province of Shirwan. They were at first successful, but
afterwards defeated. In December, Hulaku, at the head of a great army,
passed Derbend, and routed the forces which met him. Abaka, son of Hulaku,
was sent on with a large force, and came upon the opulent camp of Barka
beyond the Terek. They were revelling in its plunder, when Barka rallied
his troops and came upon the army of Abaka, driving them southward again,
across the frozen river. The ice broke and many perished. Abaka escaped,
chased by Barka to Derbend. Hulaku returned to Tabriz and made great
preparations for vengeance, but matters were apparently never carried
further. Hence Polo's is anything but an accurate account of the matter.

The following extract from Wassáf's History, referring to this war, is a
fine sample of that prince of rigmarole:

"In the winter of 662 (A.D. 1262-1263) when the Almighty Artist had
covered the River of Derbend with plates of silver, and the Furrier of the
Winter had clad the hills and heaths in ermine; the river being frozen
hard as a rock to the depth of a spear's length, an army of Mongols went
forth at the command of Barka Aghul, filthy as Ghúls and Devils of the
dry-places, and in numbers countless as the rain-drops," etc. etc.
(_Golden Horde_, p. 163 seqq.; _Ilchan._ I. 214 seqq.; _Q.R._ p. 393
seqq.; _Q. Makrizi_, I. 170; _Hammer's Wassáf_, p. 93.)



CHAPTER XXVI.

HOW BARCA AND HIS ARMY ADVANCED TO MEET ALAU.


<+>(Barca advances with 350,000 horse, encamps on the plain within 10
miles of Alau; addresses his men, announcing his intention of fighting
after 3 days, and expresses his confidence of success as they are in the
right and have 50,000 men more than the enemy.)



CHAPTER XXVII.

HOW ALAU ADDRESSED HIS FOLLOWERS.


<+>(Alau calls together "a numerous parliament of his worthies"[1] and
addresses them.)


[1] "_Il asemble encore sez parlemant de grand quantités des buens homes_."



CHAPTER XXVIII.

OF THE GREAT BATTLE BETWEEN ALAU AND BARCA.


<+>(Description of the Battle in the usual style, with nothing
characteristic. Results in the rout of Barca and great slaughter.)



CHAPTER XXIX.

HOW TOTAMANGU WAS LORD OF THE TARTARS OF THE PONENT.


You must know there was a Prince of the Tartars of the Ponent called
MONGOTEMUR, and from him the sovereignty passed to a young gentleman
called TOLOBUGA. But TOTAMANGU, who was a man of great influence, with the
help of another Tartar King called NOGAI, slew Tolobuga and got possession
of the sovereignty. He reigned not long however, and at his death TOCTAI,
an able and valiant man, was chosen sovereign in the place of Totamangu.
But in the meantime two sons of that Tolobuga who was slain were grown up,
and were likely youths, able and prudent.

So these two brothers, the sons of Totamangu, got together a goodly
company and proceeded to the court of Toctai. When they had got thither
they conducted themselves with great discretion, keeping on their knees
till Toctai bade them welcome, and to stand up. Then the eldest addressed
the Sovereign thus: "Good my Lord Toctai, I will tell you to the best of
my ability why we be come hither. We are the sons of Totamangu, whom
Tolobuga and Nogai slew, as thou well knowest. Of Tolobuga we will say no
more, since he is dead, but we demand justice against Nogai as the slayer
of our Father; and we pray thee as Sovereign Lord to summon him before
thee and to do us justice. For this cause are we come!"[NOTE 1]

(Toctai agrees to their demand and sends two messengers to summon Nogai,
but Nogai mocks at the message and refuses to go. Whereupon Toctai sends a
second couple of messengers.)


NOTE 1.--I have not attempted to correct the obvious confusion here; for
in comparing the story related here with the regular historians we find
the knots too complicated for solution.

In the text as it stands we first learn that Totamangu by help of Nogai
kills _Tolobuga_, takes the throne, dies, and is succeeded by Toctai. But
presently we find that it is the sons of _Totamangu_ who claim vengeance
from Toctai against Nogai for having aided Tolobuga to slay their father.
Turning back to the list of princes in chapter xxiv. we find Totamangu
indeed, but Tolobuga omitted altogether.

The outline of the history as gathered from Hammer and D'Ohsson is as
follows:--

NOGHAI, for more than half a century one of the most influential of the
Mongol Princes, was a great-great-grandson of Chinghiz, being the son of
Tatar, son of Tewal, son of Juji. He is first heard of as a leader under
Batu Khan in the great invasion of Europe (1241), and again in 1258 we
find him leading an invasion of Poland.

In the latter quarter of the century he had established himself as
practically independent, in the south of Russia. There is much about him
in the Byzantine history of Pachymeres; Michael Palaeologus sought his
alliance against the Bulgarians (of the south), and gave him his
illegitimate daughter Euphrosyne to wife. Some years later Noghai gave a
daughter of his own in marriage to Feodor Rostislawitz, Prince of
Smolensk.

Mangu- or Mangku-Temur, the great-nephew and successor of Barka, died in
1280-81 leaving nine sons, but was succeeded by his brother TUDAI-MANGKU
(Polo's _Totamangu_). This Prince occupied himself chiefly with the
company of Mahomedan theologians and was averse to the cares of
government. In 1287 he abdicated, and was replaced by TULABUGHA
(_Tolobuga_), the son of an elder brother, whose power, however, was
shared by other princes. Tulabugha quarrelled with old Noghai and was
preparing to attack him. Noghai however persuaded him to come to an
interview, and at this Tulabugha was put to death. TOKTAI, one of the sons
of Mangku-Temur, who was associated with Noghai, obtained the throne of
Kipchak. This was in 1291. We hear nothing of sons of Tudai-Mangku or
Tulabugha.

Some years later we hear of a symbolic declaration of war sent by Toktai
to Noghai, and then of a great battle between them near the banks of the
Don, in which Toktai is defeated. Later, they are again at war, and
somewhere south of the Dnieper Noghai is beaten. As he was escaping with a
few mounted followers, he was cut down by a Russian horseman. "I am
Noghai," said the old warrior, "take me to Toktai." The Russian took the
bridle to lead him to the camp, but by the way the old chief expired. The
horseman carried his head to the Khan; its heavy grey eyebrows, we are
told, hung over and hid the eyes. Toktai asked the Russian how he knew the
head to be that of Noghai. "He told me so himself," said the man. And so
he was ordered to execution for having presumed to slay a great Prince
without orders. How like the story of David and the Amalekite in Ziklag!
(2 Samuel, ch. i.).

The chronology of these events is doubtful. Rashiduddin seems to put the
defeat of Toktai near the Don in 1298-1299, and a passage in Wassáf
extracted by Hammer seems to put the defeat and death of Noghai about
1303. On the other hand, there is evidence that war between the two was in
full flame in the beginning of 1296; Makrizi seems to report the news of a
great defeat of Toktai by Noghai as reaching Cairo in _Jumadah_ I.A.H.
697 or February-March, 1298. And Novairi, from whom D'Ohsson gives
extracts, appears to put the defeat and death of Noghai in 1299. If the
battle on the Don is that recounted by Marco it cannot be put later than
1297, and he must have had news of it at Venice, perhaps from relations at
Soldaia. I am indeed reluctant to believe that he is not speaking of
events of which he had cognizance _before_ quitting the East; but there is
no evidence in favour of that view. (_Golden Horde_, especially 269
seqq.; _Ilchan_. II. 347, and also p. 35; _D'Ohsson_, IV. Appendix; _Q.
Mákrizi_, IV. 60.)

The symbolical message mentioned above as sent by Toktai to Noghai,
consisted of a hoe, an arrow, and a handful of earth. Noghai interpreted
this as meaning, "If you hide in the earth, I will dig you out! If you
rise to the heavens I will shoot you down! Choose a battle-field!" What a
singular similarity we have here to the message that reached Darius 1800
years before, on this very ground, from Toktai's predecessors, alien from
him in blood it may be, but identical in customs and mental
characteristics:--

"At last Darius was in a great strait, and the Kings of the Scythians
having ascertained this, sent a herald bearing, as gifts to Darius, a
bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows.... Darius's opinion was that the
Scythians meant to give themselves up to him.... But the opinion of
Gobryas, one of the seven who had deposed the Magus, did not coincide with
this; he conjectured that the presents intimated: 'Unless, O Persians, ye
become birds, and fly into the air, or become mice and hide yourselves
beneath the earth, or become frogs and leap into the lakes, ye shall never
return home again, but be stricken by these arrows.' And thus the other
Persians interpreted the gifts." (_Herodotus_, by Carey, IV. 131, 132.)
Again, more than 500 years after Noghai and Toktai were laid in the
steppe, when Muraview reached the court of Khiva in 1820, it happened that
among the Russian presents offered to the Khan were two loaves of sugar on
the same tray with a quantity of powder and shot. The Uzbegs interpreted
this as a symbolical demand: Peace or War? (_V. et Turcomanie_, p. 165.)



CHAPTER XXX.

OF THE SECOND MESSAGE THAT TOCTAI SENT TO NOGAI, AND HIS REPLY.


<+>(They carry a threat of attack if he should refuse to present himself
before Toctai. Nogai refuses with defiance. Both sides prepare for war,
but Toctai's force is the greater in numbers.)



CHAPTER XXXI.

HOW TOCTAI MARCHED AGAINST NOGAI.


<+>(The usual description of their advance to meet one another. Toctai is
joined by the two sons of Totamangu with a goodly company. They encamp
within ten miles of each other in the Plain of NERGHI.)



CHAPTER XXXII.

HOW TOCTAI AND NOGAI ADDRESS THEIR PEOPLE, AND THE NEXT DAY JOIN BATTLE.


<+>(The whole of this is in the usual formula without any circumstances
worth transcribing. The forces of Nogai though inferior in numbers are the
better men-at-arms. King Toctai shows great valour.)



CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE VALIANT FEATS AND VICTORY OF KING NOGAI.


<+>(The deeds of Nogai surpass all; the enemy scatter like a flock, and
are pursued, losing 60,000 men, but Toctai escapes, and so do the two sons
of Totamangu.)



CHAPTER XXXIV. AND LAST

CONCLUSION.[1]


And now ye have heard all that we can tell you about the Tartars and the
Saracens and their customs, and likewise about the other countries of the
world as far as our researches and information extend. Only we have said
nothing whatever about the GREATER SEA and the provinces that lie round
it, although we know it thoroughly. But it seems to me a needless and
useless task to speak about places which are visited by people every day.
For there are so many who sail all about that sea constantly, Venetians,
and Genoese, and Pisans, and many others, that everybody knows all about
it, and that is the reason that I pass it over and say nothing of it.

Of the manner in which we took our departure from the Court of the Great
Kaan you have heard at the beginning of the Book, in that chapter where we
told you of all the vexation and trouble that Messer Maffeo and Messer
Nicolo and Messer Marco had about getting the Great Kaan's leave to go;
and in the same chapter is related the lucky chance that led to our
departure. And you may be sure that but for that lucky chance, we should
never have got away in spite of all our trouble, and never have got back
to our country again. But I believe it was God's pleasure that we should
get back in order that people might learn about the things that the world
contains. For according to what has been said in the introduction at the
beginning of the Book, there never was a man, be he Christian or Saracen
or Tartar or Heathen, who ever travelled over so much of the world as did
that noble and illustrious citizen of the City of Venice, Messer Marco the
son of Messer Nicolo Polo.

Thanks be to God! Amen! Amen!


[1] This conclusion is not found in any copy except in the Crusca Italian,
    and, with a little modification, in another at Florence, belonging to
    the Pucci family. It is just possible that it was the embellishment of
    a transcriber or translator; but in any case it is very old, and
    serves as an epilogue.

[Illustration: Asiatic Warriors of Polo's Age. (From a contemporary
Persian Miniature.)]



APPENDICES



APPENDIX A.--_Geneaology of the House of Chinghiz, to end of Thirteenth
Century_.


Supreme [KAANS] in large capitals. KHANS of KIPCHAK, CHAGATAI, and PERSIA
in small capitals. Numerals indicate order of succession. For other sons
of Kúblái, see Book II., chapter ix.

Those who are mentioned by Marco Polo have a _line_ under their names.

Seniority runs from right to left.

                                                Vesugai
    _______________________________________________|
    |                                              |
Uchegin or                                [I._CHINGIZ KAAN_]
Pilgutai                                           |
    |                    __________________________|_____________________
    |                    |                         |                |   |
Jintu                  TULI               [II. OKKODAI KAAN]        |   |
    |                    |                         |___________     |   |
    |          __________|______________________               |    |   |
    |         |          |           |          |              |    |   |
Tagajar   Arikbuga I.  _HULAKU_ [V._KÚBLÁI_  [IV._MANGKU_      |    |   |
    |                    |         _KAAN_]       _KAAN_]       |    |   |
    |       _____________|______     |____                     |    |   |
    |      |             |      |         |                    |    |   |
Agul    3._TIGUDAR_   Tara- 2._ABAKA_  _Chingkim_              |    |   |
    |     _AHMAD_      kai      |   ______|______________      |    |   |
    |                    |      |   |                |   |     |    |   |
    |        ____________|      | [VI._TEMUR KAAN_]  | Kanbala |    |   |
    |        |           _______|______              |         |    |   |
_Nayan_ 6._BAIDU_        |             |          Tarmabala    |    |   |
                     5._KAI-_    4._ARGHUN_                    |    |   |
                      _KHATU_          |                       |    |   |
                               ________|_______                |    |   |
                               |              |                |    |   |
                         8. OLJAITU    7._GHAZAN_              |    |   |
                           [Khans of PERSIA]                   |    |   |
                                                               |    |   |
     __________________________________________________________|    |   |
     |        |             |                                       |   |
Shiregi    Kashin  [III. _KUYUK_KAAN]                               |   |
              |                                                     |   |
           _Kaidu_                                                  |   |
              |                                                     |   |
           Chapar                                                   |   |
             or                                                     |   |
           Shabar                                                   |   |
                                                                    |   |
          __________________________________________________________|   |
          |                                                             |
    _CHAGATAI_                                                          |
    ______|_________________________________________                    |
   |        |        |         |           |        |                   |
Kadami   Sarban   Paidar   2.YESSU-   Muwatukan   Juji                  |
   |        |        |     MANGKU,         |        |                   |
   |        |        |    followed by      |        |                   |
   |        |        |   Kara-Hulaku's     |        |                   |
   |        |        | widow, 3. ARGUNA.   |        |                   |
   |        |        |         ____________|        |                   |
   |        |        |         |           |        |                   |
8. TUKA  7. NIK-  ALGHUL    Yesan-   I. KAKA-    _Nigudar-_             |
(or BUKA)   PAL              Tewa.     HULAKU.   _Aghul_                |
TEMUR                          |           |                            |
                           6.BORRAK.   5.MUBARIK                        |
                               |         SHAH                           |
                               |                                        |
                            9. TEWA or                                  |
                               DUA                                      |
                                                                        |
               [Khans of ULUS CHAGATAI]                                 |
              __________________________________________________________|
              |        |            |                         |
            Tewal   Shaiban    4. _BARKA_                7. _BATU_
              |        |                                      |
              |        |                  ____________________|_______
            Tatar    Kaunchi              |           |               |
              |                        3.ULAGHJI   Toghan     2. SARTAK
              |                        _______________|_______
              |                        |              |       |
          _Noghai_                6. _TUDAI-    5. _MANGKU_  Bartu
                                    _MANGKU_       _TEMUR_    |
                                                      |       |
                                       _______________|       |
                                       |            |         |
                                   8._TOKTAI_    Abaji   7. _TULABUGA_.

                                   [Khans of KIPCHAK or ULUS JUJI]



APPENDIX B.--_The Polo Families_.


(I.) GENEALOGY OF THE FAMILY OF MARCO POLO THE TRAVELLER.


    /- Maffeo,         /- Giovannino          Seniority runs from
    |  make will in    |  (_Illeg._)          [bottom] to [top].
    |  Feb. 1309;      |  alive in 1321.
    |  was dead        |
    |  before 1318.    +- Stefano
    |                  |  (_Illeg._)
    |                  |  alive in 1321.
    |                  |
    |                  |  Catarina,
    |                  |  d. of Nic.  /- Fiordelisa.
    |                  |  Sagredo.    |
    |                  |    ||  ------|
    |                  +- Maffeo      \- Pasqua.
    |  2. (Mother      |  made a will,   (_Illeg._)
    |  of Maffeo.      |  1300.
    |  _Fiordelisa     |
    |  Trevisan_?)     |
    |    ||            |                   Renuzzo Delfio
    +- Nicolò,  -------+                     ||
    |  of S. Giov.     |                /- Moreta,
    |  Grisostomo      |                |  married
    |  married twice,  \- MARCO,        |  after 1324;
    |  d. before 1300.    of S. Giov.   |  alive in
    |    ||               Grisostomo,   |  1336.
    |  1. (Marco's        1254-1324.    |
A   |  Mother,              || ---------+- Bellella,
n   |  Name unknown.)     Donata--(?)   |  married to--
d   |                     died after    |  before 1324;
r   |                     1333 and      |  died before 1333.
e   |                     before 1336.  |
a   |                                   \- Fantina,
    |                                      married
P   |                                      before 1324;
o   |                                      alive in 1379.
l   |                                        ||  --------- Pietro Bragadin
o   |                                      Marco Bragadin    of S. Giov.
,   |                                      of S. Geminiano   Grisostomo,
    +                                                        was alive in
o   |                                                        1388.
f   |            /- Maroca.                    /- Agnesina
    |            |                             |
S.  \- Marco,  --+- Nicolò.  ---- Marco,  -----+
      made will, |                known as     |
F      1280      |               _Marcolino_   \- Matteo,
e                |                (1328) of       married Caterina,
l                |                S. Giov.        daughter of
i                |                Grisotomo.      Giandomenico.
c                \- Antonio.
e               (Illegitimate)


       Fiordelisa
         ||
       Felice Polo,
       called Cousins,
       1280, 1300.



(II.) THE POLOS OF SAN GEREMIA.


The preceding Table gives the Family of our Traveller as far as I have
seen sound data for tracing it, either upwards or downwards.

I have expressed, in the introductory notices, my doubts about the
Venetian genealogies, which continue the family down to 1418 or 19,
because it seems to me certain that all of them do more or less confound
with our Polos of S. Giovanni Grisostomo, members of the other Polo Family
of S. Geremia. It will help to disentangle the subject if we put down what
is ascertained regarding the S. Geremia family.

To the latter with tolerable certainty belonged the following:--

1302. MARCO Polo of Cannareggio, see vol. i. pp. 64-67. (The Church
      of S. Geremia stands on the canal called Cannareggio.)

      Already in 1224, we find a Marco Polo of S. Geremia and Cannareggio.
      (See _Liber Plegiorum_, published with _Archivio Veneto_, 1872 pp.
      32, 36).

1319. (Bianca, widow of GIOVANNI Polo?)[1]

1332. 24th March. Concession, apparently of some privilege in connection
      with the State Lake in San Basilio, to DONATO and HERMORAO
      (= Hermolaus or Almorò) Paulo (Document partially illegible).[2]

1333. 23rd October. Will of Marchesina Corner, wife of Marino Gradenigo of
      S. Apollinare, who chooses for her executors "my mother Dona
      Fiordelisa Cornaro, and my uncle (_Barba_) Ser Marco Polo."[3]
      Another extract apparently of the same will mentions "_mia cusina_
      MARIA Polo," and "_mio cusin_ MARCO Polo" three times.[4]

1349. MARINO Polo and Brothers.[5]

1348. About this time died NICOLO Polo of S. Geremia,[6] who seems to have
      been a Member of the Great Council.[7] He had a brother MARCO, and
      this Marco had a daughter AGNESINA. Nicolo also leaves a sister
      BARBARA (a nun), a son GIOVANNINO (apparently illegitimate[7]), of
      age in 1351,[6] a nephew GHERARDO, and a niece FILIPPA,[6] Abbess
      of Sta. Catarina in Mazzorbo.

      The executors of Nicolo are GIOVANNI and DONATO Polo.[6] We have not
      their relationship stated.

      DONATO must have been the richest Polo we hear of, for in the Estimo
      or forced Loan of 1379 for the Genoese War, he is assessed at 23,000
      _Lire_.[8] A history of that war also states that he ("Donado Polo
      del Canareggio") presented the Government with 1000 ducats, besides
      maintaining in arms himself, his son, and seven others.[9] Under
      1388 we find Donato still living, and mention of CATARUZZA, d. of
      Donato:[10] and under 1390 of Elena, widow of Donato.[10]

      The Testamentary Papers of Nicolo also speak of GIACOMO [or Jacopo]
      Polo. He is down in the _Estimo_ of 1379 for 1000 _Lire_;[11] and
      in 1371 an inscription in Cicogna shows him establishing a family
      burial-place in Sta. Maria de' Servi:[12]

      [M°CCC°LXXI. Die primo mensis ... S. Dni IACHOBI. PAVLI. DE
      CFINIO. SANCTI. IEREMIE. ET. SVOR. HEREDVM.]

(1353. 2nd June. Viriola, widow of ANDREA or Andrinolo Polo of Sta.
      Maria Nuova ?)[13]

1379. In addition to those already mentioned we have NICOLO assessed
      at 4000 _lire_.[11]

1381. And apparently this is the NICOLO, son of Almoro
      (_Hermolaus_), who was raised to the Great Council, for public
      service rendered, among 30 elected to that honour after the war of
      Chioggia.[14] Under 1410 we find ANNA, relict of Nicolo Polo.[15]

1379. In this year also, ALMORO, whether father or brother of the
      last, contributes 4000 _lire_ to the Estimo.[11]

1390. CLEMENTE Polo (died before 1397)[15] and his wife MADDALUZIA.[15]
      Also in this year PAOLO Polo, son of Nicolo, gave his daughter in
      marriage to Giov. Vitturi.[16]

1408 and 1411. CHIARA, daughter of Francesco Balbi, and widow of
      ERMOLAO (or Almorò) Polo, called of _Sta. Trinità_.[15]

1416. GIOVANNI, perhaps the Giovannino mentioned above.[15]

1420. 22nd November. BARTOLO, son of Ser ALMORO and of the Nobil
      Donna CHIARA Orio.(?)[17] This couple probably the same as in the
      penultimate entry.

1474, seqq. Accounts belonging to the Trust Estate of BARTOLOMEO
      Polo of S. Geremia.[15]

There remains to be mentioned a MARCO POLO, member of the Greater Council,
chosen _Auditor Sententiarum_, 7th March, 1350, and named among the
electors of the Doges Marino Faliero (1354) and Giovanni Gradenigo (1355).
The same person appears to have been sent as _Provveditore_ to Dalmatia in
1355. As yet it is doubtful to what family he belonged, and it is
_possible_ that he may have belonged to our traveller's branch, and have
continued that branch according to the tradition. But I suspect that he is
identical with the Marco, brother of Nicolo Polo of S. Geremia, mentioned
above, under 1348. (See also vol. i. p. 74.) Cappellari states
distinctly that this Marco was the father of the Lady who married Azzo
Trevisan. (See Introd. p. 78.)

We have intimated the probability that he was the Marco mentioned twice in
connection with the Court of Sicily. (See vol. i. p. 79, note.)

A later Marco Polo, in 1537, distinguished himself against the Turks in
command of a ship called the _Giustiniana_; forcing his way past the
enemy's batteries into the Gulf of Prevesa, and cannonading that fortress.
But he had to retire, being unsupported.

It may be added that a Francesco Paulo appears among the list of those
condemned for participation in the conspiracy of Baiamonte Tiepolo in
1310. (_Dandulo_ in _Mur._ XII. 410, 490.)

[I note from the MS. of _Priuli, Genealogie delle famiglie nobili di
Venesia_, kept in the R'o. Archivio di Stato at Venice, some information,
pp. 4376-4378, which permit me to draw up the following Genealogy which
may throw some light on the Polos of San Geremia:--

                   ANDREA, of San Felice
                             |
               +-------------+-------------+
               |             |             |
             Marco         Nicolò       Maffio
                      of S. Grisostomo
                    buried at S. Lorenzo.
                             |
       +------------+--------+---+------------+
       |            |            |            |
     Marco      Steffano     Giovanni       Maffio
   (Milioni)                                  |
                         +-----------+--------+--+-----------+
                         |           |           |           |
                     Almorò of     Maffio      Marco      Nicolò
                    San Geremia
                         |
              Nicolò of San Geremia
          made a Nobleman, 4th Sept. 1381
                         |
        +----------------+----------------+
        |                |                |
      Maffio           Marco            Marin
        |                |
      Marco           + 1418
             Governor of Castel Vecchio,
                     at Verona.

Sir Henry Yule writes above (II. p. 507) that Nicolo Polo of S. Geremia
had a brother Marco, and this Marco had a daughter Agnesina. I find in
the Acts of the Notary Brutti, in the Will of Elisabetta Polo, dated 14th
March, 1350:--

                BETA = MARCO POLO [MARCOLINO?]
                        of S. Grisostomo
                               |
            +------------------+-----------------+
            |                  |                 |
        Agnesina            Christina         Marina
       = Nicoleto.         = Michaleto    in the Monastery
                                           of S. Lorenzo.

The Maffio, son of Nicolò of S. Giov. Grisostomo, and father of Pasqua and
Fiordelisa, married probably after his will (1300) and had his four sons:
Almorò of S. Geremia, Maffio, Marco, Nicolò. Indeed, Cicogna writes
(_Insc. Ven._ II. p. 390):--"Non apparisce che Maffeo abbia avuto
figliuoli maschi da questo testamento [1300]; ma per altro non è cosa
assurda il credere che posteriormente a questo testamento 1300 possa avere
avuti figliuoli maschi; ed in effetto le Genealogie gliene danno quatro,
cioè _Ermolao, Maffio, Marco, Nicolò_. Il Ramusio anzi glien dà cinque,
senza nominarli, uno de'quali _Marco_, e una femmina di nome _Maria_; e
Marco Barbaro gliene dà sei, cioè _Nicolò, Maria, Pietro, Donado, Marco,
Franceschino_."--H.C.]

[Sig. Ab. Cav. Zanetti gives (_Archivio Veneto_, XVI. 1878, p. 110). See
our _Int._, p. 78.

                    MATTEO, son of MARCOLINO
                                |
           +--------------------+---------------------+
           |                                          |
         Maria?                                     Marco
   married Benedetto                            died at Verona
  Cornaro in 1401, and                      in 1417, 1418, or 1425.]
     Azzo Trevisan


[1] Document in _Archivio_ of the _Casa di Ricovero_, Bundle
    LXXVII., No. 209.

[2] _Registro di Grazie_, 4° c. Comm. by Comm. Berchet.

[3] _Arch. Gen. dei Giudici del Proprio_, Perg. No. 82, 1st July,
    1342, cites this. (Comm. Berchet.)

[4] _Arch. dei Procuratori di San Marco_, with Testam. 1327, January,
    marked "N.H. Ser Marco Gradenigo." (Comm. Berchet.)

[5] Document in _Archivio_ of the _Casa di Ricovero_, Bundle LXXIV.,
    No. 651.

[6] List (extracted in 1868-9) of Documents in the above Archivio, but
    which seem to have been since mislaid.

[7] Parchment in the possession of Cav. F. Stefani, containing a decision,
    dated 16th September, 1355, signed by the Doge and two Councillors, in
    favour of Giovannino Polo, natural son of the Noble Nicoletto of S.
    Geremia (_qu. Nobilis Viri Nicoleti Paulo_).

[8] In _Gallicciolli, Delle Mem. Ven. Antiche_, Ven. 1795, II. p. 136. In
    the MS. of _Cappellari Campidoglio Veneto_, in the Marciana, the sum
    stated is 3000 only.

[9] _Della Presa di Chiozza in Muratori, Script._ xv. 785.

[10] Documents seen by the Editor in the Arch, of the _Casa di
    Ricovero_.

[11] In _Gallicciolli Delle Mem. Ven. Antiche_, Ven. 1795, II. p.
    136.

[12] _Cicogna_, I. p. 77.

[13] _Arch. Gen. dei Giud._ Perg. No. 120.

[14] _Cappellari_, MS.; _Sanuto, Vite de' Duchi di Ven._ in
    _Muratori_, XXII. 730.

[15] Documents seen by the Editor in the Arch, of the _Casa di Ricovero_.

[16] _Cappellari_.

[17] _Libro d'Oro_ from 1414 to 1407 in Museo Correr. Comm. by Comm.
    Berchet.



APPENDIX C.--_Calendar of Documents Relating to Marco Polo and his
Family_.


1.--(1280).

Will of Marco Polo of S. Severo, uncle of the Traveller, executed at
Venice, 5th August, 1280. An Abstract given in vol. i. pp. 23-24.

  The originals of this and the two other Wills (Nos. 2 and 8) are in St.
  Mark's Library. They were published first by Cicogna, _Iscrizioni
  Veneziane_, and again more exactly by Lazari.


2.--(1300).

Will of Maffeo Polo, brother of the Traveller, executed at Venice, 31st
August, 1300. Abstract given at pp. 64-65 of vol. i.


3.--(1302).

_Archivio Generale--Maggior Consiglio--Liber Magnus_, p. 81.[1]

  1392. 13 Aprilis. (Capta est): Quod fit gratia provido viro MARCO PAULO
  quod ipse absolvatur a penâ incursâ pro eo quod non fecit circari unam
  suam conductam cum ignoraverit ordinem circa hoc.

    Ego MARCUS MICHAEL consiliarius m.p.s.
    Ego PAULUS DELPHINUS consiliarius m.p.s.
    Ego MARCUS SIBOTO de mandato ipsorum cancellavi.


4--(1305).

Resolution of the _Maggior Consiglio_, under date 10th April, 1305, in
which Marco Polo is styled Marcus Paulo Milioni. (See p. 67 of vol. i.) In
the _Archivio Generate, Maggior Cons. Reg. M.S._, Carta 82.[2]

  "Item quod fiat gratia Bonocio de Mestre de illis Libris centum
  quinquaginta duobus, in quibus extitit condempnatus per Capitaneos
  Postarum, occasione vini per eum portati contra bampnum, isto modo
  _videlicet_ quod solvere debeat dictum debitum hinc ad annos quatuor,
  solvendo annuatim quartum dicti debiti per hunc modum, _scilicet_ quod
  dictus Bonocius ire debeat cum nostris Ambaxiatoribus, et soldum quod ei
  competet pro ipsis viis debeat scontari, et it quod ad solvendum dictum
  quartum deficiat per eum vel suos plegios integre persolvatur. Et sunt
  plegii _Nobiles Viri_ PETRUS MAUROCENO et MARCHUS PAULO MILION et plures
  alii qui sunt scripti ad Cameram Capitaneorum Postarum."


5.--(1311).

Decision in Marco Polo's suit against Paulo Girardo, 9th March 1311, for
recovery of the price of musk sold on commission, etc. (From the Archives
of the _Casa di Ricovero_ at Venice, _Filza_ No. 202). (See vol. i. p. 70.)

  "In nomine Dei Eterni Amen. Anno ab Incarnatione Domini Nostri Jesu
  Christi millesimo trecentesimo undecimo, Mensis Marci die nono, intrante
  Indicione Nona, Rivoalti ...

  "Cum coram nobilibus viris Dominis CATHARINO DALMARIO et MARCO LANDO,
  Judicibus Peticionum, Domino LEONARDO DE MOLINO, tercio Judice curie,
  tunc absente, inter Nobilem Virum MARCUM POLO de confinio Sancti
  Johannis Grisostomi ex unâ parte, et PAULUM GIRARDO de confinio Sancti
  Apollinaris ex altera parte, quo ex suo officio verteretur occasione
  librarum trium _denariorum grossorum Venetorum_ in parte unâ, quas sibi
  PAULO GIRARDO petebat idem MARCUS POLO pro dimidia libra muscli quam ab
  ipso MARCO POLO ipse PAULUS GIRARDO habuerat, et vendiderat precio
  suprascriptarum Librarum trium _den. Ven. gros._ et occasione _den.
  Venet. gross._ viginti, quos eciam ipse MARCUS POLO eidem POLO Girardo
  pectebat pro manchamento unius sazii de musclo, quem dicebat sibi
  defficere de librâ unâ muscli, quam simul cum suprascriptâ dimidiâ ipse
  Paulus Girardo ab ipso MARCO POLO habuerat et receperat, in parte alterâ
  de dicta, Barbaro advocatori (sic) curie pro suprascripto MARCO POLO
  sive JOHANNIS (sic) POLO[3] de Confinio Sancti Johannis Grisostomi
  constitutus in Curiâ pro ipso MARCO POLO sicut coram suprascriptis
  Dominis Judicibus legitimum testificatum extiterat ... legi fecit
  quamdam cedulam bambazinam scriptam manu propriâ ipsius PAULI GIRARDI,
  cujus tenor talis, videlicet: ... "_de avril recevi io Polo Girardo da_
  Missier Marco Polo _libre 1/2 de musclo metemelo libre tre de grossi.
  Ancora recevi io_ Polo _libre una de musclo che me lo mete libre sei de
  grossi, et va a so risico et da sua vintura et damelo in choleganza a la
  mitade de lo precio._" * * * * "Quare cum ipse Paulus noluerit
  satisfacere de predictis, nec velit ad presens * * * * * Condempnatum
  ipsum PAULUM GIRARDO in expensis pro parte dicti MARCI PAULO factis in
  questione, dando et assignando sibi terminum competentem pro predictis
  omnibus et singulis persolvendis, in quem terminum si non solveret
  judicant ipsi domini judices quod capi debetur ipse PAULUS GERARDO et
  carceribus Comunis Venetiarum precludi, de quibus exire non posset donec
  sibi MARCO PAULO omnia singula suprascripta exolvenda dixisset, non
  obstante absenciâ ipsius PAULI GERARDO cum sibi ex parte Domini Ducis
  proministeriale Curie Palacii preceptum fuisset ut hodie esset ad Curiam
  Peticionum.

       *       *       *       *       *

  "Ego KATHARINUS DALMARIO Judex Peticionum manu meâ subscripsi

  "Ego MARCUS LANDO Judex Peticionum manu meâ subscripsi

  "Ego NICOLAUS, Presbiter Sancti Canciani notarius complevi et roboravi."


6.--(1319).

In a list of documents preserved in the Archives of the _Casa di Ricovero_,
occurs the entry which follows. But several recent searches have been made
for the document itself in vain.

  * "No 94 MARCO GALETTI _investe della proprietâ dei beni che si trovano
  in S. Giovanni Grisostomo MARCO POLO di Nicolo. 1319, 10 Settembre,
  rogato dal notaio Nicolo Prete di S. Canciano_."

The notary here is the same who made the official record of the document
last cited.

  [This document was kept in the Archives of the _Istituto degli Esposti_,
  now transferred to the _Archivio di Stato_, and was found by the Ab.
  Cav. V. Zanetti, and published by him in the _Archivio Veneto_, XVI.,
  1878, pp. 98-100; parchment, 1157, filza I.; Marco Polo the traveller,
  according to a letter of the 16th March, 1306, had made in 1304, a loan
  of 20 _lire di grossi_ to his cousin Nicolo, son of Marco the elder; the
  sum remaining unpaid at the death of Nicolo, his son and heir Marcolino
  became the debtor, and by order of the Doge Giovanni Soranzo, Marco
  Galetti, according to a sentence of the _Giudici del Mobile_, of the 2nd
  July, transferred to the traveller Marco on the 10th September, 1319,
  _duas proprietates que sunt hospicia et camere posite in ... confinio
  sancti Ihoanis grisostomi que fuerunt Nicolai Paulo_. This Document is
  important, as it shows the exact position of Marcolino in the
  family.--H.C.]


7.--(1323).

Document concerning House Property in S. Giovanni Grisostomo, adjoining the
Property of the Polo Family, and sold by the Lady Donata to her husband
Marco Polo. Dated May, 1323.

See No. 16 below.


8.--(1324).

    Will of MARCO POLO. (In St. Mark's Library.)[4]

In Nomine Dei Eterni Amen. Anno ab Incarnatione Dni. Nri. Jhu. Xri.
    millesimo trecentesimo vige-
simo tertio, mensis Januarii die nono,[5] intrante Indictione septima,
    Rivoalti.
Divine inspiracionis donum est et provide mentis arbitrium ut antequam
    superve-
niat mortis iudicium quilibet sua bona sit ordinare sollicitus ne ipsa
sua bona inordinata remaneant. Quapropter ego quidem MARCUS PAULO
de confinio Sancti Johannis Chrysostomi, dum cotidie debilitarer propter
    infirmitatem cor-
poris, sanus tamen per Dei gratiam mente, integroque consilio et sensu,
    timens ne ab in-
testato decederem, et mea bona inordinata remanerent, vocari ad me
feci JOHANEM JUSTINIANUM presbiterum Sancti Proculi et Notarium, ipsumque
    rogavi quatenus hoc meum
scriberet testamentum per integrum et compleret. In quo meas
    fidecommissarias etiam con-
stituo DONATAM dilectam uxorem meam, et FANTINAM et BELLELAM atque MORETAM
peramabiles filias meas, ut secundum quod hic ordinavero darique jussero,
ita ipse post obitum meum adimpleant. Primiter enim omnium volo et ordi-
no dari rectam decimam et volo et ordino distribui libras _denariorum_
_venetorum_ duo millia ultra decimam, de quibus dimitto soldos viginti
    _denariorum_
_Venet. grossorum_ Monasterio Sancti Laurentii ubi meam eligo sepulturam.
    Item di-
mitto libras trecentas _den. Venet._ YSABETE QUIRINO cognate mee quas
mihi dare tenetur. Item soldos quadraginta cuilibet monasteriorum et hospi-
taliorum a Gradu usque ad Capud Aggeris. Item dimitto conventui sanctorum
    Johanis
et Pauli Predicatorum illud quod mihi dare tenetur, et libras decem Fratri
    RENERIO
et libras quinque Fratri BENVENUTO Veneto Ordinis Predicatorum, ultra illud
quod mihi dare tenetur. Item dimitto libras quinque cuilibet Congregationi
    Rivoalti
et libras quattuor cuilibet Scolarum sive fraternitatum in quibus sum.
    Item dimitto
soldos viginti _denariorum Venetorum grossorum_ Presbitero JOHANNI
    JUSTINIANO notario pro labore
istius mei testamenti et ut Dominum pro me teneatur deprecare. Item absolvo
PETRUM famulum meum de genere Tartarorum ab omni vinculo servitutis ut
Deus absolvat animam meam ab omni culpâ et peccato. Item sibi remitto omnia
que adquisivit in domo suâ labore, et insuper dimitto libras
_denariorum Venetorum_ centum. Residuum vero dictarum duarum millia
    librarum absque decima
distribuatur pro animâ meâ secundum bonam discreptionem commissariarum
    mearum.
De aliis meis bonis dimitto suprascripte DONATE uxori et commissarie mee
libras octo _denariorum Venetorum grossorum_, omni anno dum ipsa vixerit,
    pro suo usu, ultra
suam repromissam et stracium et omne capud massariciorum cum tribus lectis
corredatis. Omnia uero alia bona mobilia et immobilia inordinata, et si
de predictis ordinatis aliqua inordinata remanerent, quocumque modo jure et
formâ mihi spectantia, seu que expectare vel pertinere potuerunt vel
    possent, tam ju-
re seccessorio et testamentario ac hereditario aut paterno fraterno
    materno et
ex quâcumque aliâ propinquitate sive ex lineâ ascendenti et descendenti
    vel ex colaterali
vel aliâ quâcumque de causâ mihi pertinencia seu expectancia et de quibus
    secundum for-
mam statuti Veneciarum mihi expectaret, plenam et specialem facere
    mentionem seu dis-
posicionem et ordinacionem quamquam in hoc et in omni casu ex formâ statuti
specificater facio specialiter et expresse dimitto suprascriptis filiabus
    meis FANTINE,
BELLELE, et MORETE, libere et absolute inter eas equaliter dividenda,
    ipsasque
mihi heredes instituo in omnibus et singulis meis bonis mobilibus et
    immobilibus
juribus et actionibus, tacitis et expressis qualitercumque ut predicitur
    michi pertinentibus et expec-
tantibus. Salvo quod MORETA predicta filia mea habere debeat ante partem
    de mo-
re tantum quantum habuit quelibet aliarum filiarum mearum pro dote et
    corredis
suis. Tamen volo quod si que in hoc meo testamento essent contra statuta
    et consilia
Communis Veneciarum corrigantur et reducantur ad ipsa statuta et
    consilia. Preterea do
et confero suprascriptis commissariabus meis post obitum meum plenam
    virtutem et po-
testatem dictam meam commissariam intromittendi administrandi et
    furniendi, inquirendi inter-
pellandi placitandi respondendi ad vocationem interdicta et placita
    tollendi, legem petendi
et consequendi si opus fuerit, in anima mea jurandi, sententiam audiendi
    et prosequendi,
vendendi et alienandi, intromittendi et interdicendi petendi et exigendi
    sive excuciendi
omnia mea bona, et habere a cunctis personis ubicumque et apud
    quemcumque ea
vel ex eis poterint invenire, cum cartâ et sine cartâ, in curiâ et extra
    curiâ, et
omnes securitatis cartas et omnes alias cartas necessarias faciendi,
    sicut egomet presens
vivens facere possem et deberem. Et ita hoc meum Testamentum firmum et sta-
bille esse iudico in perpetuum. Si quis ipsum frangere vel violare
    presumpserit male-
dicionem Omnipotentis Dei incurrat, et sub anathemate trecentorum decem et
    octo
Patrum constrictus permaneat, et insuper componat ad suprascriptas meas
    fidecommissarias
aureas libras quinque, et hec mei Testamenti Carta in suâ permaneat
    firmitate.
Signum suprascripti Domini Marci Paulo qui hec rogavit fieri.

    "Ego PETRUS GRIFO testis presbiter.

    "Ego NUFRIUS BARBERIUS testis.

    "Ego JOHANES JUSTINIANUS presbiter Sancti Proculi et notarius complevi
    et roboravi."


9.--(1325).

Release, dated 7th June, 1325, by the Lady Donata and her three daughters,
Fantina, Bellella, and Marota, as Executors of the deceased Marco Polo, to
Marco Bragadino. (From the _Archivio Notarile_ at Venice.)

  "In nomine Dei Eterni Amen. Anno ab Inc. Dni. Ntri. Jhu. Xri. Millesimo
  trecentesimo vigesimo quinto, mensis Junii die septimo, exeunte
  Indictione octavâ, Rivoalti.

  "Plenam et irrevocabilem securitatem facimus nos DONATA relicta, FANTINA,
  BELLELLA et MAROTA quondam filie, et nunc omnes commissarie MARCI POLO de
  confinio Sancti Joannis Grisostomi cum nostris successoribus, tibi MARCO
  BRAGADINO quondam de confinio Sancti Geminiani nunc de confinio Sancti
  Joannis Grisostomi, quondam genero antedicti MARCI POLO et tuis
  heredibus, de omnibus bonis mobillibus quondam suprascripti MARCI POLO
  seu ipsius commissarie per te dictum MARCHUM BRAGADINO quoque modo et
  formâ intromissis habitis et receptis, ante obitum, ad obitum, et post
  obitum ipsius MARCI POLO, et insuper de tota colleganciâ quam a dicti
  quondam MARCO POLO habuisti, et de ejus lucro usque ad presentem diem * *
  * * * * si igitur contra hanc securitatis cartam ire temptaverimus tunc
  emendare debeamus cum nostris successoribus tibi et tuis heredibus auri
  libras quinque, et hec securitatis carta in sua permaneat firmitate.
  Signum suprascriptarum DONATE relicte, FANTINE, BELLELLE et MAROTE,
  omnium filiarum et nunc commissarie, que hec rogaverunt fieri.

      "Ego PETRUS MASSARIO clericus Ecclesie Scti. Geminiani testis
      subscripsi.

      "Ego SIMEON GORGII de Jadra testis subscripsi.

      "Ego DOMINICUS MOZZO presbiter plebanus Scti. Geminiani et notarius
      complevi et roboravi.

      "MARCUS BARISANO presbiter Canonicus et notarius ut vidi in matre
      testis sum in filliâ.

      "Ego JOANNES TEUPULLO Judex Esaminatorum ut vidi in matre testis sum
      in filliâ.

  "(L.S.N.) Ego magister ALBERTINUS DE MAYIS Notarius Veneciarum hoc
      exemplum exemplari anno ab incarnatione domini nostri Jesu Christi
      Millesimo trecentesimo quinquagesimo quinto mensis Julii die
      septimo, intrante indictione octava, Rivoalti, nil addens nec
      minuens quod sentenciam mutet vel sensum tollat, complevi et
      roboravi."[6]


10.--(1326).

Resolution of Counsel of XL. condemning Zanino Grioni for insulting Donna
Moreta Polo in Campo San Vitale.

  (_Avvogaria di Comun._ Reg. I. Raspe, 1324-1341, Carta 23 del 1325.)*

  "MCCCXXV. Die xxvi. Februarii.

  "Cum ZANINUS GRIONI quondam Ser LIONARDI GRIONI contrate Sancte
  Heustachii diceretur intulisse iniuriam Domine MORETE qm. Dni. MARCI
  POLO, de presente mense in Campo Sancti Vitalis et de verbis iniuriosis
  et factis.... Capta fuit pars hodie in dicto consilio de XL. quod dictus
  ZANINUS condemnatus sit ad standum duobus mensibus in carceribus
  comunis, scilicet in quarantia.

  "Die eodem ante prandium dictus ZANINUS GRIONI fuit consignatus
  capitaneo et custodibus quarantie," etc.


11.--(1328).

  (_Maj. Cons. Delib. Brutus_, c. 77.)*

  "MCCXXVII. Die 27 Januarii.

  "Capta. Quod quoddam instrumentum vigoris et roboris processi et facti a
  quondam Ser MARCO PAULO contra Ser HENRICUM QUIRINO et Pauli dictum
  dictum Sclavo [sic] JOHANNI et PHYLIPPO et ANFOSIO QUIRINO,
  scriptum per presbyterum Johannem Taiapetra, quod est adheo corosum quod
  legi non potest, relevetur et fiat," etc.


12.--(1328).

Judgment on a Plaint lodged by Marco Polo, called Marcolino, regarding a
legacy from Maffeo Polo the Elder. (See I. p. 77.)

  (_Avvogaria di Comun._ Raspe Reg. i. 1324-1341, c. 14 tergo, del 1329.)*

  "1328. Die xv. Mensis Marcii.

  "Cum coram dominis Advocatoribus Comunis per D. MARCUM, dictum
  MARCOLINUM PAULO sancti Johannis Grisostomi fuisset querela depositata
  de translatione et alienatione imprestitorum olim Domini MAPHEI PAULO
  majoris Scti. Joh. Gris., facta domino MARCO PAULO de dicto confinio in
  MCCCXVIII mense Maii, die xi, et postea facta heredibus ejusdem dni.
  MARCI PAULO post ejus mortem,.. cum videretur eisdem dominis
  Advocatoribus quod dicte translationes et alienationes imprestitorum
  fuerint injuste ac indebite facte, videlicet in tantum quantum sunt
  libre mille dimisse MARCO dicto MARCOLINO PAULO predicto in testamento
  dicti olim dni. MATHEI PAULO maioris, facti in anno domini MCCCVIII
  mense Februarii die vi intrante indictione viii'a.... Capta fuit pars in
  ipso consilio de XL'ta quod dicta translactio et alienatio
  imprestitorum.... revocentur, cassentur, et annulentur, in tantum
  videlicet quantum sunt dicte mille libre," etc.


13.--(1328).

Grant of citizenship to Marco Polo's old slave Peter the Tartar. (See vol.
i. p. 72.)

  (_Maj. Conc. Delib. Brutus_, Cart. 78 t.)*

  "MCCCXXVIII, die vii Aprilis.

  "(Capta) Quod fiat gratia PETRO S. Marie Formose, olim sclavorum Ser
  MARCI PAULI Sancti Joh. Gris., qui longo tempore fuit Venetiis, pro suo
  bono portamento, de cetero sit Venetus, et pro Venetus [sic]
  haberi et tractari debeat."


14.--(1328).

Process against the Lady Donata Polo for a breach of trust See vol. i. p.
77 (as No. 12, c. 8, del 1328).*

  "MCCCXXVIII. Die ultimo Maii.

  "Cum olim de mandato ... curie Petitionum, ad petitionem Ser BERTUTII
  QUIRINO factum fuerit apud Dominam DONATAM PAULO Sancti Job. Gris.,
  quoddam sequestrum de certis rebus, inter quas erant duo sachi cum
  Venetis grossis intus, legati et bullati, et postea in una capsellâ
  sigillatâ repositi, prout in scripturis dicti sequestri plenius
  continetur. Et cum diceretur fuisse subtractam aliquam pecunie
  quantitatem, non bono modo, de dictis sachis, post dictum sequestrum, et
  dictâ de causâ per dictos dominos Advocatores ... fuerit hodie in
  conscilio de XL. placitata dicta Dna. DONATA PAULO, penes quam dicta
  capsella cum sachis remansit hucusque.

  "... cum per certas testimonias ... habeatur quod tempore sequestri
  facti extimata fuit pecunia de dictis sacchis esse libras lxxx grossorum
  vel circha,[7] et quando postea numerata fuit inventam esse solummodo
  libras xlv grossorum et grossos xxii, quod dicta Dna. Donata teneatur et
  debeat restituere et consignare in saculo seu saculis, loco pecunie que
  ut predicitur deficit et extrata, et ablata est libras xxv [sic]
  grossorum. Et ultra hoc pro penâ ut ceteris transeat in exemplum
  condempnetur in libris ducentis et solvat eas."


15.--(1330).

Remission of fine incurred by an old servant of Marco Polo's. (Reg. Grazie
3°, c. 40.)*

  "MCCCXXX, iiii Septembris.

  "Quod fiat gratia MANULLI familiari Ser MARCI POLO sancti Joh. Gris.
  quod absolvatur a penâ librarum L pro centenariis, quam dicunt
  officiales Levantis incurrisse pro eo quod ignorans ordines et pure non
  putans facere contra aliqua nostra ordinamenta cum galeis que de Ermeniâ
  venerunt portavit Venecias tantum piperis et lanae quod constitit supra
  soldos xxv grossorum tanquam forenses (?). Et officiates Levantis dicunt
  quod non possunt aliud dicere nisi quod solvat. Sed consideratis
  bonitate et legalitate dicti Manulli, qui mercatores cum quibus stetit
  fideliter servivit, sibi videtur pecatum quod debeat amittere aliud
  parum quod tam longo tempore cum magnis laboribus aquisivit, sunt
  contenti quod dicta gratia sibi fiat."


16.--(1333).

Attestation by the Gastald and Officer of the Palace Court of his having
put the Lady Donata and her daughters in possession of two tenements in S.
Giovanni Grisostomo. Dated 12th July, 1333.

  (From the _Archivio_ of the _Istituto degli Esposti_, No. 6.)[8]

  The document begins with a statement, dated 22nd August, 1390, by
  MORANDUS DE CAROVELLIS, parson of St. Apollinaris and Chancellor of the
  Doge's Aula, that the original document having been lost, he, under
  authority of the Doge and Councils, had formally renewed it from the
  copy recorded in his office.

  In nomine Dei Eterni Amen. Anno ab Incarn. D.N.J.C. millesimo
  trecentesimo tregesimo tertio mensis Julii die duodecimo, intrantis
  indicione primâ Rivoalti. Testificor Ego DONATUS Gastaldio Dni. nostri
  Dni. Francisci Dandulo Dei gratiâ inclyti Venetiarum Ducis, et
  Ministerialis Curie Palacii, quod die tercio intrante suprascripti
  mensis Julii, propter preceptum ejusdem Dni. Ducis, secundum formam
  statuti Veneciarum, posui in tenutam et corporalem possessionem DONATAM
  quondam uxorem, FANTINAM et MORETAM quondam filias, omnes commissarias
  Nobilis Viri MARCI PAULO de confinio Scti. Johannis Grisostomi, nomine
  ipsius Commissarie, cum BELELLA olim filiâ et similiter nominatâ
  commissariâ dicti MARCI PAULO * * * de duabus proprietatibus terrarum et
  casis copertis et discopertis positis in dicto confinio Scti. Johannis
  Grisostomi, que firmant prout inferius in infrascripte notitie cartâ
  continetur * * * * ut in eâ legitur:

  "Hec est carta fata anno ab Inc. D.N.J.C. millesimo trecentesimo
  vigesimo tercio, mensis Maij die nono, exeunte Indictione sextâ,
  Rivoalti, quam fieri facit Dnus. Johannes Superantio D.G. Veneciarum
  Dalmacie atque Croacie olim Dux, cum suis judicibus examinatorum,
  suprascripto Marco Paulo postquam venit ante suam suorumque judicum
  examinatorum presenciam ipse MARCUS PAULO de confinio Scti. Johannis
  Grisostomi, et ostendit eis duas cartas completas et roboratas, prima
  quarum est venditionis et securitatis carta, facta anno ab Inc. D.N.J.
  C. (1321) mensis Junii die decimo, intrante indictione quintâ, Rivoalti;
  quâ manifestum fecit ipsa DONATA uxor MARCI PAULO de confinio Scti.
  Johannis Grisostomi cum suis successoribus quia in Dei et Christi nomine
  dedit, vendidit, atque transactavit sibi MARCO PAULO viro suo de eodem
  confinio et suis heredibus duas suas proprietates terre, et casas
  copertas et discopertas, que sunt hospicia, videlicet camere et camini,
  simul conjuncta versus Rivum ... secundum quod dicta proprietas sive
  hospicium firmat ab uno suo capite, tam superius quam inferius, in muro
  comuni huic proprietati et proprietati MARCI PAULO et STEPHANI PAULO. Et
  ab alio suo capite firmat in uno alio muro comuni huic proprietati et
  predictorum MARCI et STEPHANI PAULO. Ab imo suo latere firmat in
  supradicto Rivo. Et alio suo latere firmat tam superius quam inferius in
  salis sive porticis que sunt comunes huic proprietati et proprietati
  suprascriptorum MARCI et STEPHANI PAULO fratrum. Unde hec proprietas
  sive hospicia habent introitum et exitum per omnes scalas positas a
  capite dictarum salarum sive porticuum usque ad curiam et ad viam
  comunem discurrentem ad Ecclesiam Scti. Johannis Grisostomi et alio. Et
  est sciendum quod curia, puthei, gradate, et latrine sunt comunes huic
  proprietati et proprietati suprascriptorum MARCI et STEPHANI PAULO
  fratrum. * * * *

  [The definition of the second tenement--_una cusina_--follows, and
  then a long detail as to a doubt regarding common rights to certain
  _sale sive porticus magne que respiciunt et sunt versus Ecclesiam
  Scti. Johannis Grisostomi_, and the discussion by a commission
  appointed to report; and, again, similar detail as to stairs, wells,
  etc.]--"declaraverunt et determinaverunt omnes suprascripti cancellarii
  in concordiâ quod tam putheus qui est in dictâ curiâ, quam etiam putheus
  qui est extra curiam ad quem itur per quamdam januam que est super calle
  extra januam principalem tocius proprietatis de CHA POLO, sunt communes
  supradictis duabus proprietatibus MARCI PAULO et toti reliquo dicte
  proprietatis quod est indivisum." * * * * Et ego suprascriptus
  DONATUS Gastaldio supradicti Dni. Ducis secundum predictas declarationes
  et determinationes posui suprascriptas commissarias dicti MARCI PAULO
  die suprascripto tercio intrante mensis Julii in tenutam et possessionem
  de suprascriptis duabus proprietatibus confiniatis in cartâ noticie
  supradicte. Et hoc per verum dico testimonium. Signum supradicti DONATI
  Gastaldionis Dni. Ducis, et Ministerialis Curie Palacii, qui hec rogavit
  fieri.[9]


17.--(1336).

Release granted by Agnes Lauredano, sister, and by Fantina Bragadino and
Moreta Dolphyno, daughters, and all three Trustees of the late Domina
Donata, relict of Dominus Marcus Polo of S. Giov. Grisostomo, to Dominus
Raynuzo Dolphyno of the same, on account of 24 _lire of grossi_[10] which
the Lady Donata Polo had advanced to him on pledge of many articles. Dated
4th March, 1336. The witnesses and notary are the same as in the next.

  (In the _Archivio Generale; Pacta, Serie_ T, No. 144.)


18.--(1336).

Release by the Ladies Fantina and Moreta to their aunt Agnes Lauredano and
themselves, as Trustees of the late Lady Donata, on account of a legacy
left them by the latter.[11] Dated 4th March, 1336.

  (In the _Archivio Generale; Pacta, Serie_ T, No. 143.)

  "Plenam et irrevocabilem securitatem facimus nos FANTINA uxor MARCI
  BRAGADINO de confinio Scti. Johannis Grisostomi et Moreta uxor RENUZI
  DELFINO de dicto confinio Scti. Johannis Grisostomi, ambe sorores, et
  filie comdam DONATE relicte Domini MARCI POLLO de dicto confinio Scti.
  J.G. cum nostris successoribus, vobis AGNETI LAUREDANO, comdam sorori,
  ac nobis preditis FANTINE et MORETE olim filiabus (predicte DONATE)
  omnibus commissariabus predicte DONATE relicte dicti Domini MARCI POLO
  de predicto confinio S.J.G. et vestris ac nostris successoribus de
  libris _denariorum Veneciarum Grossorum_ quadraginta quinque, que
  libre _den. Ven. gros._ quadraginta quinque sunt pro parte librarum
  _den. Ven. gros._ quadraginta octo quas suprascripta Domina Donata
  olim mater nostra secundum formam sui testamenti cartam nobis dimisit,
  in quibus libris ... sententiam obtinuimus ... anno ab Inc. D.N.J.C.
  Millesimo trecentesimo trigesimo quinto mensis febbruarij die ultimo
  (29th February, 1336) indictione, quartâ Rivoalti.

       *       *       *       *       *

  "Signum suprascriptarum Fantine et Morete que hec rogaverunt fieri.

      "Ego MARCUS LOVARI Canonicus Sancti Marci testis subscripsi.

      "Ego NICOLETUS DE BONOMO Canonicus Sancti Marci testis subscripsi.

  "(L.S.N.) Ego Presbiter GUIDO TREVISANO Canonicus Sancti Marcij
      et Notarius complevi et roboravi."


19.--(1388).

[Document dated 15th May, 1388, found at the Archives _degli Esposti_, now
at the _Archivio di Stato_, by the Ab. Cav. V. Zanetti, containing a
sentence of the _Giudici della Curia del Procuratore_ in favour of Pietro
Bragadin against _Agnesina_, sister, and _Catarinuzza_, widow of _Matteo
Polo di S. Giovanni Grisostomo_, for work done. This document is
interesting, as it shows that this Matteo was a son of Marcolino. Published
partly in the _Archivio Veneto_, XVI., 1878, pp. 102-103.--H.C.]


20.--(1388).

[Document dated 15th May, 1388, found in the Archives _degli Esposti_, now
at the _Archivio di Stato_, by the Ab. Cav. V. Zanetti, and mentioned by
him in the _Archivio Veneto, XVI._, 1878, pp. 104-105, containing a
sentence of the _Giudici della Curia del Procuratore_ in favour of Pietro
Bragadin against the Commissaries of the late Matteo Polo.--H.C.]


[1] For this and for all the other documents marked with an '*' I am under
    obligation to Comm. Berchet. There is some doubt if this refers to our
    Marco Polo. (See vol. i. p. 66.)

[2] For the indication of this I was indebted to Professor Minotto.

[3] This perhaps indicates that Marco's half-brother Giovannino was in
    partnership with him.

[4] This is printed line for line with the original; it was printed in the
    first edition, ii. pp. 440-441, but was omitted in the second. The
    translation is given in the Introductory Essay, vol. i. pp. 70-73,
    seqq.; with a facsimile.

[5] I.e., 9th January, 1324.

[6] This was printed in the First Edition (ii. p 442), but was omitted in
    the Second.

[7] About 300_l._ sterling.

[8] For this I was indebted to Comm. Barozzi.

[9] See i. p. 31.--Reprinted from the First Edition.

[10] About 90_l._

[11] Of 48 lire of grossi, or about 180_l._



APPENDIX D.--_Comparative Specimens of Different Recensions of Polo's
Text._


FRENCH.


1. MS. PARIS LIBRARY, 7367 (now Fr. 1116).

  (_Geographic Text_)

  Quant l'en se part de le isle de PENTAM e l'en ala por ysceloc entor
  cent miles, adonc treuve le ysle de JAVA LA MENOR; mès si sachiés q'ele
  ne est pas si peitite q'ele ne gire environ plus de deus mille miles, et
  de ceste ysle voz conteron toute la virité. Or sachiés qe sor ceste ysle
  ha huit roiames et huit rois coronés en ceste ysle, e sunt tuit ydres et
  ont langajes por elles. Car sachiés che chascun des roiames ont langajes
  por eles. En ceste ysle a mout grandisme habundance de trezor et de
  toutes chieres especes e leingn aloe et espi, et de maintes autres
  especes que unques n'en vienent en nostre pais. Or vos voil conter la
  maineres de toutes cestes jens, cascune por soi, e vos dirai primermant
  une cousse qe bien senblera à cascun mervoilliose cousse. Or sachiés
  tout voirmant qe ceste ysle est tant à midi qe la stoille de tramontaine
  ne apert ne pou ne grant. Or noz retorneron à la mainere des homes, e
  voz conteron toute avant dou rouiame de FERLEC.


2. MS. OF PARIS LIBRARY, 10260 (Fr. 5631)

  (_Pauthier's MS._ A.)

  Quant on se part de l'isle de MALIUR, et on nage quatre vingt dix
  milles, adonc treuve en l'isle de Javva le Meneur; mais elle n'est mie
  si petite qu'elle n'ait de tour ii. milles. Et si vous conteray de cette
  isle l'affaire.

  Sachiez que sus ceste isle a viij. royaumes et viij. rois courronnés.
  Ilz sont tuit ydolastres; et si a, chascun royaume, son langaige par
  soy. Il y a en ceste isle grant quantité d'espiceries. Et si vous
  conteray la maniere de la plus grant partie de ces huit royaumes. Mais
  je vous diray avant une chose. Et sachiez que ceste isle est si vers
  midi que l'estoille tremontainne n'y apert.

  Or nous retournerons à notre maticre, et vous conterons tout avant du
  royaume de FALEC.


3. BERN MS.

  (_T. de Cepoy's Type_.)

  Quant l'en se part de l'isle de MALAIUR, et l'en a nagie par seloc
  environ iiii'xx et x milles, il dont treuve l'en la petite Isle de JAVA,
  mais elle n'est pas si petite qu'elle ne dure bien environ ij'c milles.
  Et si vous conterons de ceste isle tout l'affaire et verité.

  Ore sachiez que sous ceste isle y a viij. royaumes et viii. roys
  couronnez, car chascun roy si a couronne par soy. Il sont tout ydres et
  chascun royaume par soy a son langage. Il y a en ceste isle moult grant
  tresor, et si y a moult despeceries de moult de manieres. [Et si vous
  conteray la maniere][1] de la plus grant part de ces viii. royaumes
  chascun par soy, mais avant vous diray une chose qui moult samblera
  estrange à chascun. Sachiez que l'estoille de Tramontane apert ne pou ne
  assez.

  Ore retournons nous a nostre manière.


ITALIAN.


4. CRUSCA.

  Quando l'uomo si parte dell' isola di PETAM, e l'uomo va per isciroc da
  c miglia, trova l isola di IAVA LA MINORE, ma ella non è si piccola ch'
  ella non giri ii. M miglia: e di questa isola vi conterò tutto il vero.
  Sappiate che in su questa isola hae viii. re coronati, e sono tutti
  idoli, e ciascuno di questi reami ha lingua per sè. Qui ha grande
  abbondanza di tesoro e di tutte care ispezierie. Or vi conterò la
  maniera di tutti questi reami di ciascuno per sè; e dirovvi una cosa che
  parrà maraviglia ad ogni uomo, che questa isola è tanto verso mezzodì,
  che la tramontana non si vede nè poco nè assai. Or torneremo alla
  maniera degli uomeni, e dirovvi del reame di FERBET.


5. BERN ITALIAN.

  Se lo homo se parte da PENTAN e navicha per sirocho c. mia, trova l'
  isola de IANA MINORE che volze ben piu de ii'm. mia. In la q'le isola
  è viii. regnami, e ciascun regname ha uno re. La zente de questa isola
  ha linguazo per si e sono idolatri e ge grande habundantia de specie che
  non sono mai in nostre contrade.

  Questa isola è tanto verso mezodi chel non se po veder la stella
  tramontana ne pocho ne assai. Jo non fui in tutti li regnami de questa
  provincia ma fui in solo lo regname de FORLETTI e in quel de BASARON e
  in quello de SAMARA e in quello de GROIAN e in quel de LAMBRIN e in
  quello de FANFIRO. In li altri dui non fui. E pero io ne diro pur de
  questi dove sum stado.


6. RAMUSIO'S PRINTED TEXT.

  Quando si parte dall' Isola PENTAN, e che s' è navigato circa a cento
  miglia per Scirocco, si truova l'Isola di GIAUA MINORE. Ma non è però
  cosi picciola, che non giri circa due mila miglia a torno a torno. Et in
  quest' isola son' otto reami, et otto Re. Le genti della quale adorano
  gl' idoli, & in ciascun regno v' è linguaggio da sua posta, diverso
  dalla favella de gli altri regni. V' è abondanza di thesoro, & di tutte
  le specie, & de legno d'aloe, verzino, ebano, & di molte altri sorti di
  specie, che alla patria nostra per la langhezza del viaggio, & pericoli
  del navigare non si portano, ma si portan' alla provincia di Mangi, &
  del Cataio.

  Hor vogliamo dire della maniera di questi genti di ciascuna partitamente
  per se, ma primamente è da sapere, che quest' isola è posta tanto verso
  le parti di mezo giorno, che quivi la stella Tramontana non si puo
  vedere, & M. Marco fu in sei reami di quest' isola, de' quali, qui se ne
  parlerà, lasciando gli altri due che non vidde.


LATIN


7. MS. OF PARIS LIBRARY, 3195. (Geographic Latin)

  Quando homo recedit de insula de PENTAY et vadit per silochum sentum
  miliaria, invenit insulam minorem de JAVA, et est ista insula parva et
  durat duo millia miliaria; et de istâ insulâ computabo vobis omnia.
  Super istâ insulâ sunt octo regna, in sex quorum ego Marcus fui,
  scilicet in regnis Ferlech, Basman, Samara, Dragoiam, Lambri et Fanfur.
  In aliis autem duobus non fui; et secundum quod sunt octo regna, ita
  sunt octo reges coronati, et sunt omnes idolatrae. Et quodlibet istorum
  regnorum habet linguam per se. Ibi est magna abundantia thesauri et de
  omnibus caris speciebus; et dicam vobis de istâ insulâ quaedam quae
  videbuntur mirabilia. Ista insula est tantum versus meridiem quod
  tramontana non videtur ibi nec parvum nec multum. Postquam diximus vobis
  de insulâ et de regnis ipsius, nunc computemus de moribus hominum ipsius
  insulae, et primo de regno Ferlech.


8. PIPINO'S VERSION (British Museum, King's Libr. 14 c. xiii.).

  Ultra insulam Pentham per Syrocum post miliaria centum invenit insulam
  quae dicitur JAUA MINOR quae in suo ambitu continet miliaria duo milia.
  Ibi sunt octo regna cum singulis regibus et est ibi propria lingua. Et
  omnis habitatores insulae ydolatrie sectatores sunt. Ibi est omnium
  aromatum copia, quarum similtudinem nunquam vidimus citra mare. Hec
  insula in tantum est ad meridiem posita, quod de ipsâ insula Polus
  Arcticus videri non poterit stella seu illa quae vulgariter dicitur
  Tramontana. Ego autem Marcus fui in sex regnis hujus insulae, sc. in
  regnis FERLECH, BASMAN, SAMARA, DRAGOIAN, LAMBRI et FAMSUR. In aliis
  autem duobus non fui. Et primo dicam de regno Ferlech.


9. VERSION OF CICOGNA MS. in Museo Civico, Venice

  Ab ynsulâ Pentain cerca 100 mil. versus Syroch est ynsula JAUA que licet
  Minor dicatur per respectum alterius supradicte est in circuitus [sic]
  2000 mil. et plus. In ipsâ enim sunt 8 regna singuli[2] et reges, et
  habet quodlibet regnum per se proprium ydeoma, et est in ipsâ tesaurus
  multus valde et species magni valoris multe, et lignum aloes et spica,
  et multe diverse species que nunquam in nostris partibus apportantur. Et
  est hec ynsula in tantum versus meridiem possita quod Polus Articus
  breviter non apparet.


10. VERSION PRINTED IN THE NOVUS ORBIS OF GRYNAEUS.

  Ultra insulam PETAN, per Sirochum navigando, est JAUA MINOR, centum
  distans milliaribus à PETAN: et haec in circuitu continere dicitur
  circiter duo millia milliarium. Dividitur insula in octo regna, habetque
  linguam propriam. Producit etiam varia aromata, qualia in his nostris
  partibus nunquam visa sunt.... Protenditur haec insula in tantum ad
  Austrum, ut Polus Arcticus, et stelle ejus minime videri possent. Ego
  Marcus fui in hâc insula, lustravique sex ejus regna, nempe regnum
  Ferlech, Basman, Samara, Dragoiam, Lambri, et Fansur. In aliis vero
  duobus non fui.


[1] Omitted in MS. or at least in my transcript.

[2] Word doubtful.



APPENDIX E.--_The Preface of Friar Pipino to his Latin Version of Marco
Polo._ (Circa 1315-1320.)


"The Book of that prudent, honourable, and most truthful gentleman, MESSER
MARCO POLO of Venice, concerning the circumstances and manners of the
Regions of the East, which he conscientiously wrote and put forth in the
Vulgar Tongue, I, FRIAR FRANCESCO PIPINO of Bologna, of the Order of the
Preaching Friars, am called upon by a number of my Fathers and Masters to
render faithfully and truthfully out of the vulgar tongue into the Latin.
And this, not merely because they are themselves persons who take more
pleasure in Latin than in vernacular compositions, but also that those
who, owing to the diversity of languages and dialects, might find the
perusal of the original difficult or impossible, may be able to read the
Book with understanding and enjoyment.

"The task, indeed, which they have constrained me to undertake, is one
which they themselves could have executed more competently, but they were
averse to distract their attention from the higher contemplations and
sublime pursuits to which they are devoted, in order to turn their
thoughts and pens to things of the earth earthy. I, therefore, in
obedience to their orders, have rendered the whole substance of the Book
into such plain Latin as was suited to its subject.

"And let none deem this task to be vain and unprofitable; for I am of
opinion that the perusal of the Book by the Faithful may merit an
abounding Grace from the Lord; whether that in contemplating the variety,
beauty, and vastness of God's Creation, as herein displayed in His
marvellous works, they may be led to bow in adoring wonder before His
Power and Wisdom; or, that, in considering the depths of blindness and
impurity in which the Gentile Nations are involved, they may be
constrained at once to render thanks to God Who hath deigned to call His
faithful people out of such perilous darkness into His marvellous Light,
and to pray for the illumination of the hearts of the Heathen. Hereby,
also, the sloth of undevout Christians may be put to shame, when they see
how much more ready the nations of the unbelievers are to worship their
Idols, than are many of those who have been marked with Christ's Token to
adore the True God. Moreover, the hearts of some members of the religious
orders may be moved to strive for the diffusion of the Christian Faith,
and by Divine Aid to carry the Name of Our Lord Jesus Christ, forgotten
among so vast multitudes, to those blinded nations, among whom the harvest
is indeed so great, and the labourers so few.

"But lest the inexperienced Reader should regard as beyond belief the many
strange and unheard of things that are related in sundry passages of this
Book, let all know MESSER MARCO POLO, the narrator of these marvels, to be
a most respectable, veracious, and devout person, of most honourable
character, and receiving such good testimony from all his acquaintance,
that his many virtues claim entire belief for that which he relates. His
Father, Messer Nicolo, a man of the highest respectability, used to relate
all these things in the same manner. And his uncle, Messer Maffeo, who is
spoken of in the Book, a man of ripe wisdom and piety, in familiar
conversation with his Confessor when on his death-bed, maintained
unflinchingly that the whole of the contents of this Book were true.

"Wherefore I have, with a safer conscience, undertaken the labour of this
Translation, for the entertainment of my Readers, and to the praise of Our
Lord Jesus Christ, the Creator of all things visible and invisible."



APPENDIX F.--_Note of MSS. of Marco Polo so far as they are known._


GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF MSS.

                Latin   French   Italian   German    Irish    Total
GREAT BRITAIN
and IRELAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
 Cambridge        3      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Dublin           1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Lismore Castle  ...     ...       ...       ...        1
 Glasgow          2      ...       ...       ...       ...
 London           4       2         1        ...       ...
 Oxford           1       1        ...       ...       ...

FRANCE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
 Paris            4       7         1        ...       ...

LUXEMBOURG  . .   1   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1

BELGIUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1
 Brussels        ...      1        ...       ...       ...

ITALY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29
 Venice           4      ...        2        ...       ...
 Ferrara         ...     ...        1        ...       ...
 Milan            1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Modena           1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Florence         1      ...        8        ...       ...
 Lucca           ....    ...        1        ...       ...
 Siena           ...     ...        1        ...       ...
 Rome             4       1         4        ...       ...

SPAIN   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
 Escurial         1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Toledo           1      ...        1        ...       ...

SWITZERLAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
 Bern            ...      1         1        ...       ...
 Vevey           ...      1        ...       ...       ...

GERMANY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
 Munich           4      ...       ...        4        ...
 Wolfenbüttel     2      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Berlin           1      ...       ...        1        ...
 Würzburg         1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Giessen          1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Jena             1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Mentz            1      ...       ...       ...       ...

AUSTRIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
 Prague           1      ...       ...       ...       ...
 Vienna          ...     ...       ...        1        ...

SWEDEN  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
 Stockholm       ...      2        ...       ...       ...

____________________________________________________________________
                 41      16        21        6          1      85
____________________________________________________________________



I add Lists of the Miniatures in two of the finer MSS. as noted from
examination.


LIST OF MINIATURES IN THE GREAT VOLUME OF THE FRENCH NATIONAL LIBRARY,
COMMONLY KNOWN AS 'LE LIVRE DES MERVEILLES' (Fr. 2810) WHICH BELONG TO THE
BOOK OF MARCO POLO.


1. Frontispiece. "Comment les deux frères se partirent de Constantinople
pour cherchier du monde."

2. Conversation with the Ambassadors at Bokhara (fol. 2).

3. The Brothers before the G. Kaan (f. 2 _v._).

4. The Kaan giving them Letters (f. 3).

5.  "   "     "     "   a Golden Tablet (f. 3 _v._).

6. The Second Departure from Venice (f. 4).

7. The Polos before Pope Gregory (f. 4 _v._)

8. The two elder Polos before the Kaan presenting Book and Cross (f. 5).

9. The Polos demand _congé_ (f. 6).

10. (Subject obscure) (f. 7).

11. Georgians, and Convent of St. Leonard (f. 8).

12. The Calif shut up in his Treasury (f. 9).

13. The Calif ordering Christians to move the Mountain (f. 10).

14. Miracle of the Mountain (God is seen pushing it) (f. 10 _v._)

15. The three Kings _en route_ (f. 11 _v._).

16.  "     "    "   adoring the Fire (f. 12).

17. (Subject obscure--Travelling in Persia?) (f. 12 _v._)

18. Cattle of Kerman (f. 13 _v._).

19. Ship from India arriving at Hormus (f. 14 _v._).

20. Travelling in a Wood, with Wild Beasts (f. 15 _v._).

21. The Old Man's Paradise (f. 16 _v._).

22. The Old Man administering the Potion (f. 17).

23. Hunting Porcupines in Badashan (f. 18).

24. Digging for Rubies in Badashan (f. 18).

25. Kashmir--the King maintaining Justice (i.e., seeing a Man's head cut
    off) (f. 19 _v._).

26. Baptism of Chagatai (f. 20 _v._).

27. People of Charchan in the Desert (f. 21 _v._).

28. Idolaters of Tangut with Ram before Idol (f. 22 _v._).

29. Funeral Festivities of Tangut (f. 23).

30. (Subject obscure) (f. 24).

31. Coronation of Chinghiz (f. 25 _v._).

32. Chinghiz sends to Prester John (f. 26).

33. Death of Chinghiz (f. 27).

34. (Subject obscure) (f. 28).

35. Some of Pliny's Monsters (_ápropos de bottes_) (f. 29 _v._).

36. A Man herding White Cattle (?) (f. 30 _v._).

37. Kúblái hawking, with Cheeta _en croupe_ (f. 31 _v._).

38. Kaan on Elephant, in Battle with Nayan (f. 33).

39. Nayan with his wife surprised by the enemy (f. 34).

40. The Kaan's four Queens (f. 36).

41. The Kaan's Palace, with the Lake and Green Mount (f. 37).

42. The Kaan's Son's Palace (f. 38).

43. The Kaan's Banquet (f. 39).

44.  "  worship of Idols (f. 40).

45. The Kaan travelling in Horse-litter (f. 41).

46.  "  hunting (f. 42).

47.  " in Elephant litter (f. 42 _v._).

48. The White Feast (f. 44).

49. The Kaan gives Paper for Treasure (f. 45).

50. Couriers arrive before Kaan (f. 46 _v._).

51. The Kaan transplants big Trees (f. 47 _v._).

52. The Bridge Pulisangin (f. 49).

53. The Golden King as a Cow-herd (f. 50).

54. Trade on the Caramoran (f. 51).

55. The Girls of Tibet (f. 52 _v._).

56. Fishing Pearls in Caindu (f. 54).

57. Dragons of Carajan (f. 55 _v._).

58. Battle of Vochan (f. 58).

59. The Forests of Mien, Elephants in the Wood (f. 59).

60.  "     "    and Unicorns, etc. (f. 59 _v._).

61. Lion hunting in Coloman (f. 61).

62. Return from the Chase (f. 62 _v._).

63. The Queen of Manzi surrenders (f. 64).

64. The City of Quinsai (f. 67).

65. The Receipt of Custom at Quinsai (f. 69).

66. Curiosities brought from India to Great Kaan (f. 71).

67. War with Chipangu (f. 72).

68. Scene at Sea (an Expedition to Chipangu?) (f. 73 _v._).

69. Cannibals of Sumatra (f. 74 _v._).

70. Cynocephali (rather Alopecocephali!) (f. 76 _v._).

71. The folk of Ma'abar, without raiment (f. 78).

72. Idol worship of Indian girls (f. 80).

73. The Valley of Diamonds (f. 82).

74. Brahmin Merchants (f. 83).

75. Pepper gathering (f. 84).

76. Wild Beasts (f. 85).

77. City of Cambaia (f. 86 _v._).

78. Male and Female Islands (f. 87).

79. Madagascar (f. 88).

80. Battle of the Abyssinian Kings (f. 89 _v._)

81. City of the Ichthyophagi (f. 91).

82. Arab horses at Calatu (f. 92).

83. Wars of Caidu (f. 93 _v._).

84. Prowess of Caidu's daughter (f. 95 _v._).[1]


LIST OF MINIATURES IN THE BODLEIAN MS. OF MARCO POLO.[2]


1. _Frontispiece_ (f. 218).

2. The Kaan giving the Golden Tablet.

3. Presentation of Pope's Letter.

4. Taking of Baudas.

5. The Bishop before the Calif.

6. The Three Kings at Bethlehem.

7. White Oxen of Kerman.

8. Paradise of the Old Man.

9. River of Balashan.

10. City of Campichu.

11. Battle with Prester John.

12. Tartars and their Idols.

13. The Kaan in his Park at Chandu.

14. Idol Worship.

15. Battle with Nayan.

16. Death of the Rebels.

17. Kaan rewarding his Officers.

18.  "   at Table.

19.  "   hunting.

20. The Kaan and his Barons.

21. The Kaan's alms.

22. City of Kenjanfu.

23.  "   "  Sindinfu.

24. People of Carajan.

25. The Couvade.

26. Gold and Silver Towers of Mien.

27. Funeral Customs.

28. The Great River Kian?

29. The Attack of Saianfu (with a Cannon, a Mangonel, and a Crossbow).

30. City of Quinsay.

31. Palace of Facfur.

32. Port of Zayton.

33. Cynocephali.

34.      "

35. Idolaters of Little Java.

36. Pearl Divers.

37. Shrine of St. Thomas.

38. The Six Kings, subject to Abyssinia.

Part of the Frontispiece is engraved in vol. i. of the present work; the
whole of the Frontispiece representing the Piazzetta reduced has been
poorly reproduced in Mrs. Oliphant's _The Makers of Venice_. London, 1887,
p. 134.



APPENDIX F.--List of MSS. of Marco Polo's Book so far as they are known.[3]


The MSS. marked thus '*' are spoken of after Personal Inspection by the
Editor.


NO.
LOCALITIES.
INDICATIONS.
LANGUAGE.

  DESCRIPTION OF MSS.

AUTHORITIES.



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.


1
British Museum Library
Harleian MSS., No. 5115
Latin.

  Pipino's Version; with the work of Hayton the Armenian; Parchment;
  written about A.D. 1400, in a careful hand.--152 ff.--folio.

--


2
British Museum Library
Arundel, XIII., Plut. 163 c.
Latin.

  Pipino's; followed by Odoric in same hand, but more carelessly written.
  Parchment. [4to; 51 fol.,14th century.--_H. Cordier, Odoric de
  Pordenone_, p. lxix.].

--


3
British Museum Library
Bibl. Reg. XIV., c. 13.--Plut. 12 f.
Latin.

  Pipino's. A well-written folio [311 ff.] on parchment, containing
  _Ranulf of Chester; Praefationes Historiographum; Gyraldus Camb. de
  Conq. Hyberniae; Libellus de Mirab. Sanctae Terrae; Odoric; Rubruquis;
  Polo; Verses of Master Michael of Cornwall_; etc.--[_H. Cordier,
  Odoric_, pp. lxviii-lxix.].

--


4
British Museum Library
Bib. Reg. XIX., D.I.
French.

  [Contains eight works: _Le livre d'Alexandre_; Jehan le Venelais, la
  _Vengeance d'Alexandre_; Marc Pol; Odoric; Ascelin, _Mission chez les
  Tartares_; _le Directoire_; Primat, _Chronique des règnes de Louis IX.
  et de Philippe III.; Extraits de la Bible_; Translation of Jean de
  Vignay. (See _H. Cordier, Odoric_, pp. cv.-cvi.; 14th century.)].

Paul Meyer, Doc. ms. de l'ancienne litt. de la France, 1871, pp. 69-80


5
British Museum Library
Additional MSS., No. 19, 952 Plut. cxcii. B.
Latin.

  Pipino's

  Paper, small 4to.--111 ff.

  Appended, f. 85 et seqq., is a notice of Mahommed and the Koran:
  _Incipit Noticia de Machometo et de Libro Legis Sarracenorum_, etc.
  Appears to be the work of William of Tripoli. (See vol. i. p. 23.).
  Purchased of D. Henry Wolff, 12th August, 1854.

--


6
British Museum Library
Sloane MSS., No. 251
Italian dialect.

  Paper, small fol. 39 ff. A good deal abridged, and in a desperately
  difficult handwriting; but notable as being the only MS. besides the
  Geog. Text which contains the war of Toctai and Nogai at the end of the
  Book. It does not, however, contain the majority of the historical
  chapters forming our Book IV.

  At the f. 39 _v._, is "_Esplizzit Liber Milionis Ziuis
  Veneziani Questo libro scrissi Saluador Paxuti(?) del=1457 a viazo di
  Baruti_ [Patron Misser Cabual Volanesso, chapit. Misser Polo
  Barbarigo]." (The latter words [in part.--H.C.] from Marsden; being to
  me illegible).

--


7
British Museum Library
Egerton, 2176
French.

  Translated from the Latin version of Pipino.

  Parchment, 103 folio, 4to. Illuminated Capital Letters. Purchased of R.
  Townley Nordman, 22nd June, 1872.

Yule, 2nd ed., II p. 517.


8
OXFORD.
Bodleian, No. 264.
French.

  This is bound up with the celebrated Alexander MS. It is a beautiful
  work, embellished with thirty-eight miniatures, some of which are
  exquisite, e.g., the Frontispiece, a large piece of about 9-1/2
  in., forming a sort of condensed view of the Field of Travel; a large
  part of it occupied by VENICE, of which our cut (_The Piazzetta_)
  in vol. i., p. _18, Introduction_, is an extract. Another fine work
  (f. 220) represents the three Polos presenting the Pope's Letter to the
  Khan. The embroidered hands on the Khan's robe form an inscription, in
  which is legible "_Johannes me facit_." This Mr. Coxe attributes
  to John of Cologne, a known artist of the 14th century. He considers
  the MS. to be of about 1380. The Alexander is dated 1338, and its
  illuminations as finished in 1344 by Jehan de Gruse. [See supra,
  p. 528, _note_.]

  A comparison of a good many readings, as well as of the point where the
  version breaks off, and the words: "_Explicii la Livre nommé du Gerunt
  Gann de la Graunt Cité de Cambaluc, Dieux ayda Amien_," indicate that
  this MS. is of the same type as Pauthier's C (No. 20 in this List) and
  the Bern. MS. (No 63).

  The name given in the colophon as above has caused the work to be
  entered in the old Printed Catalogue under a wrong title. Hence the MS.,
  as one of Marco Polo, has been overlooked.

[_P. Meyer, Romania_, XI., 1882, pp. 290-301. _E. W.B. Nicholson_;
Personal.--H. C]


9
OXFORD
Merton College, No. 312
Latin.

   Pipino's; followed by Hayton, and Palladius _de Agricultura_.

_Coxe, Catal. Codd. MSS. Oxen_. Pt. I., p. 123.


10
CAMBRIDGE
University Library, D. d. I. 17, No. 12
Latin.

  Pipino's.

  The same folio contains Jacques de Vitry, Hayton, several works on
  Mahommedanism, among others that of William of Tripoli (vol. i. p. 23),
  Piers Plowman, etc., etc.

_Catal. of MSS. in Lib. of Camb. University_, I. 22.


11
CAMBRIDGE
University Library, D. d. VIII. 7
Latin.

  Fragment of _Marci Pauli Veneti Historia Tartarorum_ (probably
  Pipino's)

_Catal. of MSS. in Lib. of Camb. University_, I. 22.


12
CAMBRIDGE
Gonville and Caus College, No. 162
Latin.

  Pipino's; with Odoric, and other works relating to Asia. [_H. Cordier,
  Odoric_, p. lxviii.]

_Catal. of MSS. of Gonville and Caius Coll. Library, by Ref. J.J. Smith_,
1849.


13
GLASGOW
Hunterian Collection, S. 5. 7
Latin.

  Pipino's Version, with illuminated initials, in a volume containing
  Guido Colonna's Hist. destruct. Trojae; De Gestis Alex. Magni;
  Turpinus de Gestis Caroli Magni; M.P.V.; Oderichus de Mirabilibus
  Tartariae. Parchment, 4to.

_Note by Rev. Prof. W.P. Dickson, D.D._


14
GLASGOW
Hunterian Collection Q. 6. 21
Latin.

  Pipino's also with illuminated initials, and also followed by Odoric.
  Parchment, 4to.

_Note by Rev. Prof. W.P. Dickson, D.D._


15
IRELAND
Lismore Castle, and a transcript in Library of Royal Irish Academy, Dublin
Irish.

   See vol. i., _Introduction, Irish Version_, pp. 102-103.

_Curry's Lectures, and special Note by Mr. J. Long, Dublin_.


16
Dublin
Trinity College, No. 632
Latin.

  Marco Polo: Itinerarium (ff. 43), 4to; 15th century. In a collection of
  "Historical and Miscellaneous Treatises" comprising: _Leges S. Edwardi
  per Will. Conq. confirmatae_; _De Fundatoribus Eccles. quarundam in
  Anglia_, etc.

_Cat. of the MSS. in the Lib. Trinity College, Dublin, ... by T.K.
Abbott_, 1900, p. 105.



FRANCE.


17
PARIS
Bib. nationale, No. 7367 (now Fr. 1116)
French.

  This is the most precious of all MSS. of Polo. It has been fully spoken
  of (vol. i., _Int., The Old French Text_) under the name of the
  _Geographic Text_ or (G.T.), because it was printed by the
  Société de Géographie in 1824. [See I, p. 83]

  A large 4to of thick parchment; 112 ff.; very clearly though not very
  neatly written in Gothic text.--14th century.

  A facsimile of this MS. has been made this year (1902) at Karlsruhe.
  (See _App._ H. p. 569.)

--


18
PARIS
Bib. nationale, No. 8329 (now Fr. 2810)
French.

  "Ce Liure est des // Merueilles du Monde. Cest assavoir de la Terre //
  Saincte. Du Grant Kaan Empereur des tartars. // Et du pays Dynde. Le Quel
  // Liure Jehan Duc de Bourgoingne donna // a son oncle Jehan fils de Roy
  de // France duc de Berry et Dauviergne, Conte // de Poitou, Detampes. de
  Bouloingne. et Dauvergne. // Et contient le dit Liure six // Livres. Cest
  assavoir. Marc Pol. Frere Odric de lordre des // frères meneurs. Le Liure
  fait a la requeste du Cardinal Taleran de // Pierregort. L'Estat du Grant
  Kaan. Le Liure de Messire Guillaume // de Mandeville. Le Liure de Frere
  Jehan Hayton de lordre de premonstre. // Le Liure de Frere Bicul de
  lordre des frères Prescheurs //--Et sont en ce dit Liure Deux cens
  soixante six // hystoires."

  _Signed by_ N. Flamel.

  Then follows.

  1° _Marco Polo_: "Cy apres commence le liure de Marc Paule des merveilles
  daise la grant et dinde la maiour et mineur Et des diuerses regions du
  monde."--_Begins_: "Pour sauoir la pure verite de diuerses regions du
  monde. Si prenez ce liure cy et le faictes lire. Si y trouuerez les
  grandismes merueilles qui y sont escriptes...."

  _Ends_ (Fol. 96 verso): "Et a tant fine messire marc pol son liure de la
  diuision du monde et des merueilles dicelluy."

  Of the 266 _histoires_ or miniatures in this splendid book, 84 belong to
  the story of Polo. We have given engravings of several of them. Its
  value is estimated in the catalogue of the Library of the Duc de Berry
  in 1416 (quoted by Pauthier) at 125 _livres_, equivalent (if _parisis_)
  to about 115_l._ This is Pauthier's MS. B. See vol. i., _Int._,
  _Various Types of the Text_.

  Large folio on vellum.

  [_H. Cordier, Odoric_, pp. cviii-cxiii.].

--


19
PARIS
Bib. Nationale, No. 10260 (now Fr. 5631)
French.

  "Ci commencement les rebriches de cest Livre qui est appelez le
  Deuisement du Monde, lequel je Gringoires contrefais du Livre de Messire
  Marc Pol le meilleur citoien de Venisse creant Crist."

  At the beginning of the Text is a coarse drawing of Kúblái on his
  _bretesche_, carried by four elephants (vol. i., p. 337); and after the
  prologue another apparently representing the Princess Aijaruc wrestling
  with her wooer (vol. ii. p. 465).

  This is Pauthier's MS. A. (vol. i, _Int., Various Types of the Text_),
  and also was in the Duc de Berry's Library, values at 6 _livres 5 sols_.
  [Second half of the 14th cent.].

--


20
PARIS
Bib. nationale, No. 10,270 (now Fr. 5649)
French.

  This is Pauthier's MS. C. (See as before.) It is that which has the
  certificate about the original presented to the Seigneur de Cepoy; see
  _Int._, p. 69.

  At the end is _Bertran Pichart scripsit hoc_. Small 4to, parchment,
  in a clear enough half-current hand; 134 ff.

  Came from the library of the Archb. of Rheims. [Middle of the 15th
  century.]

--


21
PARIS
Bib. nationale (675)?
French.

  I know nothing of this MS. except its readings of names given in the
  Table appended to the Geographic Text. It then belonged to the Comte
  d'Artois. Lazari has it entered as belonging to the Bibl. Imp., I know
  not if correctly. [I have been unable to find it in the Bibliothèque
  nationale.--H.C.]

See _preceding column_.


22
PARIS
Bib. nationale, Fr. nonv. acq. 1880
French.

  This is a copy of the time of King Louis XII., made apparently for
  Admiral Louis Malet de Graville, Governor of Honfleur, who died in 1516;
  it bears the arms of the Urfé family; it is at times modernized, but
  less is suppressed in it than in MSS. 5631 and 2810. The MS. ends:
  "_Et sa auchuns disdaine qui a lui_ ..." about the middle of ch.
  cxcix of Pauthier's ed., p. 738, line 4. These are also the last words
  of the Stockholm MS. of which it is a copy.

  Purchased in 1870.

_L. Delisle, Bib. Ec. Chartes_, xliii. p. 219.


23
PARIS
Bib. de l'Arsenal, No. 5219
French.

  Translated by Robert Frescher.--Fol. 1. "_Prologue du present livre, V.
  p. 163. par maistre Robert Frescher, bacheloir formé en theologie
  translateur.--Berose, ainsi que Josephe nous a laissé par enscript, fut
  natif de la cité de Babilone_...."--Fol. 9. Begins: "_Pour scavoir la
  pure verité des diverses regions du monde, lisés au faictes lire ce
  livre_...." Incomplete; ends: "... _Argon fui filz de Abaga mon frere,
  et sa aucun disoit que a luy_." (See Pauthier's ed., p. 738.)

  Parchment; ff. 168; end of the 15th or beginning of 16th century. From
  the libraries of Charles Adrien Picard and de Paulmy. With miniatures
  some of which are engraved in _Moeurs, Usages of Costumes du Moyen
  Age, par les Bibliophile Jacob_, pp. 411-413.

_Cat. des MSS. de l'Arsenal_, V. p. 163.


24
PARIS
Bib. nationale, No. 3195
Latin.

  This is the old Latin version, published by the Soc. de Géog., and which
  I have cited as _Geographic Latin_ or G.L. (See vol. i., _Int. Various
  Types of the Text_.) [Contains: _Petri Amphusi clericalis disciplina;
  Odoric; Marco Polo; Bernardi cujusdam ad Raymundum Castri Ambrosii
  epistola de modo rei familiaris utilius gubernandae_. Cf. _Cat. Cod. MSS.
  Bib. Reg. Pars tertia_., t. iii. Paris, 1744, p. 385. Parchment, small
  fol., 15th century.--_H. Cordier, Odoric_, p. lxxxiii--H.C.].

_Printed Text.--H. Cordier_.


25
PARIS
Bib. nationale, No. 1616
Latin.

  Pipino's. [Paper; fol. cccvii et seqq.].

_Table in the G.T._


26
PARIS
Bib. nationale, No. 6244 A.
Latin.

  Pipino's. [Paper.]

_Table in the G.T._


27
PARIS
Bib. Nationale, Codd. Ital., No. 10,259 [now 434]
Italian.

  Paper, 4to, of 14th century. Seen, but not examined with any care, which
  I regret, as the readings suggest that it may have been that text from
  which Pipino translated [pp. 100.].

  [Begins f. 2 recto: "_Signori Imperadori Re e Duci e tutte altre
  gienti che || uolete sapere le diuerse gienerationi delle gienti || elle
  diuersità delle regioni del mondo leggiete que || sto libro
  doue retrouerrete tutte le grandissime marauigle_," etc.

  Ends: "_Explicit Liber de Milione per Messe Marcho Polo di Vinegia.
  Deo gratias._"]

_I Manoscritti Italiani ... della R. Bib. Parigina ... dal Ant.
Marsana_, 1835, 4to.


28
PARIS
Former Library of Baron C. Walckenaer
Latin.

  A miscellaneous volume, containing an imperfect copy of Pipino's
  version. Present locality not known.

_Table in the G.T._



LUXEMBURG.


29
LUXEMBURG
City Library, No. 50
Latin.

  Volume containing several works; and among them _Marchi_ (Pauli)
  _Veneti Liber Narrationum Morum_, etc.

  Paper; written 1448 by Tilman Pluntshe, "canonicus ecclesie SS.
  Chresanti et Darie monasterii Eyfflic."

_Pertz, Archiv_, viii. 594.



BELGIUM.


30
BRUSSELS
Royal Library, No. 9309
French.

  Derives from the Paris 5631 and 2810 and the Stockholm MS., 14th
  century.

_G. Raynaud, Romania_, xi. pp. 429-430.



ITALY.


31
VENICE
St. Mark's Library, Cl. X. Codd. Lat. 72
Latin.

  Pipino's.

  Formerly belonged to the Monastery of St. John's _in Viridario_ at
  Padua, to which it was presented by John Marchanova, Doctor of Arts and
  Medicine, 1467. Paper, 4to. (It is mentioned by Marsden as at Padua, p.
  lv.)

_Lazari_.


32
VENICE
St. Mark's Library, Cl. X. Codd. Lat. 128
Latin.

  Another of Pipino's. Paper, 4to, of 15th century.

_Lazari_.


33
VENICE
St. Mark's Library, Cl. VI. Codd. Ital., 56
Italian (Ven. dialect).

  A rude translation of Pipino's version, written late in the 15th century

  Also contains a translation of the same Pipino's Tract, _De Locis
  Terrae Sanctae_. Belonged to T.G. Farsetti. Paper, folio.

_Lazari_.


34
VENICE
St. Mark's Library, Cl. VI. Codd. Ital., 208
Italian (Ven. dialect).

  Corresponds to the Venetian edition of 1496, but even more inaccurate,
  with absurd interpolations.

  The volume contains also Odoric, A. Ca' da Mosto, V. da Gama, Columbus,
  etc., being of the beginning of the 16th century.

  Paper, 4to. Belonged to Morelli.

*_Lazari_.


35
VENICE
Museo Civico, _Coll. Cicogna_, No. 2389, now 2408.
Latin.

  +Paper, large 4to; belonged to Gian-Giuseppe Liruti, and after to E.A.
  Cicogna; contains also Odoric, published by G. Venni in 1761, and other
  matter.

  This is the MS. noticed at vol. i. _Int., Ramusio's Italian
  Version_, p. 102, as containing several passages found in no
  other text except Ramusio's Italian. Written in 1401 by the Notary
  Philip, son of Pietro Muleto of Fodan (or Fogan?)[4] in Friuli, whilst
  studying Rhetoric at Padua.

*[_H. Cordier_, _Odoric_, pp. xci.-xcii.]


36
VENICE
Library of Count Donà delle Rose
Italian, with a Venetian tinge.

  It begins: "Quegli che desiderano d'entendere le maraviglose chose del
  mondo de l'Asia de Armenia persia e tartaria dell indie et diverse parti
  del mondo legano questo libro et intenderano quello chel nobelle
  citadino Veneciano Miss. Marcho Polo," etc., and end: "Explicit liber
  Millionis civis Veneciarum. Expleto ad CCCCXLVI mensis setembris die
  vigesimo-octavo."

  These extracts indicate that it belongs to the same type as the Sloane
  MS. No. 6, in our list.

Note by Comm. Nicolò Barozzi, Director of the Museo Civico at Venice.


37
FERRARA
Public Library, No. 35n (336, N.B. 5)
Italian, with a Venetian tinge.

  _Incipit prologus Libri qui vulgari hominum dictur "El Milione."_

  This looks as if it were _not_ Pipino's.

_Note by the Abate S.B. Mondino_.


38
MILAN
Ambrosian Library, M. 526, Sc. D.
Latin.

  Fragments extracted from Pipino's version inserted at end of 2nd part of
  the _Cronica Libri Ymaginis Mundi_ of Fr. Jacopo d'Acqui. (Vol. i.
  _Int., Captivity of M. Polo_.)

  Paper, folio. 14th century.

_Lazari_.


39
MODENA
Este Library
Latin.

  Pipino's Parchment of 14th century. Muratori speaks of this.
  (_Script._ VII.) as "_fortassis autographum._"

_Muratoni;_ and _Prof. Bianconi, Degli Scritta di Marco Polo, etc._


40
FLORENCE
Bib. Magliabecchiana (now Nationale), Cl. XIII., Plut. IV. c. 104
Italian (Tuscan).

  The Crusca MS., of which an account has been given, vol. i. _Int.,
  Original Language of the Book_.

  Paper, folio, early in 14th century.

--


41
FLORENCE
Bib. Magliabecchiana (now Nazionale), Cl. XIII., Plut. IV. c. 73
Itailian.

  Many liberties taken with the text, and much abridged and disarranged.
  Thus, after the Prologue it proceeds: "_Al nome di Dio io Marcho Polo
  Veneziano racconterò tutte le maravigliose chose ch'io trovai e
  vidi_, etc. etc." It ends the chapter on Russia with the following
  impertinence: "_E se volete sapere più innanzi dimandatene un altro
  ch'io Marcho Polo non cercai più avanti._" The Khalif is called
  _Largaliffe_; Reobarles, _Reubarbe_, with a marginal note in
  an old hand, "_Reubarbe_ città di Persia, donde viene il reubarbero
  herba medicinale." Completed by Dolfo Spini, 16th July, 1425. Paper.
  Belonged to the Strozzi Collection.

--


42
FLORENCE
Bib. Magliabecchiana (now Nazionale), Cl. XIII., Plut. IV., c. 61
Italian.

  This corresponds to the _Pucci_ MS. noted below (No. 47). It
  contains the colophon quoted at vol. i. _Int., Some Estimate of Polo
  and his Book_, p. 115, _note_.

  Paper, folio, 1392, 100 ff. of which the first 40 contain _Polo_.
  Not well written.

  Ex. Bibl. Gaddianâ.

*_Baldelli-Boni_.


43
FLORENCE
Bib. Magliabecchiana (now Naxionale), Cl. XIII., Plut. IV., c. 136
Italian.

  Both beginning and end are missing. Slightly different from the Crusca.

  14th century.

*_Baldelli-Boni_.


44
FLORENCE
Riccardian Library
Italian.

  Ends with chapter on Russia. Followed by an extract of Mandevile and a
  valuable coll. of geographical documents of 15th century and beginning
  of 16th.

  Paper 4to, 16th century.

--


45
FLORENCE
Riccardian Library
Latin.

  Pipino's; but reaching only to Bk. III. ch. 31.

  Paper, 14th century.

--


46
FLORENCE
Riccardian Library, No. 1924.
Italian (Ven. dialect).

  Partial and defective transcript under the title of _Itinerario di
  Levante_.

_G. Uzielli, Note_.



47
FLORENCE
Library of Pucci family
Italian.

  See remarks at vol. i. _Int., Various Types of the Text_. Completed
  20th Nov. 1391.

--


48
FLORENCE
Bib. Palatina (now united to Nazionale), Cod. 572
Italian.

  The language differs slightly from that of the Crusca, and, where I have
  compared it, is less compressed. Ends with _Rossia_.

  Paper, small 4to, 14th century.

  Written somewhat roughly in a very old hand. Rustician is _Messer
  Restazo da Pisa_. The Grand Kaan gives the Polo's a "tovaglia
  _d'Oro_."

--


49
LUCCA
Bib. governativa, Coll. (Lucchesini, Giacomo), No. 26 (now No. 296)
Italian (Ven. dialect).

  Corresponds to the corrupt Venice epitome published in 1496. Contains
  also Odorico.

  [Ends:--"_Complito el libro de le cosse mirabile vedute per lo nobile
  homo Messer Marcho Polo gientelomo de Venesia a di 12 de
  Marzo 1465 per mi Daniele da Verona in sul Ponte de' Berettiari al
  onore e laude dell' Omnipotente._"

  Paper, 4to, 75 ff.

  _H. Cordier_, _Odoric_, pp. xcvi.-xcviii.]

_Baldelli-Boni_.


50
SIENA
Public Library, c. V 14
Italian.

  This is a miscellaneous MS. which, among other things; contains a
  fragment of Polo, "Qui comicio ellibro di Missere Macho Polo da Vinegia
  de le cose maniglose che trovo p lo mondo," etc. It calls Rusticiano
  _Missere Stacio da Pisa_.--N.B.--Baldelli gives a very similar
  description of a fragment at Sienna, but under press mark A. IV. 8. I
  assume that it is the same that I saw.

--


51
ROME
Vatican Library, Cod. 2207, _Ottoboniano_
French.

  A fragment, going no further than the chapter on Georgia, and ending
  thus: "Autre chose ne vous en scay dire parquoi je vous fois fin en ce
  livre; le nom de notre Seigneur soi benoist et de sa benoiste Mere.
  Amen. Loys de Luxembourg."

  Parchment, 14 cent.

_Baldelli-Boni_.


52
ROME
Vatican Library, No. 2935
Latin.

  An old Latin abridgment of Polo, entitled _De Mirabilibus Mundi_.
  The same volume contains a tract, _De Mirabilibus Romae_, to which
  also Polo's name is given.

  Paper, 14th cent.

_Baldelli-Boni_ and _Lazari_.


53
ROME
Vatican Library, No. 3153
Latin.

  Pipino's. Very neat and clean; apparently of 14th cent.

  Parchment.

--


54
ROME
Vatican Library, No. 5260
Latin.

  Pipino's. Very clearly and regularly written. Apparently 15th cent.

--


55
ROME
Barberini Library, XXXIV. 4
Latin.

  A MS. volume, containing Ricold of Monte Croce; Tractatus divisionis et
  ambitûs Orbis Terrarum, etc.; Liber de divisione Orbis Terrarum;
  Libellus de Mirabilibus Urbis Romae; and "_Incipit de Morum et Gentium
  Varietatibus editus a Marcho Polo Veneto._" It is very cramply
  written, much compressed, and has no division into books or chapters.
  Ends with "_Roscia, provincia maxima._" "_Explicit libellus
  editus a Dno. Marcho Polo de Venetiis de diversis provinciis et gentibus
  mundi, et earum ritibus et moribus diversis et artibus._"

  Parchment, large thin 4to, 14th cent.

--


56
ROME
Barberini Library, LVIII. 40
Italian (Venetian dial).

  This is the fragment spoken of, vol. i. p. 101, note. It is a transcript
  made apparently in the 17th cent., from a MS. written in 1465.

--


57
ROME
Barberini Library, No. 934
Italian.

  I give this on Baldelli's authority. I did not see it on my visit to the
  Barberini.

_Baldelli-Boni_.


58
ROME
Corsini Library, No. 1111
Italian(?).

  --

_Baldelli-Boni_.


59
ROME
Chigi Library, M. VI. 140
Italian.

  Bears a note in the handwriting of Pope Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi of
  Sienna, 1655-1667), which draws attention to Sienese peculiarities in
  the language, and assigns the date about 1420

  Sm. 4to, paper

_Baldelli-Boni_.



SPAIN.


60
ESCURIAL
Library
Latin.

  Pipino's

(?)


61
TOLEDO
Cathedral Library.
Latin.

  Seems to be different from any of the other Latin versions. It has the
  prefatory address to _Domini Imperatores, Reges, Duces_, etc.

  8vo, paper. Of 15th century.

_Baldelli-Boni_.


62
TOLEDO
Cathedral Library.
Italian (Venetian).

  This is a copy of the Soranzo MS., of which Marsden has given an ample
  notice after Apostolo Zeno, and which has disappeared from knowledge.

_Baldelli-Boni_.



SWITZERLAND.


63
BERN
Canton Library, No. 125
French.

  I have examined this MS. minutely, and am satisfied that it is a copy of
  Pauthier's C. i.e., No. 20, in our List. Like that (and no other), it
  bears the certificate regarding the Seigneur de Cepoy. (Vol. i., _Int.,
  Notices of Marco in later life._) The MS. is fully described in Sinner's
  Catalogue. It is in very beautiful condition, very clearly written on
  parchment, with all the initials filled up in gold and colours, and with
  numerous flowered scrolls.

  It belonged to Bongars, whose autograph is on it: "_Bongars--l'a de la
  courtoisie de Mr. de Superville._"

  [Parchment, fol., ff. 286, 14th century.--_H. Cordier_, _Odoric_, pp.
  cxiv.-cxv.]

--


64
BERN
Canton Library
Italian (Venetian).

  In a neat running hand resembling italic type. It is much abridged,
  especially in the latter part.

  Small Paper 4to. It is inscribed: "_Bongars, de la courtoisie de Mr.
  Aurel, tiré de la biblioteque de Mr. de Vutron_(?)."

--


65
VEVEY
City Museum
French.

  [A double sheet; parchment, and of 14th century. Fragment: 1st sheet,
  end of chap. 121 and greater part of chap. 122; 2nd sheet, end of chap.
  134, chaps. 135, 136, 137, and beginning of chap. 138 of Pauthier's ed.
  Very similar to the text of the Stockholm MS. Our No. 84.--H.C.]

_Earnest Muret, Romania_, t. xxx. 1901.



GERMANY


66
MUNICH
Royal Library, Codd. Lat. 249
Latin.

  Pipino's.

  Folio, paper, 15th century

  Also Pipino's tract, _De Locis Terrae Sctae._, and Boccacio's _De Casibus
  Virorum Illustrium_.

_Lazari_.


67
MUNICH
Royal Library, Codd. Lat. 850
Latin.

  Pipino's.

  Paper, 4to, 15th cent.

  Also Pipino's tract, _De Locis Terrae Sctae._, etc.

_Lazari_.


68
MUNICH
Royal Library?
Latin.

  _Excerpia de ejus Historia, principaliter Orientalis_

_Private Memo_.


69
MUNICH
Royal Library?
Latin.

  _Narrationes ex ejus libro de partitus transmarinis_

_Private Memo_.


70
MUNICH
Royal Library, Cod. Germ. 696
German.

  The version published at Nuremberg in 1477.

  Paper, 4to. [See _Bibliography_, p. 554.]

_Lazari_.


71
MUNICH
Royal Library, 252
German.

  Fragment.

_Lazari_.


72
MUNICH
?
German.

  The whole.

_Private Memo_.


73
MUNICH
?
German.

  Translated for Duke William of Bavaria, 1582.

_Private Memo_.


74
WOLFENBÜTTEL
Ducal Library, No. 40, Weissemburg
Latin.

  [Contains: Polo (Pipino's version) f. 1-57 verso; Odoric; Ricold;
  Boldensel.--Ricold was published by Mr. J.C. Laurent: _Peregrinatores
  Medii Aevi Quatnor_. Lipsiae, 1864. Paper, 15th cent., fol., ff.
  110.]

_H. Cordier, Odoric_, pp. lxxiv.-lxxv.


75
WOLFENBÜTTEL
Ducal Library, No. 41, Weissemburg
Latin.

  [Contains: _Ciceronis orationes in Verrem, Chronicon Flandriae; R.
  Bacon, de regionibus ad papam Clementem_; Marco Polo, ff. 122-160
  verso; Ricold; Jacques de Vitry; Odoric; Plano Carpini.

  Paper 15th cent, fol., ff. 253.]

_H. Cordier, Odoric_, pp. lxxv.-vi.


76
BERLIN
Royal Library
Latin.

  Pipino's. Also contains _Mappa-Mundi, Expositio Libri Mateorum_,
  etc. I believe this is the Codex Brandenburgensis collated by Andreas
  Müller in his edition (1671).

_Private Memo._


77
BERLIN
Royal Library
German.

  A modern MS., said to be a copy of the _Wiener MS._(?).

_Private Memo._


78
WÜRZBURG
Royal Library
Latin.

  _Marcus Paulus de Mirabilibus Mundi_. Paper.

_Pertz, Archiv._, viii, 100.


79
GIESSEN
University Library, No. 218
Latin.

  _M. Paulus de Venetiis de Regionibus Orientis_ (with other matter),
  probably Pipino's.

  Paper, folio, 15th cent.

  I know not if it is a second, which is cited by Mr. Major (_Notes on
  Russia_) from _Catalogus Codd. MSS. Academ. Gissenses_, by _J.
  V. Adrian_, Frankfort, 1840, as bound up with Eusebius and entitled
  _M. P. de Ven. de condit. et consuet. Orient. Regionum_.

_Pertz, Archiv._, ix, 576.


80
JENA
University Library
Latin.

  Pipino's. Followed by H. of Alexander

_Pertz, Archiv._, viii, 698.


81
MENTZ
Metropolican Chapter, No. 52
Latin.

  Pipino's. A collection containing in Latin, besides Polo, Odoric, Ricold,
  and Boldensel. [_H. Cordier_, _Odoric_, pp. lxxii.-iv.]

_V. F. de Gudenus, Sylloge I. Variorum Diplomatariorum, etc._, Frankf.
1728, p. 381.



AUSTRIA.


82
PRAGUE
Chapter of St. Vitus
Latin.

  Pipino's

_Pertz, Archiv._, ix. 474


83
VIENNA
--
German?

  There appears to be a MS. at Vienna; for above I have registered (No.
  77) one at Berlin, which is called a copy of the Vienna MS., but I have
  not been able to get any particulars regarding it.

--



SWEDEN.


84
STOCKHOLM
Royal Library, French, No. 37
French.

  This MS., published in facsimile by Baron A.E. Nordenskiöld, belongs to
  the "Cepoy" type of MSS. Yule wrote in _The Athenaeum_ (17th June,
  1882): "I gather that it has been produced by partial abridgement from
  one of the earlier MSS. of the type in question." And again (p. 766):
  "It will be seen that though the publication is a beautiful example of
  facsimile, it contributes, as far as I have been able to examine it,
  nothing to the amelioration or elucidation of the text or narrative."

  The changes and suppressions are much less considerable than in the
  Paris MSS., 5631 and 2810. Cf _L. Delisle, Bib. de l'Ecole des
  Chartres_, XLIII., 1882, pp. 226-235, 424.

  It is incomplete, and ends: "_Et se aucuns disoit quí a luí._"--Cf. Paris
  MS., 1880. [Our No. 22]

  It belonged to the Library of the French King, Charles V. (1364-1380),
  and later, as marked on the recto of the last folio, "Pour Symon du
  Solier demorant à Honnefleu," who was "procureur-syndic des manants et
  habitants de la ville de Honfleur."

_H. Cordier_.


85
STOCKHOLM
Royal Library, French, No. 38
French.

  Translated from the Latin version.

_G. Raymond, Romania_, XI.


[1] + This MS. Fr. 2810 (formerly 8392), known as the _Livre des
    Merveilles_, belonged to the Library of John, Duke of Berry, at the
    Château of Mehun-sur-Yevre, 1416, No. 116 of the catalogue; also No.
    196, p. 186, of _Le Cabinet des Manuscrits de la Bibl. Nationale_,
    par. L. Delisle, III. Count A. de Bastard began publishing some of the
    miniatures, but did not finish the work. Of the miniatures, Nos. 1,
    12, 19, 35, 41, 37, 45, 47, 52, 56, 57, 60, 66, 70, 75, 78, 81 are
    engraved, pp. 258, 273, 282, 310, 316, 317, 328, 332, 340, 348, 350,
    354, 381, 392, 406, 411, 417 in _Charton's Voyageurs du Moyen Age_,
    vol. ii., besides two others, pp. 305, 395, not identified; [in my
    edition of Odoric, I reproduced Nos. 33, 41, 70, pp. 439, 377,
    207.--H.C.]; in the present work, Nos 5, 31, 41, 52, 70 are engraved,
    vol. i. pp. 15, 244, 369; Nos. 52, 70, vol. ii. pp. 5, 311. Nos. 60
    and 75 have been reproduced, pp. 97 and 98 of _Faguet's Hist. de la
    Littérature Française_, 2nd ed., Paris, 1900.

[2] [Mr. E.W.B. Nicholson, who thought at first that this MS. was
    written at the end of the 14th century, in his Introduction to
    _Early Bodleian Music_, by J.F.R. Stainer and C. Stainer,
    London, 1901, has come to the conclusion (p. xviii.) that it belongs
    to the first half of the 15th century. I agree with him. Mr. Nicholson
    thinks that the writing is English, and that the miniatures are by a
    Flemish artist; Mr. Holmes, the King's Librarian, believes that both
    writing and miniatures are English. This MS. came into the Bodleian
    Library between 1598 and 1605, and was probably given by Sir Thomas
    Bodley himself.--H.C.]

[3] [This List was printed in vol. ii. pp. 449-462 of the first edition of
    the Book, but was omitted in the second edition. My own experience has
    shown me the usefulness of this table, which contains 85 MSS.
    instead of 75, and some additional particulars.--H.C.]

[4] [Ser petri de Faganea (Fagagna, in Friuli).--H.C.]



APPENDIX G.--_Diagram showing Filiation of Chief MSS. and Editions of Marco
Polo._


  N.B.--Such MSS. as are not enclosed in Cartouches are hypothetical, or
  not known now to exist, but are recognized or demonstrable as links in
  the series. Nos. refer to List of MSS. in App. F. Printed Editions are in
  small capitals.

                                MARCO POLO
                         dictates at Genoa, 1298
                                     |
                                -----------------
                               | Rude French MS. |
                 --------------|    (No. 17),    |--------------------
                 |             |    undivided.   |                    |
              Italian          | Printed 1824 by |----------------    |
      ----- (undivided).       |  Soc. de Géog.  |                |   |
      |               |         -----------------    A few notes  |   |
    Italian            --------------------------    by M. Polo.  |   |
  divided in ---------           |               |            |   |   |
   3 Books.           |          |             ------------   |   |   |
      |               |          |            |  Italian   |  |   |   |
      |               |   ----------------    | Crusca MS. |  |   |   |
 -----------------    |  |Latin, Cicogna's|   |  (No. 40). |  |   |   |
|Latin (MS. No 24)|   |  | MS. (No. 35).  |   | Undivided. |  |   |   |
| Printed 1824 by |   |  | Abridged, but  |    ------------   |   |   |
|  Soc. de Géog.  |   |  |with new matter.|-------------------    |   |
|     3 Books.    |   |   ----------------                        |   |
 -----------------    |          |                      ------------  |
                  -------------  |                     | Venetian   | |
                 |  Latin of   | |                     | (type of   | |
    -------------|   Pipino,   | |                     | Sloane MS.)| |
   |             | in 3 Books. | |  Supplementary      |  (No. 6.)  | |
   |              -------------  |  Notes by M. Polo.   ------------  |
Italian                          |        |                           |
  or                             |        |                           |
PORTUGUESE                 -----------    |                           |
   |                      | RAMUSIO'S |---                            |
 -----------              |  PRINTED  |                Revised French
|GRYNAEUS'S |             |  ITALIAN, |    ----------- made for Marco
|  LATIN,   |             |    1559.  |   |            Polo before
|   1532.   |              -----------    |            1307.
 -----------                     |        |                |
   |                             |        |            French Copy
 --------------            -----------    |            given to T.
|   FRENCH     |          | MARSDEN'S |   |            de Cepoy,
|  PRINTED     |          |  ENGLISH, |   |            1307.
|  EDITIONS,   |          |    1818.  |   |                |
| OF 1556, &c. |           -----------   ----------      ------------
 --------------                         | French   |    |  French    |
                                        |   MSS.   |    |   MS. C,   |
                                        |  A & B   |    | Bern, and  |
                                        | (Nos. 19 |    | Bodleian   |
                                        |  & 18).  |    | (Nos. 20,  |
                                         ----------     |  63, & 8). |
                                             |           ------------
                                             |                |
                                             |                |
                                             -----------------
                                                      |
                                              --------------
                                             |  PAUTHIER'S  |
                                             |    FRENCH,   |
                                             |     1865.    |
                                              --------------



APPENDIX H.--_Bibliography of Marco Polo's Book_.


I.--PRINCIPAL EDITIONS.


We attempt a list of all the editions of Polo; a task for which Sir Henry
Yule had no advantages, and which will be found well done for the time in
Lazari's Appendix, based on Marsden. It may be also useful to mention the
chief Editions, with their dates.

1477. The first Printed Edition is in German. We give a reduced Facsimile
      of its Frontispiece.

1481. A reproduction of the preceding at Augsburg, in the same volume with
      the _History of Duke Leopold and his Son William of Austria_.

About 1490. Pipino's Latin; the only printed edition of that version.
      Without place, date, or printer's name.

1496. Edition in Venetian Dialect, printed by J.H. da Sessa.

1500. The preceding reproduced at Brescia (often afterwards in Italy).

1502. Portuguese version from Pipino, along with the Travels of Nicolo
      Conti. Printed at Lisbon by Valentym Fernandez Alemaão (see vol. ii.
      of this work). Stated to have been translated from the MS. presented
      by Venice to Prince Pedro (vol. i.)

1503. Spanish version by Rodrigo de Santaella. _Sevilla_.

1529. Ditto. Reprinted at Logroño.

1532. Novus Orbis-Basileae. (See vol. i.)

1556. French version from the _Novus Orbis_.

1559. Ramusio's 2nd volume, containing his version of Polo, of which we
      have spoken amply.

1579. First English Version, made by John Frampton, according to Marsden,
      from the Spanish version of Seville or Logroño.

1625. Purchas's _Pilgrims_, vol. iii. contains a very loose
      translation from Ramusio.

1664. Dutch Version, from the _Novus Orbis. Amsterdam_.

1671. Andreas Müller of Greiffenhagen reprints the Latin of the _Novus
      Orbis_, with a collation of readings from the Pipino MS. at
      Berlin; and with it the book of Hayton, and a disquisition _De
      Chataiâ_. The Editor appears to have been an enthusiast in his
      subject, but he selected his text very injudiciously. (See vol. i.)

1735. Bergeron's interesting collection of Mediaeval Travels in Asia,
      published in French at the Hague. The _Polo_ is a translation
      from Müller, and hence is (as we have already indicated) at 6th
      hand.

1747. In Astley's Collection, IV. 580 seqq., there is an abstract
      of Polo's book, with brief notes, which are extremely acute, though
      written in a vulgar tone, too characteristic of the time.

1818. Marsden's famous English Edition.

1824. The Publication of the most valuable MS. and most genuine form of
      the text, by the Soc. de Géographie of Paris. (See vol. i.) It also
      contains the Latin Text (No. 24 in our list of MSS. App. F.).

1827. Baldelli-Boni published the Crusca MS. (No. 40), and republished the
      Ramusian Version, with numerous notes, and interesting
      dissertations. The 2 volumes are cumbered with 2 volumes more
      containing, as a Preliminary, a History of the Mutual Relations of
      Europe and Asia, which probably no man ever read. _Florence_.

1844. Hugh Murray's Edition. It is, like the present one, eclectic as
      regards the text, but the Editor has taken large liberties with the
      arrangement of the Book.

1845. Bürck's German Version, Leipzig. It is translated from Ramusio, with
      copious notes, chiefly derived from Marsden and Ritter. There are
      some notes at the end added by the late Karl Friedrich Neumann, but
      as a whole these are disappointing.

1847. Lazari's Italian edition was prepared at the expense of the late
      Senator T. Pasini, in commemoration of the meeting of the Italian
      Scientific Congress at Venice in that year, to the members of which
      it was presented. It is a creditable work, but too hastily got up.

1854. Mr. T. Wright prepared an edition for Bohn's _Antiq.
      Library_. The notes are in the main (and professedly) abridged
      from Marsden's, whose text is generally followed, but with the
      addition of the historical chapters, and a few other modifications
      from the Geographic Text.

1854-57. _Voyageurs Anciens et Modernes, &c. Par M. Ed. Charion.
      Paris_. An interesting and creditable popular work. Vol. ii.
      contains Marco Polo, with many illustrations, including copies from
      miniatures in the _Livre des Merveilles_. (See list in App. F.
      p. 528.)

1863. Signor Adolfo Bartoli reprinted the Crusca MS. from the original,
      making a careful comparison with the Geographic Text. He has
      prefixed a valuable and accurate Essay on Marco Polo and the
      Literary History of his Book, by which I have profited.

1865. M. Pauthier's learned edition.

1871. First edition of the present work.

1873. First publication of Marco Polo in Russian.

1875. Second edition of this work.

1882. Facsimile of the French Stockholm MS. by Baron A.E. Nordenskiöld.



II.--BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINTED EDITIONS.[1]


A.--GERMAN EDITIONS.

1.--1. Nuremberg ... 1477.

The first translation of Marco Polo's Book was printed in German, at
Nuremberg, in 1477.

Collation: 58 ff. folio without pagination and without signatures.

_Verso f._ 1: Frontispiece: Portrait of Marco Polo with this
inscription round the border: [Top] Das ist der edel Ritter. Marcho polo
von [right] Venedig der grost landtfarer der vns beschreibt die grossen
wunder der welt [Foot] die er selber gesehenn hat. Von dem auffgang [left]
pis zu dem nydergãg der sunne. der gleyche vor nicht meer gehort seyn.
[See p. 555.]

_Recto f._ 2, begins:

    Hie hebt sich an das puch dés edelñ Ritters vñ landtfarers || Marcho
    polo. In dem er schreibt die grossen wunderlichen || ding dieser welt.
    Sunderlichen von den grossen kunigen vnd || keysern die da herschen in
    den selbigen landen | vnd von irem || volck vnd seiner gewonheit da
    selbs.

_Verso f._ 58: Hie endet sich das puch des edelñ Ritters und lañdtfarerz
|| Marcho polo | das do sagt võ mangerley wunder der landt || vñ lewt | vñ
wie er die selbigen gesehen vñ durch faren hat || von de auffgang pisz zu
dem nydergang der sune Seliglich.

Disz hat gedruckt Fricz Creïszner zu Nurmberg Nach cristi || gepurdt
Tausent vierhundert vñ im siben vñ sibenczigte iar.

[Illustration: Frontispiece of the first German Edition.]

The copy which I have examined is in the Grenville Library, No. 6787.
(Vide _Bib. Grenvilliana_, Part II. p. 305.) When Marsden edited his
_Marco Polo_, Grenville did not possess this edition. The only known copy
was in the Vienna Imperial Library, but was without the portrait.
Grenville had made a transcript spoken of by Marsden, pp. lxx.-lxxi.,
which we describe infra. "When Mr. Marsden," says Grenville in a MS.
note at the beginning of this fine volume, "published his translation of
this work, the only known copy of this first German Edition was in the
Imperial Library at Vienna, and I had a literal transcript made from it:
Since that time a second copy was found and sold by Payne and Foss to Lord
Spencer: and now I have purchased from Leipsick a third [the present]
beautiful copy. I know of no fourth copy. The copy at Vienna wants the
portrait."

Vide _Bib. Spenceriana_, vol. vi. p. 176.

Other copies are to be found at the Imperial Library, Vienna, the Royal
Library, Berlin, the _Germanisches Museum_, Nuremberg; a sixth copy was in
the Crawford Collection (London, June, 1887, 1359) with the portrait, and
was purchased by B. Quaritch. [See _H. Cordier, Cent. of Marco Polo_, p.
41.]

--The copy we just spoke of has No. LII. in the Grenville collection,
British Museum; it is a folio of 114 pages numbered with a pencil; bound
with the arms of the Rt. Honble. Thos. Grenville. Page 114, the exactness
of this copy is thus certified: "Apographum collatum cum prototypo, quod
in Bibliotheca Palatina Vindobonensi adservatur. Illo quidem, qui
descripsit, recitante ex prototypo, me vero hoc apographum inspectante.
Respondet pagina paginae, versui versus & syllaba syllabae. Vindobonae die
29. Augusti 1817. B. Kopitar, Biblioth. Palatinae Vindobon. scriptor."

With this manuscript is bound a letter addressed to Mr. Grenville by the
Chevalier Scotti, who had the copy made; it is dated "Vienne 20 nmbre
1817," and ends with this post-scriptum: "N.B. Comme cette Edition fort
peu connue du 477. est une édition non seulement précieuse, mais à la
vérité fort rare aussi, elle avoit été prise par les Francois et portée à
Paris la dernière fois qu'ils ont été à Vienne. Elle y a été rendue avec
tout le reste qu'on avoit emporté à la suite des heureux succès des
Coilisés, auxquels L'immortel Wellington a tant contribué en y mettant la
dernière couronne dont les lauriers resteront à jamais inflétrissables."


2.--2. Augsburg ... 1481.

--The second German edition of Marco Polo has been reprinted at Augsburg
in 1481; it is as scarce as the first edition; I have examined the copy in
the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg.

Collation: 60 ff. folio, without pagination nor signatures.

_Recto f._ 1: End of the story of William of Austria, after which is
printed Marco Polo.

_Verso f._ 1: Frontispiece: Portrait of Marco Polo coloured with
this inscription round the border: [Top] Das ist der edel ritter Marcho
polo von Venedig. [right] der grõst landfarer der vas beschreibt die
grossen wunder der welt die er selber gese [foot] he:n hat. Von dem
auffgang biss zu dem nidergang der [left] sunnen | der geleich vor nit
meer gehõrt seind.

_Recto f._ 2, begins:

    Hie hept sich an das buch des edle ritters vñ landtfarers Marcho polo,
    in dem er schreibt die grossen wunderlichen ding diser welt.
    sunderlichen võ den grossen künigen vnd keisern | die da herschen in
    den selbigen landen vnd von jrem volck vnnd seiner gewonheÿt da selbs.

_Recto f._ 60: Hie enndet sich herczog Wilhalm von österreich vñ das
buch des edeln ritters vñ landtfarers Marcho polo | das da sagt von
mengerleÿ wunder der land vnd leüt. vnd wie er die selbige gesehen vñ
durch faren hat von dem auffgang biss zu dem nÿdergang d'sunnen
Seligklich. Diss hat gedruckt Anthonius Sorg zu Augspurg Nach xpi gepurt
tausent vier hundert vnd jm lxxxj. jare.

No. fig. in the text.


3.--3. Die New Welt der landschaften vnnd Insulen ... gedruckt zu
    Strassburg durch Georgen Vlricher ... An. M.D.XXXIIII, folio.

Ff. 103-133; Marr Paulen des Venedigers Erst Buch | von den
Morgenlandern.--Ff. 134-152: Haithon des Armeniers Premonstratensis ordens
| von den Tartern.

Translated from the _Novus Orbis Regionvm_.--See 11-12.


4.--4.* M. Polus. Reise in die Tartarey und zum Grossen Chan von Chatai,
    uebersetzt. v. H. Megisser. Altenburg, 1609, 8vo.

H. Ternaux-Compans, _Bibliothèque asiatique et africaine_, No.
1031.--[Notwithstanding all my researches, I could not find this edition in
any private or public library in Germany.--H.C.]


5.--5. Chorographia Tartariae: || Oder || Warhafftige Beschreibung der ||
    vberaus wunderbahrlichen Reise | || welche der Edle vnd weit erfahrne
    Venedigi--|| sche GENTILHUOMO MARCUS POLUS, mit dem || zunahmen
    MILLION, noch vor vierthalb hundert Jah=||ren | in die Oriental vnd
    Morgenlãnder | Sonderlich aber in || die Tartarey | zu dem grossen Can
    von Cathai | zu || Land vnd Wasser Persönlich verrichtet: || Darinnen
    ausführlich vnd vmbständ=||lich erzehlet werden | viel zuvor
    vnbekandte Landschaff=||ten | Königreich vnd Städt | sampt dero Sitten
    vnd || Gebräuchen | vnd andern seltzamen Sachen: || Die Er | als der
    erste Erfinder der newen Welt | gegen || Orient | oder den Ost Indien
    | gesehen vnd erfahren. || In drey vnterschiedliche Bücher
    abge=||[t]heilet: sampt einem Discurs Herrn Johan Bapti=||stae
    Rhamnusij | der Herrschafft zu Vene=||dig geheimen Secretarij | von
    dem || Leben des Autoris. || Alles aus dem Original | so in
    Italianischer || Sprach beschrieben | treulich vnd mit fleis ver=||
    teutschet | auch mit Kupfferstücken || geziehret | durch || HIERONYMUM
    MEGISERUM.--|| Anno M. DC. XI. || Leipzig | in vorlegung Henning
    Grossen des Jüngern. Small 8vo. pp. 354 (last page numbered by mistake
    351) + 36 prel. ff. for the tit., preface, etc., and 7 ff. at the end
    for the table.

Plates.--See p. 350: _Alphabetum Tartaricúm_, et _Oratio Dominica
Tartaricé_.


6.--6. Die Reisen des Marco Polo, oder Marcus Paulus, eines Venetianers,
    in die Tartarey, im Jahre 1272. (_Allgemeine Historie der Reisen_,
    Leipzig, 1750, VII, pp. 423 et seq.)


7.--7. Marco Paolo's || Reise in den Orient | || während der Jahre 1272 bis
    1295. ||--Nach den || vorzüglichsten Original=Ausgaben verdeutscht, ||
    und || mit einem Kommentar begleitet|| von || Felix Peregrin. ||--
    Ronneburg und Leipzig, || bei August Schumann, 1802, 8vo., pp. vi-248.

P. 248: Eisenberg, gedruckt bei Johann Wilhelm Schöne.


8.--8. Die Reisen des Venezianers Marco Polo im dreizehnten Jahrhundert.--
    Zum ersten Male vollständig nach den besten Ausgaben Deutsch mit einem
    Kommentar von August Bürck.-Nebst Zusätzen und Verbesserungen von Karl
    Friedrich Neumann. Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1845, 8vo, pp. xvi-631.

--Di un frammento inedito di Marco Foscarini intorno ai Viaggiatori
Veneziani e di una nuova traduzione in tedesco dei Viaggi di Marco Polo.
[By Tommaso Gar] (_Archivio Storico Italiano_, Appendice, T. IV,
Firenze, 1847, pp. 89 et seq.)


9.--9. Die Reisen des Venezianers Marco Polo im dreizehnten Jahrhundert.--
    Zum ersten Male vollständig nach den besten Ausgaben Deutsch mit einem
    Kommentar von August Bürck. Nebst Zusätzen und Verbesserungen von Karl
    Friedrich Neumann. Zweite unveränderte Ausgabe.--Leipzig, Druck und
    Verlag von B.G. Teubner, 1855, 8vo, pp. xvi-631.



B.--LATIN EDITIONS.


10.--1. _Commence_; In nomine dni nri ihu xpi filij dei viui et veri amen.
Incipit plogus i libro dni marci pauli de venecijs de cosuetudinibus et
codicionibus orientaliu regionu.

Then the declaration of "Frater franciscus pepur. de bononia frm
pdicatoru" who translated the work from the vulgar language into Latin.

End p. 147: Explicit liber dni marci de venecijs Deo gracias.

Collation: 74 f. or 148 pages; the last is blank, 4to, no title, no
pagination; signatures p. 1, a. 1 = p. 141, k. 3 (_a-h_, par 8; _i_, by 4;
_k_, by 6); maximum 33 lines by page; [1485?].

It is interesting to note that Christopher Columbus had a copy of this
edition of Marco Polo, now kept in the Colombina at Seville. The margins
of the following folios contain the autograph notes of the great
navigator:

  9 v.        31 r. & v.   46 v.        55 r. & v.   66 r. & v.
 13 v.        36 v.        47 r. & v.   57 r. & v.   67 r. & v.
 15 r. & v.   38 v.        48 r. & v.   59 r. & v.   68 r. & v.
 17 v.        39 r.        49 r. & v.   60 r. & v.   69 r. & v.
 18 r. & v.   40 r. & v.   50 r. & v.   61 r. & v.   70 r. & v.
 19 r.        41 r.        51 r. & v.   62 r. & v.   71 r. & v.
 23 r. & v.   42 r. & v.   52 r. & v.   63 r.        72 r. & v.
 24 r. & v.   43 r. & v.   53 r. & v.   64 v.        73 r. & v.
 25 r.        44 r. & v.   54 r.        65 r. & v.   74 r.

Cf. Simón de la Rosa y Lopéz, pp. XXIII, XLIII-XLIV of vol. II, Sevilla,
1891, 4to: _Biblioteca Colombina_.--Catálogo de sus libros impresos
publicado por primera vez en virtud de acuerdo del Excmo. é Ilmo. Sr. Déan
y Cabildo de la Santa Metropolitana y Patriarcal Iglesia de Sevilla bajo
la immediata dirección de su Bibliotecario el Ilmo. Sr. Dr. D. Servando
Arbolf y Faraudo Dignidad de Capellán Mayor de San Fernando.--See also H.
Harrisse, _Bibl. americana vetustissima_.--Additions, p. XII.

"Edition fort rare, dit Brunet, et la plus ancienne que l'on ait de cette
version latine de Marco Polo, faite par Pipino, vers 1320. Elle est
imprimée avec les mêmes caractères, que l'_Itinerarium_ de Joan. de
Mandeville, c'est-à-dire par Gerard de Leeu, à Anvers, vers 1485, et non
pas à Rome et à Venise, comme on l'avait supposé. Vend. 4 liv. 14 sh. 6d.
Hanrott; 7 liv. Libri en 1859. (_Choicer portion_, 1562.)" Brunet writes
elsewhere (cf. _Mandeville_ par H. Cordier) about Mandeville from the same
press: "...La souscription que nous allons rapporter semble prouver
qu'elle a été imprimée à Venise; cependant Panzer, IX, 200, la croit
sortie des presses de Theodoric Martin, à Aloste, et M. Grenville en
trouvait les caractères conformes à ceux que Gérard Leeu a employés à
Anvers, de 1484-1485. M. Campbell (_Ann. de la typ. néerlandaise_) la
donne à Gérard Leeu, et fixe la date de l'impression à la première année
du séjour de ce typographe à Anvers, après son départ de Gouda."

It is certain from the use of the signatures a, aa, a, and the similitude
of the type of the three works, that the _Mandeville_, the _Ludolphe_, and
the _Marco Polo_ come from the same printing office, and have been printed
together as it seems to be proved by the copy of the Sunderland Library,
which was complete and contained the three works.

Lazari, p. 460, writes: "Jo. de Mandeville itineraria: Dom. Ludolph. de
itinere ad Terrain Sanctam: M. Paul. Venet. de regionibus orientalibus.
Liber rariss. Zwollis, 1483, in-4.

"Leggiamo questa nota nell' opera _Bibliotheca Beauclerkiana or Sale
catalogue of the books of Topham Beauclerk's Library_, London, 1781, P.
II., p. 15, n. 430. Marsden però ritiene celarsi sotto quell'erronea
indicazione la seguente prima edizione [s.a., 4to] latina de' viaggi di
M. Polo. Fgli istitui molte ricerche per rinvenire in Inghilterra quell'
esemplare, ma non gli è stato possibile di averne traccia."


11.--2. Marci Pavli Veneti, de Regionibvs orientalibvs Libri III. (_Novus
    Orbis Regionum_).

Editions of 1532, 1537, 1555.--See 3-3.


12.--3. Marci Pavli || Veneti Itinerarivm, || seu de rebus Orientalibus ||
    Libri tres. || Helmaestadii, || M.D. LXXXV, 4to.

Part of the Collection of Reineccius:

--Reineri Reinecii || Polyhistoris clarissimi || Historia O--|| rientalis:
|| Hoc est || Rerum in oriente à Christianis, Saracenis, Tur-||cis &
Tartaris gestarum diuersorum || Auctorum. || Totum opus in duas partes
tribulum est, || contenta in singulis sequens || pagina indicat. ||
Helmaestadii, || Typis Iacobi Lucij, impensis heredum Ludolphi || Brandes.
Anno 1602, 4to.

Verso of the title:

_Primus Tomus continet_:

--Chronicon Hierosolomytanum, cum appen-||dice Reineri Reineccij &
Chronologia || Henr. Meibomij.

_In Altero sunt_:

--Vita Henrici VII. Imp. auctore Conrado Vec-||erio.

--Vita Caroli IIII. Imp. ab ipso Carolo con-||scripta.

--Historia Orientalis Haythoni Armenij.

--Pauli Veneti Itinerarium.

--Fragmentum de reb. orientalibus ex Speculo || Historiali Vincentij
Beluacensis.

--Appendix ad Expositiones Haythoni auctore || Rein. Reineccio.

The colophon at the end of the first part has the date of 1584; at the end
of the second part, 1585.

--This Marco Polo was reprinted according to Lazari, p. 465, in 1602.


13.--4. MARCI PAULI VENETI, || Historici fidelissimi juxta ac
    praestantissimi, || de || REGIONIBUS || orientalibus || libri III. ||
    Cum Codice Manuscripto Biblio-|| thecae Electoralis Brandenburgicae
    collati, exq'; || eo adjectis Notis plurimum turn suppleti || tum
    illustrati. || Accedit, propter cognationem materiae, || HAITHONI
    ARMENI HISTORIA || orientalis: quae & de Tartaris || inscribitur; ||
    Itemque || ANDREAE MULLERI, Greiffenhagii, || de CHATAJA, cujus
    praedictorum Auctorum uter-|| que mentionem facit, DISQUISITIO; inque
    ipsum || Marcum Paulum Venetum PRAEFATIO, & || locupletissimi INDICES.
    || Coloniae Brandenburgicae, ||--Ex Officina Georgii Schulzii, Typogr.
    Elect. || Anno M. DC. LXXI. 4to.

Contains:

Engraved frontispiece.

Dedicatory Epistle, 3 ff. not numbered.

Andreae MÜLLERI Greiffenhagii, in Marci Pauli Veneti Chorographiam,
Praefatio pp. 26.

Doctorum Virorum De hoc Marci Pauli Veneti Opere Testimonia, ac Judicia ...
(Franciscus Pipinus, etc.) 8 ff. n. ch.

MARCI PAULI Veneti De Regionibus orientalibus Libri III, pp. 167.

Index primus Historicus, Sive alphabetica Recensio omnium eorum, quae
Autor passim observavit, atque aliàs memoranda reliquit, 22 ff. not
numbered.

Index secundus Chronographicus, qui Annos & cujuslibet anni NOTABILIA (quae
quidem Autor designavit) continet, 1 page.

Index tertius Itineraries, Ubi Loca recensentur, quae auctor pertransiit,
& Distanstantiae Locorum, quas ipse annotavit, 2 ff. not numbered.

Index quartus Glossarius, Estque vocum exoticarum, quas Autor ipse
interpretatus est, 1 half p.

Emendanda in Marco Paulo Veneto, quaeq; ad hunc pertinent: aut ad eadem
Addenda, 1 f. not numbered.

HAITHONI Armeni || Historia ori-||entalis: || Qvae eadem & De Tartaris ||
inscribitur.|| Anno || CIC. ICC. LXXI, 2 ff. not numbered + pp. 107.

[Errata] 2 pp. not numbered.

Index, 7 pp. not numbered.

Andreae MÜLLERI, || Greiffenhagii, || DISQUISITIO || Geographica &
Historica, || De || CHATAJA, || In Quâ || I. Praecipuè Geographorum
nobilis || illa Controversia: Quaenam CHATAJA sit, & an || sit idem ille
terrarum tractus, quem Sinas, & vul-|| gó Chinam vocant, aut pars ejus
aliqua? || latissimè tractatur; || 2. Eâdem verò operâ pleraque rerum,
quae unquam || de Chataja, deque Sinis memorabilia || fuerunt, atque etiam
nunc sunt, compendiosè || enarrantur. ||--Ecclesiastae I. v. 15. ||:
[Hebrew] || Senec. de Beneficiis VI. I. || _Etiam quod discere
supervacuum est prodest_ || cognoscere. ||--Berolini, Typis Rungianis.
|| Anno M. DC. LXX, 2 ff. not numbered + pp. 115 on 2 col.



C.--ITALIAN EDITIONS.


14.--1. Marco Polo da Venie || sia de le merauegliose || cose del Mondo.

Below this title the mark of the printer SESSA: a cat holding a mouse in
its mouth with the initials I and B on the right and on the left of the
coat of arms (with a ducal crown above) which exhibits this group, and S
at foot. Verso of f. 83:

  _Finisse lo libro de Marco Polo da Venie || sia dele merauegliose cose
  del modo Im || presso in Venetia per zoanne Baptista || da Sessa
  Milanese del M. ccccxcvi. || adi. xiii. del mese de Iunio regna || do lo
  Illustrissimo Principe Au || gustino Barbadico inclyto || Duce di
  Venetia_.

Recto of folio 84: "Registro. a b c d e f g h i k l Tutti questi sono
quaderni excepto l chie duerno"; audessous le monogramme de l'imprimeur
en blanc sur fond noir.--Verso of folio 84 is blank.

The copy which I have examined is in the Grenville Library, No. 6666. It
is in fine condition and complete, notwithstanding what the Sobolewski
Sale Catalogue says to the contrary (No. 1730): it is a small 8vo ff. 84;
each quire containing, as is indicated by the register, eight sheets,
except quire 1, which has but four.

Grenville added to his copy the following note: "This appears to be the
first edition printed in the original Italian.--The Abbé Morelli who
sent me this book from Venice had found great difficulty in procuring a
copy for the Library of St. Marc.--Panzer III. 396, refers only to the
mention made of it by Denis. Supp. I, p'e 415. I know of no other copy in
England...."

Lazari, p. 460, says: "Prima e rarissima edizione del compendio veneziano.
Un capitolo che parla di Trebisonda, tratto dal viaggio di Fr. Odorico,
precede il testo del Polo mutilo e scorrettissimo: quel capitolo non forma
però parte d'esso, come nelle molte ristampe di questo compendio."

See _Odoric de Pordenone_, par Henri Cordier, p. 9.

Ternaux-Compans (29) mentions an edition of Sessa of 1486, which does not
seem to exist.


15--2. Marco Polo da Vene || sia de le maraueliose || cose del Mondo. ||
    Small 8vo.; 64 ff. non chif., sig. _a-i: a-g_ by 8 = 56 ff., _h_ and
    _i_ by 4 = 8 ff., total 64 ff.

Collation:

_Recto 1st f._: border; vignette; above the vig. title ut supra.

_Verso 1st f. begins_: Tractate delle più maraueliose cose e delle
piu notabile: che si ri || trouano nelle pte del modo. Re || dutte &
racolte sotto breuita ...

_Recto f. 64_: Impressa la presente opera per el Venerabile mi || ser
pre Batista da Farfengo nella Magnifica cita de || Bressa. adi. xx.
December. M. CCCCC. ||

"Ristampa dell' edizione 1496, leggiermente modificata nella introduzione.
Rarissima." (Lazari, p. 460.)


16.--3. Marco Polo da Veniesia || de le marauegliose co= || se del Mondo.
    small 8vo, 56 ff. not numbered, sig. _a-g_ by 8.

Collation: title ut supra: _Printer's mark_: a cat holding a mouse in
its mouth, M O on the sides; S at foot.--Ends, recto f. 56; _Impresso
in Venetia per Melchior Sessa. An||no Dñi._ M. CCCCC VIII. _Adi._
xxi. _zugno_.


17.--4. Marco Polo || Venetiano || in CVI si tratta le meravi||gliose cose
    del mondo per lui uedute: del costu=||me di uarij paesi, dello stranio
    uiuere di || quelli; della descrittione de diuersi || animali, e del
    trouar dell' o=||ro, dell' argento, e delle || pietre preciose,
    co=||sa non men uti||le, che bel||la. [Vignette.] || In Venetia, 8vo;
    56 ff. n. ch., sig. _a-g_ by 8.

At the end: _Finite é lo libro de Marco Polo da Venetia delle: ||
marauegliose cose del mondo. || In Venetia per Matthio Pagan, in Frezaria,
|| al segno della Fede. 1555_.

"Ristampa dell' edizione 1496. La edizione 1555 fu riprodotta dello stesso
_Mathio Pagan_ senza data." (Lazari, p. 463.)

A copy _s.d._ exists in the Grenville Library (304. a. 23), this is
the title of it:


18.--5. Marco Polo || Venetiano. || In cvi si tratta le meravi||gliose
    cose del mondo per lui uedute, del costu||me di uarij paesi, dello
    stranio uiuere di || quelli; della descrittione de diuersi || animali,
    e del trouar dell' oro || dell' argento, e delle pie||tre preciose,
    cosa || non men utile, || che bel||la. In Venetia. s.d., 8vo., 56 ff.
    not numbered, sig. _a-g_ by 8. At the end: _In Venetia per Mathio
    Pagan, in Freza||ria, al Segno della Fede._--On the title M. Pagan's
    mark.


19.--6. Opera stampata nouame||te delle marauigliose co=||se del mondo:
    comin=||ciado da Leuante a ponente fin al me||zo di. El mondo nouo &
    isole & lo=||chi incogniti & siluestri abonda||ti e sterili & doue
    aboda loro || & largento & Zoglie & pie || tre pciose & animali & ||
    mostri spaurosi & do||ue manzano car=||ne humana e || i gesti &
    vi=||uer & co=||stumi || de quelli paesi cosa certamete molto
    cu=|lriosa de intendere & sapere.

Small 8vo, 56 ff. not numbered, sig. _a-g_ by 8. At foot of recto f.
56: _Finito lo libro de Marco Polo da Venetia de le || marauegliose
cose del mondo. || Stampata in Venetia per Paulo Danza Anno. || Dni_
M.D. xxxiij. _Adi 10 Febraro_. ||

Reprint of the 1496 edition.


20.--7. De i Viaggi di Messer Marco Polo Gentil'hvomo Venetiano (Ramusio,
    II, 1606.)

See the former editions of Ramusio.


21.--8. Marco Polo || Venetiano, || Delle Merauiglie del Mondo || per lui
    vedute; || Del Costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio || viuer di
    quelli. || Della Descrittione de diuersi Animali. || Del trouar dell'
    Oro, & dell' Argento. || Delle Pietre Preciose. || _Cosa non meno
    vtile, che bella_. || Di nouo Ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine || suo
    vero nel dire. || In Treuigi, Ad instantia di Aurelio Reghet||tini
    Libraro. M DXC. 8vo, 57 ff. numbered, _a-g_ x 8 = 56 ff. + _h_ X 1 =
    57 ff.; vignette on the title; 1 wood-cut, not inserted in the text.

The wood-cut is not to be found in the copy of the British Museum, G bbb 8.


22.--9. Marco Polo Venetiano, Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per lui vedute;
    Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio viuer di quelli. Della
    Descrittione de diuersi Animali. Del trouar Dell' Oro, & dell'
    Argento. Delle Pietre Preciose. _Cosa non meno vtile, che bella_, Di
    nouo Ristampato, & Osseruato l'ordine suo vero nel dire. In Venetia,
    Appresso Marco Claseri, M DXCVII, 8vo, pp. 128, no cut.


23.--10. Marco Polo || Venetiano, || Delle Maraviglie del Mondo || per lui
    vedute. || Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio viuer || di
    quelli. || Della Descrittione de diuersi Animali. || Del trouar dell'
    Oro, & dell' Argento. || Delle Pietre Pretiose. || _Cosa non meno
    vtile, che bella_. || Di nuouo ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine suo ||
    vero nel dire. || [fleuron] In Venetia, M DCII. || Appresso Paolo
    Vgolino, small 8vo pp. 104; no cut.

Page 104: _Finito è lo Libro di Marco Polo da Venetia delle ||
Marauigliose cose del Mondo_.

This edition differs from the following bearing the same date:


24.--11. Marco Polo Venetiano, Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per lui vedute.
    Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio viuere di quelli. Della
    Descritione de diuersi Animali. Del trouar Dell' oro, & dell' Argento.
    Delle Pietre Preciose. _Cosa non meno vtile, che bella_. Di nouo
    Risstampato, & osseruato l'ordine suo vero nel dire. In Venetia. M
    DCII. Appresso Paulo Vgolino, 8vo, pp. 128; on the title, vig.
    exhibiting David carrying the head of Goliath; no cut.


25.--12. Marco Polo Venetiano, Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per lui vedute.
    Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio viuer di quelli. Della
    Descrittione de diuersi Animali. Dell trouar dell' Oro, & dell'
    Argento. Delle Pietre Preciose. _Cosa non meno vtile, che bella_. Di
    nuouo ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine suo vero nel dire. Con licenza
    de' Superiori, & Priuilegio. In Venetia, M. DC. XXVI. Appresso
    Ghirardo, & Iseppo Imberti, small 8vo, pp. 128; 1 wood-cut, not
    inserted in the text.

26.--13. Marco Polo || Venetiano. || Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per || lui
    vedute. || Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio viuer di
    quelli. || De la Descrittione de diuersi Animali. || Del trouar dell'
    Oro, & de l'Argento. || Delle Pietre preciose. || _Cosa non meno
    utile, che bella_. || Di nuouo ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine || suo
    vero nel dire. || In Venetia, & poi in Treuigi per Angelo Righettini.
    1267 [read 1627]. || Con Licenza de' Superiori, small 8vo, pp. 128; 1
    wood-cut, not inserted in the text.


27.--14. Marco Polo || Venetiano. || Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per || lui
    vedute. || Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello stranio viuer di
    quelli. || De la Descrittione de diuersi Animali. || Del trouar dell'
    Oro, & de l'Argento. || Delle Pietre preciose. || _Cosa non meno
    utile, che bella_. Di nuouo ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine suo ||
    vero nel dire. || In Treuigi, Appresso Girolamo Righettini: 1640. ||
    _Con Licenza de Superiori_, small 8vo, 128 pages with a vignette on
    the title, printer's mark; wood-cut f. 2 _verso_.


28.--15.--* In Trevigi M. DC. LVII., appresso Girolamo Righettini, 8vo.


29.--16. Marco Polo Venetiano. Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per lui vedute.
    I. Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello strano viuer di quelli. II. De
    la Descrittione de diuersi Animali. III. Del trouar dell' Oro, & dell'
    Argento. IV. Delle Pietre pretiose. _Cosa non meno vtile, che bella_.
    Si nuouo ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine suo vero nel dire. In
    Trevigi, Per il Righettini. M. DC. LXV. Con Licenza de' Svperiori,
    small 8vo, 128 pp. with a wood-cut.


30.--17. Marco Polo Venetiano Delle Merauiglie del Mondo per lui vedute.
    I. Del costume di varij Paesi, & dello strano viuer di quelli. II.
    Della Descrittione de diuersi Animali. III. Del trouar dell' Oro, &
    dell' Argento. IV. Delle Pietre pretiose. _Cosa non meno vtile, che
    bella_. Di nuouo ristampato, & osseruato l'ordine suo vero nel dire.
    In Trevigi, Per il Reghettini. M. DC. LXXII. Con Licenza de'
    Svperiori, small 8vo. pp. 128; 1 cut not inserted in the text.

These various editions are reprints of the text of 1496.


31.--18. Il Milione || di Marco Polo || Testo di lingua || del secolo
    decimoterzo || ora per la prima volta || pubblicato ed illustrato ||
    dal Conte || Gio. Batt. Baldelli Boni. || Tomo primo || Firenze || Da'
    Torchi di Giuseppe Pagani || M. DCCCXXVII. || Con approv. e
    privilegio, 4to, pp. XXXII.-CLXXV.-234+1 f. not numbered for the
    index.

INDICE: Vita di Marco Polo, P.I.--Sommario Cronologico della Vita del
Polo, P. XXV.--Storia del Milione, P.I.--Illustrazione della Tela del
Salone dello Scudo, P. CV.--Descrizione dell' Atlante Cinese, posseduto
dalla Magliabechiana, P. CIX.--Schiarimento relativo all' età dell'
Atlante Cinese, P. CXXI.--Notizia dei Manoscritti del _Milione_, di cui si
è fatto uso nell' Opera, o veduti, o fatti riscontrare, P. CXXIII.--Della
Porcellana. Discorso, P. CXXXVII.--Del Portulano Mediceo, e delle Scoperte
dei Genovesi nell' Atlantico. Discorso, P. CLIII.--Voci del Milione di
Marco Polo, citate dal Vocabolario della Crusca, P. CLXXIII.--Voci tratte
dal Testo del Polo, e da citarsi dal Vocabolario della Crusca, P. CLXXIV.
--_Il Milione_ di Marco Polo, TESTO DELLA CRUSCA, P.I.

--Il Milione || di || Messer Marco Polo || Viniziano || Secondo la lezione
Ramusiana || illustrato e comentato || dal Conte || Gio. Batt. Baldelli
Boni || Tomo Secondo || Firenze || Da' Torchi di Giuseppe Pagani || M DCCC
XXVII. || Con approv. e privilegio, 4to, pp. XXVI.-514 + 2 ff. n. ch.

INDICE: Dichiarazione al Libro Primo, P. 1.--Proemio di Fra Pipino al
Milione, P. 3.--TESTO RAMUSIANO del _Milione_. Libro Primo,
P. 5--Dichiarazione al Libro Secondo, per rischiarare le Legazioni di Marco
Polo, P. 147.--Libro Secondo, P. 153.--Dichiarazione alla parte seconda del
Libro Secondo. Delia Lingua Cinese, P. 223.--Libro Terzo, P. 357.--Aggiunte
e Correzioni, P. 481.

--Storia || delle || Relazioni vicendevoli || Dell' Europa e dell' Asia ||
dalla Decadenza di Roma || fino alla || distruzione del Califfato || del
Conte || Gio. Batt. Baldelli Boni. || Parte Prima || Firenze || Da' Torchi
di Giuseppe Pagani || M DCCC XXVII. || Con approv. e privilegio, 4to, 4
ff. n. c. for the tit. and the ded.: "A Sua Altezza Imperiale e Reale
Leopoldo Secondo Principe Imperiale d'Austria ..." +pp. 466.

--Parte Seconda || Firenze || Da' Torchi di Giuseppe Pagani || M DCCC
XXVII. || Con approv. e privilegio, 4to, pp. 467 to 1004 + 1 f. n. ch.

Eighty copies of Baldelli-Boni's work were printed on large paper, and two
on vellum.

Two maps generally bound apart accompany the work.


32.--19. I Viaggi in Asia in Africa, nel mare dell' Indie descritti nel
    secolo XIII da Marco Polo Veneziano. Testo di lingua detto _Il
    Milione_ illustrato con annotazioni. Venezia, dalla tipografia di
    Alvisopoli, M DCCC XXIX, 2 parts, 8vo, pp. xxi + 1-189, 195-397.

"Ristampa del Testo di Crusca procurata da B. Gamba il quale vi appose
piccole note a pie di pagina." (Lazari, p. 470.)

"Il en a été tiré 100 exemplaires, in-8, auxquels est jointe la carte
géographique qui fait partie de l'ouvrage de Zurla. Il y en a aussi des
exemplaires in-8, très grand Pap., et sur des papiers de différentes
couleurs." (Brunet.)


33.--20. Il Libro di Marco Polo intitolato il Milione. (_Relazioni di
    Viaggiatori_, Venezia, co' tipi del Gondoliere, M DCCC XLI, I, pp.
    1-231.)

Reprint of the Crusca Text.--See Baldelli-Boni, supra 31-18.

Gondoliere's Collection form vol. i. and ii. of the class XI. of the
_Biblioteca classica italiana di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti disposta e
illustrata da Luigi Carrer_.


34.--21. I Viaggi in Asia in Africa, nel marc dell' Indie descritti nel
    secolo XIII da Marco Polo Veneziano testo di lingua detto Il Milione
    illustrato con annotazioni. Volume unico. Parma, per Pietro
    Fiaccadori, M DCCC XLIII, Small 8vo, pp. IV.-308.

Reprint of the Crusca Text.


35.--22. I Viaggi in Asia, in Africa, nel mare dell' Indie descritti nel
    secolo XIII da Marco Polo Veneziano. Testo di lingua detto II
    _Milione_. Udine, Onofrio Turchetto, Tip. edit. 1851, 16mo, pp.
    X.-207


36.--23. I Viaggi || di || Marco Polo || Veneziano || tradotti per la
    prima volta dall' originale francese || di Rusticiano di Pisa || e
    corredati d'illustrazioni e di documenti || da Vincenzo Lazari ||
    pubblicati per cura || di Lodovico Pasini || membro eff. e segretario
    dell' I.R. Istituto Veneto. || Venezia || M DCCC XLVII, 8vo, pp.
    LXIV.-484, map.

Verso of the title: "Coi Tipi di Pietro Naratovitch."

See pp. 447-471, _Bibliografia_.--Pp. 473-484, Indice Alfabetico delle
Materie.


37.--24. I Viaggi di Marco Polo secondo la lezione del Codice
    Magliabechiano più antico reintegrati col testo francese a stampa per
    cura di Adolfo Bartoli. Firenze, Felice Le Monnier, 1863, small 8vo,
    pp. LXXXIII.--439.


38.--25. Il Milione ossia Viaggi in Asia, in Africa e nel Mar delle Indie
    descritti nel secolo XIII da Marco Polo Veneziano. Torino, Tip. dell'
    oratorio di S. Franc, di Sales, 1873, 32mo, pp. 280.

_Biblioteca della Gioventù Italiana_.


39.--26. Giulio Verne. I Viaggi di Marco Polo unica versione originale
    fedelmente riscontrata sub codice Magliabeccano e sulle opere di
    Charton per cura di Ezio Colombo. Volume Unico. Milano, Serafino
    Muggiani e Comp., 1878, 16mo, pp. 143.

The frontispiece is a coarse wood-cut exhibiting Marco Polo; this vol. is
part of a popular Collection of Travels.


40.--27. Marco Polo.--I Viaggi secondo la lezione del codice
    Magliabechiano più antico. Milano, Sonzogno, 1886, 16mo.

See supra 37-24.



D.--PORTUGUESE EDITION


41.--1. MARCO || PAULO. ¶ Ho liuro de Nycolao veneto. ¶ O trallado da
    carta de huu genoues das ditas terras. ¶ Cõ priuilegio del Rey nosso
    senhor q nenhuu faça a impres || sam deste liuro ne ho venda em
    todollos se' regnos & senho=||rios sem liçeça de Valentim fernãdez so
    pena cõteuda na car || ta do seu preuilegio. Ho preço delle. Cento &
    dez reaes. folio of 106 ff.

Collation: 8 prel. ff. n. chiff., and 98 ff. numbered.

_Recto 1st f._: Titre ut supra.--Vignette showing a sphere.

_Verso 2nd f._: Começase a epistola sobre a tralladaça do liuro de
|| Marco paulo. Feita per Valetym fernãdez escudey || ro da
excellentissima Raynha Dona Lyanor. Ende || rençada ao Serenissimo &
Inuictissimo Rey & Sen ||hor Dom Emanuel o primeiro. Rey de Portugal & ||
dos Alguarues. daque & alem mar em Africa. Sen || hor de Buynee. E da
conquista da nauegaçom & co||mercio de Ethiopia. Arabia. Persia. & da
India.

_Recto 7th f._: Começase a tauoa dos capitulos do liuro Primeyro.

_Recto 1st f. chif._: Começase ho Liuro Primeiro de Marco paulo ||
de Veneza das condiçoões & custumes das getes || & das terras & prouincias
orientaes. E prime y ra||mente de como & em que maneyra Dom Marco=|| paulo
de Veneza & Dom Maffeo seu irmaão se pas||sarom aas partes do oriente;
vig. repres. a galley; border.

_Verso f. 77_: End of Marco Polo.

_Recto f. 78_: Nicolo Conti.

_Verso f. 95_: End of Nicolo Conti.

_Recto f. 96_: A Carta do genoues.

_Verso f. 98:_ Acabase ho liuro de Marco paulo. cõ ho liuro de
Nicolao ve=||neto ou veneziano. & assi mesmo ho trallado de hua carta de
huu || genoues mercador. que todos escreuerõ das Indias. a seruiço || de
d's. & auisameto daquelles q agora vam pera as ditas Indias || Aos quaes
rogo & peço humilmente q benignamete queirã eme||dar & correger ho que
menos achare no escreuer. s. nos vocabul' || das prouincias. regnos.
çidades. ylhas. & outras cousas muytas || & nõ menos em a distãcia das
legoas de hua terra pa outra. _Im=|| primido per Valentym fernãdez
alemaão. Em a muy nobre çida || de Lyxboa. Era de Mil & quinhentos & dous
annos. Aos. qua||tro dias do mes de Feureyro_.--At the top, printer's
mark.

A detailed description of this edition is to be found in Figanière's
_Bibliographia_, No. 947.



E.--SPANISH EDITIONS.

42.--1. Cosmographia || breue introdu||ctoria en el libro || d' Marco
    paulo. ||--El libro del famoso Marco paulo || veneciano d'las cosas
    marauillosas || q vido enlas partes orietales cõuie || ne saber enlas
    Indias. Armenia. A||rabia. Persia & Tartaria. E d'l pode || rio d'l
    gra Ca y otros reyes. Co otro || tratado de micer Pogio floretino q ||
    trata delas mesmas tierras & yslas.

Folio; 2 col.; 34 ff. numbered and 4 prel ff. not numbered.

On the title page 4 woodcuts exhibiting:
  Marc paulo.
  Micer pogio.
  S. Domingo, ela ysla Isabela.
  Calicu.

--The 4 prelim. ff. contain:
  --_Recto 1 f._: Title.
  --_Verso 1 f._: Prologo primero.
  --_F. 2 and 3_: Maestre Rodrigo al lector.
  --_F. 4_: Tabla de los capitulos.

--Marco Polo, ff. 1/26.

--Tratado de Micer Pogio, ff. 27-recto f. 27 [read 34].

--Last f. _v._ [numbered xxvij erroneously for xxxiv.]

"Acabase el libro del famoso Marco paulo vene||ciano el ql cueta de todas
las tierras prouicias & islas delas Indias. Arabia || Persia Armenia y
Tartaria y d'las cosas marauillosas que enellas se ha||llan assi mesmo el
gra señorio y riquezas del gran Can de Catayo se||ñor delos tartaros |
añadido en fin vn tratado breue de micer Pogio || florentino el qual el
mesmo escriuio por mandado de eugenio papa || quarto deste nombre por
relacion de vn Nicolao [Conti] veneciano el || qual assi mesmo auia andado
las ptidas orietales & de otros || testigos dinos d' fe como por el parece
fiel mete trasladado || en lengua castellana por el reueredo señor maestre
Rodri||go de santa ella | Arcediano de reyna y canonigo ela sa || ta
yglesia de Seuilla. El ql se eprimio por La [?] alao || polono y Jacome
Crõberger alemano ela muy || noble y muy leal ciudad d'Seuilla. Año de ||
mil & q' nietos y tres a. xxviij. dias d'mayo."


43--2. Libro del famoso Marco || Polo veneciano delas cosas maraui||llosas
    q vido enlas partes orien=||tales: conuiene saber enlas|| Indias |
    Armenia | Ara||bia | Persia | & Tarta||ria. Edel poderio || del gran
    Can y || otros reyes. || Con otro || tratado || de mi||cer || Pogio
    Florentino & trata || delas mesmas tie=||rras & islas. s.l.n.d., fol.;
    2 col. [Logroño, 1529].

Collation: 4 prel. ff. not numbered + signatures _a-d_ × 8 = 32 ff.; in all
36 ff. F. 1. _v._: Prologo del Interprete.--f. 2 _r._ Cosmographia
introductoria.--f. 3. _v._: Tabla--f. 4 _v._: Fin dela Tabla.--32 numbered
f. follow: _F. i.--Begins_: Libro de Marco Polo Veneciano || (col. 1.)
Aqui comiença vn || libro que trata delas cosas marauillosas || que el
noble varon micer Marco Polo de || Venecia vido enlas partes de Oriente.

_Ends: recto f. xxxij_: La presente obra del famoso Marco || Polo
veneciano q fue traduzida fielmete de lengua veneciana en ||
castellano por el reueredo señor maestre Rodrigo Arcedia||no de reyna y
canonigo enla yglesia de Seuilla. || Fue impressa y corregida de nueuo
enla || muy constante y leal civdad de || Logroño en casa d'Mi||guel de
eguia || a treze || de junio de mill & qui||nientos y. xx. & nueue. ||

"Cette édition de 1529, says Brunet est fort rare: 2 liv. 9 sh. Heber;
210 flor. Butsch, et 130 fr. en 1859.--Il y en a une plus ancienne de
_Séville, Cromberger_, 1520 in-fol., que cite Panzer d'après Vogt."

Lazari says of this edition of 1520, p. 461: "Di estrema rarità. Questa
traduzione è tratta da un antico testo italiano: l'autore n'é Maestro
Rodrigo de Santaella."


44.--3. Historia || de las Gran-||dezas y Cosas || marauillosas de las
    Prouin-||cias Orientales. || Sacada de Marco Pavlo || Veneto, y
    traduzida de Latin en Romance, y aña-|| dida en muchas partes por Don
    Martin de Bolea || y Castro, Varon de Clamosa, || señor de la Villa de
    || Sietamo. || Dirigida a Don Beltran de || la Cueba, Duque de
    Alburquerque, Marques de|| Cuellar, Conde de Ledesma y Guelma, Lugar-
    || teniente, y Capitan Geneial por su Ma-||gestad, en el Reyno de ||
    Aragon. || Con Licencia, en Caragoça. || Por Angelo Tauano, Año. M.
    DCI, 8vo, 8 ff. n. ch.+163 ff.+ 8 ff. n. ch. for the tab. and errata.
    Last f. n. ch. _verso_: En Caragoça || Por Angelo Tauano || Año. 1601.


45.--4. Biblioteca universal. Coleccion de los Mejores autores antiguos y
    modernos, nacionales y extranjeros. Tomo LXVI. Los Viages de Marco
    Polo veneciano. Madrid. Direccion y administracion, 1880, 16mo, pp.
    192.

"La edicion que hemos tenido principalmente à la vista, para formar este
volúmen de nuestra _Biblioteca_, es la de Ludovico Pasini, Venecia
1847."



F.--FRENCH EDITIONS.


46.--1. La || description geo-||graphiqve des Provinces || & villes plus
    fameuses de l'Inde Orientale, meurs, || loix, & coustumes des habitans
    d'icelles, mesme-||ment de ce qui est soubz la domination du grand ||
    Cham Empereur des Tartares. || Par Marc Paule gentilhomme Venetien, ||
    Et nouuellement reduict en || vulgaire François. || [_mark_] A Paris,
    || Pour Vincent Sertenas tenant sa boutique au Palais en la gallerie
    par || ou on va a la Chacellerie. Et en larue neuue Nostre dame
    l'image sainct lehan l'Euangeliste. || 1556. || Avec Privilege dv Roy,
    || 4to, 10 prel. f. not numbered + 123 ff. numbered + I f. not
    numbered.

Sommaire dv Privilege du Roy (verso of title).--Episle "A Adrian de Lavnay
sei||gneur de sainct Germain le Vieil, Viconte de || sainct Siluain,
Notaire & Secretaire || du Roy." F.G.L.S.--De Paris ce xviii. iour
d'Aoust 1556, 3 pages.--Preface av lectevr par F.G.L., 5 pages.--Table,
8 pages.--Pièces de vers 2 pages at the beginning and an advertisement (1
page) at the end.

_Begins page 1_: "Lors que Bauldoyn Prince Chre||stien tat fameux &
renommé tenoit || l'Empire de Constãtinople, assavoir || en Pan de
l'incarnation de nostre || Saulueur mil deux cens soixante & || neuf, deux
nobles & prudes citoyes || de Venise....

Verso of last f. not numbered, the mark of Vincent Sertenas.

Oldest edition in French.

Marsden and Yule believe that it has been translated from the Latin of the
_Novus Orbis_.


47.--2. Same title. A Paris, || Pour Estienne Groulleau, demourant en la
    rue neuue Nostre || dame, à l'image sainct Iehan Baptiste. || 1556. ||
    Avec privilege dv Roy, 4to.

Same edition with a different bookseller.


48.--3. La Description geographique ... de l'Inde Orientale ... Par Marc
    Paule ... || A Paris, || Pour Jehan Longis tenant sa boutique au
    Palais en la gallerie par || ou on va à la Chancellerie. || 1556.||
    Auec Priuilege du Roy. 4to.

Same edition as Sertenas' with the privilege of this bookseller. A copy is
marked in the _Catalogue des livres ... de ... James de Rothschild_,
II, Paris, 1887, No. 1938. M.E. Picot remarks that the Preface by F.G.
L., as well as the motto _Inter utrumque_ belong to FRANÇOIS GRUGET,
_Lochois_, who in the same year edited with the same booksellers the
_Dodechedron de Fortune_.


49.--4. Les || Voiages || très-curieux & fort remarquables, || Achevées
    par toute || l'Asie, Tartarie, Mangi, Japon, || les || Indes
    orientales, iles adjacentes, || & l'Afrique, || Commencées l'An 1252.
    || Par Marc Paul, Venitien, || Historien recommandable pour sa
    fidelité. || Qui contiennent une Relation très-exacte des Païs
    Orientaux: || Dans laquelle il décrit très exactement plusieurs Païs &
    Villes, lesquelles || Lui même a Voiagées & vües la pluspart: & où il
    nous enseigne briévement || les Moeurs & Coutumes de ces Peuples,
    avant ce tems là inconnues aux|| Européens; || Comme aussi l'origine
    de la puissance des Tartares, quand à leurs Conquêtes || de plusieurs
    Etats ou Païs dans la Chine, ici clairement proposée & expliquée. ||
    Le tout divisé en III. Livres, || Conferé avec un Manuscrit de la
    Bibliothèque de S.A.E. de Brandebourg, || & enrichi de plusieurs Notes
    & Additions tirées du dit Manuscrit, || de l'Edition de Ramuzio, de
    celle de Purchas, || & de celle de Vitriare.

Form a part of 43 and 185 col. in vol. ii. of _Voyages faits
principalement en Asie_ ... par Pierre Bergeron. A la Haye, Chez Jean
Neaulme M. DCC. XXXV, in 4.

After André Müller Greiffenhag.

Remark on the title-page the date of the voyage 1252! In the text, col. 6,
it is marked 1272.


50.--5. Marco Polo--Un Vénitien chez les Chinois avec étude biographique
    et littéraire par Charles Simond. Paris, Henri Gautier, s.d. [1888],
    pp't 8vo, pp. 32.

Forms No. 122 of _Nouvelle Bibliothèque populaire_ à 10 Cent. Besides
a short biographical notice, it contains Bergeron's Text.


51.--6. Voyages de Marco Polo. Première partie. Introduction, Texte.
    Glossaire et Variantes.

Introduction, pp. xi.-liv. [by Roux.]

Voyage de Marc Pol, pp. 1-288--Table des Chapitres, pp. 289-296.
[Published from MS. 7367 of the Bibliothèque nationale.]

Peregrinatio Marci Pauli. Ex Manuscripto Bibliothecae Regiae, No 3195 f°,
pp. 297-494--Index Capitum, pp. 495-502.

Glossaire des mots hors d'usage, pp. 503-530 [by Méon].

Errata, pp. 531-532.

Variantes et Tableau comparatif des noms propres et des noms de lieux
cités dans les voyages de Marco Polo, pp. 533-552.

(Vol. i. 1824, of the _Recueil de Voyages_, de la Société de
géographie de Paris.)

--Rapport sur la Publication des Voyages de Marco Polo, fait au nom de la
section de publication, par M. Roux, rapporteur. (_Bull. de la Soc. de
Géog._, I. 1822, pp. 181-191.)

--Itinéraires à Jérusalem et Descriptions de la Terre Sainte rédigés en
français aux xi'e, xii'e, & xiii'e siècles publiés par Henri
Michelant & Gaston Raynaud. Genève, Fick, 1882, in-8.

Voyage des Polo, pp. xxviii.-xxix.--Ext. of MS. fr. 1116 are given, pp.
201-212, et of the version called after Thiébault de Cépoy, pp. 213-226.

The Fr. MS. 1116, late 7367, has been reproduced by photography (including
the binding, a poor modern one in calf!) at Karlsruhe this year (1902)
under the title:

--Le divisiment dou monde de Messer March Pol de Venece.--Die Handschrift
Fonds Français No. 1116 der National bibliothek zu Paris photographisch
aufgenommen auf der Gr. Hof-und Landes bibliothek zu Karlsruhe von Dr. A.
Steiner.--Karlsruhe. Hof-Buchdruckerei Friedrich Gutsch. 1902, in-4.

Has No. Impr. 5210 in the National Library, Paris.


52.--7. Marco Polo. (Charton, _Voy. anc. et mod._, II. pp. 252-440.)

Modernized Text of the Geographical Society.--Notes, Bibliography, etc.


53.--8. [Chinese]

--Le livre || de || Marco Polo || citoyen de Venise || Conseiller privé et
commissaire impérial || de || Khoubilaï-Khaân; || rédigé en français sous
sa dictée en 1298 || par Rusticien de Pise; || Publié pour la première
fois d'après trois manuscrits inédits de la Bibliothèque impériale de
Paris, || présentant la rédaction primitive du Livre, revue par Marc Pol
lui-même et donnée par lui, en 1307, à Thiébault de Cépoy, || accompagnée
des _variantes_, de _l'explication des mots hors d'usage_, et de
_Commentaires géographiques et historiques_, || tirés des écrivains
orientaux, principalement chinois, avec une Carte générale de l'Asie; ||
par || M.G. Pauthier. ||--Paris || Librairie de Firmin Didot.... M. DCCC.
LXV, 2 parts, large 8vo.

--Polo (Marco) par G. Pauthier.

Extrait de la _Nouvelle Biographie générale_, publiée par MM. Firmin
Didot frères et fils. Ppt. 8vo, on 2 col.

--A Memoir of Marco Polo, the Venetian Traveller to Tartary and China
[translated from the French of M.G. Pauthier]. (_Chin. & Jap. Rep._,
Sept. & Oct. 1863.)


54.--9. Les Récits de Marco Polo citoyen de Venise sur l'histoire, les
    moeurs et les coutumes des Mongols, sur l'empire Chinois et ses
    merveilles; sur Gengis-Khan et ses hauts faits; sur le Vieux de la
    Montagne; le Dieu des idolâtres, etc. Texte original français du
    XIII'e siècle rajeuni et annoté par Henri Bellenger. Paris, Maurice
    Dreyfous, s.d., 18mo, pp. iv-280.


55.--10. Le Livre de Marco Polo--Facsimile d'un manuscrit du XIV'e siècle
    conservé à la Bibliothèque royale de Stockholm, 4to, 4 ff. n. c. for
    the title ut supra and preface + 100 ff. n. c. [200 pages] of text
    facsimile.

We read on the verso of the title-page: "Photolithographie par l'Institut
lithographique de l'Etat-Major--Typographie par l'Imprimerie
centrale--Stockholm, 1882."--We learn from the preface by the celebrated
A.E. Nordenskiöld, that 200 copies, two of which on parchment have been
printed. In the preface is printed a letter, Paris, 22nd Nov. 1881, written
by M. Léopold Delisle, which shows that the Stockholm MS. belonged to the
library of the King of France, Charles V. (who had five copies of Polo's
Book) and had No. 317 in the Inventory of 1411; it belonged to the Louvre,
to Solier of Honfleur, to Paul Petau when it was purchased by King
Christina.

--Le "Livre de Marco Polo." Facsimile d'un manuscrit du XIV'e siècle
conservé à la Bibliothèque royale de Stockholm. Stockholm, 1882, in-4
(Signed: LÉOPOLD DELISLE)--Nogent-le-Rotrou, imp. de Daupeley-Gouverneur.
[1882], pp. 8vo.

Extrait de la _Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes_. t. xliii. 1882.--

This is a reprint of an article by M. Delisle in the _Bib. de l'Éc. des
Chartes_, xliii. 1882, pp. 226-235.--see also p. 434.--M.G. Raynaud
has also given a notice of this edition of Stockholm in _Romania_,
xl. 1882, pp. 429-430, and Sir Henry Yule, in _The Athenaeum_, 17th
June, 1882, pp. 765-766.

--Il libro di Marco Polo facsimile d'un manoscritto del XIV secolo. Nota
del prof. G. Pennesi. (_Bol. Soc. Geog. Ital._, 1882, pp. 949-950.)

--See MURET, Ernest, pp. 547 and 582.



G.--ENGLISH EDITIONS.


56.--1. The most noble || and famous trauels of || _Marcus Paulus,
    one_ || of the nobilitie of the state of || Venice, into the East
    partes || of the world, as _Armenia, Per||sia, Arabia, Tartary_, with
    || many other kingdoms || and Prouinces. || No lesse pleasant, than ||
    profitable, as appeareth || by the Table, or Contents || of this
    Booke. || Most necessary for all sortes || of Persons, and especially
    || for Trauellers. || _Translated into English_. || At London, ||
    Printed by Ralph Nevvbery, || _Anno._ 1579. Small 4to. pp.
    [28]+167+[1]. Sig. *-**** A-X.

Pp. 167 without the 28 first pages which contain the title (2 p.), the
epistle of the translator, Iohn Frampton (2 p.). Maister Rothorigo to the
Reader: An introduction into Cosmographie (10 pages), the Table of the
Chapters (6 p.). The Prologue (8 p.).


57.--2. The first Booke of Marcvs Pavlvs Venetvs, or of Master Marco Polo,
    a Gentleman of Venice, his Voyages. (Purchas, _His Pilgrimes_. London,
    Printed by William Stansby for Henrie Fetherstone, ... 1625, Lib. I.
    Ch. 1111. pp. 65-108.)

After Ramusio.


58.--3. The Travels of Marco Polo, or Mark Paul, the Venetian, into
    Tartary, in 1272. (Astley's _Collection of Travels_, IV. pp. 580-619).

French translation in _l'Hist. Gén. des Voyages_.


59.--4. Harris's _Navigantium atque Itin. Bib._, ed. of 1715 and of 1744.


60.--5. The curious and remarkable Voyages and Travels of Marco Polo, a
    Gentleman of Venice who in the Middle of the thirteenth Century passed
    through a great part of Asia, all the Dominions of the Tartars, and
    returned Home by Sea through the Islands of the East Indies. [Taken
    chiefly from the accurate Edition of Ramusio, compared with an
    original Manuscript in His Prussian Majesty's Library and with most of
    the Translations hitherto published.] (_Pinkerton_, VII. p. 101.)


61.--6. Marco Polo. Travels into China and the East, from 1260 to 1295.
    (Robert Kerr, _A General History and Collection of Voyages and
    Travels_.... Edinburgh, 1811-1824, vol. i.)


62.--7. The || Travels || of || Marco Polo, || a Venetian, || in the
    Thirteenth Century: || being a || Description, by that early
    traveller, || of || remarkable places and things, || in || the ||
    Eastern Parts of the World. || Translated from the Italian, || with ||
    Notes, || by William Marsden, F.R.S., &c. || With a Map. || London: ||
    M. DCCC. XVIII., large 4to, pp. lxxx.-782 + 1 f. n. ch. for the er.

The first 80 pages are devoted to a remarkable _Introduction_, in
which are treated of various subjects enumerated on p. 782: _Life of
Marco Polo; General View of the Work; Choice of Text for Translation;
Original Language_, etc. There is an index, pp. 757-781.


63.--8. The Travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian. The Translation of
    Marsden revised, with a Selection of his Notes. Edited by Thomas
    Wright, Esq. M.A., etc. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1854, small 8vo, pp.
    xxviii.-508.


64.--9. The Travels of Marco Polo ... By Hugh Murray ... Edinburgh: Oliver
    & Boyd ... M. DCCC. XLIV, 8vo, pp. 368.

Vol. 38 of the _Edinburgh Cabinet Library_, published at 5s.

--Second Edition, ... Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd ... M DCCC XLIV, 8vo.

--The Travels of Marco Polo, greatly amended and enlarged from valuable
early manuscripts recently published by the French Society of Geography,
and in Italy by Count Baldelli Boni. With copious Notes, illustrating the
routes and observations of the author and comparing them with those of
more recent Travellers. By Hugh Murray, F.R.S.E. Two Maps and a Vignette.
New York, Harper, 1845, 12mo, pp. vi-326.

--4th ed., Edinburg, s.a.


65.--10. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, Concerning the
    Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. Newly Translated and edited, with
    Notes. By Colonel Henry Yule, C.B., late of the Royal Engineers
    (Bengal), Hon. Fellow of the Geographical Society of Italy. In two
    volumes. With Maps, and other Illustrations. London, John Murray,
    Albemarle Street, 1871, 2 vol. 8vo.


66.--11. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, Concerning the Kingdoms
    and Marvels of the East. Newly translated and edited, with Notes,
    Maps, and other Illustrations. By Colonel Henry Yule, C.B., late of
    the Royal Engineers (Bengal) ... In two volumes. Second edition,
    revised. With the addition of new matter and many new illustrations.
    London: John Murray, 1875, 2 vols. 8vo.

--Marco Polo e il suo Libro del Colonnello Henry Yule, C.B. Por Guglielmo
Berchet. (_Archivio Veneto_, II. 1871, pp. 124-174, 259-350.)

Contains a Translation of the _Introductory Essay_, etc.

--The Story of Marco Polo. With Illustrations. London, John Murray, 1898,
8vo, pp. xiv.-247.

Preface by Noah Brooks. "In his comments ... the author has made use of
the erudite notes of Colonel Henry Yule...."


67.--12. Voyages and Travels of Marco Polo.--London, Cassell, 1886, 16mo,
    pp. 192.

The Preface is signed H. M[osley].--From Pinkerton.--Popular Edition.
_Cassell's National Library_.



H.--DUTCH EDITIONS

--Die nieuvve vveerelt der Landtschappen ende Eylanden ... Gheprint
Thantwerpen ... Anno. M.D. LXIII. folio.

Marcus Pauwels, f. xxvii.


68.--1. MARKUS PAULUS VENETUS || Reisen, || En || Beschryving || Der ||
    oostersche || Lantschappen; || Daar in hy naaukeuriglijk veel Landen
    en Steden, die hy zelf ten meestendeel || bereist en bezichtigt heeft,
    beschrijft, de zeden en gewoonten van die Vol-||ken, tot aan die tijt
    onbekent, ten toon stelt, en d'opkoomst van de Heer-||schappy der
    Tartaren, en hun verövering van verscheide landen in Sina, || met
    ander namen genoemt, bekent maakt. || Beneffens de || Historie || Der
    || oostersche Lantschappen, || Door HAITHON van ARMENIEN te zamen
    gestelt. || Beide nieuwelijks door J.H. GLAZEMAKER vertaalt. || Hier
    is noch by gevoegt _De Reizen van Nicolaas Venetus_, en || _Jeronymus
    van St. Steven_ naar d'oostersche Landen, en || naar d'Indien. Door
    P.P. _vertaalt_. || Als ook een _Verhaal van de verovering van 't
    Eilant Formosa, door || de Sinezen_; door J.V.K.B. vertaalt. || Met
    Kopere Platen verciert. || t' Amsterdam, || Voor Abraham Wolfgang,
    Boekverkoper, aan d'Opgang van de || Beurs, by de Beurstooren, in 't
    Geloof, 1664. 4to, 6 ff. not numbered for the tit., prf. + pp. 99 + 4
    ff. not numbered for the tab. etc. of Marco Polo.

The other works have a special pagination.



I.--TCHÈQUE EDITION.


69.--1. Million Marka Pavlova. Fragment of the tchèque translation of the
    Berlin Museum. Prague, No. 3 F. 26, XVth cent., by an Anonym,
    Moravian? (_Výbor z Literatury ceské_ II. v Praze, 1868.)


70.--2. Pohledy do Velkorise mongolské v cas nejmocnejsího rozkvetu jejího
    za Kublaje kána. Na základe cestopisu Marka Polova podává A.J.
    Vrtatko. (Výnato z Casopisu Musea král. Ceského 1873.) V Praze, J.
    Otto, 1873, 8vo, pp. 71.

M.A. Jarosl. Vrtatko has translated the whole of Marco Polo, but he has
published only this fragment.



J.--RUSSIAN EDITIONS.


71.--1. [Russian: Marko Polo puteshestvie v' 1286 godu po Tatarii i
    drugim' stranam' vostoka venetsianskago dvoryanina Marko Polo,
    proevannago Millionerom',--Tri chasti.]--St. Petersburg, 1873, 8vo,
    pp. 250.


72.--2. [Russian: I.P. Minaev'.--Puteshestvie Marko Polo perevod'
    starofrantsueskago teksta.--Izdanie Imp. Rysskago Geog. Ouschestva
    pod' redaktsiei d'istvitel'nago chlena V.V. Bartol'da.]--St.
    Petersburg, 1902, 8vo, pp. xxix + 1 f. + pp. 355.

Vol. xxvi. of the _Zapiski_ of the Russian Geog. Society, translated
from the French.



K.--IRISH EDITION.


73.--The Gaelic Abridgment of the Book of Ser Marco Polo. By Whitley
    Stokes. (_Zeit. f. Celtische Philologie_, 1 Bd., 2 & 3 Hft. Halle a.
    S. 1896-7, 8vo, pp. 245-273, 362-438.)

Book of Lismore.--See our _Introduction_, I. p. 103, _note_.



L.--VARIOUS EDITIONS.


74.--1. The edition of Marco Polo in preparation by Klaproth is announced
    in the part of June, 1824 of the _Journal Asiatique_ pp. 380-381.

"M. Klaproth vient de terminer son travail sur _Marco Polo_, qui l'a
occupé depuis plusieurs années....

"La nouvelle édition de _Marco Polo_, que notre confrère prépare,
contiendra l'italien de Ramusio, complété, et des Notes explicatives en
bas des pages. Elle sera accompagnée d'une Carte représentant les pays
visités ou décrits par le célèbre Vénitien."

--See also on this edition of Klaproth, the _Bulletin des Sciences
historiques, antiquités_ etc., juin 1824, art. 580; the _Jour. des
Savans_, juillet 1824, pp. 446-447, and the _Jour. As._ of
1824-1828: _Recherches sur les Ports de Gampou_. Klaproth's materials for
this edition were sold after his death Fr.200 to the bookseller Duprat; See
_Cat. des Livres composant la Bib. de M.K._, II'e Partie, No. 292.


75.--2. Marco Polos Beskrivelse af det ostlige asiatiske Hoiland,
    forklaret ved C.V. Rimestad. Forste Afdeling, indeholdende
    Indiedningen og Ost-Turkestan. Indbydelseskrift til den aarlige
    offentlige Examen i Borgerdydskolen i Kjobenhavn i Juli 1841.
    Kjobenhavn, Trykt hos Bianco Luno. 1841, 8vo, pp. 80.


76.--3. Marco Polo's Resa i Asien.

Small ppt. square 12mo, pp. 16; on p. 16 at foot: Stockholm, tryckt hos
P.G. Berg, 1859.

On the title-page a cut illustrating a traveller in a chariot drawn by
elephants.



III.--TITLES OF SUNDRY BOOKS AND PAPERS WHICH TREAT OF MARCO POLO AND
HIS BOOK.


1. SALVIATI, Cavalier LIONARDO. _Degli Avvertimenti delta Lingua sopra'l
Decamerone_. In Venezia, 1584.

Has some brief remarks on Texts of Polo, and on references to him or his
story in Villani and Boccaccio.

2. MARTINI, MARTINO. _Novus Atlas Sinensis_. Amstelodami, 1655.

The Maps are from Chinese sources, and are surprisingly good. The
Descriptions, also from Chinese works but interspersed with information of
Martini's own, have, in their completeness, never been superseded. This
estimable Jesuit often refers to Polo with affectionate zeal, identifying
his localities, and justifying his descriptions. The edition quoted in this
book forms a part of Blaeu's Great Atlas (1663). It was also reprinted in
Thévenot's Collection.

3. KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS. _China Illustrata_. Amstelodami, 1667.

He also often refers to Polo, but chiefly in borrowing from Martini.

4. MAGAILLANS, GABRIEL DE (properly _Magalhaens_). _Nouvelle Description de
la Chine, contenant la description des Particularités les plus
considérables de ce Grand Empire_. Paris, 1688, 4to.

Contains many excellent elucidations of Polo's work.

5. CORONELLI, VINCENZO. _Atlante Veneto_. Venezia, 1690.

Has some remarks on Polo, and the identity of Cathay and Cambaluc with
China and Peking.

6. MURATORI, LUD. ANT. _Perfetta Poesia, con note di_ SALVINI. Venezia,
1724.

In vol. ii. p. 117, Salvini makes some remarks on the language in which he
supposes Polo to have composed his Book.

7. FOSCARINI, MARCO. _Delia Letteratura Veneziana_. Padova, 1752. Vol. i.
414 seqq.

8. FOSCARINI, MARCO. _Frammento inedito di, intorno at Viaggiatori
Veneziani_; accompanied by Remarks on Bürck's German edition of Marco Polo,
by TOMMASO GAR (late Director of the Venice Archives). In _Archivio Storico
Italiano_, Append. tom. iv. p. 89 seqq. [See _Bibliography_, supra 8-8, p.
557.]

9. ZENO, APOSTOLO, _Annotazioni sopra la Biblioteca dell' Eloquenza
Italiana di Giusto Fontanini_. Venezia, 1753.

See Marsden's Introduction, _passim_.

10. TIRABOSCHI, GIROLAMO. _Storia della Letteratura Italiana_. Modena,
1772-1783.

There is a disquisition on Polo, with some judicious remarks (iv. pp.
68-73).

11. TOALDO, GIUSEPPE. _Saggi di Studj Veneti nell' Astronomia e nella
Marina_. Ven. 1782.

This work, which I have not seen, is stated to contain some remarks on
Polo's Book. The author had intended to write a Commentary thereon, and had
collected books and copies of MSS. with this view, and read an article on
the subject before the Academy of Padua, but did not live to fulfil his
intention (d. 1797).

[See _Cicogna_, II. p. 386; vi. p. 855.]

12. LESSING. _Marco Polo, aus einer Handschrift ergänzt, und aus einer
andern sehr zu verbessern: (Zur Geschichte und Litteratur_ ... von G.E.
Lessing. II. _Beytrag_. Braunschweig, 1773, 8vo, pp. 259-298.)

13. FORSTER, J. REINHOLD. _H. des Découvertes et des Voyages faits dans le
Nord_. French Version. Paris, 1788.

14. SPRENGEL, MATHIAS CHRISTIAN. _Geschichte der wichtigsten geographischen
Entdeckungen_ &c. 2nd Ed. Halle, 1792.

This book, which is a marvel for the quantity of interesting matter which
it contains in small space, has much about Polo.

15. ZURLA, Abate PLACIDO. Life of Polo, in _Collezione di Vite e Ritratti
d'Illustri Italiani_. Padova, 1816.

This book is said to have procured a Cardinal's Hat for the author. It is a
respectable book, and Zurla's exertions in behalf of the credit of his
countrymen are greatly to be commended, though the reward seems
inappropriate.

16. ----, ----. _Dissertazioni di Marco Polo e degli altri Viaggiatori
Veneziani_, &c. Venezia, 1818-19, 4to.

17. 18, 19. QUARTERLY REVIEW, vol. xxi. (1819), contains an Article on
Marsden's Edition, written by John Barrow, Esq.; that for July, 1868,
contains another on Marco Polo and his Recent Editors, written by the
present Editor; and that for Jan. 1872, one on the First Edition of this
work, by R.H. Major, Esq.

20. ASIA, _Hist. Account of Discovery and Travels in_. By HUGH MURRAY
Edinburgh, 1820.

21. STEIN, C.G.D. Rede des Herrn Professor Dr. Christian Gottfried Daniel
Stein. (Gesprochen den 29sten September, 1819.) _Ueber den Venetianer Marco
Polo_. Pages 8-19 of _Einladung zur Gedächtniszfeier der Wohlthater des
Berlinisch-Köllnischen Gymnasiums_ ... von dem Direktor Johann Joachim
Bellermann. Sm. 8vo, s.d. [1821].

22. KLAPROTH, JULIUS. A variety of most interesting articles in the
_Journal Asiatique_ (see sér. I. tom. iv., tom. ix.; sér. II. tom. i. tom.
xi. etc.), and in his _Mémoires Relatifs à l'Asie_. Paris, 1824.

Klaproth speaks more than once as if he had a complete Commentary on Marco
Polo prepared or in preparation (e.g., see _J. As._, sér. i. tom. iv. p.
380). But the examination of his papers after his death produced little or
nothing of this kind.--[Cf. supra, p. 573.]

23. CICOGNA, EMMANUELE ANTONIO. Delle Iscrizioni Veneziane, Raccolte ed
Illustrate. Venezia, 1824-1843.

Contains valuable notices regarding the Polo family, especially in vol. ii.

24. RÉMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL. _Mélanges Asiatiques_. Paris, 1825.
_Nouveaux Mélanges As._ Paris, 1829.

The latter contains (i. 381 seqq.) an article on Marsden's _Marco Polo_,
and one (p. 397 seqq.) upon Zurla's Book.

25. ANTOLOGIA, edited by VIEUSSIEUX. Tom. xix. B. pp. 92-124. Firenze,
1825.

A review of the publication of the old French Text by the Soc. de
Géographie.

26. ANNALI UNIVERSALI DI STATISTICA. Vol. xvi. p. 286. Milano. 1828.
Article by F. CUSTODI.

27. WALCKENAER, Baron C. _Vies de plusieurs Personnages Célèbres des temps
anciens et modernes_. Laon, 1830, 2 vol. 8vo.

This contains a life of Marco Polo, vol. ii. pp. 1-34.

28. ST. JOHN, JAMES AUGUSTUS. _Lives of Celebrated Travellers_. London
(circa 1831).

Contains a life of Marco Polo, which I regret not to have seen.

29. COOLEY, W.D. _Hist. of Maritime and Inland Discovery_. London, (circa
1831).

This excellent work contains a good chapter on Marco Polo.

30. RITTER, CARL. _Die Erdkunde von Asien_. Berlin, 1832, seqq.

This great work abounds with judicious comments on Polo's Geography, most
of which have been embodied in Bürck's edition.

31. DELECLUZE, M. Article on Marco Polo in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ for
1st July, 1832. Vol. vii. 8vo, pp. 24.

32. PAULIN PARIS. Papers of much value on the MSS. of Marco Polo, etc., in
_Bulletin de la Soc. de Géographie_ for 1833, tom. xix. pp. 23-31; as well
as in _Journal Asiatique_, sér. II. tom. xii. pp. 244-54; _L'Institut,
Journal des Sciences, &c._, Sect. II tom. xvi. Jan, 1851.

33. MALTE-BRUN. _Précis de la Géog. Universelle_, 4th Ed. par HUOT. Paris,
1836.

Vol. i. (pp. 551 seqq.) contains a section on Polo, neither good nor
correct.

34. DE MONTÉMONT, ALBERT. _Bibliothèque Universelle des voyages_.

In vol. xxxi. pp. 33-51 there is a Notice of Marco Polo.

35. PALGRAVE, Sir FRANCIS. _The Merchant and the Friar_. London, 1837.

The Merchant is Marco Polo, who is supposed to visit England, after his
return from the East, and to become acquainted with the Friar Roger Bacon.
The book consists chiefly of their conversations on many subjects.

It does not affect the merits of this interesting book that Bacon is
believed to have died in 1292, some years before Marco's return from the
East.

36. D'AVEZAC, M. Remarks in his most valuable _Notice sur les Anciens
Voyages de Tartarie, &c._, in the _Recueil de Voyages et de Mémoires publié
par la Société de Géographie_, tom. iv. pp. 407 seqq. Paris,1839. Also
article in the _Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog., &c._, for August, 1841; and
in _Journal Asiat._ sér. II. tom. xvi. p. 117.

37. PARAVEY, Chev. DE. Article in _Journ. Asiatique_, sér. II. tom. xvi.
1841, p. 101.

38. HAMMER-PURGSTALL, in _Bull. de la Soc. de Géog._, tom. iii. No. 21, p.
45.

39. QUATREMÈRE, ÉTIENNE. His translations and other works on Oriental
subjects abound in valuable indirect illustrations of M. Polo; but in
_Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la Bibliothèque du Rio_, tom. xvi. Pt. i.
pp. 281-286, Paris, 1843, there are some excellent remarks both on the work
itself and on Marsden's Edition of it.

40. MACFARLANE, CHARLESE _Romance of Travel_. London, C. Knight. 1846.

A good deal of intelligent talk on Marco Polo.

41. MEYER, ERNST H.F. _Geschichte der Botanik_. Königsberg, 1854-57.

In vol. iv, there is a special chapter on Marco Polo's notices of plants.

42. THOMAS, Professor G.M. _Zu Marco Polo, aus einem Cod. ital.
Monacensis_ in the _Sitzungsberichten der Münchner Akademie_, 4th March,
1862, pp. 261-270

43. KHANIKOFF, NICOLAS DE. _Notice sur le Livre de Marco Polo, édité et
commenté par M.G. Pauthier_. Paris, 1866. Extracted from the _Journal
Asiatique_. I have frequently quoted this with advantage, and sometimes
have ventured to dissent from it.

44. CAHIER, Père. Criticism of Pauthier's _Marco Polo_, and reply by G.
Pauthier, in _Études Littéraires et Religieuses_ of 1866 and 1867. Paris.

45. BARTHÉLEMY ST. HILAIRE. A series of articles on Marco Polo in the
_Journal des Savants_ of January-May, 1867, chiefly consisting of a
reproduction of Pauthier's views and deductions.

46. DE GUBERNATIS, Prof. ANGELO. _Memoria intorno ai Viaggiatori italiani
nelle Indie Orientali, dal secolo XIII. a tutto il XVI_. Firenze, 1867.

47. BIANCONI, Prof. GIUSEPPE. _Degli Scritti di Marco Polo e dell' Uccello_
RUC _da lui menzionato._ 2 parts large 8vo. Bologna, 1862 and 1868, pp. 64,
40.

A meritorious essay, containing good remarks on the comparison of different
Texts.

48. KINGSLEY, HENRY. _Tales of Old Travel renarrated_. London, 1869.

This begins with Marco Polo. The work has gone through several editions,
but I do not know whether the author had corrected some rather eccentric
geography and history that were presented in the first. Mr. Kingsley is the
author of another story about Marco Polo in a Magazine, but I cannot
recover the reference.

49. NOTES AND QUERIES for CHINA AND JAPAN. This was published from January,
1867, to November, 1870, at Hong-Kong under able editorship, and contained
some valuable notes connected with Marco Polo's chapters on China.

50. GHIKA, Princess ELENA (_Dora d'Istria_). _Marco Polo, Il Cristoforo
Colombo dell' Asia_. Trieste, 1869, 8vo, pp. 39.

51. BUFFA, Prof. GASPARE. _Marco Polo, Orazione commemorativa, Letta nel R.
Liceo Cristoforo Colombo il 24 marzo 1872_. Genova, 8vo, pp. 18.

52. EDINBURGH REVIEW, January, 1872, pp. 1-36. A review of the first
edition of the present work, acknowledged by SIR HENRY RAWLINSON, and full
of Oriental knowledge. (See also No. 19 supra.)

53. OCEAN HIGHWAYS, for December, 1872, p. 285. An interesting letter on
Marco Polo's notices of Persia, by Major OLIVER ST. JOHN, R.E.

54. RICHTHOFEN, Baron F. VON. _Das Land und die Stadt Caindu von Marco
Polo_, a valuable paper in the _Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde
zu Berlin_. No. 1 of 1874, p. 33.

55. BUSHELL, Dr. S.W., Physician to H.M.'s Legation at Peking. _Notes
of a Journey outside the Great Wall of China_, embracing an account of the
first modern visit to the site of Kúblái's Palace at Shang-tu. Appeared in
_J.R.G.S._ vol. xliv. An abstract was published in the _Proc. R.G.S._
xviii., 1874, pp. 149-168.

56. PHILLIPS, GEORGE, of H.M.'s Consular Service in China.--_Marco Polo and
Ibn Batuta in Fookien_ (_Chinese Recorder_, III., 1870-1871, pp. 12, 44,
71, 87, 125); _Notices of Southern Mangi, with Remarks by_ COLONEL HENRY
YULE, C.B. (from the _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_); _Notices
of Southern Mangi_ [Abridgment] (_Proc. R. Geog. Soc._, XVIII., 1873-1874,
pp. 168-173); _Zaitun Researches_ (_Chin. Rec._, V. pp. 327-339; VI. 31-42;
VII. pp. 330-338, 404-418; VIII. 117-124); _Changchow, the Capital of
Fuhkien in Mongol Times_, read before the Society, 19th November, 1888
(_Jour. C.B.R.A.S._, XXIII. N.S., n'o 1, 1888, pp. 23-30); _The Identity of
Marco Polo's Zaitun with Chang-chau, with a sketch-map of Marco-Polo's
route_ (_T'oung Pao_, I., Oct. 1890, pp. 218-238); _Two Mediaeval Fuh-kien
Trading Ports, Chüan-chow and Chang-chow_.--Part I. _Chang-chow_
(_T'oung-Pao_, VI. No. 5, déc. 1895, pp. 449/463).--Part II. _Chüan-Chow_
(Ibid., VII. No. 3, Juillet 1896 pp. 223/240, with 3 photog.).

57. WHEELER, J. TALBOYS. _History of India_ (vol. iii. pp. 385-393)
contains a résumé of, and running comment on, Marco Polo's notices of
India.

Mr. Wheeler's book says; "His travels appear _to have been written_ at
Comorin, the most southerly point of India" (p. 385). The words that I have
put in Italics are evidently a misprint, though it is not clear how to
correct them.

58. DE SKATTSCHKOFF, CONSTANTIN. _Le Vénitien_ Marco Polo, _et les services
qu'il a rendus en faisant connaître l'Asie_. Read before the _Imp. Geog.
Society_ at St. Petersburg, 6/18 October, 1865; translated by M. Emile
Durand in the _Journ. Asiatique_, sér. VII. tom. iv. pp. 122-158
(September, 1874).

The Author expresses his conviction that Marco Polo had described a number
of localities after Chinese written authorities; for in the old Chinese
descriptions of India and other transmarine countries are found precisely
the same pieces of information, neither more nor fewer, that are given by
Marco Polo. Though proof of this would not be proof of the writer's
deduction that Marco Polo was acquainted with the Chinese language, it
would be very interesting in itself, and would explain some points to which
we have alluded (e.g., in reference to the frankincense plant, p. 396, and
to the confusion between Madagascar and Makdashau, p. 413). And Mr. G.
Phillips has urged something of the same kind. But M. de Skattschkoff
adduces no proof at all; and for the rest his Essay is full of inaccuracy.

59. CANTÙ, CESARE. _Italiani Illustri Ritratti_, 1873, vol. i. p. 147.

60. MARSH, JOHN B. _Stories of Venice and the Venetians ... illustrated
by_ C. Berjeau. London, 1873, 8vo, pp. vii.-418.

Chaps, VI., VII. and VIII. are devoted to Marco Polo.

61. KINGSMILL, THOS. W. _Notes on the Topography of some of the Localities
in Manji, or Southern China mentioned by Marco Polo_. (_Notes and Queries
on China and Japan_, vol. i. pp. 52-54.)

---- _Notes on Marco Polo's Route from Khoten to China_. (_Chin. Recorder_,
VII. 1876, pp. 338-343.)

62. PAQUIER, J.B. _Itinéraire de Marco Polo à travers la région du Pamir
au_ XIII'e _siècle_. (_Bull. Soc. Géog._, 1876, août, pp. 113-128.)

63. PALLADIUS, ARCHIMANDRITE. _Elucidations of Marco Polo's Travels in
North-China, drawn from Chinese Sources_. (_Jour. N.C.Br.R.As.Soc._, x.
1876, pp. 1-54.)

Translated into English by A. Wylie and E. Bretschneider. The Russian text
has just been published (T. xxxviii. 1902, of the _Isviestiya_) by the Imp.
Russian Geog. Society.

Sir Henry Yule wrote in the _Addenda_ of the second edition:

"And I learn from a kind Russian correspondent, that an early number of the
_J. N. China Branch R. Asiatic Society_ will contain a more important
paper, viz.: _Remarks on Marco Polo's Travels to the North of China,
derived from Chinese Sources; by the_ ARCHIMANDRITE PALLADIUS. This
celebrated traveller and scholar says (as I am informed): 'I have followed
up the indications of Marco Polo from Lobnor to Shangdu, and in part to
Peking.... It would seem that I have been so fortunate as to clear up the
points that remained obscure to Yule.' I deeply regret that my book cannot
now profit by these promised remarks. I am not, however, without hope, that
in the present edition, with its Appendices, some at least of the Venerable
Traveller's identifications may have been anticipated."

The greater part of the notes of my late friend, the Archimandrite
Palladius Katharov, have been incorporated in the present edition of Marco
Polo.--H.C.

64. JIRECEK, JOSEF. _Básen o pobití Tataruv a "Million" Marka Pavlova_,
(_Casopis Musea království ceského_, 1877, pp. 103-119).

65. GEBAUER, J. _Ein Beitrag zur Erklärung der Königinhofer
Handschrift_. (J. Gebauer, in _Archiv für Slavische Philologie_, Berlin,
1877, ii. pp. 143-155.)

66. ZANETTI, V. Quattro Documenti inediti dell' Archivio degli Esposti in
Venezia (Marco Polo e la sua Famiglia--Marin Falier). Por V. Zanetti.
(_Archivio Veneto_, xvi. 1878, pp. 95-110.)

See _Calendar_, Nos. 6, 19, and 20 for the three Documents relating to the
Polo Family.

--Marco Polo e la sua famiglia. (Ibid., xvii. 1879, pp. 359-362.) Letters
of Comm. G. Berchet and Yule regarding these documents.

67. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, Gen. _Notes on Marco Polo's Itinerary in Southern
Persia_ (_Chapters xvi. to xxi., Col. Yule's Translation_). (_Jour. R. As.
Soc._, N.S., vol. xiii. Art. XX. Oct. 1881, pp. 490-497.)

---- _Marco Polo's Camadi_. (Ibid., Jan. 1898, pp. 43-46.)

68. THOMSON, J.T. _Marco Polo's Six Kingdoms or Cities in Java Minor_,
identified in translations from the ancient Malay Annals, by J.T.T.,
Commissioner of Crown Lands, Otago, 1875. (_Proc.R.G.Soc._, XX.
1875-1876, pp. 215-224.)

Translation from the "Salafat al Salatin perturan segala rajaraja," or
Malay Annals.

69. K.C. AMREIN. _Marco Polo: Oeffentlicher Vortrag, gehalten in der
Geographisch--Kommerziellen Gesellschaft in St. Gallen_. Zurich, 1879, 8vo.

70. VIDAL-LABLACHE, PAUL. _Bibliothèque des Écoles et des Families.--Marco
Polo, son temps et ses voyages_. Paris, 1880, 8vo, pp. 192.

There is a second edition.

71. G.M. URBANI DE GHELTOF. _III. Congresso Geografico Internazionale in
Venezia.--La Collezione del Doge Marin Faliero e i tesori di Marco
Polo_. Venezia, 1881, 8vo, pp. 8.

From the _Bulletino di Arti, industrie e curiosità veneziane_ III. pp.
98-103.--See _Int._ p. 79.

72. SEGUSO, L. _La Casa dei Milioni o labitazione di Marco Polo_. (_Venezia
e il Congresso_, 1881.)

73. CORDIER, HENRI. _Maison de Marco Polo [à Venise.] (Revue de
l'Extrême-Orient_, i. No. 1, p. 157); _Statue de Marco Polo_. (_Revue de
l'Extrême-Orient_, i. No. 1, pp. 156-157.)

74. _Illustrazione Italiana_, No. 38, Sept. 18, 1881.

75. YULE, Sir HENRY. _Marco Polo_. (_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 1885, 9th
ed., xix. pp. 404-409.)

76. SCHUMANN, Dr. K. Marco Polo, ein Weltreisender des XIII. Jahrhunderts.
Berlin, 1885. 8vo, pp. 32.

_Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge_, herausgegeben
von Rud. Virchow und Fr. von Holtzendorff. XX. Serie. Heft 460.

77. _Marco Polo_. (_Blackwood's Mag._, clxii. Sept. 1887, pp. 373-386.)
(Rep. in _Littell's Living Age_, Boston, CLXXV., p. 195.)

78. EDKINS, JOSEPH. _Kan Fu_. (_China Review_, xv. pp. 310-331.)

79. OLIPHANT, Mrs.--_The Makers of Venice_. London, 1887, 8vo. Part
II.--Chap. i. The Travellers: Niccolo, Matteo, and Marco Polo, pp. 134-157.

80. DUCLAU, S.--_La Science populaire--Marco Polo, sa Vie et ses
Voyages_. Par S. Duclau. Limoges, Eugène Ardant, s.d. [1889], 8vo, pp.
192.

81. PARKER, E.H. _Charchan_. (_China Review_, xviii. p. 261); _Hunting
Lodges_ (Ibid., p. 261); _Barscol._ (Ibid.); _Life Guards_ (p. 262); _Canfu
or Canton_ (Ibid., xiv. pp. 358-359); _Kaunchis_ (Ibid., p. 359); _Polo_
(Ibid., xv., p. 249); _Marco Polo's Transliterations_ (Ibid., xvi., p.
125); _Canfu_ (Ibid., p. 189).

82. SCHALLER, M.--_Marco Polo und die Texte seiner "Reisen".--Programm der
Kgl. Studien--Anstalt Burghausen für das Studienjahr 1889-90 von_ Michael
Schaller, Kgl. Studienlehzer f.n. Sprachen. Burghausen, Russy, 8vo, pp. 57.

83. SEVERTZOW, Dr. NICOLAS. _Etudes de Géographie historique sur les
anciens itinéraires à travers le Pamir, Ptolémée, Hiouen-Thsang, Song-yuen,
Marco Polo_. (_Bul. Soc. Géog._, 1890, pp. 417-467, 553-610.)

(Marco Polo, pp. 583 seqq.)

84. AMENT, W.S. _Marco Polo in Cambaluc: A Comparison of foreign and
native Accounts_. (_Journ. Peking Orient. Soc._, III. No. 2, 1892, pp.
97-122.)

85. COLLINGRIDGE, GEORGE. _The Early Cartography of Japan. By George
Collingridge_. (_Geographical Journal_, May, 1894, pp. 403-409.)--_Japan or
Java? An Answer to Mr. George Collingridge's Article on_ "The Early
Cartography of Japan," _by F.G. Kramp_. Overgedrukt uit het "Tijdschrift
van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Jaargang
1894." Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1894, 8vo, pp. 14. _The Early Cartography of
Japan. By H. Yule Oldham._ (_Geographical Journal_, Sept. 1894, pp.
276-279.)

86. HIRTH, FRIED. _Ueber den Schiffsverkehr von Kinsay zu Marco Polo's
Zeit_. (_T'oung Pao_, Dec. 1894, pp. 386-390.)

87. DRAPEYRON, LUDOVIC.--_Le Retour de Marco Polo en 1295. Cathay et
Sypangu_. (_Revue de Géographie_, Juillet, 1895, pp. 3-8.)

88. CORDIER, HENRI. _Centenaire de Marco Polo_. Paris, 1896, 8vo.

A Lecture with a Bibliography which is the basis of the list of this
edition of Marco Polo.

89. MANLY.--_Marco Polo and the Squire's Tale_. By John Matthews Manly.
(_Publications of the Modern Language Association of America_, vol. xi.
1896, pp. 349-362.)

Cf. our Introduction, p. 128.

90. SUEZ, IUMING C. _Marco Polo_. (_St. John's Echo_, Shanghaï, Nov. 1899.)

91. NORDENSKIÖLD, A.E.--_Om det inflytande Marco Polos reseberättelse
utöfvat på Gastaldis kartor öfver Asien_. (_ur Ymer, Tidskrift utgifven af
Svenska Sällskapet för Antropologi och Geografi_, Årg. 1899, H. 1, pp. 33
to 42).

---- _The Influence of the "Travels of Marco Polo" on Jacobo Gastaldi's Map
of Asia_. (_Geog. Journal_, April, 1899, pp. 396 to 406.)

See _Introduction_, p. 137.

92. CHAIX, PAUL. _Marco Polo_. (_Le Globe_, Soc. Géog. Genève, fév.-avril,
1900, pp. 84-94.)

93. LE STRANGE, GUY. _The Cities of Kirman in the time of Hamd-Allah
Mustawfi and Marco Polo_. (_J. R. As. Soc._, April, 1901, pp. 281-290.)

94. MURET, ERNEST. _Un fragment de Marco Polo_. Paris, 1901, 8vo., pp. 8.

From _Romania_, tom. xxx. See p. 547, _App. F._, 65.

95. GREAT EXPLORERS.--Marco Polo, Ferdinand Magellan, Mungo Park, Sir John
Franklin, David Livingstone, Christopher Columbus, etc., etc. Thomas
Nelson, London, 1902, 8vo, pp. 224.

Marco Polo, pp. 7-21.


[1] [Sir Henry Yule expressed his regret to me that he had not the facility
    at Palermo to undertake this Bibliography which I consider as a legacy
    from the first and illustrious editor of this book.--H.C.]



APPENDIX I.--_Titles of Works which are cited by abbreviated References
in this Book_.


ABDALLATIF. _Relation de l'Egypte_. Trad. par M. Silvestre de Sacy.
Paris, 1810.

ABULPHARAGIUS. _Hist. Compend. Dynastiarum_, etc., _ab_ Ed.
Pocockio. Oxon. 1663.

ABR. ROGER. See _La Porte ouverte_.

ACAD. _Mém. de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_.

AIN-I-AKBARI or AIN. AKB. BL. refers to Blochmann's Translation in
_Bibliotheca Indica_. Calcutta, 1869, seqq.

ALEXANDRIADE, _ou Chanson de Geste d'Alexandre-le-Grand, de_ Lambert
Le Court _et_ Alex. de Bernay. Dinan et Paris, 1861, 12mo.

ALPHABETUM TIBETANUM _Missionum Apostolicarum commodo editum_; A.A.
Georgii. Romae, 1762, 4to.

AM. EXOT. Engelbert Kaempfer's _Amoenitatum Exoticarum Fasciculi V_.
Lemgoviae, 1712.

AMYOT. _Mémoires concernant les Chinois_, etc. Paris v. y.

ARABS., ARABSHAH. _Ahmedis Arabsiadis Vitae .... Timuri .... Historia.
Latine vertit ... _S.H. Manger. Franequerae, 1767.

ARCH. STOR. ITAL. _Archivio Storico Italiano_. Firenze, v. y.

ASSEMANI, _Bibliotheca Orientalis_. Romae, 1719-28.

ASTLEY. _A New General Collection of Voyages, etc._ London,
1745-1747.

AVA, MISSION TO, Narrative of Major Phayre's. By Capt. H. Yule. London,
1858

AYEEN AKBERY refers to Gladwin's Transl., Calcutta, 1787.


BABER, Memoir of. Transl. by Leyden and Erskine. London, 1826.

BABER, E. COLBORNE. _Travels and Researches in Western China_.
London, 1882, 8vo.

  Vol. i. Pt. I. _Supp. Papers R. Geog. Society_.

BACON, ROGER. _Opus Majus_. Venet. 1750.

BAER UND HELMERSEN. _Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reiches,
  etc._ St. Petersburg, 1839, seqq.

BAUDUIN DE SEBOURC. _Li Romans de Bauduin de S., III'e Roy de
Jherusalem_. Valenciennes, 1841, 2 vol. large 8vo.

BENJAMIN OF TUDELA. Quoted from T. Wright's _Early Travels in
Palestine_. Bohn, London, 1848.

BRETSCHNEIDER, DR. E. _Notes on Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the
West_. Shanghai, 1875, 8vo.

---- _Archaeological and Historical Researches on Peking and its
Environs_. Shanghai, 1876, 8vo.

---- _Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources_. London,
1888, 2 vol. 8vo.

---- _History of European Botanical Discoveries in China_. London
[St. Petersburg], 1898, 2 Pts. 8vo. Begins with _Marco Polo_, pp.
1-5.

  All these works are most valuable.

BRIDGMAN, Rev. Dr. _Sketches of the Meaou-tszé_, transl. by. In _J.
N. Ch. Br. R. As. Soc._ for Dec. 1859.

BROWNE'S _Vulgar Errors_, in Bohn's Ed. of his Works. London, 1852.

BUCHON. _Chroniques Étrangères relatives aux Expéditions Françaises
pendant le XIII'e Siècle_. Paris, 1841.

BURNES, ALEX. _Travels into Bokhara_. 2nd Ed. London, 1835.

BÜSCHING'S _Magazin für die neue Historie und Geographie_. Halle,
1779, seqq.


CAHIER ET MARTIN. _Mélanges d'Archéologie_. Paris, v. y.

CAPMANY, ANTONIO. _Memorias Historicas sobre la marina ... de
Barcelona_. Madrid, 1779-1792.

CARP., CARPINI. As published in _Recueil de Voyages et de Mémoires de la
Soc. de Géog._ Tom. iv. Paris, 1839.

CATHAY, _and the Way Thither_. By Col. H. Yule. Hakluyt Society,
1866.

CHARDIN, _Voyages en Perse de_. Ed. of Langlès. Paris, 1811.

CHAVANNES, EDOUARD. _Mémoire composé à l'époque de la grande dynastie
T'ang sur les Religieux éminents qui allêrent chercher la loi dans les
Pays d'Occident par_ I-TSING. Paris, 1894, 8vo.

CHINA ILLUSTRATA. See _Kircher_.

CHINE ANCIENNE. By Pauthier, in _L'Univers Pittoresque_. Paris, 1837.

---- MODERNE. By do. and Bazin, in do. Paris, 1853.

CHIN. REP. _Chinese Repository_. Canton, 1832, seqq.

CLAVIJO. Transl. by C.R. Markham. Hak. Society, 1859.

CONSULAR REPORTS. (See this vol. p. 144.)

CONTI, _Travels of Nicolo_. In _India in the XVth Century_. Hak.
Society, 1857.

CORDIER, HENRI. _Les Voyages en Asie au XIV'e Siècle du Bienheureux
Frère Odoric de Pordenone_. Paris, 1891, 8vo.

----. _L'Extrême-Orient dans l'Atlas Catalan de Charles V., Roi de
France_. Paris, 1895, 8vo.

CURZON, GEORGE N. _Persia and the Persian Question_. London, 1892, 2
vol. 8vo.


D'AVEZAC. See App. H., III., No. 36.

DAVIES'S REPORT. _Rep. on the Trade and Resources of the Countries on
the N.W. Boundary of Br. India_ (By R.H. Davies, now (1874)
Lieut.-Governor of the Panjáb).

DEGUIGNES. _Hist. Gén. des Huns, etc._ Paris, 1756.

---- (the Younger). _Voyage à Peking, etc._ Paris, 1808.

DELLA DECIMA, etc. Lisbone e Lucca (really Florence) 1765-1766. The 3rd
volume of this contains the Mercantile Handbook of _Pegolotti_
(circa 1340), and the 4th volume that of _Uzzano_ (1440).

DELLA PENNA. _Breve Notizia del Regno del Thibet_. An extract from
the _Journal Asiatique_, sér. II. tom. xiv. (pub. by Klaproth).

DELLA VALLE, P. _Viaggi_. Ed. Brighton, 1843.

DE MAILLA. _H. Générale de la Chine, etc._ Paris, 1783.

DEVÉRIA, G. _La Frontière Sino-Annamite_. Paris, 1886, 8vo.

---- _Notes d'Épigraphie mongole-chinoise_. Paris, 1897, 8vo. From the
_Jour. As._

---- _Musulmans et Manichéens chinois_. Paris, 1898, 8vo. From the
_Jour. As._

---- _Stèle Si-Hia de Leang-tcheou_. Paris, 1898, 8vo. From the
_Jour. As._

DICT. DE LA PERSE. _Dict. Géog. Hist. et Litt. de la Perse, etc._;
par Barbier de Meynard. Paris, 1861.

D'OHSSON. _H. des Mongols_. La Haye et Amsterdam, 1834.

DOOLITTLE, Rev. J. _The Social Life of the Chinese_. Condensed Ed.
London, 1868.

DOUET D'ARCQ. _Comptes de l'Argenterie des Rois de France au XV'e
Siècle_ Paris, 1851.

DOZY AND ENGELMANN. _Glossaire des Mots Espagnols et Portugais dérivés
de l'Arabe_. 2de. Ed. Leyde, 1869.

DUCHESNE, ANDRÉ, _Historiae Francorum Scriptores_. Lut. Par.
1636-1649.

EARLY TRAVELS in Palestine, ed. by T. Wright, Esq. Bohn, London, 1848.

EDRISI. _Trad. par_ Amédée Jaubert; in _Rec. de Voy. et de
Mém._, tom. v. et vi. Paris, 1836-1840.

ÉLIE DE LAPRIMAUDAIE. _Études sur le Commerce au Moyen Age_. Paris,
1848.

ELLIOT. _The History of India as told by its own Historians_. Edited
from the posthumous papers of Sir H.M. Elliot, by Prof. Dowson. 1867,
seqq.

ERDMANN, Dr. FRANZ v. _Temudschin der Unerschütterliche_. Leipzig,
1862.

ERMAN. _Travels in Siberia_. Transl. by W.D. Cooley. London, 1848.

ESCAYRAC DE LAUTURE. _Mémoires sur la Chine_. Paris, 1865.

ÉTUDE PRATIQUE, etc. See _Hedde_.


FARIA Y SOUZA. _History of the Discovery and Conquest of India by the
Portuguese_. Transl. by Capt. J. Stevens. London, 1695.

FERRIER, J.P. _Caravan Journeys, etc._ London, 1856.

FORTUNE. _Two Visits to the Tea Countries of China_. London, 1853.

FRANCISQUE-MICHEL. _Recherches sur le Commerce, la fabrication, et
l'usage des étoffes de Soie, etc._ Paris, 1852.

FRESCOB. _Viaggi in Terra Santa di L. Frescobaldi, etc._ (1384).
Firenze, 1862.


GARCIA DE ORTA. _Garzia dall' Horto, Dell' Istoria dei semplici ed altre
cose che vengono portate dall' Indie Orientali, etc._ Trad. dal
Portughese da Annib. Briganti. Venezia, 1589.

GARNIER, FRANCIS. _Voyage d'Exploration en Indo-Chine_. Paris, 1873.

GAUBIL. _H. de Gentchiscan et de toute la Dinastie des Mongous_.
Paris, 1739.

GILDEM., GILDEMEISTER. _Scriptorum Arabum de Rebus Indicis, etc._
Bonn, 1838.

GILL, CAPT. WILLIAM. _The River of Golden Sand ... With an Introductory
Essay by Col. HENRY YULE_.... London, 1880, 2 vol. 8vo.

GODINHO DE EREDIA. _Malaca l'Inde méridionale et le Cathay reproduit en
facsimile et traduit par M. LÉON JANSSEN_. Bruxelles, 1882, 4to.

GOLD. HORDE. See _Hammer_.

GRENARD, F. _J.-L. Dutreuil de Rhins-Mission scientifique dans la Haute
Asie_, 1890-1895. Paris, 1897-1898, 3 vol. 4to and Atlas.

GROENEVELDT, W.P. _Notes on the Archipelago and Malacca. Compiled from
Chinese Sources_. [Batavia, 1877] 8vo.

  Rep. by Dr. R. Rost in 1887.

---- _Supplementary Jottings to the Notes. T'oung Pao, VII._, May,
1896, pp. 113-134.


HAMILTON, A. _New Account of the East Indies_. London, 1744.

HAMMER-PURGSTALL. _Geschichte der Goldenen Horde_. Pesth, 1840.

---- _Geschichte der Ilchane_. Darmstadt, 1842.

HEDDE ET RONDOT. _Étude Pratique du Commerce d'Exportation de la
Chine_, par I. Hedde. _Revue et complétée_ par N. Rondot. Paris,
1849.

HEYD, Prof. W. _Le Colonie Commerciali degli Italiani in Oriente nel
Media Evo; Dissert. Rifatt. dall' Autore e recate in Italiano dal_
Prof. G. Müller. Venezia e Torino, 1866.

---- _Histoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen Age ... éd.
française_ ... par Furcy Raynaud. Leipzig, 1885-6, 2 vol. 8vo.

HOSIE, ALEXANDER. _Three Years in Western China; a Narrative of three
Journeys in Ssu-ch'uan, Kuei-chow, and Yún-nan_. London, 1890, 8vo.

H.T. or HIUEN TSANG. _Vie et Voyages_, viz. Hist. de la Vie de
  Hiouen Thsang et de ses Voyages dans l'Inde, &c. Paris, 1853.

---- or ----. _Mémoires sur les Contrées Occidentales, &c._ Paris, 1857.
See _Pèlerins Bouddhistes_.

HUC. _Recollections of a Journey through Tartary, &c._ Condensed
Transl. by Mrs. P. Sinnett. London, 1852.


I.B., IBN. BAT., IBN BATUTA. _Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah par Defrémery et
Sanguinetti_. Paris, 1853-58, 4 vol. 8vo.

IBN KHORDÂDHBEH.... _Cum versione gallica edidit_.... M.J. de Goeje.
Lug. Bat., 1889, 8vo.

ILCH., ILCHAN., HAMMER'S ILCH. See _Hammer_.

INDIA IN XVTH CENTURY. Hak. Soc. 1857.

IND. ANT., INDIAN ANTIQUARY, a Journal of Oriental Research. Bombay, 1872,
seqq.


J.A.S.B. _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_.

J. As. _Journal Asiatique_.

J.C.BR.R.A.S. _Journal of the China Branch of the R. Asiatic Society_,
  Shanghai.

J. IND. ARCH. _Journal of the Indian Archipelago_.

J.N.C.BR.R.A.S. _Journal of the North China Branch of the R.
Asiatic Society_, Shanghai.

J.R.A.S. _Journal of the Royal As. Society_.

J.R.G.S. _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_.

JOINVILLE. Edited by Francisque-Michel. Firmin-Didot: Paris, 1867.


KAEMPFER. See _Am. Exot._

KHANIKOFF, NOTICE. See App. H., III., No. 43.

---- MÉMOIRE _sur la Partie Méridionale de l'Asie Centrale_, Paris,
1862.

KIRCHER, _Athanasius. China, Monumentis, &c., Illustrata_. Amstelod.
1667.

KLAP. MÉM. See App. H., III., No. 22.

KOEPPEN, _Die Religion des Buddha,_, von Carl Friedrich. Berlin,
1857-59


LA PORTE OUVERTE, &c., _ou la Vraye Representation de la Vie, des
Moeurs, de la Religion, et du Service Divin des Bramines, &c._, par
le Sieur Abraham Roger, trad. en Francois. Amsterdam, 1670.

LADAK, &c. By Major Alex. Cunningham. 1854.

LASSEN. _Indische Alterthumskunde_. First edition is cited
throughout.

LECOMTE, Père L. _Nouveaux Mémoires sur la Chine_. Paris, 1701.

LEVCHINE, ALEXIS DE. _Desc. des Hordes et des Steppes des Kirghiz
Kaïssaks; trad._ par F. de Pigny. Paris, 1840.

LINSCHOTEN. _Hist. de la Navigation de Jean Hugues de Linschot._ 3ièm
ed. Amst., 1638.


MAGAILLANS. See App. H., III., No. 4.

MAKRIZI. See _Quat. Mak._

MAR. SAN., MARIN. SANUT., MARINO SANUDO. _Liber Secretorum Fidelium
Crucis_, in _Bongarsii Gesta Dei per Francos_. Hanoviae, 1611.
Tom. ii.

MARTÈNE ET DURAND. _Thesaurus Novus Anecdotorum_. Paris, 1717.

MARTINI. See App. H., III., No. 2.

MAS'UDI. _Les Prairies d'Or, par Barbier de Meynard et Pavet de
Courteille_. Paris, 1861, seqq.

MATTHIOLI, P.A. _Commentarii in libros VI. Pedacii Dioscoridis de
Medicâ Materiâ_. Venetiis, 1554; sometimes other editions are cited.

MAUNDEVILE. Halliwell's Ed. London, 1866.

MÉM. DE L'ACAD. See _Acad._

MENDOZA. _H. of China_. Ed. of Hak. Society, 1853-54.

MERVEILLES DE L'INDE. _Livre des Merveilles de l'Inde ... Texte arabe
par_ P.A. Van der Lith. _Trad. française par_ L. Marcel Devic.
Leide, 1883-1886, 4to.

MICHEL. See _Francisque-Michel_.

MID. KINGD. See _Williams_.

MOORCROFT _and Trebeck's Travels_; edited by Prof. H.H. Wilson,
1841.

MOSHEIM. _Historia Tartarorum Ecclesiastica_. Helmstadt, 1741.

MUNTANER, in _Buchon_, q.v.


N. & E., NOT. ET EXT. _Notices et Extraits des MSS. de la Bibliothèque
du Roy_. Paris, v. y.

N. & Q. _Notes and Queries_.

N. & Q.C. & J. _Notes and Queries for China and Japan_.

NELSON, J.H. _The Madura Country, a Manual_. Madras, 1868.

NEUMANN, C.F. His Notes at end of Bürck's German ed. of Polo.

NOVUS ORBIS _Regionum &c. Veteribus incognitarum_. Basil. Ed. 1555.


P. DE LA CROIX. PÉTIS DE LA CROIX, _Hist. de Timurbec, &c._ Paris,
1722.

P. DELLA V. See _Della Valle_.

P. VINC. MARIA, P. VINCENZO. _Viaggio all' Indie Orientali del P.F.V.
M. di S. Catarina da Siena_. Roma, 1672.

PALLAS. _Voyages dans plusieurs Provinces de l'Empire de Russie, &c._
Paris, Pan XI.

PAOLINO. _Viaggio alle Indie, &c._ da Fra P. da S. Bartolomeo. Roma,
1796.

PEGOLOTTI. See _Della Decima_.

PÈLERINS BOUDDHISTES, par Stan. Julien. This name covers the two works
entered above under the heading H.T., the _Vie et Voyages_ forming
vol. i., and the _Mémoires_, vols. ii. and iii.

PEREG. QUAT. _Peregrinatores Medii Aevi Quatuor, &c._ Recens. J.M.
Laurent. Lipsiae, 1864.

POST UND REISE ROUTEN. See _Sprenger_.

PRAIRIES D'OR. See _Mas'udi_.

PUNJAUB TRADE REPORT. See _Davies_.


Q.R., QUAT. RASHID. _H. des Mongols de la Perse, par Raschid-ed-din,
trad. &c._ par M. Quatremère. Paris, 1836.

QUAT. MAK., QUATREMÈRE'S MAK. _H. des Sultans Mamlouks de l'Égypte, par
Makrizi. Trad. par Q._ Paris, 1837, seqq.


RAS MALA, _or Hindoo Annals of Goozerat_. By A.K. Forbes. London,
1856.

REINAUD, REL. _Relations des Voyages faits par les Arabes dans l'Inde et
la Chine, &c._ Paris, 1845.

----, INDE, _Mém. Géog. Histor. et Scientifique sur l', &c._ Paris,
1849.

RELAT., RELATIONS. See last but one.

RICHTHOFEN, Baron F. VON. _Letters_ (addressed to the Committee of
the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce) _on the Interior Provinces of
China_. Shanghai, 1870-72.

ROCKHILL, W.W. _The Land of the Lamas_. London, 1891, 8vo.

---- _Diary of a Journey through Mongolia and Tibet in 1891 and
1892_. Washington, 1894, 8vo.

---- _The Journey of William of Rubruck_. London, _Hakluyt
Society_, 1900, 8vo.

ROMAN., ROMANIN, _Storia Documentata di Venezia_. Venezia, 1853,
seqq.

RUB., RUBRUQUIS. Cited from edition in _Recueil de Voyages et de
Mémoires_, tom. iv. Paris, 1839. See ROCKHILL.


S.S., SAN. SETZ., SS. SSETZ. See _Schmidt_.

SANTAREM, _Essai sur l'Hist. de la Cosmographie, &c._ Paris, 1849.

SANUDO. See _Mar. San._

SCHILTBERGER, _Reisen des_ Johan. Ed. by Neumann. München, 1859.

SCHLEGEL, G. _Geographical Notes_, I.-XVI., _in T'oung Pao_,
Leiden, 1898-1901.

SCHMIDT. _Geschichte der Ost-Mongolen, &c., verfasst von Ssanang-Ssetzen
Chungtaidschi_. St. Petersburg, 1829.

SONNERAT. _Voyage aux Indes Orientales_. Paris, 1782.

SPRENGER. _Post und Reise Routen des Orients_. Leipzig, 1864.

ST. MARTIN, M.J. _Mémoires Historiques et Géographiques sur l'Arménie,
&c._ Paris, 1818-19.

SYKES, MAJOR PERCY MOLESWORTH. _Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, or Eight
Years in Irán_. London, 1902, 8vo.

  Chap, xxiii. _Marco Polo's Travels in Persia_.

---- _Recent Journeys in Persia_. (_Geog. Journal_, X, 1897,
pp. 568-597.)


TEIXEIRA, _Relaciones de_ Pedro, _del Origen Descendencia y
Succession de los Reyes de Persia, y de Harmuz, y de un Viage hecho por
el mismo aotor, &c._ En Amberes, 1670.

TIMKOWSKI. _Travels, &c._, edited by Klaproth. London, 1827.


UZZANO. See _Della Decima_.


VARTHEMA'S _Travels_. By Jones and Badger. Hak. Soc., 1863.

VIGNE, G.T. _Travels in Kashmir, &c._ London, 1842.

VIN. BELL., VINC. BELLOV. Vincent of Beauvais' _Speculum Historiale,
Speculum Naturale, &c._

VISDELOU. Supplément to D'Herbelot. 1780.


WILLIAMS'S _Middle Kingdom_. 3rd. Ed. New York and London, 1857.

WILLIAMSON, Rev. A. _Journeys in N. China, &c._ London, 1870.

WEBER'S _Metrical Romances of the XIIIth, XIVth, and XVth Centuries_
Edinburgh, 1810.

WITSEN. _Noord en Oost Tartaryen_. 2nd Ed. Amsterdam, 1785.



APPENDIX K.--_Values of certain Moneys, Weights, and Measures, occurring in
this Book_.


FRENCH MONEY.

The LIVRE TOURNOIS of the period may be taken, on the mean of five
valuations cited in a footnote at p. 87 of vol. i., as equal in _modern
silver value_ to ... 18.04 _francs_.

Say English money ... 14_s._ 3.8_d._

The LIVRE PARISIS was worth one-fourth more than the _Tournois_,[1]
and therefore equivalent in silver value to ... 22.55 _francs_.

Say English money ... 17_s._ 10.8_d._

(Gold being then to silver in relative value about 12:1 instead of about
15:1 as now, one-fourth has to be added to the values based on silver in
equations with the gold coin of the period, and one-fifth to be deducted
in values based on gold value. By oversight, in vol. i. p. 87, I took 16:1
as the present gold value, and so exaggerated the value of the livre
Tournois as compared with gold.)

M. Natalis de Wailly, in his recent fine edition of Joinville, determines
the valuation of these _livres_, in the reign of St. Lewis, by taking
a mean between a value calculated on the present value of silver, and a
value calculated on the present value of gold,[2] and his result is:

LIVRE TOURNOIS = 20.26 _francs_.

LIVRE PARISIS = 25.33     "

Though there is something arbitrary in this mode of valuation, it is,
perhaps, on the whole the best; and its result is extremedy handy for the
memory (as somebody has pointed out) for we thus have

One LIVRE TOURNOIS = One Napoleon.

 "   "   PARISIS = One Sovereign.


VENETIAN MONEY.

The MARK of Silver all over Europe may be taken fairly at 2_l._ 4_s._ of
our money in modern value; the Venetian mark being a fraction more, and the
marks of England, Germany and France fractions less.[3]

The Venice GOLD DUCAT or ZECCHIN, first coined in accordance with a Law of
31st October 1283, was, _in our gold value_, worth ... 11.82 _francs_.[4]
or English ... 9_s._ 4.284_d._

The Zecchin when first coined was fixed as equivalent to 18 _grossi_, and
on this calculation the GROSSO should be a little less than 5_d._
sterling.[5] But from what follows it looks as if there must have been
another _grosso_, perhaps only of account, which was only 3/4 of the
former, therefore equivalent to 3-3/4_d._ only. This would be a clue to
difficulties which I do not find dealt with by anybody in a precise or
thorough manner; but I can find no evidence for it.

Accounts were kept at Venice not in ducats and grossi, but in _Lire_,
of which there were several denominations, viz.:

  1. LIRA DEI GROSSI, called in Latin Documents _Libra denariorum
  Venetorum grosorum_.[6] Like every _Lira_ or Pound, this
  consisted of 20 _soldi_, and each _soldo_ of 12 _denari_
  or _deniers_.[7] In this case the Lira was equivalent to 10 golden
  ducats; and its Denier, as the name implies, was the _Grosso_. The
  Grosso therefore here was 1/240 of 10 ducats or 1/24 of a ducat, instead
  of 1/18.

  2. LIRA AI GROSSI (_L. den. Ven. ad grossos_). This by decree of
  2nd June, 1285, went two to the ducat. In fact it is the _soldo_ of
  the preceding _Lira_, and as such the _Grosso_ was, as we have
  just seen, its denier; which is perhaps the reason of the name.

  3. LIRA DEI PICCOLI (_L. den. Ven. parvulorum_). The ducat is
  alleged to have been at first equal to three of these _Lire_
  (_Romanin_, I. 321); but the calculations of Marino Sanudo
  (1300-1320) in the _Secreta Fidelium Crucis_ show that he reckons the
  Ducat equivalent to 3.2 _lire_ of _piccoli_.[8]

In estimating these _Lire_ in modern English money, on the basis of
their relation to the ducat, we must reduce the apparent value by 1/5. We
then have:

  1. LIRA DEI GROSSI equivalent to nearly 3_l._ 15_s._ 0_d._
  (therefore exceeding by nearly 10_s._ the value of the Pound sterling of
  the period, or _Lira di Sterlini_, as it was called in the appropriate
  Italian phrase).[9]

  2. LIRA AI GROSSI ... 3_s._ 9_d._

  3. LIRA DEI PICCOLI ... 2_s._ 4_d._

The TORNESE or TORNESEL at Venice was, according to Romanin (III. 343) = 4
Venice deniers: and if these are the _deniers_ of the _Lira ai Grossi_, the
coin would be worth a little less than 3/4_d._, and nearly the equivalent
of the denier Tournois, from which it took its name.[10]

       *       *       *       *       *

The term BEZANT is used by Polo always (I believe) as it is by Joinville,
by Marino Sanudo, and by Pegolotti, for the Egyptian gold dínár, the
intrinsic value of which varied somewhat, but can scarcely be taken at
less than 10_s._ 6_d._ or 11_s._ (See _Cathay_, pp. 440-441; and see also
_J. As._ sér. VI. tom. xi. pp. 506-507.) The exchange of Venice money for
the Bezant or Dinar in the Levant varied a good deal (as is shown by
examples in the passage in _Cathay_ just cited), but is always in these
examples a large fraction (1/6 up to 1/3) more than the Zecchin. Hence,
when Joinville gives the equation of St. Lewis's ransom as 1,000,000
_bezants_ or 500,000 _livres_, I should have supposed these to be _livres
Parisis_ rather than _Tournois_, as M. de Wailly prefers.

There were a variety of coins of lower value in the Levant called
Bezants,[11] but these do not occur in our Book.

       *       *       *       *       *

The Venice SAGGIO, a weight for precious substances was 1/6 of an ounce,
corresponding to the weight of the Roman gold _solidus_, from which was
originally derived the Arab MISKÁL And Polo appears to use _saggio_
habitually as the equivalent of _Miskál_. His POIS or PESO, applied to
gold and silver, seems to have the same sense, and is indeed a literal
translation of _Miskál_. (See vol. ii. p. 41.)

       *       *       *       *       *

For measures Polo uses the _palm_ rather than the foot. I do not find
a value of the Venice palm, but over Italy that measure varies from 9-1/2
inches to something over 10. The Genoa Palm is stated at 9.725 inches.

_Jal_ (_Archéologie Nav._ I. 271) cites the following Table of

_Old Venice Measures of Length_.

  4 fingers      = 1 handbreadth.
  4 handbreadths = 1 foot.
  5 feet         = 1 pace.
  1000 paces     = 1 mile.
  4 miles        = 1 league.


[1] See (_Dupré de St. Maur_) _Essai sur les Monnoies, &c._
    Paris, 1746, p. xv; and _Douet d'Arcq_, pp. 5, 15, &c.

[2] He takes the _silver value_ of the gros Tournois (the _sol_
    of the system) at 0.8924 _fr._, whence the Livre = 17.849
    _fr._ And the _gold value_ of the golden _Agnel_, which
    passed for 12-1/2 _sols Tournois_, is 14.1743 _fr._ Whence
    the Livre = 22.6789 _fr._ Mean = 20.2639 _fr._

[3] The Mark was 2/3 of a pound. The English POUND STERLING of the period
    was in silver value = 3_l._ 5_s._ 2_d._ Hence the MARK
    = 2_l._ 3_s._ 5.44_d._ The Cologne Mark, according to
    Pegolotti, was the same, and the Venice Mark of silver was = 1 English
    Tower Mark + 3-1/2 sterlings (i.e. pence of the period), =
    therefore to 2_l._ 4_s._ 4.84_d._ The French Mark of
    Silver, according to Dupré de St. Maur, was about 3 Livres, presumably
    Tournois, and therefore 2_l._ 2_s._ 11-1/2_d._

[4] _Cibrario, Pol. Ec. del Med. Evo._ III. 228. The GOLD FLORIN of
    Florence was worth a fraction more = 9_s._ 4.85_d._

    Sign. Desimoni, of Genoa, obligingly points out that the changed
    relation of Gold ducat and silver _grosso_ was due to a general
    rise in price of gold between 1284 and 1302, shown by notices of other
    Italian mints which raise the equation of the gold florin in the same
    ratio, viz. from 9 _sols tournois_ to 12.

[5] For 1/18 of the florin will be 6.23_d._, and deducting 1/6, as
    pointed out above, we have 4.99_d._ as the value of the
    _grosso_.

    I have a note that the _grosso_ contained 42-88/144 Venice grains of
    pure silver. If the Venice grain be the same as the old Milan grain
    (.051 _grammes_) this will give exactly the same value of 5_d._

[6] Also called, according to Romanin, _Lira d'imprestidi_. See
    Introd. Essay in vol. i. p. 66.

[7] It is not too universally known to be worth noting that our £. s. d.
    represents _Livres, sois, deniers_.

[8] He also states the grosso to have been worth 32 _piccoli_, which
    is consistent with this and the two preceding statements. For at 3.2
    _lire_ to the ducat the latter would = 768 piccoli, and 1/24 of
    this = 32 piccoli. Pegolotti also assigns 24 grossi to the ducat (p.
    151).

    The tendency of these _Lire_, as of pounds generally, was to
    degenerate in value. In Uzzano (1440) we find the Ducat equivalent to
    100 _soldi_, i.e. to 5 _lire_.

    Everybody seems to be tickled at the notion that the Scotch Pound or
    Livre was only 20 Pence. Nobody finds it funny that the French or
    Italian Pound is only 20 halfpence, or less!

[9] _Uzzano_ in _Delia Decima_, IV. 124.

[10] According to Galliccioli (II. 53) _piccoli_ (probably in the
    vague sense of small copper coin) were called in the Levant [Greek:
    tornésia].

[11] Thus in the document containing the autograph of King Hayton,
    presented at p. 13 of Introductory Essay, the King gives with
    his daughter, "Damoiselle Femie," a dowry of 25,000 _besans
    sarrazinas_, and in payment 4 of his own bezants _staurats_
    (presumably so called from bearing a _cross_) are to count as one
    Saracen Bezant. (_Cod. Diplomat. del S. Mil. Ord. Gerosolim_. I.
    134.)



APPENDIX L.--_Sundry Supplementary Notes on Special Subjects_.--(H.C.)


   1.--_The Polos at Acre_.
   2.--_Sorcery in Kashmir_.
   3.--PAONANO PAO.
   4.--_Pamir_.
   5.--_Number of Pamirs_.
   6.--_Site of Pein_.
   7.--_Fire-arms_.
   8.--_La Couvade_.
   9.--_Alacan_.
  10.--_Champa_.
  11.--_Ruck Quills_.
  12.--_A Spanish Edition of Marco Polo_.
  13.--_Sir John Mandeville_.


1.--THE POLOS AT ACRE. (Vol. i. p. 19. _Int._)

M. le Comte Riant (_Itin. à Jérusalem_, p. xxix.) from various data
thinks the two sojourns of the Polos at Acre must have been between the
9th May, 1271, date of the arrival of Edward of England and of Tedaldo
Visconti, and the 18th November, 1271, time of the departure of Tedaldo.
Tedaldo was still in Paris on the 28th December, 1269, and he appears to
have left for the Holy Land after the departure of S. Lewis for Tunis (2nd
July, 1270).--H.C.


2.--SORCERY IN KASHMIR. (Vol. i. p. 166.)

In _Kalhanda's Rajatarangini, A Chronicle of the Kings of Kásmir
translated by M.A. Stein_, we read (Bk. IV. 94, p. 128): "Again the
Brahman's wife addressed him: 'O king, as he is famous for his knowledge
of charms (_Kharkhodavidya_), he can get over an ordeal with ease.'" Dr.
Stein adds the following note: "The practice of witchcraft and the belief
in its efficiency have prevailed in Kásmir from early times, and have
survived to some extent to the present day; comp. _Bühler, Report_, p.
24.... The term _Kharkhoda_, in the sense of a kind of deadly charm or
witchcraft, recurs in v. 239, and is found also in the _Vijayésvaramah_
(Adipur.), xi. 25. In the form _Kharkota_ it is quoted by the _N. P.W._
from _Caraka_, vi. 23. _Kharkhota_ appears as the designation of a
sorcerer or another kind of uncanny persons in _Haracar_., ii. 125, along
with Krtyas and Vetalas...."


3.--PAONANO PAO. (Vol. i. p. 173.)

In his paper on _Zoroastrian Deities on Indo-Scythians' Coins_
(_Babylonian and Oriental Record_, August, 1887, pp. 155-166; rep. in the
_Indian Antiquary_, 1888), Dr. M.A. Stein has demonstrated that the
legend PAONANO PAO on the coins of the Yue-Chi or Indo-Scythian Kings
(Kanishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva), is the exact transcription of the old
Iranian title _Shahanan Shah_ (Persian _Shahan-shah_), "King of Kings";
the letter P, formerly read as P(_r_), has since been generally
recognised, in accordance with his interpretation as a distinct character
expressing the sound _sh_.


4.--PAMIR. (Vol. i. pp. 174-175.)

I was very pleased to find that my itinerary agrees with that of Dr. M.A.
Stein; this learned traveller sends me the following remarks: "The remark
about the absence of birds (pp. 174-175) _might_ be a reflex of the very
ancient legend (based probably on the name zend _Upairi-saena_, pehlevi
_Aparsin_, 'higher than the birds') which represents the _Hindu Kush_
range proper as too high for birds to fly over. The legend can be traced
by successive evidence in the case of the range north of Kabul."--
Regarding the route (p. 175) from the _Wakhjir_ (sic) Pass down the
Taghdum-bash Pamir, then viâ Tash-kurghan, Little Karakul, Bulun Kul,
Gez Daria to Tashmalik and Kashgar, Dr. Stein says that he surveyed it in
July, 1900, and he refers for the correct phonetic spelling of local names
along it to his map to be published in _J.R.G.S._, in December, 1902.
He says in his _Prel. Report_, p. 10: "The _Wakhjir_ Pass, only some 12
miles to the south-west of _Kök-török_, connects the Taghdumbash Pamir and
the Sarikol Valleys with the head-waters of the Oxus. So I was glad that
the short halt, which was unavoidable for survey purposes, permitted me to
move a light camp close to the summit of the Wakhjir Pass (circ. 16,200
feet). On the following day, 2nd July, I visited the head of _Ab-i-Panja_
Valley, near the great glaciers which Lord Curzon first demonstrated to be
the true source of the River Oxus. It was a strange sensation for me in
this desolate mountain waste to know that I had reached at last the
eastern threshold of that distant region, including Bactria and the Upper
Oxus Valley, which as a field of exploration had attracted me long before
I set foot in India. Notwithstanding its great elevation, the Wakhjir Pass
and its approaches both from west and east are comparatively easy.
Comparing the topographical facts with Hiuen-Tsiang's account in the _Si
yu-ki_, I am led to conclude that the route followed by the great Chinese
Pilgrim, when travelling about A.D. 649 from Badakshan towards Khotan,
through 'the valley of Po-mi-lo (Pamir)' into Sarikol, actually traversed
this Pass."

Dr. Stein adds in his notes to me that "Marco Polo's description of the
forty days' journey to the E.N.E. of _Vokhan_ as _through tracts of
wilderness_ can well be appreciated by any one who has passed through the
Pamir Region, in the direction of the valleys W. and N. of Muztagh Ata.
After leaving Táshkurghan and Tagharma, where there is some precarious
cultivation, there is no local produce to be obtained until the oasis of
Tashmalik is reached in the open Kashgar plains. In the narrow valley of
the Yamanyar River (Gez Defile) there is scarcely any grazing; its
appearance is far more desolate than that of the elevated Pamirs."--"Marco
Polo's praise (p. 181) of the gardens and vine-yards of Kashgar is well
deserved; also the remark about the trading enterprise of its merchants
still holds good, if judged by the standard of Chinese Turkestan. Kashgar
traders visit Khotan far more frequently than _vice versa_. It is strange
that no certain remains of Nestorian worship can be traced now."--"My
impression [Dr. Stein's] of the people of the Khotan oasis (p. 188) was
that they are certainly a meeker and more docile race than e.g. the
average 'Kashgarlik' or Yarkandi. The very small number of the Chinese
garrison of the districts Khotan and Keria (only about 200 men) bears out
this impression."

We may refer for the ancient sites, history, etc., of Khotan to the
_Preliminary Report_ of Dr. Stein and to his paper in the _Geographical
Journal_ for December, 1902, actually in the press.


5.--NUMBER OF PAMIRS. (Vol. i. p. 176.)

Lord Curzon gives the following list of the "eight claimants to the
distinction and title of a Pamir": (1) Taghdumbash, or Supreme Head of the
Mountains Pamir, lying immediately below and to the north of the Kilik
Pass. (2) The Pamir-i-Wakhan. (3) The Pamir-i-Khurd, or Little Pamir. (4)
The Pamir-i-Kalan, or Great Pamir. (5) The Alichur Pamir. (6) The Sarez
Pamir. (7) The Rang Kul Pamir. (8) The Khargosh or Hare Pamir, which
contains the basin of the Great Kara Kul. See this most valuable paper,
_The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus_, reprinted from the _Geographical
Journal_ of 1896, in 1896, 1898, and 1899.

[Illustration: Some of the objects found by Dr. M.A. Stein in Central
Asia.]


6.--PEIN. (Vol. i. p. 192.)

Dr. M.A. Stein, of the Indian Educational Service, appears to have
exactly identified the site of Pein, during his recent archaeological
researches in Central Asia; he writes (_Prel. Report on a Journey of
Archaeological and Topog. Exploration in Chinese Turkestan_, Lond., 1901,
pp. 58-59): "Various antiquarian and topographical considerations made me
anxious to identify the position of the town of _Pi-mo_, which
Hiuen-Tsiang describes as some 300 _li_ to the east of the Khotan capital.
It was probably the same place as the _Pein_, visited by Marco Polo. After
marching back along the Keriya River for four days, I struck to the
south-west, and, after three more marches, arrived in the vicinity of
Lachin-Ata Mazar, a desolate little shrine in the desert to the north of
the Khotan-Keriya route. Though our search was rendered difficult by the
insufficiency of guides and the want of water, I succeeded during the
following few days in tracing the extensive ruined site which previous
information had led me to look for in that vicinity. 'Uzun-Tati' ('the
distant Tati,') as the _débris_-covered area is locally designated,
corresponds in its position and the character of its remains exactly to the
description of Pi-mo. Owing to far-advanced erosion and the destruction
dealt by treasure-seekers, the structural remains are very scanty indeed.
But the _débris_, including bits of glass, pottery, china, small objects in
brass and stone, etc., is plentiful enough, and in conjunction with the
late Chinese coins found here, leaves no doubt as to the site having been
occupied up to the Middle Ages."

Our itinerary should therefore run from Khotan to Uzun Tati, and thence to
Nia, leaving Kiria to the south; indeed Kiria is _not_ an ancient
place.--H.C.

[Illustration: MARCO POLO'S ITINERARY CORRECTED]

Mr. E.J. Rapson, of the British Museum, with the kind permission of Dr.
Stein, has sent me a photograph (which we reproduce) of coins and
miscellaneous objects found at Uzun Tati. Coin (1) bears the _nien-hao_
(title of reign) _Pao Yuen_ (1038-1040) of the Emperor Jen Tsung, of the
Sung Dynasty; Coin (2) bears the _nien-hao_, _K'ien Yuen_ (758-760) of the
Emperor Su Tsung of the T'ang Dynasty; Coin (3) is of the time of the Khan
of Turkestan, Muhammad Arslan Khan, about 441 A.H. = 1049 A.D. From the
description sent to me by Mr. Rapson and written by Mr. Andrews, I note
that the miscellaneous objects include: "Two fragments of fine Chinese
porcelain, highly glazed and painted with Chinese ornament in blue. That
on the left is painted on both sides, and appears to be portion of rim of
a bowl. Thickness 3/32 of an inch. That to the right is slightly coarser,
and is probably portion of a larger vessel. Thickness 1/4 inch (nearly). A
third fragment of porcelain, shown at bottom of photo, is decorated
roughly in a neutral brown colour, which has imperfectly 'fluxed.' It,
also, appears to be Chinese. Thickness 1/8 inch (nearly).--A brass or
bronze object, cast. Probably portion of a clasp or buckle.--A brass
finger ring containing a piece of mottled green glass held loosely in
place by a turned-over denticulated rim. The metal is very thin."--H.C.


7.--FIRE-ARMS. (Vol. i. p. 342.)

From a paper on _Siam's Intercourse with China_, published by
Lieutenant-Colonel Gerini in the _Asiatic Quarterly Review_ for October,
1902, it would appear that fire-arms were mentioned for the first time in
Siamese Records during the Lau invasion and the siege of Swankhalôk (from
1085 to 1097 A.D.); it is too early a date for the introduction of
fire-arms, though it would look "much more like an anachronism were the
advent of these implements of warfare [were] placed, in blind reliance upon
the _Northern Chronicles_, still a few centuries back. The most curious of
it all is, however, the statement as to the weapons in question having been
introduced into the country from China." Following W.F. Mayers in his
valuable contributions to the _Jour. North-China B.R.A.S._, 1869-1870,
Colonel Gerini, who, of course, did not know of Dr. Schlegel's paper, adds:
"It was not until the reign of the Emperor Yung Lê, and on occasion of the
invasion of Tonkin in A.D. 1407, that the Chinese acquired the knowledge of
the propulsive effect of gunpowder, from their vanquished enemies."


8.--LA COUVADE. (Vol. ii. p. 91.)

Mr. H. Ling Roth has given an interesting paper entitled _On the
Signification of Couvade_, in the _Journ. Anthropological Institute_,
XXII. 1893, pp. 204-243. He writes (pp. 221-222):--"From this survey it
would seem in the first place that we want a great deal more information
about the custom in the widely isolated cases where it has been reported,
and secondly, that the authenticity of some of the reported cases is
doubtful in consequence of authors repeating their predecessors' tales, as
Colquhoun did Marco Polo's, and V. der Haart did Schouten's. I should not
be at all surprised if ultimately both Polo's and Schouten's accounts
turned out to be myths, both these travellers making their records at a
time when the Old World was full of the tales of the New, so that in the
end, we may yet find the custom is not, nor ever has been, so widespread
as is generally supposed to have been the case."

I do not very well see how Polo, in the 13th and 14th centuries could make
his _record at a time when the Old World was full of the tales of the
New_, discovered at the end of the 15th century! Unless Mr. Ling Roth
supposes the Venetian Traveller acquainted with the various theories of
the Pre-Columbian discovery of America!!


9.--ALACAN. (Vol. ii. pp. 255 and 261.)

Dr. G. Schlegel writes, in the _T'oung Pao_ (May, 1898, p. 153): "_Abakan_
or _Abachan_ ought to be written _Alahan_. His name is written by the
Chinese _Ats'zehan_ and by the Japanese _Asikan_; but this is because they
have both confounded the character _lah_ with the character _ts'ze_; the
old sound of [the last] character [of the name] was _kan_ and is always
used by the Chinese when wanting to transcribe the title _Khan_ or _Chan_.
Marco Polo's A_b_acan is a clerical error for A_l_acan."


10.--CHAMPA. (Vol. ii. p. 268.)

In Ma Huan's account of the Kingdom of Siam, transl. by Mr. Phillips
(_Jour. China B.R.A.S._, XXI. 1886, pp. 35-36) we read: "Their marriage
ceremonies are as follows:--They first invite the priest to conduct the
bridegroom to the bride's house, and on arrival there the priest exacts
the 'droit seigneurial,' and then she is introduced to the bridegroom."


11.--RUCK QUILLS. (Vol. ii. p. 421.)

Regarding Ruck Quills, Sir H. Yule wrote in the _Academy_, 22nd March,
1884, pp. 204-405:--

"I suggested that this might possibly have been some vegetable production,
such as a great frond of the Ravenala (_Urania speciosa_) cooked to pass
as a ruc's quill. (_Marco Polo_, first edition, ii. 354; second edition,
ii. 414.) Mr. Sibree, in his excellent book on Madagascar (_The Great
African Island_, 1880) noticed this, but said:

"'It is much more likely that they [the ruc's quills] were the immensely
long midribs of the leaves of the rofia palm. These are from twenty to
thirty feet long, and are not at all unlike an enormous quill stripped of
the feathering portion'" (p. 55).

In another passage he describes the palm, _Sagus ruffia (? raphia_):

"The _rofia_ has a trunk of from thirty to fifty feet in height, and at
the head divides into seven or eight immensely long leaves. The midrib of
these leaves is a very strong, but extremely light and straight pole....
These poles are often twenty feet or more in length, and the leaves proper
consist of a great number of fine and long pinnate leaflets, set at right
angles to the midrib, from eighteen to twenty inches long, and about one
and a half broad," etc. (pp. 74, 75).

When Sir John Kirk came home in 1881-1882, I spoke to him on the subject,
and he felt confident that the _rofia_ or _raphia_ palm-fronds were the
original of the ruc's quills. He also kindly volunteered to send me a
specimen on his return to Zanzibar. This he did not forget, and some time
ago there arrived at the India Office not one, but four of these ruc's
quills. In the letter which announced this despatch Sir John says:--

"I send to-day per s.s. _Arcot_ ... four fronds of the Raphia palm, called
here 'Moale.' They are just as sold and shipped up and down the coast. No
doubt they were sent in Marco Polo's time in exactly the same state,
i.e. stripped of their leaflets, and with the tip broken off. They are
used for making stages and ladders, and last long if kept dry. They are
also made into doors, by being cut into lengths, and pinned through. The
stages are made of three, like tripods, and used for picking cloves from
the higher branches."

The largest of the four midribs sent (they do not differ much) is 25 feet
4 inches long, measuring 12 inches in girth at the butt, and 5 inches at
the upper end. I calculate that if it originally came to a point the whole
length would be 45 feet, but, as this would not be so, we may estimate it
at 35 to 40 feet. The thick part is deeply hollowed on the upper (?) side,
leaving the section of the solid butt in form a thick crescent. The
leaflets are all gone, but when entire, the object must have strongly
resembled a Brobdingnagian feather. Compare this description with that of
Padre Bolivar in Ludolf, referred to above.

"In aliquibus ... regionibus vidi pennas alae istius avis prodigiosae,
licet avem non viderim, Penna illa, prout ex formâ colligebatur, erat ex
mediocribus, longitudine 28 palmorum, latitudine trium. Calamus vero a
radice usque ad extremitatem longitudine quinque palmorum, densitatis
instar brachii moderati, robustissimus erat et durus. Pennulae inter se
aequales et bene compositae, ut vix ab invicem nisi cum violentiâ
divellerentur. Colore erant valdè nigro, calamus colore albo." (_Ludolfi,
ad suam Hist. Aethiop., Comment._, p. 164.)

The last particular, as to colour, I am not able to explain: the others
correspond well. The _palmus_ in this passage may be anything from 9 to 10
inches.

I see this tree is mentioned by Captain R.F. Burton in his volume on the
Lake Regions (vol. xxix. of the _Journal_ of the Royal Geographical
Society, p. 34),[1] and probably by many other travellers.

I ought to mention here that some other object has been shown at Zanzibar
as part of the wings of a great bird. Sir John Kirk writes that this
(which he does not describe particularly) was in the possession of the
Roman Catholic priests at Bagamoyo, to whom it had been given by natives
of the interior, who declared that they had brought it from Tanganyika,
and that it was part of the wing of a gigantic bird. On another occasion
they repeated this statement, alleging that this bird was known in the
Udoe (?) country near the coast. These priests were able to communicate
directly with their informants, and certainly believed the story. Dr.
Hildebrand, also, a competent German naturalist, believed in it. But Sir
John Kirk himself says that "what the priests had to show was most
undoubtedly the whalebone of a comparatively small whale."


12.--A SPANISH EDITION OF MARCO POLO.

As we go to press we receive the newly published volume, _El Libro de
Marco Polo--Aus dem vermächtnis des_ Dr. Hermann Knust _nach der Madrider
Handschrift herausgegeben von_ Dr. R. Stuebe. Leipzig, Dr. Seele & Co.,
1902, 8vo., pp. xxvi.-114. It reproduces the old Spanish text of the
manuscript Z-I-2 of the Escurial Library from a copy made by Señor D. José
Rodriguez for the Society of the Spanish Bibliophiles, which, being
unused, was sold by him to Dr. Hermann Knust, who made a careful
comparison of it with the original manuscript. This copy, found among the
papers of Dr. Knust after his death, is now edited by Dr. Stuebe. The
original 14th century MS., written in a good hand on two columns, includes
312 leaves of parchment, and contains several works; among them we note:
1°, a Collection entitled _Flor de las Ystorias de Oriente_ (fol. 1-104),
made on the advice of Juan Fernandez de Heredia, Grand Master of the Order
of St. John of Jerusalem (1377), of which _Marco Polo_ (fol. 50-104) is a
part; 2° and _Secretum Secretorum_ (fol. 254 _r_-fol. 312 _v._); this MS.
is not mentioned in our List, _App. F._, II. p. 546, unless it be our No.
60.

The manuscript includes 68 chapters, the first of which is devoted to the
City of Lob and Sha-chau, corresponding to our Bk. I., ch. 39 and 40 (our
vol. i. pp. 196 seqq.) ch. 65 (p. 111) corresponds approximatively to
our ch. 40, Bk. III. (vol. ii. p. 451); chs. 66, 67, and the last, 68,
would answer to our chs. 2, 3, and 4 of Bk. I. (vol i., pp. 45 seqq.). A
concordance of this Spanish text, with Pauthier's, Yule's, and the
Geographic Texts, is carefully given at the beginning of each of the 68
chapters of the Book.

Of course this edition does not throw any new light on the text, and this
volume is but a matter of curiosity.


13.--SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE.

One of the last questions in which Sir Henry Yule[2] took an interest in,
was the problem of the authorship of the book of Travels which bears the
name of SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE, the worthy Knight, who, after being for a
long time considered as the "Father of English Prose" has become simply
"the name claimed by the compiler of a singular book of Travels, written
in French, and published between 1357 and 1371."[3]

It was understood that "JOHAN MAUNDEUILLE, chiualer, ia soit ceo qe ieo ne
soie dignes, neez et norriz Dengleterre de la ville Seint Alban," crossed
the sea "lan millesme ccc'me vintisme et secund, le jour de Seint
Michel,"[4] that he travelled since across the whole of Asia during the
14th century, that he wrote the relation of his travels as a rest after his
fatiguing peregrinations, and that he died on the 17th of November, 1372,
at Liège, when he was buried in the Church of the Guillemins.

No work has enjoyed a greater popularity than Mandeville's; while we
describe but eighty-five manuscripts of Marco Polo's, and I gave a list of
seventy-three manuscripts of Friar Odoric's relation,[5] it is by
hundreds that Mandeville's manuscripts can be reckoned. As to the printed
editions, they are, so to speak, numberless; Mr. Carl Schönborn[6] gave
in 1840, an incomplete bibliography; Tobler in his _Bibliographia
geographica Palestinae_ (1867),[7] and Röhricht[8] after him compiled a
better bibliography, to which may be added my own lists in the
_Bibliotheca Sinica_[9] and in the _T'oung-Pao_.[10]

Campbell, _Ann. de la Typog. néerlandaise_, 1874, p. 338, mentions a Dutch
edition: _Reysen int heilighe lant_, s.l.n.d., folio, of which but two
copies are known, and which must be dated as far back as 1470 [see p.
600], I believed hitherto (I am not yet sure that Campbell is right as to
his date) that the first printed edition was German, s.l.n.d., very likely
printed at Basel, about 1475, discovered by Tross, the Paris
Bookseller.[11] The next editions are the French of the 4th April,
1480,[12] and 8th February of the same year,[13] Easter being the 2nd of
April, then the Latin,[14] Dutch,[15] and Italian[16] editions, and
after the English editions of Pynson and Wynkin de Worde.

In what tongue was Mandeville's Book written?

The fact that the first edition of it was printed either in German or in
Dutch, only shows that the scientific progress was greater and printing
more active in such towns as Basel, Nuremberg and Augsburg than in others.
At first, one might believe that there were three original texts, probably
in French, English, and vulgar Latin; the Dean of Tongres, Radulphus of
Rivo, a native of Breda, writes indeed in his _Gesta Pontificum
Leodiensium_, 1616, p. 17: "Hoc anno Ioannes Mandeuilius natione Anglus
vir ingenio, & arte medendi eminens, qui toto fere terrarum orbe
peragrato, _tribus linguis_ peregrinationem suam doctissime _conscripsit_,
in alium orbê nullis finibus clausum, lögeque hoc quietiorem, & beatiorem
migrauit 17. Nouembris. Sepultus in Ecclesia Wilhelmitarum non procul à
moenibus Ciuitatis Leodiensis." The Dean of Tongres died in 1483;[17] Mr.
Warner, on the authority of the _Bulletin de l'Inst. Archéol. Liégeois_,
xvi. 1882, p. 358, gives 1403 as the date of the death of Radulphus.
However, Mandeville himself says (_Warner, Harley_, 4383) at the end of
his introduction, p. 3:--"Et sachez qe ieusse cest escript mis en latyn
pur pluis briefment deuiser; mes, pur ceo qe plusours entendent mieltz
romantz qe latin, ieo lay mys en romance, pur ceo qe chescun lentende et
luy chiualers et les seignurs et lez autres nobles homes qi ne sciuent
point de latin ou poy, et qount estee outre meer, sachent et entendent, si
ieo dye voir ou noun, et si ieo erre en deuisant par noun souenance ou
autrement, qils le puissent adresser et amender, qar choses de long temps
passez par la veue tornent en obly, et memorie de homme ne puet mye tot
retenir ne comprendre." From this passage and from the Latin text:
"Incipit itinerarius a terra Angliae ad partes Iherosolimitanas et in
ulteriores transmarinas, editus primo in lingua gallicana a milite suo
autore anno incarnacionis Domini m. ccc. lv, in civitate Leodiensi, et
paulo post in eadem civitate translatus in hanc formam latinam." (P. 33 of
the _Relation des Mongols ou Tartars par le frère Jean du Plan de Carpin_,
Paris, 1838). D'Avezac long ago was inclined to believe in an unique
French version. The British Museum, English MS. (Cott., Titus. C. xvi.),
on the other hand, has in the Prologue (cf. ed. 1725, p. 6): "And zee
schulle undirstonde, that I have put this Boke out of _Latyn_ into
_Frensche_, and translated it azen out of _Frensche_ into _Englyssche_,
that every Man of my Nacioun may undirstonde it...."[18]

But we shall see that--without taking into account the important passage
in French quoted above, and probably misunderstood by the English
translator--the English version, a sentence of which, not to be found in
the Latin manuscripts, has just been given, is certainly posterior to the
French text, and therefore that the abstract of Titus C. xvi, has but a
slight value. There can be some doubt only for the French and the Latin
texts.

Dr. Carl Schönborn[19] and Herr Eduard Mätzner,[20] "respectively seem
to have been the first to show that the current Latin and English texts
cannot possibly have been made by Mandeville himself. Dr. J. Vogels states
the same of unprinted Latin versions which he has discovered in the
British Museum, and he has proved it as regards the Italian version."[21]

"In Latin, as Dr. Vogels has shown, there are five independent versions.
Four of them, which apparently originated in England (one manuscript, now
at Leyden, being dated in 1390) have no special interest; the fifth, or
vulgate Latin text, was no doubt made at Liège, and has an important
bearing on the author's identity. It is found in twelve manuscripts, all
of the 15th century, and is the only Latin version as yet printed."[22]

The universal use of the French language at the time would be an argument
in favour of the original text being in this tongue, if corrupt proper
names, abbreviations in the Latin text, etc., did not make the fact still
more probable.

The story of the English version, as it is told by Messrs. Nicholson and
Warner, is highly interesting: The English version was made from a
"mutilated archetype," in French (Warner, p. x.) of the beginning of the
15th century, and was used for all the known English manuscripts, with the
exception of the Cotton and Egerton volumes--and also for all the printed
editions until 1725. Mr. Nicholson[23] pointed out that it is defective
in the passage extending from p. 36, l. 7: "And there were to ben 5
Soudans," to p. 62, l. 25: "the Monkes of the Abbeye of ten tyme," in
Halliwell's edition (1839) from Titus C. xvi, which corresponds to Mr.
Warner's Egerton text, p. 18, l. 21: "for the Sowdan," and p. 32, l. 16,
"synges oft tyme." It is this bad text which, until 1725,[24] has been
printed as we just said, with numerous variants, including the poor
edition of Mr. Ashton[25] who has given the text of East instead of the
Cotton text under the pretext that the latter was not legible.[26]

Two revisions of the English version were made during the first quarter of
the 15th century; one is represented by the British Museum Egerton MS.
1982 and the abbreviated Bodleian MS. e. Mus. 116; the other by the Cotton
MS. Titus C. xvi. This last one gives the text of the edition of 1725
often reprinted till Halliwell's (1839 and 1866).[27] The Egerton MS.
1982 has been reproduced in a magnificent volume edited in 1889 for the
Roxburghe Club par Mr. G.F. Warner, of the British Museum;[28] this
edition includes also the French text from the Harley MS. 4383 which,
being defective from the middle of chap. xxii. has been completed with the
Royal MS. 20 B.X. Indeed the Egerton MS. 1982 is the only complete
English manuscript of the British Museum,[29] as, besides seven copies of
the defective text, three leaves are missing in the Cotton MS. after f.
53, the text of the edition of 1725 having been completed with the Royal
MS. 17 B.[30]

Notwithstanding its great popularity, Mandeville's Book could not fail to
strike with its similarity with other books of travels, with Friar Odoric's
among others. This similarity has been the cause that occasionally the
Franciscan Friar was given as a companion to the Knight of St. Albans, for
instance, in the manuscripts of Mayence and Wolfenbüttel.[31] Some
Commentators have gone too far in their appreciation and the Udine monk has
been treated either as a plagiary or a liar! Old Samuel Purchas, in his
address to the Reader printed at the beginning of Marco Polo's text (p.
65), calls his countryman! Mandeville the greatest Asian traveller next (if
next) to Marco Polo, and he leaves us to understand that the worthy knight
has been pillaged by some priest![32] Astley uses strong language; he calls
Odoric a _great liar!_[33]

Others are fair in their judgment, Malte-Brun, for instance, marked what
Mandeville borrowed from Odoric, and La Renaudière is also very just in
the _Biographie Universelle_. But what Malte-Brun and La Renaudière showed
in a general manner, other learned men, such as Dr. S. Bormans, Sir Henry
Yule, Mr. E.W.B. Nicholson,[34] Dr. J. Vogels,[35] M. Léopold Delisle,
Herr A. Bovenschen,[36] and last, not least, Dr. G.F. Warner, have in
our days proved that not only has the book bearing Mandeville's name been
compiled from the works of Vincent of Beauvais, Jacques of Vitry,
Boldensel, Carpini, Odoric, etc., but that it was written neither by a
Knight of St. Albans, by an Englishman, or by a Sir John Mandeville, but
very likely by the physician John of Burgundy or John a Beard.

In a repertory of _La Librairie de la Collégiale de Saint Paul à Liège au
XV'e. Siècle_, published by Dr. Stanislas Bormans, in the _Bibliophile
Belge_, Brussels, 1866, p. 236, is catalogued under No. 240: _Legenda de
Joseph et Asseneth ejus uxore, in papiro. In eodem itinerarium Johannis de
Mandevilla militis, apud guilhelmitanos Leodienses sepulti_.

Dr. S. Bormans has added the following note: "Jean Mandeville, ou Manduith,
théologien et mathématicien, était né à St. Alban en Angleterre d'une
famille noble. On le surnomma pour un motif inconnu, _ad Barbam_ et
_magnovillanus_. En 1322, il traversa la France pour aller en Asie, servit
quelque temps dans les troupes du Sultan d'Egypte et revint seulement en
1355 en Angleterre. Il mourut à Liège chez les Guilhemins, le 17th
Novembre, 1372. Il laissa au dit monastère plusieurs MSS. de ses oeuvres
fort vantés, tant de ses voyages que de la médecine, écrits de sa main; il
y avait encore en ladite maison plusieurs meubles qu'il leur laissa pour
mémoire. Il a laissé quelques livres de médecine qui n'ont jamais été
imprimés, des _tabulae astronomicae_, de _chorda recta et umbra, de
doctrina theologica_. La relation de son voyage est en latin, français et
anglais; il raconte, en y mêlant beaucoup de fables, ce qu'il a vu de
curieux en Egypte, en Arabie et en Perse."

Then is inserted, an abstract from Lefort, _Liège Herald_, at the end of
the 17th century, from _Jean d'Outremeuse_, which we quote from another
publication of Dr. Bormans' as it contains the final sentence: "Mort
enfin, etc." not to be found in the paper of the _Bibliophile Belge_.

In his introduction to the _Chronique et geste de Jean des Preis dit
d'Outremeuse_, Brussels, F. Hayez, 1887 (_Collection des Chroniques belges
inédites_), Dr. Stanislas Bormans writes, pp. cxxxiii.-cxxxiv.: "L'an
M.CCC.LXXII, mourut à Liège, le 12 Novembre, un homme fort distingué par
sa naissance, avant de s'y faire connoître sous le nom de Jean de
Bourgogne dit à la Barbe. Il s'ouvrit néanmoins au lit de la mort à Jean
d'Outremeuse, son compère, et institué son exécuteur testamentaire. De
vrai il se titra, dans le précis de sa dernière volonté, messire _Jean de
Mandeville, chevalier, comte de Montfort en Angleterre, et seigneur de
l'isle de Campdi et du château Perouse_. Ayant cependant eu le malheur de
tuer, en son pays, un comte qu'il ne nomme pas, il s'engagea à parcourir
les trois parties du monde. Vint à Liège en 1343. Tout sorti qu'il étoit
d'une noblesse très-distinguée, il aima de s'y tenir caché. Il étoit, au
reste, grand naturaliste, profond philosophe et astrologue, y joint en
particulier une connoissance très singulière de la physique, se trompant
rarement lorsqu'il disoit son sentiment à l'égard d'un malade, s'il en
reviendroit ou pas. Mort enfin, on l'enterra aux F.F. Guillelmins, au
faubourg d'Avroy, comme vous avez vu plus amplement cydessous."

It is not the first time that the names _Jean de Mandeville_ and _Jean à
la Barbe_ are to be met with, as Ortelius, in his description of Liège,
included in his Itinerary of Belgium, has given the epitaph of the
knightly physician:[37(1)]

"Leodium primo aspectu ostentat in sinistra ripa (nam dextra vinetis plena
est,) magna, & populosa suburbia ad collium radices, in quorum iugis multa
sunt, & pulcherrima Monasteria, inter quae magnificum illud ac nobile D.
Laurentio dicatum ab Raginardo episcopo, vt habet Sigebertus, circa ann.
sal. M XXV aedificatum est in hac quoq. regione Guilelmitaru Coenobium in
quo epitaphiu hoc Ioannis à Mandeuille excepimus: _Hic iacet vir nobilis
Dns Ioes de Mandeville al Dcus ad barbam miles dns de Capdi natus de Anglia
medicie pfessor deuotissimus orator et bonorum largissimus paupribus
erogator qui toto quasi orbe lustrato leodii diem vite sue clausit extremum
ano Dni M CCC° LXXI°[37(2)] mensis novebr die XVII_.[37(3)]

"Haec in lapide, in quo caelata viri armati imago, leonem calcantis, barba
bifurcata, ad caput manus benedicens, & vernacula haec verba: _vos ki
paseis sor mi pour lamour deix proies por mi_. Clypeus erat vacuus, in quo
olim laminam fuisse dicebant aeream, & eius in ea itidem caelata insignia,
leonem videlicet argenteum, cui ad pectus lunula rubea, in campo caeruleo,
quem limbus ambiret denticulatus ex auro, eius nobis ostendebat & cultros,
ephippiaque, & calcaria, quibus vsum fuisse asserebat in peragrando toto
fere terrarum orbe, vt clarius eius testatur itinerarium, quod typis etiam
excusum passim habetur."[37]

Dr. Warner writes in the _National Biography_:

"There is abundant proof that the tomb of the author of the _Travels_ was
to be seen in the Church of the Guillemins or Guillelmites at Liège down
to the demolition of the building in 1798. The fact of his burial there,
with the date of his death, 17th November, 1372, was published by Bale in
1548 (_Summarium_ f. 149 _b_), and was confirmed independently by Jacob
Meyer (_Annales rerum Flandric_. 1561, p. 165) and Lud. Guicciardini.
(_Paesi Bassi_, 1567, p. 281.)"

In a letter dated from Bodley's Library, 17th March, 1884, to _The
Academy_, 12th April, 1884, No. 623, Mr. Edward B. Nicholson drew
attention to the abstract from Jean d'Ontremeuse, and came to the
conclusion that the writer of Mandeville's relation was a _profound liar_,
and that he was the Liège Professor of Medicine, John of Burgundy or _à la
Barbe_. He adds: "If, in the matter of literary honesty, John a Beard was
a bit of a knave, he was very certainly no fool."

On the other hand, M. Léopold Delisle,[38] has shown that two
manuscripts, Nouv. acq. franç. 4515 (Barrois, 24) and Nouv. acq. franç.
4516 (Barrois, 185), were part formerly of one volume copied in 1371 by
Raoulet of Orleans and given in the same year to King Charles V. by his
physician Gervaise Crestien, viz. one year before the death of the
so-called Mandeville; one of these manuscripts--now separate--contains the
Book of Jehan de Mandeville, the other one, a treatise of "la preservacion
de epidimie, minucion ou curacion d'icelle faite de maistre Jehan de
Bourgoigne, autrement dit à la Barbe, professeur en médicine et cytoien du
Liège," in 1365. This bringing together is certainly not fortuitous.

Sir Henry Yule traces thus the sources of the spurious work: "Even in that
part of the book which may be admitted with probability to represent some
genuine experience, there are distinct traces that another work has been
made use of, more or less, as an aid in the compilation, we might almost
say, as a framework to fill up. This is the itinerary of the German knight
William of Boldensele, written in 1336 at the desire of Cardinal
Talleyrand de Perigord. A cursory comparison of this with Mandeville
leaves no doubt of the fact that the latter has followed its thread, using
its suggestions, and on many subjects its expressions, though digressing
and expanding on every side, and too often eliminating the singular good
sense of the German traveller. After such a comparison we may indicate as
examples Boldensele's account of Cyprus (_Mandeville, Halliwell's_ ed.
1866, p. 28, and p. 10), of Tyre and the coast of Palestine (_Mandeville_,
29, 30, 33, 34), of the journey from Gaza to Egypt (34), passages about
Babylon of Egypt (40), about Mecca (42), the general account of Egypt
(45), the pyramids (52), some of the particular wonders of Cairo, such as
the slave-market, the chicken-hatching stoves, and the apples of Paradise,
i.e. plantains (49), the Red Sea (57), the convent on Sinai (58, 60),
the account of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (74-76), etc."

He adds: "It is curious that no passage in Mandeville can be plausibly
traced to Marco Polo, with one exception. This is (_Halliwell's_ ed., p.
163) where he states that at Ormus the people, during the great heat, lie
in water,--a circumstance mentioned by Polo, though not by Odoric. We
should suppose it most likely that this fact had been interpolated in the
copy of Odoric used by Mandeville; for, if he had borrowed it direct from
Polo, he would have borrowed more." (_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, p. 474.)

"Leaving this question, there remains the more complex one whether the
book contains, in any measure, facts and knowledge acquired by actual
travels and residence in the East. We believe that it may, but only as a
small portion of the whole, and that confined entirely to the section of
the work which treats of the Holy Land, and of the different ways of
getting thither, as well as of Egypt, and in general of what we understand
by the Levant." (Ibid. p. 473.)

Dr. Warner deals the final blow in the _National Biography_: "The
alphabets which he gives have won him some credit as a linguist, but only
the Greek and the Hebrew (which were readily accessible) are what they
pretend to be, and that which he calls Saracen actually comes from the
_Cosmographia of aethicus_! His knowledge of Mohammedanism and its Arabic
formulae impressed even Yule. He was, however, wholly indebted for that
information to the _Liber de Statu Saracenorum_ of William of Tripoli
(circa 1270), as he was to the _Historiae Orientis_ of Hetoum, the
Armenian (1307), for much of what he wrote about Egypt. In the last case,
indeed, he shows a rare sign of independence, for he does not, with
Hetoum, end his history of the sultanate about 1300, but carries it onto
the death of En-Násir (1341), and names two of his successors. Although
his statements about them are not historically accurate, this fact and a
few other details suggest that he may really have been in Egypt, if not at
Jerusalem, but the proportion of original matter is so very far short of
what might be expected that even this is extremely doubtful."

With this final quotation, we may take leave of John of Mandeville, aliàs
John a Beard.

  H.C.


[1] "The _raphia_, here called the 'Devil's date,' is celebrated as
    having the largest leaf in the vegetable Kingdom," etc. In his
    translation of Lacerda's journey he calls it _Raphia vinifera_.

[2] MANDEVILLE, Jehan de [By Edward Byron Nicholson, M.A., and Colonel
    Henry Yule, C.B.] Ext. from the _Encyclopaed. Britan._ 9th ed.,
    xv. 1883, ppt. 4to., pp. 4.

[3] _Encyclop. Brit._ xv. p. 473.

[4] British Museum, Harley, 4383, f. 1 _verso_.

[5] _Les Voyages en Asie an XIV'e siècle du Bienheureux frère Odoric de
    Pordenone_. Paris, 1891, p. cxvi.

[6] Bibliographische Untersuchungen über die Reise-Beschreibung des Sir
    John Maundeville.--Dem Herrn Samuel Gottfried Reiche, Rector und
    Professor des Gymnasiums zu St. Elisabet in Breslau und Vice-Präses
    der Schlesischen Gesellschaft für Vaterländische Cultur, Ritter des
    rothen Adlerordens, zur Feier Seines Amts-Jubelfestes am 30. October
    1840 im Namen des Gymnasiums zu St. Maria Magdalena gewidmet von Dr.
    Carl. Schönborn, Director, Rector und Professor.--Breslau, gedruckt
    bei Grass, Barth und Comp., ppt. 4to. pp. 24.

[7] Bibliographia geographica Palaestinae. Zunächst kritische Uebersicht
    gedruckter und ungedruckter Beschreibungen der Reisen ins heilige
    Land. Von Titus Tobler.--Leipzig, Verlag von S. Hirzel. 1867, 8vo.,
    pp. iv.-265.: C. 1336 (1322-1356). Der englische ritter John
    Maundeville, pp. 36-39.

[8] Bibliotheca geographica Palestinae. Chronologisches Verzeichniss der
    auf die Geographie des Heiligen Landes bezüglichen Literatur von 333
    bis 1878 und Versuch einer Cartographie. Herausgegeben von Reinhold
    Röhricht. Berlin, H. Reuther, 1890, 8vo, pp. xx-742.

[9] _Bibliotheca Sinica_.--Dictionnaire bibliographique des ouvrages
    relatif sà l'empire chinois par Henri Cordier. Paris, Ernest Leroux,
    1878-1895, 3 vol. 8vo. col. 943-959, 1921-1927, 2201.

[10] Jean de Mandeville. Ext. du _T'oung Pao_, vol. ii. No. 4, Leide,
    E.J. Brill, 1891, 8vo, pp. 38.

[11] Jch Otto von diemeringen ein || Thumherre zu Metz in Lothoringen. han
    dises buch verwandelvsz || welschs vnd vsz latin zu tütsch durch das
    die tütschen lüte ouch mogent || dar inne lesen von menigen
    wunderlichen sachen die dor inne geschribe || sind. von fremden landen
    vn fremden tieren von fremden lüten vnd von || irem glouben von. iren
    wesen von iren kleidern. vnd vo vil andern wun || deren als hie noch
    in den capitelen geschriben stat. Und ist das buch in || fünf teil
    geteilt vnd saget das erst buch von den landen vnd von den we || gen
    vsz tütschen nider landen gen Jerusalem zu varen. vnd zu sant Ka | ||
    therine grab vnd zu dem berg Synai. vnd von den landen vnd von den ||
    wundern die man vnterwegen do zwischen vinden mag. Jtem von des ||
    herren gewalt vnd herrschafft der do heisset der Soldan vnd von sinem
    || wesen. Das ander buch saget ob ymant wolt alle welt vmbfaren was ||
    lands vnd was wunders er vinden mocht. Jn manchen steten vn in vil ||
    insulen dor inne er kame. vnd saget ouch von den wegen vnd von den la
    || den vn lüten was in des grossen herre land ist. & do heisset zu
    latin Ma || gnus canis | das ist zu tütsch der grosz hunt. der ist so
    gar gewaltig vnd || so rich das im vff erden an gold an edlem gestein
    vnan anderm richtum || niemant gelichen mag. on allein priester Johann
    von Jndia. Das drit || buch saget von des vor genanten herren des
    grossen hunds glowben vn || gewonheit vnd wie er von erst her komen
    ist vnd von andern sachen vil || Das vierde buch saget von jndia vnd
    von priester Johann vnd von siner || herschafft. von sinem vrsprung
    vnd von siner heiligkeit von sinem glou | || ben von siner gewonheit
    vnd vil andern wundern die in sinem lande sind || Das fünfft buch
    saget von manchen heydischen glouben vnd ir gewon | || heit vn ouch
    von menigerlei cristen glouben die gensit mers sint die doch || nit
    gar vnsern glouben hand. Jtem von menigerlei Jüden glouben vnd || wie
    vil cristen land sint vnd doch nicht vnsern glouben haltend noch re |
    || chte cristen sind. Folio; black letter.

[12] Ce liure est eppelle ma // deuille et fut fait i compose // par
    monsieur iehan de man // deuille cheualier natif dagle // terre de la
    uille de saict alei // Et parle de la terre de pro // mission cest
    assavoir de ieru // salem et de pluseurs autres // isles de mer et les
    diuerses i // estranges choses qui sont es // dites isles.

    _Ends recto_ f°. 88: Cy finist ce tres plaisant // liure nome
    Mandeville par // lanc moult autentiquement // du pays et terre
    d'oultre mer // Et fut fait La Mil cccc // lxxx le iiii lour dauril,
    s.l., without any printer's name; small folio; ff. 88; sig. _a_
    (7 ff.)--l. (9 ff.); others 8 ff.--Grenville Library, 6775.

[13] F. 1 _recto_: Ce liure est appelle // mandeuille et fut fait et //
    compose par monsieur // iehan de mandeuille che // ualier natif
    dangleterre // de la uille de sainct alein // Et parle de la terre de
    // promission cest assavoir // de iherusalem et de plu // seurs autres
    isles de mer // et les diuerses et estran // ges choses qui sont esd'
    // isles.--_Ends verso_ f. 93: Cy finist ce tresplay // sant liure nome
    Mande // cccclxxx le viii iour de // freuier a la requeste de //
    Maistre Bartholomieu // Buyer bourgoys du dit // lyon. Small folio.

[14] F. 1 _recto_. Jtinerarius domi//ni Johanis de ma//deville
    militis.--F. 2 _recto_: Tabula capitulorum in // itinerarium ad
    partes Jhe=// rosolimitanas. & ad vlterio // res trasmarinas domini
    Jo//hannis de Mandeville mili//tis Jncipit feliciter.--F. 4.
    _recto_: Jncipit Itinerarius a ter//ra Anglie in ptes Jherosoli
    =//mitanas. & in vlteriores tras//marinas. editus primo in li//gua
    gallicana a milite suo au//tore Anno incarnatonis dni //M. ccc. lv. in
    ciuitate Leodi // ensi. & paulo post in eade ciui//tate traslatus in
    hanc forma // latinam. //

    _Ends_ f. 71 _verso_: Explicit itinerarius domini //
    Johannis de Mandeville // militis. Small 4to, black letter, ff. 71 on
    a col., sig. _a-i_ iij; _a-h_ by 8 = 64 ff.; _i_, 7 ff.

[15] Reysen.--s.l.n.d., without printer's name; fol. 108 ff. on 2 col.
    black letter, without sig., etc.

    F. 1 _recto_: Dit is die tafel van // desen boecke // (D)at
    eerste capittel van // desen boeck is Hoe dat Jan va//mandauille
    schyet wt enghe//lat.... f. 108 v° 26th line: regneert in allen tiden
    // Amen // ¶ _Laus deo in altissimo_ //.

    See Campbell, supra, p. 599.

[16] F. 1 _verso_: Tractato de le piu marauegliose cosse e piu
    notabile che // se trouano in le parte del modo redute & collecte soto
    bre//uita in el presente copedio dal strenuissimo caualer spero //
    doro Johanne de Mandauilla anglico nato ne la Cita // de sancto albano
    el quale secodo dio prñcialmente uisi // tato quali tute le parte
    habitabel de el modo cossi fidelm // te a notato tute quelle piu degne
    cosse che la trouato e ve//duto in esse parte & chi bene discorre qsto
    libro auerra p // fecta cognitione de tuti li reami puincie natione e
    popu//li gente costumi leze hystorie & degne antiquitate co
    bre//uitade le quale pte da altri non sono tractate & parte piu //
    cosusamete dalchu gran ualente homini son state tocate & amagiore fede
    el psato auctore in psona e stato nel 1322. in//yerusalem Jn Asia
    menore chiamata Turchia i Arme//nia grande e in la picola. Jn Scythia
    zoe in Tartaria in // persia Jn Syria o uero suria Jn Arabia in egipto
    alto // & in lo inferiore in libia in la parte grande de ethiopia in
    // Caldea in amazonia in india mazore in la meza & in la // menore in
    div'se sette de latini greci iudei e barbari chri//stiani & infideli &
    i molte altre prouincie como appare nel // tractato de sotto.--_Ends_
    f. 114 _verso_: Explicit Johannes d'Madeuilla impressus Medio//lani
    ductu & auspicijs Magistri Petri de corneno pre // die Callendas
    augusti M.CCCCLXXX. Joha//ne Galeazo Maria Sfortia Vicecomitte Duce no
    // stro inuictissimo ac principe Jucondissimo. Small 4to; ff. 114;
    sig. _a-o_ × 8 = 112 ff.; 1 f. between _a_ and _b_.

[17] _Gesta Pont. Leodiensium_.--Vita Radvlphi de Rivo ex eius
    scriptis: "Obijt Radulphus anno, 1483."

[18] This passage is not to be found in the Egerton MS. 1982, nor in the
    Latin versions.

[19] _Bib. Untersuchungen_.

[20] Altenglische Sprachproben nebst einem Wörterbuche unter Mitwirkung
    von Karl Goldbeck herausgegeben von Eduard Mätzner. Erster Band:
    Sprachproben. Zweite Abtheilung: Prosa. Berlin. Weidmannsche
    Buchhandlung. (Vol. i. 1869, large 8vo, pp. 415; vol. i., _John
    Maundeville_, pp. 152-221.)

[21] _Encyclopaedia. Brit._, p. 475.

[22] _Nat. Biog._ p. 23-24.

[23] _The Academy_, x. p. 477.--_Encyclopaedia Britannica_,
    9th ed., XV., p. 475.

[24] The // Voiage // and // Travaile // of // Sir John Maundevile, kt.
    // Which Treateth of the // Way to Hierusalem; and of // Marvayles of
    Inde, // With other // Ilands and Countryes. //--Now publish'd
    entire from an Original MS. // in the Cotton Library. //--London: //
    Printed for J. Woodman, and D. Lyon, in // Russel-Street,
    Covent-Garden, and C. Davis, // in Hatton-Garden. 1725, 8vo, 5. ff. n.
    c.+pp. xvi.--384+4 ff. n. c.

[25] The Voiage and Travayle of Sir John Maundeville Knight which treateth
    of the way towards Hierosallun and of marvayles of Inde with other
    ilands and countreys. Edited, Annotated, and Illustrated in Facsimile
    by John Ashton.... London, Pickering & Chatto, 1887, large 8vo., pp.
    xxiv.-289.

[26] L.c. p. vi.

[27] The Voiage and Travaile of Sir John Maundevile, Kt. which treateth of
    the way to Hierusalem; and of Marvayles of Inde, with other ilands and
    countryes. Reprinted from the Edition of A.D. 1725. With an
    introduction, additional notes, and Glossary. By J.O. Halliwell.
    Esq., F.S.A., F.R.A.S. London: Published by Edward Lumley,
    M.D.CCC.XXXIX., 8vo, pp. xvii.-xii.-326.

    The Voiage and Travaille of Sir John Maundevile ... By J.O.
    Halliwell, London: F.S. Ellis, MDCCCLXVI., 8vo, pp xxxi.-326.

[28] The Buke of John Maundeuill being the Travels of sir John Mandeville,
    knight 1322-1356 a hitherto unpublished English version from the
    unique copy (Egerton Ms. 1982) in the British Museum edited together
    with the French text, notes, and an introduction by George F. Warner,
    M.A., F.S.A., assistant-keeper of Manuscripts in the British Museum.
    Illustrated with twenty-eight miniatures reproduced in facsimile from
    the additional MS. 24,189. Printed for the Roxburghe Club.
    Westminster, Nichols and Sons.... MDCCCLXXXIX., large 4to, pp.
    xlvi.+232+28 miniatures.

[29] There are in the British Museum twenty-nine MSS. of Mandeville, of
    which ten are French, nine English, six Latin, three German, and one
    Irish. Cf. _Warner_, p. x.

[30] Cf. _Warner_, p. 61.

[31] Mayence, Chapter's Library: "Incipit Itinerarius fidelis Fratris
    ODERICI, _socii Militis Mendavil_, per Indiam."--Wolfenbüttel,
    Ducal Library, No. 40, Weissemburg: "Incipit itinerarius fratris
    ODERICI socii militis Mandauil per Indiam."--HENRI CORDIER, _Odoric
    de Pordenone_, p. lxxii. and p. lxxv.

[32] _Purchas, His Pilgrimes_, 3rd Pt., London, 1625: "and, O that it
    were possible to doe as much for our Countriman Mandeuil, who next (if
    next) was the greatest Asian Traueller that euer the World had, &
    hauing falne amongst theeues, neither Priest, nor Leuite can know him,
    neither haue we hope of a Samaritan to releeue him."

[33] _Astley_ (iv. p. 620): "The next Traveller we meet with into
    _Tartary_, and the Eastern Countries, after _Marco Polo_, is Friar
    _Odoric_, of _Udin_ in Friuli, a _Cordelier_; who set-about the Year
    1318, and at his Return the Relation of it was drawn-up, from his own
    Mouth, by Friar _William_ of _Solanga_, in 1330. _Ramusio_ has
    inserted it in _Italian_, in the second Volume of his Collection; as
    _Hakluyt_, in his Navigations, has done the _Latin_, with an _English_
    Translation. This is a most superficial Relation, and full of _Lies_;
    such as People with the Heads of Beasts, and Valleys haunted with
    Spirits: In one of which he pretends to have entered, protected by the
    Sign of the Cross; yet fled for Fear, at the Sight of a Face that
    grinned at him. In short, though he relates some Things on the
    _Tartars_ and _Manci_ (as he writes _Manji_) which agree with _Polo's_
    Account; yet it seems plain, from the Names of Places and other
    Circumstances, that he never was in those Countries, but imposed on
    the Public the few Informations he had from others, mixed with the
    many Fictions of his own. He set out again for the East in 1331; but
    warned, it seems, by an Apparition a few Miles from _Padua_, he
    returned thither, and died." And a final blow in the index: "_Oderic,
    Friar, Travels of_, iv. 620 a. _A great liar!!_"

[34] E.B. Nicholson.--Letters to the _Academy_, 11th November, 1876;
    12th February, 1881. E.B.N. and Henry Yule, MANDEVILLE, in
    _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 9th ed., 1883, pp. 472-475.

[35] Die ungedruckten Lateinischen Versionen Mandeville's. (Beilage zum
    Programm des Gymnasiums zu Crefeld.) 1886.

[36] Untersuchungen über Johan von Mandeville und die Quellen seiner
    Reisebeschreibung. Von Albert Bovenschen. (_Zeitschrift d. Ges. für
    Erdkunde zu Berlin_, XXIII. Bd., 3 u. 4 Hft. No. 135, 136, pp.
    177-306.)

[37] (1) Itinerarivm // per nonnv. las // Galliae Belgicae partes,
    // Abrahami Ortelii et // Ioannis Viviani. // Ad Gerardvm Mercatorem,
    // Cosmographvm. // Antverpiae, // Ex officina Christophori Plantini.
    // clo. lo. lxxxiv. // small 8vo, pp. 15-16.

    (2) Read 1372.

    (3) _Purchas, His Pilgrimes_, 3rd Pt., Lond., 1625, reproduces it
    on p. 128: "Hic jacet vir nobilis, D. _Ioannes de Mandeville_,
    aliter dictus ad Barbam, Miles, Dominus de Campdi, natus de Anglia,
    Medicinae Professor, deuotissimus, orator, & bonorum largissimus
    pauperibus erogator qui toto quasi orbe lustrato, _Leodij_ diem
    vitae suae clausit extremum. Anno Dom. 1371, Mensis Nouembris, die 17."

[38] _Bibliothèque nationale:--Catalogue des manuscrits des fonds Libri
    et Barrois_. Paris, 1888. 8vo. cf. pp. 251-253.



INDEX


Aás, Asu, _see_ Alans.
Abacan, a Tartar general.
Ábah, _see_ Ávah.
Abaji, Kúblái's son.
Abáka (Abaga), Khan of Persia.
Abano, Pietro of, his notice of Polo.
Abash (Habsh), _see_ Abyssinia.
Abba Gregory.
Abbás, Sháh.
Abbott, Consul Keith E..
Abdul Kuri islands.
---- Mejid.
Abeskun (Baxon), on the Caspian.
Abher.
Abkashian forests, boxwood of the.
_Abnús_, ebony.
Abraha, ruler of Yemen.
Abraiaman, _see_ Brahmans.
Abubakr, Atabeg of Fars.
---- Ibrahim, and Mahomed, engineers employed by Kúblái.
Abu'l Abbas Ahmed VII., Khalif of Baghdad.
---- Fázl
Abulfeda, his geography;
  at the siege of Acre.
Abulfiez Khan, king of Bokhara.
Abu Nasr Mohammed IX., Khalif of Baghdad.
---- Saïd.
Abyssinia (Abash),
  its king's punishment of Soldan of Aden;
  dominion on the coast, mediaeval history and chronology;
  table of kings;
  wars with Mahomedan states.
Acbalec Manzi, "White City of the Manzi frontier".
Acbalec or Acbaluc (Cheng-ting fu).
Accambale, king of Champa.
Achar.
Achin, Acheh, Achem,
  its gold and lign-aloes;
  conversion of;
  its great power at one time;
  elephants at.
---- Head.
Achmath, the Bailo, _see_ Ahmad.
Acomat Soldan (Ahmad Sultan),
  seizes throne of Tabriz;
  goes to encounter Argon;
  rejects his remonstrance;
  defeats and takes him;
  hears of Argon's escape, is taken and put to death;
  notes on the history.
Acorn bread.
Acqui, Friar Jacopo d', his notice of Polo.
Acre,
  Broils at, between Venetians and Genoese;
  plan of;
  captured by Saracens;
  wickedness of;
  Polos at.
Adam, Bishop and Pope of China.
---- Seth, and the Tree of Life, legend of.
Adamodana, Castle of.
Adam's Apple.
---- sepulchre on mountain (Adam's Peak) in Ceylon,
  rubies;
  his teeth, hair, etc.;
  the footmark.
Adel, apparently confused with Aden.
Aden, Horse and other Trade with India,
  Soldan's treatment of a bishop;
  Vengeance of King of Abyssinia on him;
  confused with Adel;
  account of Kingdom;
  the Sultan;
  intercourse and trade with China, tanks;
  view of.
Adoration of the Emperor.
_Adulis_,
  inscription of.
Aegae, Ayas on the site of ancient.
Aepyornis and its eggs.
Aëtius, his prescription of musk,
  of camphor.
Afghans, their use of the fat-tailed sheep.
Africa, Sea surrounding to the South.
Agassiz, Professor.
Agathocles, Coins of.
[Greek: Agathoû daímonos], island.
Agha Ali Sháh, present representative of the Old Man of the Mountain.
---- Khan Meheláti, late representative of the Old Man.
Aghrukji or Ukuruji, Kúblái's son.
Agricola, Governor of Cappadocia, etc.
Aguil, Mongol general.
Ahmad (Achmath), the Bailo, of Fenaket, his power, oppressions, death,
    etc.
---- Sultan, Khan of Persia, _see_ Acomat.
Ahwaz, province.
Aidhab.
Aidhej, or Mal-Amir.
Aijaruc, Kaidu's daughter,
  her strength and prowess;
  her name.
Aikah Nowin, Engineer in Chief of Chinghiz.
Ai-lao (afterwards Nan-chao), ancient name of the Shans.
_Aín Akbari (Ayeen Akbery)_.
Ajmir.
Akbar and Kúblái, a parallel.
Ak Bulák salt mines.
Akhaltziké (Western Georgia).
Akhtuba River.
Ak-khoja.
Aksarai, or Ghori River.
Aksu River.
Aktár.
Aktásh Valley.
_Alabastri_.
Alacou, _see_ Hulákú.
_Aladja_, striped cotton cloth.
Alamút, Castle of the Ismailites.
Alan country, Alania.
Alans, or Aas, massacre at Chang-chau of,
  employed under Mongols.
Alaone, the name.
Alarm Tower, at Cambaluc,
  at Kinsay.
_Alatcha_, cotton stuff with blue and red stripes.
Alau, _see_ Hulákú.
Alá'uddin (Alaodin), _see_ Old Man of the Mountain.
---- (Alawating of Mufali), an engineer in Kúblái's service.
---- Khilji, Sultan of Delhi.
Albenigaras, Mt.
Al Biruni.
Alboquerque, _see_ D'Alboquerque.
Alchemy, Kúblái's.
Aleppo.
Alexander the Great, allusions to legends and romances about,
  his rampart (Iron Gate);
  the curtains at a banquet given by;
  and the _ferrum candidum_;
  site of his battle with Darius;
  his wife Roxana;
  kills a lion;
  Princes claiming descent from (Zulcarniain);
  his horse Bucephalus;
  fixes chains on Adam's Peak;
  said to have colonised Socotra;
  his tower on the border of Darkness.
Alexander III., Pope.
Alexander IV., Pope.
Alexandria,
  trade from India to.
_Alhinde, Alfinde, Alinde, Al-hint_.
'Ali and Aliites.
Alidada.
Alihaiya, Kúblái's general.
Alinak.
Alligator, in Carajan,
  mode of killing;
  eaten;
  prophecy of Bhartpúr about.
Almalik.
Almanacs, Chinese (Tacuin).
Almonds.
Aloes, Socotrine.
---- wood, _see_ Lign-aloes.
_Alor_, war cry.
Al-Ramni, Al-Ramin, _see_ Sumatra.
Altai (Altay) Mountains,
  the Khan's burial-place;
  used for the Khingan range.
Altun-Khan, Mountain.
---- sovereign.
Amazons, fable of.
Ambergris,
  how got.
_Amber-rosolli_.
Amda Zion, king of Abyssinia,
  his wars _v._ Mahomedans;
  not the king mentioned by Polo.
Ament, Rev. W.S.
_Ameri_, a kind of Brazil wood.
Amhara.
Amien, Mien (Burma).
Amita Buddha.
Ammianus Marcellinus.
Amoy,
  harbour;
  languages.
_Amphora_, _Anfora_.
Amu, Aniu, _see_ Anin.
_Amuki_, devoted comrades of the king.
_Anamis_ (Minao) River.
Ananda, Kúblái's grandson.
Anár.
Anaurahta, king of Burma.
Ancestor Worship.
Anchors, Wooden.
_Andaine_, _andena_, _andanicum_, _see_ Ondanique.
Andaman (Angamanain) island,
  described;
  people;
  form of the word.
_Andan_, _andun_, Wotiak for steel.
Andragiri.
Andreas, king of Abyssinia.
Andrew, Bishop of Zayton.
---- Grand Duke of Rostof and Susdal.
_Andromeda ovalifolia_, poisonous.
Angamanain, _see_ Andaman.
Angan, or Hamjám.
_'Angka_, gryphon, _see_ Ruc.
Angkor, ruins of.
Ani in Armenia.
Animal Patterns, _see_ Patterns.
Anin, province.
Annals of the Indo-Chinese States.
'An-nam, or Tong-king.
Anselmo, Friar.
_Anthropoides Virgo_, the demoiselle.
Antioch.
Antongil Bay, Madagascar.
Aotonomoff, Spasski, his ascent of Ararat.
_Apostoille_, word used for Pope.
Apples of Paradise (Konars).
Apricots.
_'Apuhota_ (Kapukada?).
Apushka (Apusca), Tartar envoy from Persia.
Arababni.
Arab geography.
---- colonies in Madagascar.
---- horses, early literary recognition of.
  trade in, _see_ Horses.
---- merchants, in Southern India.
---- Seamen's Traditions about Java.
Arabi (Arabs).
Arabia.
Arabic character.
_Arachosía_,_arachoti_.
_Araines_.
Arakan.
Aram (Harám), Place of the.
Ararat, Mount,
  ascents of.
Arblasts, crossbows.
Arbre Sol, or Arbre Sec, Region of the (Khorasan),
  tree described--_Chínár_ or Oriental plane;
  various readings;
  _Arbre seul_, a wrong reading;
  Tree of the Sun legend;
  Christian legend of the Dry Tree;
  engrafted on legends of Alexander;
  Trees of Grace in Persia;
  Dry Trees in Mahomedan legend;
  in Rabbinical and Buddhist stories, and legends of the Wood of the
    Cross;
  Polo's _Arbre Sec_ to be sought near Damghan;
  Sabaean apologue;
  clue to the term _Arbre Sec_.
Arcali, Arculin, _see_ Erculin.
Architectural remains in Indo-China.
Ardeshír Bábekán, first Sassanian king.
Ardeshír, last sovereign of Shabánkára.
Areca.
_Areng Saccharifera_.
Arezzo.
Argaeus, Mount.
Argali.
Arghún, Khan of Persia (Polo's Argon, Lord of the Levant),
  sends an embassy to Kúblái for a wife;
  is dead when she arrives;
  his unhappy use of the elixir vitae;
  advances against his uncle Ahmad;
  harangues his chiefs;
  sends Ahmad a remonstrance;
  is taken prisoner;
  released by certain chiefs;
  obtains sovereignty;
  his death;
  his beauty.
Argons (Arghún), half-breeds.
Arii, Ariana.
Arikbuga, Kúblái's brother.
Arimaspia.
Arimaspian gold.
Ariora-Keshimur,
  meaning of _Ariora_.
Ariosto.
Aripo.
Aristotle.
Arjish (Arzizi).
Arkasun Noian.
_Arkhaiun_, applied to Oriental Christians or their Clergy.
Armenia, Greater.
Armenia (Hermenia), Lesser or Cilician.
Armenian Christians.
Armenians.
Armillary Zodiacal Sphere.
Armour of boiled leather, _see_ Cuirbouly.
Arms of Kerman,
  of the Tartars.
Arredon River.
Arrow Divination.
Arrows, Tartar.
Artacki.
Arts, the Seven.
Aru, Cumaha.
Arucki.
Aruk.
Arulun Tsaghan Balghasun (Chagan-Nor).
Arya Chakravarti.
Aryavartta, the Holy Lands of Indian Buddhism.
Arzinga (Erzingan).
Arziron (Erzrum).
Arzizi (Arjísh).
Asbestos, and the Salamander.
Asceticism of the Sensin,
  of the Jogis.
Asedin Soldan (Ghaiassuddin Balban, Sultan of Delhi).
Ashar (Asciar), king of Cail.
Ashishin, _see_ Assassins.
Ashod, founder of the Bagratid dynasty.
Ashurada.
Asikan, Mongol general.
Asoka.
_Asper_, or _akché_ about a groat.
Assai River.
Assassins (Ashishin, Hashíshin), Ismailites,
  how the Old Man trained them;
  murders by;
  their destruction;
  survival and recent circumstances of the sect.
Asses, in Persia,
  in Mongolia;
  in Madagascar;
  in Abyssinia;
  in Far North.
Asterius, Bishop of Amasia in Pontus.
Astrakhan (Gittarchan).
Astrolabe.
Astrology, -ers, in Tangut,
  of Chinghiz;
  at Kúblái's Court;
  at Cambaluc;
  of Tibet;
  at Kinsay;
  in Maabar;
  in Coilum.
Astronomical instruments, ancient Chinese.
Atabegs, of Mosul,
  of Lúr;
  of Fars;
  of Yezd;
  of Kerman.
Atjeh, _see_ Achin.
Atkinson's Narratives, and their credibility.
Atlas, Chinese, in Magliabecchian Library.
[Greek: Attagàs] (Black Partridge).
Attalus, King.
At-Thaibi family.
Auberoche, Siege of.
Audh (Oudh).
Aufat, Ifat.
Augury, _see_ Omens.
Aung Khan (Unc Can), _see_ Prester John.
Aurangzib.
Aurora, Ibn Fozlán's account of.
Aussa.
'Avah, Abah, Ava, one of the cities of the Magi.
Avarian, epithet of S. Thomas.
Avebury, Lord, on _couvade_.
Avicenna's classification of Iron.
_Avigi, 'afçi (falco montanus)_.
Axum, Inscription,
  Church of;
  Court of.
Ayas (Layas, Aiazzo, etc.), port of Cilician Armenia,
  Sea fight at.
Ayuthia.
_Azumiti_.
Azure, Ultramarine (_lapis armenus_) Mines in Badakhshan,
  in Tenduc;
  ore.

Baba Buzurg, worshipped by the Lurs.
Baber, E. C, on Ch'êng-tú,
  on wild oxen of Tibet;
  Lolos;
  Gold River (Brius);
  the word Caindu;
  Talifu;
  Mekong River;
  Zardandan;
  site of battle between Kúblái and king of Mien;
  descent of Mien.
Baboons, etymology
Báb-ul-abwáh, "The Gate of Gates," Pass of Derbend.
Babylon, Babylonia (Cairo or Egypt),
  Sultan of.
Babylonish garments.
_Baccadeo_, indigo.
Baccanor.
Bacon, Roger,
  as geographer.
Bacsi, _see_ Bakhshi.
Bactria, its relation to Greece.
Bacu, Sea of (Caspian).
Badakhshan (Badashan),
  its population;
  capitals of;
  Mirs of;
  legend of Alexandrian pedigree of its kings;
  depopulation of;
  scenery;
  dialects;
  forms of the name;
  great river of (Upper Oxus).
Badáún.
Badger, Rev. Dr. G.P.
Badghís.
_Badgír_, Wind-catchers.
Badruddín Lú-lú, last Atabeg of Mosul.
_Báfk_ (Báft).
Baghdad (Baudas), Baldac, taken by Alau, Hulákú,
  its Khalif;
  the miracle of the mountain.
---- Archbishop of.
---- its indigo (_baccadeo_).
Bagratidae, of Armenia,
  of Georgia.
Bagration-Mukransky, Prince.
Bahar.
Bahárak, plain.
Bahá-uddin Ayaz, Wazir of Kalháat.
Bahá-ul-hakh, the Saint of Multán.
Bahrámábád.
Bahránjird Village.
Bahrein.
Baiberdon.
Baiburt (Paipurth), Castle of.
Baidu Khan,
  seizes throne of Persia;
  displaced and killed by Gházán;
  alleged to be a Christian.
Bailo, the title,
  etymology of.
Bakhshi (Bacsi), Lamas,
  their enchantments;
  various meanings of the word.
Bakhtyáris of Luristán, the.
Baku, oil fields of,
  Sea of (Caspian).
_Balad-ul-Falfal_ (Malabar).
_Baladi_.
_Balalaika_, a two-stringed Tartar instrument.
_Balânjaríyah, devoted lieges_.
Bala-Sagun.
Balas rubies.
Baldac, _see_ Baghdad.
_Baldacchini (Baudekins)_, brocades made at Baghdad.
Baldwin II. (de Courtenay), last Latin Emperor of Constantinople.
Bali, Island of.
---- in Abyssinia.
_Balios_.
_Balish_ (a money of account).
_Balista_, always a crossbow in mediaeval times.
Balkh (Balc).
Balkhash Lake.
Ballads, Genoese, on sea-fights at Ayas and Curzola.
Ballard, Mr..
Balor, Balaur, Bilaur, Malaur, Bolor.
_Bálos_, Malacca boats with two rudders.
_Balsamodendron Mukul_.
Balthazar, of the Magi.
Bálti.
_Balustrade_, etymology of the word.
Bamboo (always called canes by Polo),
  its multifarious uses;
  Kúblái's Chandu Palace made of;
  great, on banks of Caramoran river;
  explode loudly when burning;
  large in Tibet;
  ropes of;
  in Che kiang.
Bamian, caves at,
  huge recumbent image at.
_Bám-i-Duniah_, "Roof of the World".
Bamm.
Bandar Abbás (Bandar-Abbási).
Bandith.
Bangala, _see_ Bengal.
Banzaroff, Dorji, on Shamanism.
Baptism, accompanied by branding, in Abyssinia.
Bara.
Barac (Borrak), Khan of Chagatai,
  his war with Arghún.
Baradaeus, Jacob, or James Zanzale, Bishop of Edessa.
Barbaro, Josafat.
Barbarossa, Frederic.
Barberino, Francesco da.
_Barda'at_, saddle-cloths.
Bardesir.
Bardshír, Bardsír, Bard-i-Ardeshír.
Bargu (Barguchin Tugrum, or Barguti), plain.
_Barguerlac, Syrrhaptes Pallasii_, a kind of sand grouse,
  its migration into England.
Barguzinsk.
Barin, Mongol tribe.
Bark, money made from,
  fine clothes from.
Barka (Barca), Khan, ruler of Kipchak,
  his war with Hulákú.
Barkul.
_Barkút, búrgút (bearcoote)_, eagle trained to the chase.
Barlaam and Josaphat, Story of Saints, from Legend of Buddha.
Barley, huskless.
Baroch.
_Baron-tala_, name applied by Mongols to Tibet.
Barons (Shieng or Sing), Kaan's twelve.
Barozzi, Nicolo.
Barros, John de,
  geography of.
Barsauma (St. Barsamo).
Barskul (Barscol), "Leopard Lake".
Bartizan, Kúblái's wooden.
Barus, Barros (Sumatra), its camphor.
_Barussae insulae_.
_Barygaza_.
Bashai (Pashai).
Bashkirds, (Hungarians).
Bashpah, Lama, and the Mongol character called after him.
Basma, _see_ Pasei.
_Basmuls_ (Guasmuls), half-breeds.
Basra (Bastra), noted for its date-groves.
Bathang.
Baths, natural hot, near Hormuz,
  in Cathay;
  public at Kinsay.
Batigala, Batticalla.
Batochina.
Bats, large, in India.
Battas of Sumatra, and cannibalism.
Batthala, Bettelar (Patlam in Ceylon).
Battles, Kúblái _v._ Nayan,
  Tartars _v._ king of Mien;
  Caidu _v._ Khan's forces;
  Borrak and Arghún;
  Arghún and Ahmad;
  Hulákú and Barka;
  Toktai and Nogai.
Bátú, Khan of Kipchak, founder of Sarai,
  invades Russia;
  made by Polo into two kings--Sain and Patu;
  his character and cruelty.
Baudas, _see_ Baghdad.
_Baudekins_ (baldacchini), brocades made at Baghdad.
_Bauduin de Sebourc_.
Bavaria, Duke Ernest of, a mediaeval Romance.
Bawárij, corsairs.
Bayan Chingsian, Kúblái's greatest Captain,
  prophecy connected with his name;
  his conquest of Manzi or South China;
  his history and character;
  his exceptional cruelty at Chang-chau.
Bayan, Khagan of the Avars.
Bayan (Baian), Kúblái's Master of the Hounds.
Bayan, son of Nasruddin.
Bayezid Ilderim.
Bdellium.
Beads, Hindu.
Bears,
  white in Far North.
Beast and bird patterns, _see_ Patterns.
Beaten gold.
Beaujeu, William de, Master of the Temple.
Beauty of--Georgians,
  Khorasan women;
  Kashmir women;
  Sinju women;
  _Argons_, or half-breeds;
  the Ungrat or Kungurat tribe;
  people of Coloman;
  Kinsay women;
  Kaidu's daughter;
  Arghún Khan;
  the Russians.
Beds, their arrangement in India.
Beef, not eaten in Maabar, except by the Govi,
  formerly eaten in India.
Bejas of the Red Sea Coast.
Belgutai, Chinghiz's stepbrother.
"Belic" for "Melic".
Bell at Cambaluc, great.
Bellal Rajas.
_Belledi, balladi_, ginger so called,
  Spanish use of the word.
Benares, brocades of.
Bendocquedar, _see_ Bundúkdári, Bíbars.
Benedict XII., Pope.
Bengal (Bangala),
  king of Mien (Burma) and;
  why Polo couples these;
  relations between Burma and;
  claim asserted by king of Burma to;
  alleged Mongol invasion of;
  its distance from Caugigu;
  its currency;
  confused with Pegu by Polo.
Beni Búya dynasty.
Benjamin of Tudela, on Alexander's Rampart,
  on the Gryphon.
Benzoin, etymology of.
Berard, Thos., Master of the Temple.
Berbera, Sea of.
Berchet, G.
Bereké, Bátu Khan's brother.
Bernier, on Kashmir women's beauty.
_Berrie_, the Arabic Baríya, a desert.
Bettelar, rendezvous of Pearl Fishers.
_Beyamini_, wild oxen of Tibet.
Bezant,
  value of.
_Bhagavata_.
Bhamó, and River of.
Bhartpúr, prophecy about.
Bhattis, the.
Bháwalpúr.
"Bhim's Baby," colossal idol at Dhamnár caves.
Bianco's, Andrea, maps.
Biar.
Bibars Bundúkdári, _see_ Bundúkdári.
Bielo Osero.
_Bigoncio_, a firkin.
Bilúchis,
  their robber raids;
  Lumri or Numri.
Binh Thuan (Champa).
Binkin.
Bintang (Pentam).
Birch-bark vessels,
  books.
Bír-dhúl, or Bujardawal, cap. of Ma'bar.
Bird-hunts.
Birdwood, Sir G.
Birhors of Chuta Nagpúr.
Bir-Pandi, or Pira-Bandi.
Birthday, celebration of Kúblái's.
Bishbalik (Urumtsi).
Bishop, of Male Island,
  story of an Abyssinian.
Bitter bread.
---- water.
Blac, Blachia (Lac, Wallach).
_Black-bone_, Chinese name for Lolos.
Black Crane (Kará Togorü).
---- Saints, White Devils in India.
---- Sea, M. Maurum v. Nigrum.
---- Sect of Tibet.
Blacker, the more beautiful.
Blaeuw, map.
Blochmann, Professor H.
Block-books, supposed to have been introduced from China,.
Block-printing in Persia..
Blood-sucking, Tartar.
_Blous, bloies_.
Boar's tusks, huge (Hipp.).
_Boccassini_.
Bode, Baron de.
Bodhisatva Avalok.
Bodleian MS. of Polo,
  list of miniatures in.
Boeach, mistake for Locac, and its supposed position.
Boemond, Prince of Antioch and Tripoli, letter of Bibar to.
Boga (Buka), a great Mongol officer, delivers Arghún.
Boghra Khan.
Bohea country.
Bohra, sect of W. India.
Boikoff, Russian Envoy.
Bokhara (Bocara).
Boleyn, Anne, her use of buckram.
Bolgana, Queen, see Bulughán.
Bolgarskoye (called also Uspenskoye).
_Bolghar, borgal, borghal_, Russia leather.
Bolghar (Bolgara), on the Volga,
  ruins of;
  court of.
Bolivar, Padre, S.J., his account of the Condor (_Rukh_) of Africa.
Bolor.
Bombay.
Bonaparte, Prince Roland, _Recueil des Documents de l'Époque Mongole_.
Bonga.
Bonheur, Rosa.
Boniface VIII., Pope.
Bonin, C.E.
Bonoccio di Mestro.
Bonpos, old Tibetan Sect.
Bonús, ebony.
Bonvalot.
Book of Marco Polo,
  its contents;
  original language, French;
  oldest Italian MS.;
  "Geographic Text," in rude French;
  various types of Text--
    (1) "Geographic,".
    (2) Pauthier's MSS.
    (3) Pipino's Latin,
          Preface to;
          Grynaeus' Latin;
          Müllers' reprint.
    (4) Ramusio's Italian edition,
          its peculiarities;
          probable truth about it;
          bases of it.
  MS. and some of its peculiarities;
  general view of the relations of the texts;
  notice of an old Irish version;
  geographical data;
  how far influenced in form by Rustician;
  perhaps in description of battles;
  diffusion and number of MSS.;
  basis of present version;
  specimens of different recensions of text;
  distribution of MSS.;
  miniatures in;
  list of MSS.;
  Tabular view of the filiation of chief MSS.;
  Bibliography;
  titles of works cited;
  Spanish edition.
Bore in Hang-chau Estuary.
_Borgal, see Bolghar_.
Bormans, Stanislas.
Born, Bertram de.
Borneo, camphor, _see_ Camphor.
---- tailed men of.
Boro Bodor, Buddhist Monument, Java.
Borrak, Amir, Prince of Kerman (Kutlugh Sultan?).
---- Khan of Chaghatai, _see_ Barac.
Borùs, the.
Bostam.
_Boswellia thurifera,
  serrata;
  Carterii;
  Bhauda-jiana;
  papyrifera;
  Frereana;
  glabra_.
Bouqueran, _see_ Buckram.
Bourne, F.S.A.
Boxwood forests in Georgia.
_Bozzí_.
Bra, the word.
Bracelets, in Anin.
Bragadino, Marco, husband of Marco Polo's daughter, Fantina.
---- Pietro.
Brahmanical thread.
Brahmans (Abraiaman),
  fish-charmers to the pearl fishery;
  their character and virtues;
  their king;
  their omens;
  longevity;
  _Chughi_;
  Palladian legend of.
Brahma's temple, Hang-chau.
Brahuis.
Brakhimof, early capital of Bulgaria.
Brambanan, ruins at.
Bran (Tibetan _tsamba_), parched barley.
Brazil wood, in Locac,
  in Sumatra;
  manner of growth;
  in Ceylon;
  in Coilum (_Coilumin_);
  different kinds;
  vicissitudes of the word;
  its use prohibited by Painters' Guild.
Bread, bitter.
Brephung monastery.
_Bretesche_.
Bretschneider, Dr. Emil (_Medical Researches_), ruins of Bolghar,
  the Uíghúr character;
  Caucasian Wall;
  use of muslin in Samarkand;
  on _nakh_ and _nachetti_;
  Húlakú's expedition to West Asia;
  an extract from the _Yüan Si_;
  Badakhshan;
  Kashgar;
  Shachau;
  Kamul;
  Chingintalas;
  the _Stipa inebrians_;
  the Utiken Uígúrs;
  Erdenidso Monastery;
  Belasagun;
  death of Chinghiz;
  _tung lo_ or _kumiz_;
  Kúblái's death;
  Peking;
  _verniques_;
  clepsydra;
  the Bularguchi;
  Achmath's biography;
  paper-money;
  post stations;
  Chinese intoxicating drinks;
  regulations for time of dearth;
  Lu-Ku-K'iao Bridge;
  introduction of plants from Asia into China;
  _morus alba_;
  Tibet;
  bamboo explosions;
  the Si-fans;
  Cara-jang and Chagan-jang;
  Nasr-uddin;
  the Alans;
  rhubarb in Tangut;
  Polo's "large pears";
  on galangal;
  on sugar;
  on Zayton;
  on wood-oil;
  on ostrich;
  on Si-la-ni;
  on frankincense;
  on Magyars;
  on Mongol invasion of Poland and Silesia.
Brichu (Brius, the Upper Kiang).
Bridges of Pulisanghin,
  Sindafu (Ch'êngtu);
  Suchau;
  Kinsay;
  Kien-ning fu;
  Fuchau;
  Zayton, or Chinchau.
Brine-wells, _see_ Salt.
Brius River (Kin-sha Kiang, Gold River).
Brown, G.G.
---- Sir Thomas,
  on Polo.
Bruce's Abyssinian Chronology.
Brunetto Latini's Book, _Li Tresor_.
Brunhilda.
Bruun, Professor Ph., of Odessa.
Bucephala, of Alexander.
Bucephalus, breed of.
Buckrams, of Arzinga,
  described;
  etymology;
  at Mardin;
  in Tibet;
  at Mutfili;
  Malabar.
Buddha, _see_ Sakya Muni.
Buddhism, Buddhists, _see_ Idolatry, Idolaters.
Buddhist Decalogue.
Buffaloes in Anin.
Buffet and vessels of Kúblái's table.
_Bugaei_.
Buka (Boga), a great Mongol chief.
Buka Bosha, 1st Mongolian Governor of Bokhara.
Búkú Khan, of the Hoei-Hu, or Uighúrs.
Bularguji (Bularguchi), "The Keeper of Lost Property".
Bulgaria, Great.
Bulughán (Bolgana), Queen.
---- another.
Bundúkdár, Amír Aláuddín Aidekín ("The Arblaster").
Bundúkdári, Malik Dáhir Ruknuddín Bíbars (Bendocquedar), Mameluke Sultan
    of Egypt,
  killed by kumiz.
Buraets, or Burgats, the.
Búrkán Káldún.
Burma (or Ava), King of (_See_ also Mien.).
Burnell, Arthur.
Burning the Dead, _see_ Cremation.
---- heretical books.
---- paper-money, etc., at funerals.
---- Widows in South India.
Burrough, Christopher.
Burton, Captain R.F.
Bushell, Dr. S.W., his visit to Shang-tu,
  on the Khitan Scripts;
  Tangut rulers;
  orders for post-horses.
Butchers, in Kashmir,
  Tibet;
  S. India.
Butiflis (Mutfili).
Butler, _Hudibras_.
Buyid dynasty.

Ca' Polo, Ca' Milion, Corte del Millioni, the house of the
    Polos at Venice.
Caaju, castle of.
Cabs, Peking.
Cacanfu (Hokiang-fu).
Cachanfu (P'uchau-fu, Ho-chung-fu).
Cachar Modun.
Cachilpatnam.
_Cadmia_.
Caesalpinia; and _see_ Brazil.
Caesarea of Cappadocia (Casaria, Kaisaríya).
Caichu, castle of (Kiai-chau, or Hiai-chau?).
Caidu, _see_ Kaidu.
Caiju, on the Hwang-Ho.
---- on the Kiang, Kwachau.
Cail (Káyal),
  a great port of Commerce;
  the king;
  identified;
  meaning of name;
  remains of.
Caindu (K'ien-ch'ang), a region of Eastern Tibet.
Caingan (Ciangan, Kiahing).
Cairo,
  museum at;
  ventilators at. (_See_ Babylon.).
Caiton, _see_ Zayton.
Cala Ataperistan (Kala' Atishparastán), "Castle of the Fire Worshippers".
Calachan (Kalaján).
Calaiate, Calatu, _see_ Kalhat.
Calamanz, the word.
Calamina, city.
Caldwell, Rev. Dr. R., on devil-dancing among the Shanars,
  on name of Ceylon;
  on Shahr-Mandi and Sundara Pandi;
  on the Tower at Negapatam;
  etymology of Chilaw;
  on Pacauta;
  Govis;
  singular custom of arrest;
  rainy season;
  food of horses;
  Shanar devil-images;
  _choiach_;
  Cail, or Kayál city;
  _Kolkhoi_;
  King Ashar of Cail;
  _Kollam_;
  _Pinati_;
  etymology of Sapong;
  Cape Comorin.
Calendar, Ecclesiastical Buddhist,
  the Tartar;
  of Brahmans;
  of Documents relating to Marco Polo and his family.
Calicut,
  King of, and his costume.
Calif, _see_ Khalif.
Caligine, Calizene (Khálij, a canal from Nile).
Camadi (City of Dakiánús) ruined.
Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, or Peking), capital of Cathay,
  Kúblái's return thither after defeating Nayan;
  the palace;
  the city;
  its size, walls, gates, and streets, the Bell Tower, etc.;
  period of khan's stay there;
  its suburbs and hostelries;
  cemeteries, women, patrols;
  its traffic;
  the Emperor's Mint;
  palace of the Twelve Barons;
  roads radiating from;
  astrologers of.
Cambay (Cambaet, Cambeth, Kunbáyat), kingdom of.
Cambuscan, of Chaucer, corruption of Chinghiz.
Camel-bird, _see_ Ostrich.
Camels, mange treated with oil,
  camlets from wool of;
  white;
  incensing;
  alleged to be eaten in Madagascar;
  really eaten in Magadoxo;
  ridden in war.
Camexu, Kamichu, _see_ Campichu.
Camlets (cammellotti).
Camoens.
Camphor (_Laurus Camphora_) trees in Fo-kien.
---- of Sumatra,
  Fansuri;
  earliest mention of:
  superstitions regarding;
  description of the tree, _Dryabalanops Camphora_;
  value attached by Chinese to;
  recent prices of;
  its use with betel.
---- oil.
Campichu (Kanchau), city of.
Camul (Kamul), province.
_Camut_, fine shagreen leather.
Canal, Grand, of China.
  construction of.
Canale, Cristoforo, MS. by.
---- Martino da, French Chronicle of Venice by.
Cananor, kingdom.
Cananore.
Canara.
Cancamum.
_Canela brava_.
Canes, Polo's name for bamboos.
Cannibalism,
  ascribed to Tibetans, Kashmiris, etc;
  to Hill-people in Fo-kien;
  to islanders in Seas of China and India;
  in Sumatra;
  regulations of the Battas;
  ascribed to Andaman islanders.
Cannibals, i.e. Caribs.
Canonical Hours.
Cansay, _see_ Kinsay.
Canton.
Cape Comorin, see Comari; Temple at.
---- Corrientes (of Currents).
---- Delgado.
---- of Good Hope.
_Capidoglio_ (_Capdoille_), sperm-whale.
Cappadocian horses.
Capus, G.
Caracoron (Kará Korum).
Carajan (Caraian, Karájang, or Yun-nan), province.
Caramoran River (Hwang-Ho).
Carans, or Scarans.
Caraonas (Karaunahs), a robber tribe.
Carats.
_Carbine_, etymology of.
Cardinal's Wit.
Caribs, i.e. cannibals.
Carpets,
  of Turcomania (Turkey);
  Persian;
  Kerman.
Carriages,
  at Kinsay;
  Chinese.
Carrion, shot from engines.
_Carta Catalana_, Catalan Map of 1375.
_Carte_, _à la_.
Carts, Mongol.
Casan, see Gházán Khan.
Casaria (Caesarea of Cappadocia).
Cascar (Kashgar),
  _Chaukans_ of.
Casem, _see_ Kishm.
Caspian Sea (Sea of Ghel or Ghelan),
  ancient error about;
  its numerous names.
Cassay, _see_ Kinsay.
Cassia.
---- buds.
---- fistula.
Castaldi, Panfilo, his alleged invention of movable types.
Castambol.
Castelli, P. Cristoforo di.
Casvin (Kazvín), a kingdom of Persia.
Catalan Navy.
Cathay (Northern China),
  origin of name;
  coal in;
  idols;
  Cambaluc, the capital of, _see_ Cambaluc;
  Cathayans, v. Ahmad;
  their wine;
  astrologers;
  religion;
  politeness, filial duty, gaol deliveries, gambling.
Catholics,
  Catholicos, of Sis;
  of the Nestorians.
Cators (_chakors_), great partridges.
Cat's Head Tablet.
Cats in China.
Caucasian Wall.
Caugigu, province.
Caulking, of Chinese ships.
Cauly, Kauli (Corea).
Causeway, south of the Yellow River.
Cauterising children's heads.
Cave-houses.
Cavo de Eli.
---- de Diab, ii. 417_n_.
Cayu (Kao-yu).
Celtic Church.
Census, of houses in Kinsay,
  tickets.
Ceremonial of Mongol Court, _see_ Etiquette.
Ceylon (Seilan),
  circuit of;
  etymology of;
  customs of natives;
  mountain of Adam's (_alias_ Sagamoni Borcan's) Sepulchre;
  history of Buddha;
  origin of idolatry;
  subject to China.
Ceylon, King of, his pearl-ponds.
Chachan (Charchan, Charchand).
Chagatai (Sigatay), Kúblái's uncle, son of Chinghiz.
Chaghán-Jáng.
Chaghan-Kuren.
Chaghan-Nor ("White Lake"), N.E. of Kamul.
---- (Chaghan, or Tsaghan Balghasun), site of Kúblái's palace.
Chairs, silver.
_Chakor (cator)_, great partridges.
Chalcedony and jasper.
Chalukya Malla kings.
Champa (Chamba), kingdom of,
  Kúblái's expedition;
  the king and his wives;
  products;
  locality;
  invaded by king of Lukyn.
Chandra Banu.
Chandu (Shangtu), city of peace of Kúblái.
Changan.
Chang-chau (Chinginju).
---- in Fo-kien,
  Zayton (?);
  Christian remains at.
Ch'ang Ch'un, _travels_.
Changgan (Chang-ngan).
_Chang-kia-Kau_, the gate in the Great Wall.
Chang K'ien.
Chang-shan (Chanshan).
Ch'ang Te (the Chinese traveller), _Si Shi Ki_.
Chang Te-hui, a Chinese teacher.
Chang-y (Chenchu).
Chang Yao, Chinese general.
_Cháo de Bux (Cavo di Bussi)_, boxwood.
Chaohien, Sung Prince.
_Cháo-Khánahs_, bank-note offices in Persia.
Cháo Naiman Sumé Khotan, or Shangtu, "city of the 108 temples".
_Cháo_, paper-money.
_Cháo_, title of Siamese and Shan Princes.
Chaotong.
Chapu.
Characters, written, four acquired by Marco Polo,
  one in Manzi, but divers spoken dialects.
Charchan (Chachan of Johnson, Charchand).
Charcoal, store in Peking, palace garden of.
Charities, Kúblái's,
  Buddhistic and Chinese;
  at Kinsay.
Charles VIII., of France.
Chau dynasty.
Chaucer, quoted.
_Chaukans_, temporary wives at Kashgar.
Chaul.
Cheapness in China.
Cheetas, or hunting leopards.
Cheh-kiang, cremation common during Sung dynasty in,
  roads into Fo-kien from.
Cheinan, Gulf of.
Chenchau, or Iching hien.
Chenching (Cochin-China).
Chenchu (Chang-y), conspires with Vanchu _v._ Ahmad.
Ch'eng-ting fu.
Ch'êng-Tsu (Yung-lo), Emperor.
Ch'êng-tu (Sze-ch'wan).
Ch'êngtu-fu (Sindafu).
Cheu, the Seven.
Chibai and Chiban.
Chichiklik Pass.
Chien-ch'ang (Caindu). (_See_ K'ien ch'ang.).
Chihli, plain of.
Chilaw.
Chiliánwála, battlefield of.
Chilu-ku, last Karakhitai king.
Chin, Sea of.
China,
  _Imperial Maritime Customs Returns for 1900_;
  Dominicans in;
  paved roads in;
  relations with Korea and Japan;
  the name;
  king of Malacca at Court of;
  trade from Arabia to;
  from Sofala in Africa.
  (_See_ also Cathay and Manzi.).
Chinangli (T'sinan-fu).
_Chinár_, Oriental planes.
Chinchau, Chincheo, Chinchew, Chwanchew, Tswanchau, _see_ Zayton.
Chinese,
  Polo ignorant of the languages;
  epigrams;
  funeral and mourning customs;
  feeling towards Kúblái;
  religion and irreligion;
  their politeness and filial piety;
  gambling;
  character for integrity;
  written character and varieties of dialect;
  ships;
  pagodas at Negapatam and elsewhere;
  coins found in Southern India;
  pottery;
  trade and intercourse with Southern India.
Chinghian-fu (Chinkiang-fu).
Chinghiz Khan,
  reported to be a Christian;
  Aung Khan's saying of;
  his use of Uíghúr character;
  Erzrum taken by;
  harries Balkh;
  captures Talikan;
  ravages Badakhshan;
  his respect for Christians;
  subjugates Kutchluk Khân;
  his campaigns in Tangut;
  Rubruquis' account of;
  made king of the Tartars;
  his system of conquests;
  and Prester John;
  divining by twigs--presage of victory;
  defeats and slays Prester John;
  his death and burial-place;
  his aim at conquest of the world;
  his funeral;
  his army;
  defeats the Merkits;
  relations between Prester John's and his families;
  the Horiad tribe;
  his prophecy about Kúblái;
  rewards his captains;
  captures Peking;
  defeats and slays Taiyang Khan;
  his alleged invasion of Tibet;
  his mechanical artillery;
  his cruelty;
  Table of Genealogy of his House.
Chinghiz Tora.
Ching-hoang tower at Hangchau-fu.
Chinginju (Chang-chau).
Chingintalas, province,
  its identification.
Chingkim, Chinkin, Chimkin, Kúblái's favourite son and heir-apparent,
  his palace.
Chingsang, Ching-siang (Chinisan), title of a Chief Minister of State.
Chingting-fu (Acbaluc).
Chingtsu, or Yung-lo, Emperor.
_Chíní_, coarse sugar.
Chinju (Tinju).
_Chin-tan_, or _Chínasthána_, Chinese etymology of.
Chinuchi, Cunichi, Kúblái's Masters of the Hounds.
Chipangu (Japan),
  account of Kúblái's expedition _v._;
  its disasters;
  history of expedition;
  relations with China and Korea.
Chitral.
_Chloroxylon Dupada_.
Cho-chau (Juju).
_Choiach_, the term.
Chola, or Sola-desam (Soli, Tanjore).
Chonka (Fo-kien), kingdom of,
  explanation of name.
Chonkwé
Chorcha, _see_ Churchin
Christian, astrologers;
  churches in China, early;
  inscription of Singanfu;
  Alans in the Mongol service.
Christianity, attributed to Chinghizide princes,
  Kúblái's views on.
---- former, of Socotra.
Christians, of the Greek rite, Georgians,
  and Russians;
  Jacobite and Nestorian, at Mosul;
  among the Kurds;
  and the Khalif of Baghdad--the miracle of the mountain and the
  one-eyed cobbler;
  Kashgar;
  in Samarkand;
  the miracle of the stone removed;
  Yarkand;
  Tangut;
  Chingintalas;
  Suh-chau;
  Kan-chau;
  in Chinghiz's camp;
  Erguiul and Sinju;
  Egrigaia;
  Tenduc;
  Nayan and the Khan's decision;
  at Kúblái's Court;
  in Yun-nan;
  Cacanfu;
  Yang-chau;
  churches at Chin-kiang fu;
  at Kinsay;
  St. Thomas';
  Coilum;
  Male and Female Islands;
  Socotra;
  Abyssinia and fire baptism;
  of the Girdle;
  in Lac (Wallachia).
_Chrocho_, the Rukh (_q.v._).
Chronology and chronological data discussed,
  first journey of the Polos;
  war between Barka and Húlakú;
  Polos' stay at Bokhara;
  their departure and their second journey from Acre;
  their return voyage and arrival in Persia;
  story of Nigudar;
  Hormuz princes;
  destruction of Ismailites;
  history of Chinghiz;
  Kúblái's birth and accession;
  Nayan' rebellion;
  visit to Yun-nan;
  battle with the king of Mien;
  wars between China and Burma;
  value of Indo-Chinese;
  conquest of S. China;
  capture of Siang-yang;
  Kúblái's dealings with Japan;
  with Champa;
  Marco's visit to Japan;
  Kúblái's Java expedition;
  review of the Malay;
  events in Ma'bar;
  King Gondophares;
  cessation of Chinese navigation to India;
  Abyssinia;
  Kaidu's wars;
  Mongol revolutions in Persia, notes from;
  wars of Toktai and Noghai.
  (_see_ also _Dates_.)
Chrysostom.
Chuchu, in Kiang-si.
Chughis, _see_ Jogis.
Chung-Kiang.
Chungkwé, "Middle Kingdom".
Chung-tu, or Yen-King (Peking, _see_ Cambaluc).
_Ch'ura_.
Churches, Christian, in Kashgar,
  Samarkand;
  Egrigaia;
  Tenduc;
  early, in China;
  Yang-chau;
  Chin-kiang fu;
  Kinsay;
  Zayton;
  St. Thomas's;
  Coilum;
  Socotra.
Churchin, or Niuché, Churché, Chorcha (the Manchu Country).
Cielstan, Suolstan (Shúlistán).
Cinnamon, Tibet,
  Caindu;
  Ceylon;
  story in Herodotus of;
  Malabar.
Circumcision of Socotrans,
  forcible, of a bishop;
  of Abyssinians.
Cirophanes, or Syrophenes, story of.
Civet, of Sumatra.
Clement IV., Pope.
_Clepsydra_.
Cloves,
  in Caindu.
Coal (Polo's blackstone),
  in Scotland in Middle Ages;
  in Kinsay.
Cobbler, the one-eyed, and the miracle of the mountain.
Cobinan (Koh-Banán).
Cocachin (Kúkáchin), the Lady.
Cochin-China, the mediaeval Champa (_q.v._).
Coco-nut (Indian nut).
Coco Islands, of Hiuen T'sang.
Cocos Islands.
Coeur de Lion, his mangonels.
Coffins, Chinese, in Tangut.
Cogachin (Hukaji), Kúblái's son, King of Carajan.
Cogatai.
Cogatal, a Tartar envoy to the Pope.
Coiganju (Hwaingan-fu).
Coilum (Kollam, Kaulam, Quilon), kingdom of,
  identity of meaning of name;
  Church of St. George at;
  modern state of;
  Kúblái's intercourse with.
Coilumin, _columbino, colomní_, so-called Brazil-wood,
  ginger.
Coins of Cilician Armenia,
  of Mosul;
  Agathocles and Pantaleon;
  Seljukian with Lion and Sun;
  found at Siang-Yang;
  King Gondophares;
  Tartar heathen princes with Mahomedan and Christian formulae.
Coja (Koja), Tartar envoy from Persia to the Khan.
Cold, intense, in Kerman,
  in Russia.
"Cold Mountains".
Coleridge, verses on Kúblái's Paradise.
Coloman, province.
_Colombino_, _see_ Coilumin.
Colon, _see_ Coilum.
Colossal Buddhas, recumbent.
Columbum, _see_ Coilum.
Columbus, Polo paralleled with,
  remarks on.
Comania, Comanians.
Comari, Comori (Cape Comorin, Travancore),
  temple at.
Combermere, Lord, prophecy applied to.
_Comercque_, Khan's custom-house.
Compartments, in hulls of ships.
Compass, Mariner's.
Competitive Examinations in beauty.
Conchi, King of the North.
Concubines, how the Khan selects.
Condor, its habits,
  Temple's account of;
  Padre Bolivar's of the African.
Condur and Sondur.
_Condux_, sable or beaver.
Conia, Coyne (Iconium).
Conjeveram.
Conjurers, the Kashmirian,
  weather-;
  Lamas' ex-feats.
  (_see_ also Sorcerers.).
Conosalmi (Kamasal).
Constantinople,
  Straits of.
Convents, _see_ Monasteries.
Cookery, Tartar horse.
Cooper, T.T., traveller on Tibetan frontier.
Copper, token currency of Mahomed Tughlak,
  imported to Malabar;
  to Cambay.
Coral, valued in Kashmir, Tibet, etc.
Corea (Kauli).
Corn, Emperor's store and distribution of.
Coromandel (Maabar), _see_ Mabar.
Corsairs, _see_ Pirates.
Corte del Milione, _see_ Ca' Polo.
---- Sabbionera at Venice.
Cosmography, mediaeval.
_Costus_.
Cotan, _see_ Khotan.
Cotton, stuffs of,
  at Merdin;
  in Persia;
  at Kashgar;
  Yarkand;
  Khotan;
  Pein;
  Bengal;
  bushes of gigantic size.
Counts in Vokhan,
  at Dofar.
Courts of Justice, at Kinsay.
_Couvade_, custom of.
Cow-dung, its use in Maabar.
Cowell, Professor.
Cowries (porcelain shells, pig shells), used for money, etc.,
  procured from Locac.
_Cralantur_, its meaning (?).
Cramoisy (quermesis).
Cranes, five kinds of.
Crawford, John.
Cremation,
  in Middle Ages.
Cremesor, Hot Region (Garmsir).
Çribhõja (Çribhôdja), country.
Crocodiles, _see_ Alligators.
Cross, legend of the Tree of the,
  gibes against, on Nayan's defeat;
  on monument at Singanfu.
Crossbows.
Cruelties, Tartar.
_Crusca MS._ of Polo.
Cubeb pepper.
Cubits, astronomical altitude estimated by.
Cublay, _see_ Kúblái.
Cucintana.
Cudgel, Tartars' use of.
Cuiju (Kwei-chau), province.
Cuinet, Vital, on Turkman villages,
  on Mosul Kurds.
Cuirbouly.
Cuju.
Cuncun (Han-Chung) province.
Cunningham, General A.
Cups, flying.
Curds and Curdistan.
Currency, copper token, in India,
  salt;
  leather;
  Cowrie, _see_ Cowries.
Currency, paper, in China,
  attempt to institute in Persia;
  alluded to.
Current, strong south along East Coast of Africa.
Currents, Cape of, or Corrientes.
Curtains, Persian.
Curzola Island, Genoese victory at,
  Polo's galley at;
  map of.
Curzon, Lord,
  list of Pamirs.
---- Hon. R., on invention of printing.
Customs, Custom-houses.
Cutch pirates.
Cuxstac, Kuhestec.
Cuy Khan (Kuyuk).
Cycle, Chinese.
_Cynocephali_, the.
Cypresses, sacred, of the Magians.
Cyprus.
Cyrus, his use of camels in battle near Sardis.

Dabul.
_Dadián_, title of Georgian kings.
Da Gama.
Dagroian, kingdom of, in Sumatra,
  probable position of.
Dailiu (Tali).
Daïtu, Taidu, Tatu (Peking), Kúblái's new city of Cambaluc.
Dakiánus, city of (Camadi).
_Dalada_, tooth relique of Buddha.
Dalai Lama, with four hands.
D'Alboquerque.
Dalivar, Dilivar, Diláwar (Lahore), a province of India.
Dalmian.
Damas.
Damascus,
  siege of.
Damasks, with _cheetas_ in them,
  with giraffes.
  (_see_ also Patterns.).
Damghan.
Dancing dervishes.
Dancing girls, in Hindu temples.
Dandolo, Andrea, Admiral of Venetian fleet at Curzola,
  his captivity and suicide;
  funeral at Venice.
D'Anghieria, Pietro Martire.
Dantapura.
Dante, number of MSS.,
  does not allude to Polo;
  _Convito_.
D'Anville's Map.
Darábjird.
Darah.
Dárápur.
_Dardas_, stuff embroidered in gold.
Dariel, Pass of (Gate of the Alans).
Darius,
  the Golden King.
Dark Ocean of the South.
Darkness, magical.
---- land of,
  how the Tartars find their way out;
  the people and their peltry;
  Alexander's legendary entrance into;
  Dumb trade of.
_Darráj_, black partridge, its peculiar call.
Darúná, salt mines.
Darwaz.
Dasht, or Plain, of Bahárak.
Dashtáb, hot springs.
Dasht-i-Lut (Desert of Lút).
Dashtistan tribe and district.
Dates (chronology) in Polo's book, generally erroneous.
---- (trees or fruit),
  Basra;
  Bafk;
  Reobarles, province;
  Formosa Plain;
  Hormos;
  wine of;
  diet of fish, etc.
Daughters of Marco Polo.
D'Avezac, M.
David, king of Abyssinia.
David, king of Georgia (Dawith).
Davids, Professor T.W. Rhys, _Buddhist Birth Stories_.
Davis, Sir John F.
Dawaro.
Daya.
Dead, disposal of the, in Tangut,
  at Cambaluc;
  in Coloman;
  in China;
  in Dagroian;
  by the Battas.
---- burning of the, _see_ Cremation.
  eating the, _see_ Cannibalism.
De Barros,
  on Java;
  Singhapura;
  Janifs.
Debt, singular arrest for.
_Decima_, or Tithe on bequest.
Decimal organisation of Tartar armies.
Decius, Emperor.
Degháns, Dehgáns.
Dehánah, village.
Deh Bakri.
De la Croix, Pétis.
Delhi, Sultans of.
D'Ely, Mount, _see_ Eli.
Demoiselle Crane, _anthropoides virgo_.
Deogir.
Derbend, Wall of (_see_ also Iron Gate of.).
Deserts, haunted.
Deserts of Kerman or of Lút,
  of Khorasan;
  of Charchan;
  Lop (Gobi);
  Kharakorum.
Desgodins, Abbé.
Despina Khatun.
Devadási.
Devapattan.
Devéria, G.
Devil-dancing.
Devil trees.
Devils, White.
D'Evreux, Father Yves.
Dhafar (Dofar, Thafar),
  its incense;
  two places of the name.
_Dhárani_, mystic charms.
Dhúlkarnain (Alex.), _see_ Zulkarnain.
Dialects, Chinese.
Diamonds in India, how found,
  mines of;
  diffusion of legend about.
"Diex Terrien".
Diláwar, Polo's Dihar.
Dimitri II., Thawdadebuli, king of Georgia.
Dínár, _see_ Bezant.
Dinár of Red Gold.
Dinh Tiên-hwàng, king of An-nam.
Diocletian.
_Dioscorides insula_.
Dir, chief town of Panjkora.
Dirakht-i-Fazl.
Dirakht-i-Kush.
Diráwal, ancient capital of the Bhattis.
Dirhem-Kub, Shah Mahomed, founder of Hormuz dynasty.
Dish of Sakya or of Adam.
Diu City.
Diul-Sind, Lower Sind.
Divination by twigs or arrows.
Dixan, branding with cross at.
Dizabulus, pavilion of.
Dizful River.
Djao (Chao) Namian Sumé (Kaipingfu).
Djaya, turquoises.
Doctors at Kinsay.
Dofar, _see_ Dhafar.
Dogana,
  conjectures as to.
Doghábah River.
Dog-headed races.
Dogs, the Khan's mastiffs,
  of Tibet;
  fierce in Cuiju.
Dog-sledging in Far North,
  notes on dogs.
Dolfino, Ranuzzo, husband of Polo's daughter, Moreta.
Dolonnúr.
Dominicans, sent with Polos but turn back.
_D' or plain_, the expression.
Dorah Pass.
Doria, family at Meloria.
---- Lampa,
  Admiral of Genoese Fleet sent to Adriatic;
  his victory;
  his tomb and descendants;
  at Meloria with six sons.
---- Octaviano, death of.
---- Tedisio, exploring voyage of.
Dorjé.
D'Orléans, Prince Henri.
Douglas, Rev. Dr. C.
Doyley, Sir Fulke.
Dragoian (Ta-hua-Mien).
_Draps entaillez_.
Drawers, enormous, of Badakhshan women.
Dreams, notable.
Drums, sound of in certain sandy districts.
_Dryabalanops Camphora_.
Dua Khan.
Du Bose, Rev. H.C.
Ducat, or sequin.
Dudley, _Arcano del Mare_.
Duel, mode in S. India of.
Dufour, on mediaeval artillery.
Duhalde, Plan of Ki-chau,
  or T'si-ning chau.
Dukuz Khatun.
Dulcarnon (Zulkarnain).
Dulites.
Dumas, Alexander.
Dumb trade.
Duncan, Rev. Moir.
_Dungen (Tungani)_, or converts.
Duplicates in geography.
_Dupu_.
Dürer's Map of Venice, so-called.
Durga Temple.
Dursamand.
_Dúsháb_, sweet liquor or syrup.
Dust-storms.
Duties, on Great Kiang,
  on goods at Kinsay and Zayton;
  on horses;
  at Hormuz.
  (_See_ also Customs.).
Dutthagamini, king of Ceylon.
Dwara Samudra.
Dzegun-tala, name applied to Mongolia.
Dzungaria.

Eagle mark on shoulder of Georgian kings.
Eagles, trained to kill large game.
---- white, in the Diamond Country.
Eagle-wood, origin of the name. (_See_ Lign-aloes.).
Earth honoured.
East, its state, circa, 1260.
Ebony (bonus).
Edkins, Rev.
Edward I.
Edward II., correspondence with Tartar princes.
Effeminacy, in Chinese palaces.
Eggs of Ruc and Aepyornis.
Egrigaia, province.
Ela (cardamom).
Elchidai.
Elenovka.
Elephantiasis.
Elephants, Kúblái carried on a timber bartizan by four,
  Kúblái's;
  the king of Mien's;
  numbers of men alleged to be carried by;
  how the Tartars routed;
  wild
  in Caugigu;
  Champa;
  Locac;
  Sumatra;
  Madagascar and Zanghibar;
  trade in teeth of;
  carried off by the Ruc;
  in Zanghibar;
  used in war;
  an error;
  Nubian;
  fable about;
  not bred in Abyssinia;
  training of African;
  war of the.
Eli, Ely, Elly (Hili), kingdom of.
Elias, Ney.
Elixir vitae of the Jogis.
Elliot, Sir Walter.
Emad, Ed-din Abu Thaher, founder of the Kurd dynasty.
Embroidery of silk at Kerman,
  leather in Guzerat.
Empoli, Giovanni d'.
_Empusa_, the Arabian Nesnás.
Enchanters, at Socotra.
Enchantments, of the Caraonas.
  (_See_ also Conjurers, Socerers.).
Engano Island, legend.
Engineering feat.
Engineers, their growing importance in Middle Ages.
England, Kúblái's message to king of,
  correspondence of Tartar princes with kings of.
English trade and character in Asia.
Enlightenment, Land of.
_Erba_, poisonous plant or grass.
Erculin, Arculin (an animal).
Erdeni Tso (Erdenidsu), or Erdeni Chao Monastery.
Eremites (Rishis), of Kashmir.
Erguiul, province.
Erivan.
_Erkeun_, (_Ye li ke un_), Mongol for Christians.
Ermine.
Erzinjan, Erzinga, Eriza (Arzinga).
Erzrum (Arziron).
_Eschiel_, the word.
Esher (Shehr, Es-shehr),
  trade with India, incense, Ichthyophagi;
  singular sheep.
Essentemur (Isentimur), Kúblái's grandson, king of Carajan.
_Estimo_, Venetian, or forced loan.
Etchmiadzin Monastery.
Ethiopia and India, confused.
Ethiopian sheep.
Etiquette of the Mongol Court.
Etymologies,
  _Balustrade_;
  buckram;
  Avigi;
  Geliz (Ghellé);
  Jatolic;
  muslin;
  baudekins;
  cramoisy;
  ondanique;
  zebu;
  carbine;
  Dulcarnon;
  balas;
  azure and lazuli;
  None;
  Mawmet and Mummery;
  salamander;
  berrie;
  barguerlac;
  S'ling;
  siclatoun;
  Argon;
  Tungani;
  Guasmul;
  chakór;
  Jádú and Yadah;
  Tafur;
  Bacsi;
  Sensin;
  P'ungyi;
  _carquois_;
  Keshikán;
  vernique;
  camut, borgal, shagreen;
  Chinuchi or Chunichi;
  Toscaol;
  Bularguchi;
  Fondaco;
  Bailo;
  comerque;
  porcelain;
  Sangon;
  Faghfur;
  Manjanik, mangonel, mangle, etc.;
  galingale;
  Chini and Misri;
  Satin;
  eagle-wood, aloes-wood;
  Bonús, Calamanz;
  benzoni;
  china pagoda;
  Pacauca;
  Balanjar, a-muck;
  Pariah;
  Govi;
  Avarian;
  Abraiaman;
  Choiach;
  proques;
  Tembul and Betel;
  Sappan and Brazil;
  Balladi;
  Belledi;
  Indigo baccadeo;
  Gatpaul, baboon;
  Salami cinnamon;
  [Greek: kómakon];
  rook (in chess);
  Aranie;
  Erculin and Vair;
  Miskál.
---- (of Proper Names),
  Curd;
  Dzungaria;
  Chingintalas;
  Cambuscan;
  Oirad;
  Kungurat;
  Manzi;
  Bayan;
  Kinsay;
  Japan;
  Sornau;
  Narkandam;
  Ceylon;
  Ma'bar;
  Chilaw;
  Mailapúr;
  Sônagarpattanam;
  Punnei-Káyal, Káyal;
  Kollam (Coilum);
  Hili (Ely);
  Cambaet;
  Mangla and Nebila;
  Socotra;
  Colesseeah;
  Caligine;
  Aijaruc;
  Nemej.
---- Chinese.
Etzina.
Eunuchs,
  procured from Bengal.
Euphrates,
  said to flow into the Caspian.
_Euphratesia_.
Euxine, _see_ Black Sea.
Evelyn's _Diary_.
Execution of Princes of the Blood, mode of.
Eyircayá.

Facen, Dr. J.
Faghfur (Facfur, Emperor of Southern China),
  meaning of title;
  his effeminate diversions;
  decay of his palace.
Faizabad in Badakhshan.
Fakanúr.
Fakata.
Fakhruddin Ahmad, Prince of Hormuz.
Falconers, Kúblái's.
Falcons, of Kerman,
  Saker and Lanner;
  peregrine;
  Kúblái's.
Famine, horrors.
_Fanchán, P'ingchang_, title of a second class Cabinet Minister.
Fanchan Lake.
Fan-ching, siege of.
Fandaraina.
_Fang, see_ Squares.
Fansur, in Sumatra, kingdom of.
Fansuri camphor.
Fan Wen-hu, or Fan-bunko, a General in Japanese Expedition.
Fariab, or Pariab.
Faro of Constantinople.
Farriers, none in S. India.
Fars, province.
Fashiyah, Atabeg dynasty.
Fassa.
Fasting days, Buddhist.
Fattan, in Ma'bar.
Fatten, 'Ali Sháh.
Fausto, Vettor, his Quinquereme.
Fazl, Ibn Hassan (Fazluïeh-Hasunïeh).
Feili, Lurs dynasty.
Female attendants on Chinese Emperors.
Ferlec, in Sumatra, kingdom of (Parlák),
  Hill people.
Fernandez, or Moravia, Valentine.
Ferrier, General.
Festivals, Order of the Kaan's.
Fiag, or Pog River.
_Ficus Vasta_.
_Fidáwí_, Ismailite adepts.
Filial Piety in China.
Filippi, Professor F. de, Silk industry in Ghílán.
Finn.
Fiordelisa, daughter of younger Maffeo Polo.
---- supposed to be Nicolo Polo's second wife.
---- wife of Felice Polo.
Firando Island.
Firdús, Ismailite Castle.
Firdúsí.
Fire, affected by height of Pamir Plain,
  regulations at Kinsay.
Fire-baptism, ascribed to Abyssinians.
Fire-_Pao_ (cannon?).
Fire-worship, or rockets, in Persia,
  by the Sensin in Cathay.
Firishta, the historian.
Fish miracle in Georgia,
  in the Caspian;
  and date diet;
  supply at Kinsay;
  food for cattle;
  stored for man and beast.
Fish-oil, used for rubbing ships.
Florin, or ducat.
Flour (Sago), trees producing.
Flückiger, Dr.
Fog, dry.
Fo-kien, _see_ Fu-chau.
Folin (Byzantine Empire).
Fondaco.
Foot-mark on Adam's Peak, _q.v._.
Foot-posts in Cathay.
Forg.
Formosa, Plain (Harmuza).
Forsyth, Sir T. Douglas.
Fortune, R.
Foundlings, provision for.
Four-horned sheep.
Fowls with hair.
Foxes, black.
Fozlán, Ibn.
_Fra terre_ (Interior).
Fracastoro, Jerome.
Franciscan converts,
  in Volga region
  at Yang-chau;
  Zayton.
Francolin (darráj of the Persians), black partridge.
Frankincense, _see_ Incense.
Frederic II., Emperor,
  his account of the Tartars;
  story of implicit obedience;
  his _cheetas_;
  his leather money;
  his giraffe.
French,
  the original language of Polo's Book;
  its large diffusion in that age.
French Expedition up the Kamboja River.
Frenchmen, riding long like.
French mission and missionaries in China.
_Frère charnel_.
Frere, Sir B.
Froissart.
Fu-chau (Fo-kien, Fuju),
  paper-money at;
  wild hill people of;
  its identity;
  language of;
  tooth relique at.
Fuen (Fen) ho River.
Funeral rites, Chinese,
  in Tangut;
  of the Kaans;
  at Kinsay.
  (_See_ also Dead.).
Fungul, city of.
Furs, of the Northern Regions.
Fusang, Mexico (?).
Fuyang.
Fuzo, _see_ Fu-chau.

Gabala, Bishop of.
Gagry, maritime defile of.

Gaisue, officer of Kúblái's Mathematical Board.
_Galeasse_, Venetian gallery.
Galingale.
Galletti, Marco.
Galleys of the Middle Ages, war,
  arrangement of rowers;
  number of oars;
  dimensions;
  tactics in fight;
  toil in rowing;
  strength and cost of crew;
  staff of fleet;
  Joinville's description of;
  customs of.
Galley-slaves not usual in Middle Ages.
Gambling, prohibited by Kúblái.
Game, _see_ Sport.
Game Laws, Mongol.
Game, supplied to Court of Cambaluc.
Ganapati Kings.
Gandar, Father.
Gandhára,
  Buddhist name for Yun-nan.
Ganfu, port of Kinsay.
Ganja, gate of.
Gan-p'u.
Gantanpouhoa, Kúblái's son.
Gantûr.
Gardenia, fruit and dyes.
Gardiner's (misprinted Gardner's) _Travels_.
Gardner, C.
Garmsir, Ghermseer (Cremesor), Hot Region.
Garnier, Lieut. Francis (journey to Talifu).
Garrisons, Mongol, in Cathay and Manzi,
  disliked by the people.
_Garuda_.
Gate of Iron, ascribed to Derbend.
Gates, of Kaan's palace,
  of Cambaluc;
  of Somnath.
Gat-pauls, Gatopaul, Gatos-paulas.
_Gatto maimone_.
Gauenispola Island.
Gaur (_Bos Gaurus, etc._).
Gauristan.
Gavraz villages.
Gazaria.
Gedrosi.
Gelath in Imeretia, Iron Gate at.
_Geliz_, Spanish for silk dealer.
Genealogy of Polos,
  errors as given by Barbaro, etc., in;
  tabular;
  of House of Chinghiz.
Genoa, Polo's captivity at.
---- and Pisa, rivalry, and wars of.
---- and Venice, rivalry and wars of.
Genoese, their growth in skill and splendour,
  character as seamen by poet of their own;
  character by old Italian author;
  capture of Soldaia;
  their navigation of the Caspian;
  trade in box-wood;
  their merchants at Tabriz;
  in Fo-kien.
Gentile Plural names converted into local singulars.
Geographical Text of Polo's Book constantly quoted,
  its language;
  proofs that it is the original;
  tautology;
  source of other texts.
George (Jirjis, Yurji, Gurgán), king of Tenduc,
  of the time of Prester John;
  a possible descendant of.
Georgia (Georgiana), beauty of,
  and its inhabitants;
  their kings.
Gerfalcons (Shonkár);
  tablets engraved with.
Gerini, Colonel.
German Follower of the Polos.
Ghaissuddin Balban (Asedin Soldan), Sultan of Delhi.
Gháran country, ruby mines in.
Gházán (Casan) Khan of Persia, son of Arghún,
  his regard for the Polos;
  marries the Lady Kukachin;
  his mosque at Tabriz;
  set to watch the Khorasan frontier;
  obtains the throne;
  his object and accomplishments.
Ghel, or Ghelan (Ghel-u-chelan), Sea of, Caspian Sea.
Ghellé (Gílí), silk of the Gíl province.
Ghes, or Kenn (formerly Kish or Kais).
_Ghez_ tree.
Ghiuju.
Ghiyas ed-din, last Prince of Kurd dynasty.
Ghori, or Aksarai River.
_Ghúls_, goblins.
Ghúr.
Giglioli, Professor H.
Gíl, or Gílán, province.
Gilgit.
Gill, Captain (_River of Golden Sand_).
Ginao, Mt. and Hot Springs.
Gindanes of Herodotus.
Ginger,
  Shan-si;
  Caindu;
  alleged to grow in Kiangnan;
  Fuju;
  Coilum;
  different qualities and prices of;
  Ely;
  Malabar;
  Guzerat.
Giraffes,
  mediaeval notices of.
Girardo, Paul.
Girdkuh, an Ismailite fortress, its long defence.
Girls, consecrated to idols in India.
Gittarchan, _see_ Astrakhan.
Glaza (Ayas, _q.v._).
Gleemen and jugglers, conquer Mien.
Goa.
Gobernador, Straits of.
Goës, Benedict.
Gog and Magog (Ung and Mungul),
  legend of;
  rampart of;
  country of;
  name suggested by Wall of China.
Gogo.
Goître at Yarkand.
Golconda diamond mines.
Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh, their mystic meaning.
Gold dust in Tibet,
  exchanged for salt in Caindu;
  Brius River;
  in Kin-shia-Kiang;
  and nuggets in Carajan;
  abundant in Yun-nan;
  Caugigu;
  Coloman;
  infinite in Chipangu;
  in Sea of Chin Islands;
  dust in Gulf of Cheinan Islands;
  not found in Java;
  in Locac;
  the Malayo-Siamese territories;
  Sumatra;
  vast accumulations in South India;
  imported into Malabar;
  and into Cambay;
  purchased in Socotra.
Gold and silver towers of Mien.
---- cloths of. (_See_ Silk and Gold.).
---- of the Gryphons in Herodotus.
---- Teeth (Zardandan), Western Yun-nan.
---- to silver, relative value of.
Golden King and Prester John, tale of the.
---- Island.
---- Horde (kings of the Ponent).
_Golfo, Indigo di_.
Gomispola, Gomispoda, _see_ Gauenispola.
Gomushtapah, Wall of.
Gomuti palm.
Gondophares, a king in the St. Thomas legends.
Gordon's "Ever Victorious Army".
Gordun Sháh.
Göring, F.
Goriosan.
_Gor Khar_, wild ass.
Goshawks,
  black.
Gothia (Crimean),
  its limit and language.
Govy, a low caste in Maabar.
Goza.
Gozurat, _see_ Guzerat.
Grail, Buddhist parallel to the Holy.
Granaries, Imperial.
Grapes in Shan-si.
Grass-cloths.
Grasso, Donato.
Great Bear (Meistre),
  and Little, force of, and application of these epithets.
Great, or Greater Sea (Black Sea).
Greece, Bactria's relation to.
Greek fire.
Greeks, in Turcomania,
  and Greek tongue in Socotra;
  possible relic of.
Green, Rev. D.D.
---- Island, legendary.
---- Islands.
---- Mount, Cambaluc.
---- R., _see_ Tsien Tang.
Gregorieff, his excavations at Sarai.
Gregory X., Pope, _see_ Theobald of Piacenza.
Grenard.
Grioni, Zanino.
_Griut_ (_kurut_), sour-curd.
Groat, Venetian _grosso_.
Groot, Professor, J.J.M. de.
Grote, Arthur.
Grueber and Dorville, Jesuit travellers.
_Grus, cinerea, antigone, leucogeranus, monachus_.
Gryphon, _see_ Rue.
Guasmul (Basmul), half-breeds.
Guchluk.
Gudar (village).
_Gudderi_, musk animals, Tibet.
Gudran.
Guebers, the.
Gujáh, Húlákú's chief secretary.
_Gugal_, bdellum.
Guilds of craftsmen at Kinsay.
---- Venetian.
Guinea-fowl.
Guions, a quasi-Tibetan tribe.
Gumish-Khának, silver mines.
Gunpowder.
Gurgan, a Tartar chief.
_Gurgan_, son-in-law, a title.
Gur-Khan of Karacathay.
Gutturals, Mongol elision of.
_Guz_=100.
Guzerat (Gozurat),
  products, mediaeval architecture and dress;
  work.

Haast, Dr., discovers a fossil Rue.
Habíb-ullah of Khotan.
Habsh (Abash), _see_ Abyssinia.
Hadhramaut (_Sessania Adrumetorum_).
Hadiah.
Haffer.
Hai-nan, Gulf of.
---- language of.
Hairy men in Sumatra.
Hajji Mahomed.
Hakeddin.
Half-breeds, _see_ Argon.
Hamd Allah Mastaufi, the geographer.
Hamilton, Captain Alexander.
Hammer-Purgstall on Marco Polo.
Hamúm Arabs.
Hamza of Ispahan.
Hamza Pantsúri, or Fantsúri.
Hanbury, D.
Han-chung (Cuncun).
Hang-chau fu, _see_ Kinsay.
Han dynasty.
---- River.
Hanjam.
Han-kau.
Hansi.
Han Yu.
_Harám_.
Harhaura, W. Panjáb.
Harlez, Mgr. de.
_Hármozeia_.
_Harpagornis_, fossil Ruc.
Harran.
Harshadeva, king of Kashmir.
Harsuddi, temple of.
Haru, or Aru.
Hashíshín, _see_ Assassins.
Hasik.
Hassán Kalá, hot springs at.
Hassan, son of Sabah, founder of the Ismailites.
Hastings, Warren, letter of.
Hatan, rebellion of.
Haunted deserts.
Havret, Father H.
_Hawáríy_ (Avarian), the term.
Hawks, hawking in Georgia,
  Yezd and Kerman;
  Badakhshan;
  Etzina;
  among the Tartars;
  on shores and islands of Northern Ocean
  Kúblái's sport at Chagannor;
  in mew at Chandu;
  trained eagles;
  Kúblái's establishment of;
  in Tibet;
  Sumatra;
  Maabar.
Hayton I. (Hethum), king of Lesser Armenia,
  his autograph.
Hazáras, the, Mongol origin of,
  lax custom ascribed to.
Hazbana, king of Abyssinia.
Heat, great at Hormuz,
  in India.
Heaven, City of (Kinsay).
Hedin, Dr. Sven.
Heibak, caves at.
Height, effects on fire of great.
Heikel, Professor Axel, on Buddhist monasteries in the Orkhon.
Hei-shui (Mongol Etsina) River.
Hel, Ela (Cardamom).
Helena, Empress.
Helli, _see_ Eli.
He-lung Kiang.
Hemp of Kwei-chau.
Henry II., Duke of Silesia.
Henry III.
Heraclius, Emperor,
  said to have loosed the shut-up nations.
Herat.
Hereditary trades.
Hereford, Map.
Hermenia, _see_ Armenia.
Hermits of Kashmir.
Herodotus.
Hethum, _see_ Hayton.
Hiai- or Kiai-chau (Caichu?).
Hides (_See_ Leather.).
Hili, Hili-Marawi, _see_ Ely.
Hill-people of Fo-kien, wild.
Hinaur, _see_ Hunáwar.
Hind.
Hindu character, remarks on frequent eulogy of.
---- Kush.
Hindus, their steel and iron.
---- in Java.
Hing-hwa, language of.
Hippopotamus' teeth.
Hips, admiration of large.
Hirth, Dr. F.
Hiuan-Tsung, Emperor.
Hiuen Tsang, Dr., a Buddhist monk.
Hochau, in Sze-chwan, Mangku Khan's death at.
---- in Kansuh.
Hochung-fu (Cachanfu).
Hodgson, Mr.
Hoernle, Dr.
Hojos.
Hokien-fu (Cacanfu).
Hokow, or Hokeu.
Holcombe, Rev. C.,
  on Hwai-lu;
  on Yellow River;
  on Pia-chau fu;
  on road from T'ung-kwan to Si-ngan fu.
Hollingworth, H.G.
Holy Sepulchre,
  oil from lamp of.
Homeritae.
Homi-cheu, or Ngo-ning.
_Homme_, its technical use.
Hondius map.
Ho-nhi, or Ngo-ning (Anin) tribe (_See_ Homi-cheu.).
Hooker, Sir Joseph, on bamboo explosion.
Horiad (Oirad, or Uirad) tribe.
Hormuz (Hormos, Curmosa),
  trade with India;
  a sickly place;
  the people's diet;
  ships;
  great heat and fatal wind;
  crops, mourning customs;
  the king of;
  another road to Kerman from;
  route from Kerman to;
  site of the old city;
  foundation of;
  history of;
  merchants;
  horses exported to India from;
  the Melik of.
---- Island, or Jerun,
  Organa of Arian.
Hormuzdia.
Horns of Ovis Poli.
Horoscopes, in China,
  in Maabar.
Horse-posts and Post-houses.
Horses, Turkish,
  Persian;
  of Badakhshan, strain of Bucephalus;
  sacrificed at Kaans' tombs;
  Tartar;
  and white mares;
  presented to Kaan on New Year's Day;
  of Carajan;
  their tails docked;
  of Anin;
  tracking by;
  decorated with Yaks' tails;
  now bred in S. India.
---- great trade and prices in importing to India from Persia,
  modes of shipment;
  from Carajan;
  from Anin;
  from Kis, Hormuz, Dofar, Soer, and Aden;
  Esher;
  Dofar;
  Calatu.
---- duty on,
  captured by pirates;
  their extraordinary treatment and diet in India.
Horse-stealing, Tartar laws.
Hosie, A.,
  on Ch'êng-tu;
  brine-wells of Pai-yen-ching;
  on the Si-fan;
  on Caindu Lake.
Hospitals, Buddhist.
Hostelries, at Cambaluc,
  on the Cathay post-roads;
  at Kinsay.
Hot springs in Armenia,
  near Hormuz.
Hounds, Masters of Kaan's.
Hours, struck from Cambaluc bell-tower,
  at Kinsay;
  unlucky;
  canonical.
Hsi Hsia dynasty.
_Hsiang-chên, Hsiang_, wood.
Hu-chau fu (Vuju).
Hui-hui, white and black capped, two Mohammedan sects.
Hukaji (Hogáchi, Cogachin), Kúblái's son.
Hukwan-hien.
Húlakú Khan (Alau, Alacan), Kúblái's brother, and founder of Mongol
    dynasty in Persia,
  war with Barka Khan;
  takes Baghdad and puts Khalif to death;
  the Ismailites and the Old Man.
---- his treachery,
  his descendants;
  battle with Barca;
  his followers.
Hullukluk, village, near Sivas.
Human fat, used for combustion in war.
---- sacrifices.
Humáyún, Emperor.
Humboldt.
Hunáwar (Onore, Hinaur).
Hundred Eyes, prophecy of the.
_Hundwáníy_ (ondanique), Indian steel.
Hungary, Hungarians.
Hung Hao, Chinese author.
Hun-ho (Sanghin River).
Hunting equipment and Expedition, Kúblái's,
  Kang-hi's.
---- preserves. (_See_ also Sport.).
Hutton, Captain.
Hwa-chau.
Hwai-lu, or Hwo-lu-h'ien (Khavailu), the Birmingham of N. Shansi.
Hwai-ngan-fu (Coiganju).
Hwai River.
Hwang-ho (Yellow River),
  changes in its courses;
  its embankments.
Hwan-ho.
Hyena.
Hyrcania, king of.

Iabadiu.
Ibn-al-Furát.
Ibn Batuta (Moorish traveller, circa A.D. 1330-1350),
  his account of Chinese juggling;
  his account of Khansa (Kinsay);
  of Zayton;
  in Sumatra;
  on Camphor;
  in Ceylon;
  at Kaulam;
  in Malabar;
  sees Rukh;
  his account of Maldives;
  dog-sledges;
  Market in Land of Darkness;
  on Silver Mines of Russia.
Ibn Fozlán, _see_ Fozlán.
Ichin-hien.
Ichthyophagous cattle and people.
Icon Amlac, king of Abyssinia.
Iconium (Kuniyah, Conia).
Idolatry (Buddhism) and Idolaters,
  in Kashmir;
  their decalogue;
  Pashai;
  Tangut;
  Kamul;
  Kanchau;
  Chingintalas;
  Suhchau;
  Etzina, their fasting days;
  Tartars and Cathayans;
  Erguiul;
  Egrigaia;
  Tenduc;
  Chandu;
  at Kúblái's birthday feast;
  Cachanfu;
  Kenjanfu;
  Acbalec Manzi;
  Sindafu;
  Tibet;
  Caindu;
  Yachi;
  Carajan;
  Zardandan;
  Mien;
  Caugigu;
  Coloman;
  Cuiju;
  Cacanfu;
  Chinangli;
  Sinjumatu;
  Coiganju;
  Paukin;
  Tiju;
  Nanghin;
  Chinghianfu;
  Tanpiju;
  Chipangu;
  Chamba;
  Sumatra;
  Nicobars;
  Mutfili;
  Coilum;
  Eli;
  Malabar;
  Tana;
  Cambaet;
  Semenat;
  Far North.
---- Origin of,
  of Brahmans;
  of Jogis.
Idols, Tartar,
  Tangut;
  colossal;
  of Cathay;
  of Bacsi or Lamas;
  of Sensin;
  of East generally;
  in India.
[Greek: Ieródouloi].
Ieu, Gnostics of.
Ifat, Aufat.
Ig, Ij, or Irej, capital of the Shawánkárs.
Igba Zion, Iakba Siun, king of Abyssinia.
_Ilchi_, commissioner.
Ilchi, modern capital of Khotan.
Ilchigadai Khan.
Ilija, hot springs at.
Ilkhan, the title.
Ilyáts, nomads of Persia.
Imáms of the Ismailites.
Im Thurn, Everard, on _Couvade_.
Incense, Sumatran,
  brown in West India;
  white (i.e. frankincense), in Arabia.
India,
  horse trade to;
  trade to Manzi or China from;
  believed to breed no horses;
  trade with Persia and Arabia;
  western limits of;
  islands of;
  division of;
  sundry lists of States;
  trade with Aden and Egypt;
  with Arabian ports;
  confusion of Ethiopia and.
India, the Greater.
---- its extent.
---- the Lesser.
---- Middle (Abyssinia).
---- remarks on this title.
---- Maxima.
---- Tertia.
---- Superior.
---- Sea of.
Indian drugs to prolong life.
---- geography, dislocation of Polo's.
---- nuts, _see_ Cocoa-nuts.
---- steel (ondanique).
Indies, the Three, and their distribution.
Indifference, religious, of Mongol Emperors.
Indigo, mode of manufacture at Coilum,
  in Guzerat;
  Cambay;
  prohibited by London Painters' Guild.
Indo-China,
  States.
Indragiri River.
Infants, exposure of.
Ingushes of Caucasus.
Innocent IV., Pope.
Inscription, Jewish, at Kaifungfu.
Insult, mode of, in South India.
Intramural interment prohibited.
Invulnerability, devices for.
'Irák.
Irghai.
Irish, accused of eating their dead kin.
---- M.S. version of Polo's Book.
Iron, in Kerman,
  in Cobinan.
Iron Gate (Derbend Pass), said to have been built by Alexander,
  gate ascribed to.
Irtish River.
Isaac, king of Abyssinia.
Isabel, queen of Little Armenia.
Isabeni.
Isentemur (Sentemur, Essentemur), Kúblái's grandson.
Ish, the prefix.
'Ishin.
Ish-Káshm,
  dialect.
Iskandar, Shah of Malacca.
Islands, of the Indian Sea,
  of China;
  in the Gulf of Cheinan;
  Male and Female.
Isle d'Orleans.
Isle of Rubies (Ceylon).
Ismaïl, Shah of Persia.
Ismailites, _see_ Assassins.
Ispahan (Istanit, Istan, Spaan), kingdom of Persia.
Israel in China, _see_ Jews.
Iteration, wearisome.
I'tsing.
Ivongo.
Ivory trade.
Izzuddin Muzaffar, suggests paper-money in Persia.

Jacinth.
Jacobite Christians, at Mosul,
  at Tauris;
  Yarkand;
  perhaps in China.
Jacobs, Joseph, Barlaam and Josaphat.
_Jadah_ or _Yadah-Tásh_.
Jade stone (jasper) of Khotan.
Jaeschke, Rev. H.A.
Jaffa, Count of, his galley.
Jaipál, Raja.
Jájnagar.
Jaláluddín of Khwarizm.
Jamáluddín-al-Thaibi, Lord of Kais.
Jamaluddin, envoy from Ma'bar to Khanbaligh.
Jambi River.
James of Aragon, king.
Jámisfulah (Gauenispola).
Jamúi Khátún,
  Kúblái's favourite Queen;
  her kindness to the captured Chinese princesses.
Jangama sect.
Janibeg, Khan of Sarai.
Japan, _see_ Chipangu.
Japanese paper-money.
Jaroslawl.
_Jase_, stitched vessel.
Jaspar (Gaspar), one of the Magi.
Jasper and chalcedony.
Jatolic, Játhalík, Jaselic, Gáthalík ([Greek: katholikós]).
Jauchau.
Jaúzgún, former captain of Badakhshan.
Java, the Great,
  described;
  circuit, empires in;
  Kúblái's expedition against.
Java, the Greater and Lesser, meaning of these terms.
Java, the Less, _see_ Sumatra.
Jawa, Jáwi,
  applied by Arabs to islands and products of the Archipelago generally.
Jaya-Sinhavarman II., king of Champa.
Jazirah.
Jehangír (Jehan, Shah).
Jenkinson, Anthony.
Jerún (Zarun), island, site of the later Hormuz.
Jerusalem.
Jesuit maps.
Jesujabus, Nestorian Patriarch.
Jews, their test of Mahomed's prophetic character,
  shut up by Alexander;
  their connection with the Tartars;
  in China, their inscription at Kaifungfu;
  in Coilum;
  in Abyssinia.
Jibal.
---- Nakús, or "Hill of the Bell," Sinai desert.
Jibal-ul-Thabúl, "Hill of Drums," near Mecca.
Jiruft.
Jogis (Chughi).
John XXII., Pope.
Johnson, his visit to Khotan.
Johnston, Keith.
Johore, Sultan of.
Jon (Jihon, or Oxus) River.
Jordanus, Friar.
Jor-fattan (Baliapatan).
Josephus.
Jubb River.
Judi, Mount.
Jugglers, at Khan's feasts,
  and gleemen conquer Mien.
Juggling extraordinary.
Juji, eldest son of Chinghiz.
Juju (Cho-chau).
Julman.
Junghuhn, on Batta cannibalism,
  on camphor trees.
Junks. (_See_ also Ships.).
Jupár.
Justice, administration of Tartar.
Justinian, Emperor.
Juzgána (Dogana).

Kaan, and Khan, the titles.
Kaan, the Great, _see_ Kúblái.
Kaans, the series of, and their burial place,
  massacre of all met by funeral party.
Kabul.
_Kachkár (Ovis Vignei)_, wild sheep.
Kadapah.
Kafchi-kúe.
Káfirs of Hindu Kush,
  their wine.
_Kahgyur_, Tibetan Scripture.
Kahn-i-Panchur.
Kaidu (Caidu) Khan, Kúblái's cousin and life-long opponent,
  plots with Nayan;
  his differences with Kúblái;
  and constant aggressions;
  his death;
  his victorious expedition _v._ Kúblái;
  Kúblái's resentment;
  his daughter's valour;
  sends a host _v._ Abaga.
Kaifung-fu, Jews and their synagogues there,
  siege of.
Kaikhátu (Kiacatu), Khan of Persia, seizes throne,
  his paper-money scheme;
  his death;
  his dissolute character.
Kaikhosru I. and III., Seljukian dynasty.
Kaïkobad I. and III.
Kaikus, Izz ed-din.
Káil, _see_ Cail.
Káïn (Gháín), a city of Persia.
Kaipingfu (Keibung, Kaiminfu, Kemenfu).
Kairat-ul-Arab.
Kais, _see_ Kish.
Kaisaríya (Caesaraea, Casaria).
Kajjala, or Khajlak, a Mongol leader.
Kakateya, dynasty.
Kakhyens, Kachyens, tribe in Western Yun-nan.
Kakula.
Kala' Atishparastan (Cala Ataperistan), "The Castle of the
    Fire-Worshippers".
Kala' Safed.
Kalajan (Calachan).
Kalámúr.
Kalantan.
Kalchi, Kalakchi.
Kales Devar, king of Ma'bar,
  his enormous wealth.
Kalgan, or Chang-kia-keu.
Kalhát (Kalhátú, Calatu, Calaiate),
  described;
  idiom of.
Kalidása, the poet, on the Yak.
Kálikút.
_Kálín_, marriage prices.
Kalinga.
Kalinjar.
_Kalmia angustifolia_, poisonous.
Kamál Malik.
Kamárah, Komar.
Kamasal (Conosalmi), Kahn-i-asal, "The honey canal".
Kambala, Kúblái's grandson.
Kambáyat (Cambay).
Kamboja (Chinla).
Kampar, district and River, Buddhist ruins.
Kamul (Komal, Camul), the Mongol Khamil, Chinese Hami.
_Kanat_, or _Karez_, underground stream.
Kanát-ul-Shám (Conosalmi).
Kanauj.
Kanbalu Island.
Kancháu (Campichu).
Kandahár, Kandar, Ghandhára.
Kandy.
Kanerkes, or Kanishka, kingdom,
  coins of.
Kang-hi, Emperor.
Kank.
Kanp'u (Ganpu), old Port of Hang-chau.
Kansan, _see_ Shensi.
Kansuh.
Kao Hoshang.
Kao-Tsung, Emperor.
Kao-yu (Cayu).
Kapilavastu.
Kapukada, Capucate.
_Karábughá, Carabya, Calabra_, a military engine.
Kará Hulun.
Karájáng (Carajan, or Yun-nan).
Karákásh ("black jade") River.
Karákhitaian Empire.
---- Princes of Kerman.
Kará Khoja.
Karakorum (Caracoron).
_Kara Kumiz_, special kind of _Kumiz_.
Karámúren (Caramoran) River, Mongol name for the Hwang-ho, or Yellow River.
_Karana_, meaning of.
Karáni (vulgo Cranny).
Karanút, a Mongol sept.
Karaún Jidun, or Khidun.
Karaunahs (Caraonas), a robber tribe.
_Karavat_, an instrument for self-decollation.
Karens.
Karmathian, heretics.
Karnúl.
Karrah.
Karra-Mánikpúr.
Kartazonon, Karkaddan, rhinoceros.
Kasaidi Arabs.
_Kash_, jade.
Kashan.
Káshgar (Cascar),
  Chankans of.
_Kashísh (Casses)_.
Kashmír (Keshimur),
  Buddhism;
  beauty of the women;
  conjurers;
  the language of;
  sorcery in.
Kashmiris.
Kasia, people and hills.
Kasyapa Buddha.
Kataghan, breed of horses.
Katar pirates.
Katif.
Kattiawár,
  pirates.
Kaulam, _see_ Coilum.
Kaulam-Malé.
Kauli (Cauly), Corea.
Kaunchi (Conchi), Khan.
Káveripattanam.
Káveri River, delta of.
_Kavir_, saline swamp.
Kavváyi.
Káyal, Káil, _see_ Cail.
---- Pattanam.
---- Punnei.
Kayten.
Kazan.
Kazáwinah.
Kazbek.
Kazvín (Casvin).
Keary, C.F.
_Kebteul_, night-watch.
Kehran.
Keiaz tribe.
Keibung (Kaipingfu).
Kelinfu (Kienning-fu), City, its bridges.
Kemenfu, _see_ Kaipingfu.
Kenjanfu (Si-ngan fu).
Keraits, a great Tartar tribe.
Kerala.
Keria, _see_ Kiria.
Keriza River.
Kermán,
  route to Hormus from;
  steel manufacture, its industries;
  king of, Atabeg of;
  stitched vessels of;
  desert of.
Kerulen (K'i-lien) valley, the Khans' burial-ground.
Keshican (Keshikten), Kúblái's life-guard.
Kesmacoran (Kij Makrán),
  Kij-Makrán.
Keuyung Kwan, village.
Khakán, the word.
Khalif (Calif) Mosta'Sim Billah of Baghdad,
  taken by Húlakú and starved to death;
  plot _v._ the Christians laid by a former--the miracle of the
    mountain;
  becomes secretly a Christian.
_Khálij_.
_Khàm_, stuff made with cotton thread.
Khambavati (Cambay).
Khanabad (Dogana?).
Khán Bádshah of Khotan.
Khánbalík, _see_ Cambaluc.
Khanfu.
Khanikoff, N. de (travels in Persia).
_Khanjár-i-Hundwán_, hanger of Indian steel.
_Khán-khánán_, a title.
Khanoolla (Mount Royal), site of Chinghiz's tomb.
Khansâ.
Kharesem, Mount.
Khato-tribe.
Khátún-gol, or "Lady's River," i.e. Hwang-ho.
_Khatun_ title of Khan's wives.
Khavailu (Hwo-lu h'ien).
Khazars, the.
Khilak.
Khimka.
Khinsa, Khingsai, Khinzai. (_See_ Kinsay.).
Khitan, Khitai.
---- character.
---- dynasty of Liao.
Khmer.
Khodabanda, Ilkhan of Kermán.
Khojas, name of modern Ismailite sect.
Khorasan, province,
  turquoises of.
Khormuzda, supreme deity of the Tartars.
Khotan (Cotan),
  fruits;
  routes between China and;
  buried cities of;
  its jade.
Khumbavati (Cambay).
Khumdán.
Khusrú, Amír, Indian poet.
Khutuktai Setzen, Prince of the Ordos.
Khwarizm.
Kiacatu, _see_ Kaikhátu.
Kiahing (Ciangan, Canigan).
Kiai- or Hiai-chau (Caichu).
Kiakhta.
Kia-k'ing, Emperor.
Kiang, the Great (Kian and Kian-Suy, and in its highest course Brius,
    the Kinsha Kiang),
  its vastness, and numerous craft;
  steamers on;
  its former debouchure to the south, and changes.
Kiang-Ché,
  limits of.
Kiang-Hung, Xieng-Hung.
Kiangka.
Kiang-mai, Xieng-mai, Zimmé.
Kiangshan.
Kiangsi.
Kiang-su.
Kiang-suy (-shui) River.
Kiangtheu.
Kiang-Tung.
Kiao-chi (Tungking), Chinese etymology of.
Kia Tsing, Emperor, a great bridge builder.
Kichau Castle.
Kieh-Ch'a.
K'ien-ch'ang, Kiung-tu (Caindu).
Kien-chau.
Kien-kwé.
Kien-lung, Emperor.
Kien-ning fu (Kelinfu).
Kiepert, _Map of Asia_.
Kij-Makrán (Kesmacoran).
Kila'-i-Gabr, "Gueber Castle".
Kilimanchi River.
Kiming shan Mountains, gold and silver mines.
_Kimiz_, _kumiz_ (_kemiz_), mare's milk,--Tartar beverage.
Kin, or Golden Dynasty in N. China,
  their paper-money;
  story of their Golden King.
Kincha, Chinese name for Kipchak.
Kin-Chi, or Gold-Teeth (Zardandan).
King of the Abraiaman.
---- of England, Kúblái's message to,
  intercourse with Mongol princes.
---- of France, Kúblái's message to.
---- of Spain, Kúblái's message to.
---- Rev. C.W.
Kings of Maabar, the five brothers,
  their mother's efforts to check their broils.
---- subordinate, or Viceroys, in China.
---- Tartar, of the Ponent.
Kingsmill, T.W.
King-tê-chên, porcelain manufacture.
K'ing-yüan (Ning-po).
Kin-hwa fu.
Kinki, Kimkhá.
Kinsay (King-szé, or "Capital," Khansá, Khinsá, Khingsai, Khanzai,
    Cansay, Campsay),
  formerly Lin-ngan now Hang-chau fu;
  its surrender to Bayan;
  extreme public security;
  alleged meaning of the name;
  described;
  bridges;
  hereditary trades, guilds and wealthy craftsmen and their dainty wives;
  the lake, islands and garden-houses;
  stone-towers--inhabitants' clothing and food;
  guards and police regulations;
  fires;
  alarm towers, paved streets;
  revenue;
  pavements, public baths, port of Ganfu;
  the province and other provinces of Manzi, garrisons;
  horoscopes, funeral rites;
  palace of the expelled king;
  church, house registers;
  hostel regulations;
  canals;
  markets and squares;
  fruits and fish shops;
  women of the town, physicians and astrologers, courts of justice;
  vast consumption of pepper;
  inhabitants' character--their behaviour to women and foreigners;
  hatred of soldiers;
  pleasures on the lake and in carriage excursions;
  palace of the king;
  the king's effeminacy and ruin;
  tides;
  plan of;
  notices by various writers of;
  wealth of;
  ships.
Kin-sha Kiang, "River of Golden Sands" (upper branch of Great Kiang,
    Brius).
Kinshan, _see_ Golden Island.
Kinto, or Hintu, Mongol general.
Kipchak (Ponent), Southern Russia,
  events related by Polo in;
  sovereigns;
  people of;
  extent of empire.
Kirghiz Kazak.
Kirghiz, the.
Kiria.
Kirk, Sir John, and Raphia palm.
Kis, Kish, or Kais (Kisi), now Ghes, or Kem, island in Persian Gulf,
  merchants;
  described.
Kishik, Kishikan, Kizik, Keshikchi, _see_ Keshican.
Kishm (Casem).
---- or Brakht (Oaracta), island in the Persian Gulf.
Kistna River.
Kitubuka, General.
Kiu-chau.
Kiulan (Quilon), _see_ Coilum.
Kizil Irmak, the.
Kizil River.
Kneeling oxen.
Kobad, the Sassanian.
Kobdo.
Koh-Banán (Cobinan).
Koja (Coja), a Tartar envoy from Persia.
Kokcha River.
_Kok-Tash_, greenstone of Samarkand.
Kolastri, or Kolatiri Rajas.
Ko-li-ki-sze.
Kolkhoi of Ptolemy, identified.
Kollam, _see_ Coilum.
Koloman, _see_ Coloman.
Kolyma, bird-hunting at.
[Greek: Kómakon].
Komár.
[Greek: Komária ákron].
Konár tree, Marco Polo's apples of Paradise.
Kondachi.
Konkan, Konkan-Tana.
_Korano_, epithet on Indo-Scythic coins.
_Korea, History of_.
Koresh king.
_Kornish_, or K'o-tow (Khén-théu).
Kosakio, a general against Japan.
Kosseir.
Kotcheres, Kurds of Mosul.
Kotlogh, or Kutlugh, Sultan of Kerman.
Kotlogh Shah, the Chaghataian prince.
Kotrobah Island.
Kouyunjik, sculptures at.
Kozlov, Lieutenant K.P., on the Lob-nor.
Kuang-chou.
Kúbenán (Cobinan), a Kuh-banán "Hill of the Terebinths or Wild Pistachios".
Kúblái (Cublay), Káán, the Great Khán,
  his envoys meet the two elder Polos;
  receives and questions the Polos;
  sends them as envoys to the Pope;
  his desire for Christian teachers, and for oil from the lamp in the
  Holy Sepulchre;
  gives them a Golden Tablet;
  his reception of the three Polos;
  sends Marco on an embassy;
  Marco grows in favour;
  allows the Polos to depart with Tablets of Authority;
  rumour of his death;
  sends a napkin of asbestos to the Pope;
  his greatness and power;
  his milk libations;
  his inscription at Shangtu;
  Chinghiz's prophecy;
  his lineage, age, and accession;
  Nayan's revolt;
  Nayan's defeat and death;
  rebukes anti-Christian gibes;
  returns to Cambaluc;
  treats four religions with equal respect;
  his views on Christianity;
  how he rewards his captains;
  his personal appearance;
  his wives and ladies-in-waiting;
  his palace at Cambaluc;
  builds Cambaluc city;
  his bodyguard;
  order of his feasts;
  celebration of his birthday;
  his distribution of robes;
  his New Year's feast;
  his elephants;
  the _K'o-tow_;
  adopts Chinese ancestor-worship;
  his game laws;
  his hunting establishment;
  his masters of hounds;
  how he goes a-hunting;
  how his year is spent;
  Ahmad's influence, oppression, and death;
  his treatment of Mahomedans;
  his mint and paper-money;
  his purchase of valuables;
  his twelve great Barons;
  his posts and runners;
  remission of taxes;
  his justice;
  a tree planter;
  his store of corn;
  charity to the poor;
  his astrologers;
  gaol deliveries, and prohibition of gambling;
  his early campaign in Yun-nan;
  and the king of Mien and Bangala;
  Litan's plot;
  sends Bayan to invade Manzi;
  his dealings with Bayan;
  satisfied with the Polo's mangonels;
  appoints Mar Sarghis governor of Chinghian-fu;
  the city of Kinsay;
  his revenue from Kinsay;
  from Zayton;
  his expedition against Chipangu (Japan);
  sends force against Chamba;
  attempts to gain Java;
  his death;
  sends to buy Ceylon ruby;
  sends for religions of Sakya;
  testifies to miraculous powers of Sakya's dish;
  intercourse with Ma'bar;
  with Kaulam;
  missions to Madagascar;
  Kaidu's wars with him.
---- Khan, territories and people subject to (Turkistan),
  (Tangut and Mongolia);
  (Tibetan frontier and Yun-nan);
  (Western China);
  (N. Eastern China);
  (Manzi);
  (Sinju);
  (Caiju);
  Chinghian-fu;
  (Chinginju);
  (Suju);
  (Tanpigu);
  (Chonka);
  (Zayton);
  (Chamba);
  (Sumatra).
Kuché character.
_Kudatku Bilik_, an Uíghúr poem.
Kuhistan, or Hill country of Persia.
Kúkachin, _see_ Cocachin.
Kukin-Tána.
Kukju (Genkju), Kúblái's son.
Kuku-Khotan (Blue Town), depôt for Mongolian trade with China.
Ku-kwan, Customs' Barrier.
Kuláb, lions in,
  Salt Mines.
Kulán, _Asinus Onager_, the Gor Khar of Persia.
Kulasaikera.
Kumár, _see_ Komár.
Kumhari, Kumari, _see_ Comari.
Kumiz, kimiz (kemiz), Mare's milk, Tartar beverage,
  sprinkling of.
Kummájar.
Kúnbúrn Monastery.
Kunduz.
_Kunduz_ (beaver or sable).
Kunduz-Baghlán.
Kung-ki-cheng (Fei-ch'eng).
Kunguráts, Kunkuráts (Ungrat), a Mongol tribe.
_Kunichi_ (Cunichi, or Chinuchi), "The Keepers of the Mastiff Dogs".
Kuniyah (Conia), Iconium, Koniah.
Kunlun (Pulo Condore).
Kurd dynasty.
Kurdistan (Curdistan).
Kurds, the.
Kúreh-i-Ardeshír (Kuwáshír).
Kuria Maria Islands.
Kuridai, Kúblái's son.
_Kúrkah_, great drum.
Kurmishi.
Kurshids of Lùristán.
_Kurut_ (Curd).
Kus, Cos (in Egypt).
Kushluk, the Naiman.
Kutan, son of Okkodai.
Kutchluk Khan (Buddhist), Chief of the Naïmans.
Kutuktemur, Kúblái's son.
Kutulun, Princess.
Kuwinji, _see_ Kaunchi.
Kuyuk Khan.
Kwa-chau (Caiju), at mouth of Great Canabon Yang-tse-Kiang.
Kwan Hsien.
Kwansinfu.
Kwawa, i.e. Java, etymology.
Kwei-chau (Cuiju).
Kwei-hwa-ch'eng, or Kuku Khotan.
Kweilei River.
Kyung-sang province.

Lac (Wallachia), Lacz.
Ladies' dresses in Badakhshan.
Ladies of Kinsay.
Lagong.
Lahore (Dalivar, Dilivar).
Lahsa.
Lájwurd mines.
Lake, Caindu.
---- Fanchau.
---- Kinsay.
---- of Palace at Cambaluc.
---- Pleasure parties on.
---- Talifu.
---- Yunnan-fu.
Laknaoti.
Lakshamana Deva, king of Kashmír.
Lamas of Tibetan Buddhism;
  their superstitions and rites;
  their monasteries;
  marriage. (_See_ also Bakhshi.).
Lambri,
  kingdom of;
  situation of.
Lances of Sago Palm.
Lanchang.
Land of Darkness,
  market in.
Langdarma.
Langting Balghasun.
Languages used in Mongol Court and administration.
Lan-Ho.
Lanja Bálús, or Lankha bálús.
Lanka (Ceylon).
Lan Ki Hien (Nan-Che-hien).
Lanner Falcons.
Lan-tsang kiang (Mekong) River.
Lao-Kiun, or Lao-Tseu, the Philosopher.
Laos, people of.
Lar, or Lát-Desa.
---- province.
Latin version of Polo's Book.
Latins, the term.
Latsé, Tibetan for musk.
Lauredano, Agnes.
_Laurus Camphora_.
Lawek, _Lawáki_.
Laxities of marriage customs, _see_ Marriage.
Layard, Mr.
Layas, _see_ Ayas.
---- Gulf of.
Leather,
  embroidered mats of Guzerat.
Leaves,
  used for plates;
  green leaves said to have a soul.
Lecomte on Chinese war vessels.
Lembeser, Ismaelite fortress.
Lenzin.
Leon I., king of Lesser Armenia.
Leon II., king of Lesser Armenia.
Leon III., king of Lesser Armenia.
Leon VI., last king of Lesser Armenia.
Leopards,
  taught to sit on horseback;
  (Cheetas) kept for the Chase by Kúblái.
Lepechin, Professor.
Le Strange, Guy.
Leung Shan.
Levant, term applied by Polo to the kingdom of the Mongol Khans.
Lewchew.
Lewis, _see_ St. Lewis.
Lewis XI. and XII. (France).
Lew-sha, old Chinese name for Lop Desert.
Leyes, _see_ Ayas.
Lhása,
  _Labrang_ Monastery at.
_Li_, Chinese measure,
  supposed to be confounded with miles.
Liampo (Ningpo).
Liang, or tael.
Liang-chau in Kansuh.
Liao dynasty.
Liao-tong.
Libanos, [Greek: Libanophóros] and [Greek: libanotophóros chóra].
_Libro d'Oro_.
Licinius, Emperor.

Lidé (Liti).
Lieuli Ho.
Lign-aloes (eagle-wood),
  etymology;
  in Sumatra.
Ligor.
_Ligurium_, the precious stone, _Liguire_.
Li H'ien, Tartar ruler of Tangut.
_Likamankwas_ of Abyssinian kings.
Li-kiang fu.
_Limyrica_.
Lindley.
Lindsay, Hon. R.
_Linga_.
Linju.
Lin-ngan (Hang-chau).
Lin-ngan in Yun-nan.
Lintching-y, or Linchinghien.
Lin-t'sing chau.
Lion and Sun.
Lions, black.
---- on the Oxus,
  Chinese notion of.
---- (apparently for tigers) kept for the chase by Kúblái,
  skins of striped;
  how hunted with dogs (_See_ also Tigers.).
Lion's Head Tablets.
_Lire_, various Venetian.
---- of gold.
Lisbon.
Lissu, or Lisau tribe.
Litai.
Litán, rebellion of.
Lithang.
Little Orphan Rock.
Liu Pang, founder of 1st Han dynasty.
Liu Pei (Luo Pé), of the Han dynasty.
_Livre des Merveille_.
Livres of gold.
---- Parisis.
---- Tournois.
Li Yuan-hao, founder of the Hsi Hsia dynasty, Tangut.
Lo, tribes of S.W. China so-called.
---- Chinese name of part of Siam.
Lob, _see_ Lop.
Locac, kingdom of.
Lockhart, Dr. W.
_Lokok_.
Lolo tribes.
Longevity of Brahmins and Jogis.
Longfellow.
Lop, city and lake,
  desert.
Lophaburi.
Loping.
Lor, _see_ Lúristan.
Lord, Dr. Percival.
Löss, brownish-yellow loam.
Loups cerviers (lynx).
Low castes.
Lowatong River.
Loyang, Bridge of.
Lubán.
Lubán-Jáwi.
Lubán-Shehri.
Lubbies.
Lucky and unlucky hours and days.
Luddur Deo.
Luh-ho-ta Pagoda, Hang-chau.
Lukon-Kiao (Hun-ho, Pulisanghin River).
Lukyn Port.
Lung-yin.
Lúristan (Lor, Lur),
  kingdom of Persia;
  Great and Little;
  character of Lurs or people of.
Lusignan, John de.
Lút, Desert of (Dasht-i-Lut).
Lu-tzu tribe.
Lynxes, trained to hunt,
  in Cuncun.

Ma Twan-lin, the Chinese Pliny.
Maaden, turquoise mines at.
Maatum, or Nubia.
Ma'bar (Maabar, i.e. Coromandel coast),
  province of India;
  its brother kings;
  pearl fishery;
  etymology;
  limits;
  obscurity of history;
  port visited by Polo;
  nakedness of people, king, his jewels;
  his wives, "Trusty Lieges," treasure;
  horses imported;
  superstitious customs;
  ox-worship;
  Govis, Ib.;
  no horses bred;
  other customs;
  mode of arrest for debt;
  great heat;
  regard for omens;
  astrology, treatment of boys;
  birds, girls consecrated to idols;
  customs in sleeping;
  ships at Madagascar.
Macartney's Map.
Macgregor, Sir C, "Journey through Khorasan".
Máchin, city of (Canton).
Máchin, Maháchin (Great China),
  used by Persian writers as synonymous with Manzi.
Maclagan, Major-General (R.E.).
Madagascar (Madeigascar),
  confused with Magadoxo;
  etymology;
  traces of ancient Arab colonisation.
Mádái, Madavi, Maudoy.
Madjgars.
Madar-Des, Eastern Pánjáb.
Madras.
Madura.
Maestro, or Great Bear, said to be invisible in Sumatra.
Magadha.
Magadoxo, confused with Madagascar.
Magapatana, near Ceylon.
Magi, the three,
  legend as told by Mas'udi;
  source of fancies about;
  names assigned to.
Magic, of Udyana,
  Lamaitic, (_See_ also Sorcerers.).
Magical darkness (dry fog and dust storms).
Magnet, Mount.
Magyars.
Mahar Amlàk, king of Abyssinia.
Mahavan.
Mahmúd Kalháti, prince of Hormuz.
Mahmúd of Ghazni.
Mahmudiah Canal.
Mahomed (Mahommet),
  his account of Gog and Magog;
  his Paradise;
  his alleged prophecy of the Mongols;
  his use of mangonels.
Mahomed, supposed worship of idols of.
---- II., uses the old engines of war.
---- Tarahi.
---- Tughlak of Delhi, his copper token currency.
---- Shah of Malacca.
Mahomedan revolts in China.
---- conversion of Malacca.
---- conversion of states in Sumatra.
---- butchers in Kashmir.
---- butchers in Maabar.
---- king of Kayal.
---- merchants at Kayal.
---- settlements on Abyssinian coast.
Mahomedans (Saracens),
  in Turcomania;
  in and near Mausul;
  their universal hatred of Christians;
  in Tauris;
  in Persia;
  their hypocrisy about wine;
  at Yezd;
  Hormuz;
  Cobinan;
  Tonocain;
  Sapurgan;
  Taican;
  Badakhshan,
  Wakhan, etc.;
  Kashgar;
  strife with Christians in Samarkand;
  Yarkand;
  Khotan;
  Pein;
  Charchan;
  Lop;
  Tangut;
  Chingintalas;
  Kanchau;
  Sinju;
  Egrigaia;
  Tenduc, their half-breed progeny;
  in northern frontier of China, alleged origin of:
  their gibes at Christians;
  Kúblái's dislike of;
  in Yun-nan;
  in Champa;
  in Sumatra;
  troops in Ceylon;
  pilgrims to Adam's Peak;
  honour St. Thomas;
  in Kesmacoran;
  in Madagascar;
  in Abyssinia;
  in Aden;
  outrage by;
  at Esher;
  Dufar;
  Calatu;
  Hormuz;
  Ahmad Sultan one.
Mailapúr (Shrine of St. Thomas).
Maiman.
_Maistrè_, the word.
Maitreya Buddha.
Majapahit, empire of (Java).
Majar (Menjar).
Major, R.H., on Australia.
Makdashan, _see_ Magadoxo.
Malabar, Melibar, Malibar, Manibar,
  fleets;
  products;
  imports, Chinese ships in.
Malacca,
  foundation of;
  chronology.
Malacca, Straits of.
Malaiur, island and city.
Mal-Amir, or Aidhej.
Malasgird.
Malay Peninsula,
  invasion of Ceylon;
  chronicle;
  language;
  origin of many geographical names.
Malayo, or Tana Malayu.
Malcolm, Sir John.
Maldive Islands.
Malé in Burma.
Male and Female Islands,
  legend widely diffused.
Malifattan.
Malik al Dháhir, king of Samudra.
---- al Mansúr.
---- al Sálih, king of Samudra.
---- Kafur.
Malli, the.
Malpiero, Gasparo.
Malte-Brun.
Malwa.
Mamaseni.
Mamre, tree of.
Mán, barbarians.
Man, Col. Henry.
Manchu dynasty.
Mancopa.
Mandalé in Burma.
Mandarin language.
Mangalai, third son of Kúblái,
  his palace.
Mangalore.
Mangla and Nebila Islands.
Mangonels made by Polos for attack of Saianfu,
  etymology;
  account of;
  a barbarous lubricant for.
Mangu (Mangkú, Mongu) Khan,
  Kúblái's elder brother;
  his death;
  reign;
  massacre at his funeral.
Mangu-Temur (Mungultemur).
Manjáník (Manjaniki).
---- Kumghá.
Manjanikis (Mangonellas). (_See_ Mangonels.).
Manji, _see_ Manzi.
Manjushri, Bodhisatva.
Manphul, Pandit.
Mansur Shah.
Mantzé, Man-tzu, Mantszi, Aborigines.
Manuel, Comnenus, Emperor.
Manufactures, Kúblái's.
Manuscripts of Polo's Book.
Manzi (Facfur), king of,
  his flight;
  his charity;
  his effeminacy;
  his death;
  his palace at Kinsay.
  (_See_ Faghfur.)
---- (Mangi) province,
  White City of the Frontier;
  entrance to;
  conquest of;
  character of the people;
  its nine kingdoms, 1200 cities and squares;
  its bamboos;
  no sheep in;
  dialects;
  called Chin;
  ships and merchants in India,
---- queen of,
  surrenders;
  her report of Kinsay.
Map, constructed on Polo's data,
  Hereford;
  Roger Bacon's;
  Marino Sanudo's;
  Medicean;
  Catalan;
  Fra Mauro's;
  Ruysch's;
  Mercator's;
  Sanson's.
Mapillas, or Moplahs.
Maps, allusions to, in Polo's book,
  early mediaeval;
  of the Arabs;
  in the palace at Venice.
Marabia, Maravia, Maravi.
Marah Silu.
Mâramangalam, site of Kolkhoi.
Marash.
Maratha.
Mardin (Merdin).
Mare's milk, _see_ Kumiz.
Margaritone.
Marignolli, John.
Market days.
Markets in Kinsay.
---- Squares in Kinsay.
Marks of Silver.
Marriage customs in Khotan.
---- customs in Kanchau.
---- customs of the Tartars.
---- (posthumous) amongst Tartars.
---- laxities of different peoples.
---- laxities in Thibet.
Mar Sarghis.
Marsden's edition of Polo.
Martin, Dr. Ernest, of French Legation at Pekin.
Martini,
  his _Atlas Sinensis_;
  his account of Kinsay.
Martyrs, Franciscan.
_Masálak-al-Absár_.
Mashhad (Meshed), or Varsach River.
Mashiz.
Maskat.
Mastiff Dogs, Keepers of the.
Mastiffs of Tibet, _see_ Dogs.
Mastodon, bogged.
Mas'ud II., Ghiath ed-din-Seljuk dynasty.
Mas'udi.
Masulipatam.
Matchlocks, manufacture at Kerman,
  at Taianfu.
Ma-t'eu (Matu).
Mati Dhivaja, _see_ Bashpah Lama.
Matitánana.
Matityna (Martinique).
Mätzner, Eduard.
Maundevile, Sir John (John a Beard),
  on lying in water;
  Cloths of Tartary;
  Trees of the Sun;
  Dry Tree;
  his Book of Travels;
  English version;
  his tomb.
Maung Maorong, or Pong, Shan kingdom.
Mauro, Fra, his map.
Mausul (Mosul), kingdom of.
_Mauvenu_ (Malvennez), the phrase.
Mayers, W.F.
Mayhew, A.L., on _Couvade_.
Mazandéran, province.
_Mecchino_, Ginger.
Medressehs at Sivas.
Mekhitar.
Mekong River (Lan-tsang kiang).
Mekrán, often reckoned part of India.
Mekránis.
Melchior, one of the Magi.
Melibar, _see_ Malabar.
Melic, the title.
Melons, dried, of Shibrgán.
Menangkabau.
Mendoza.
Menezes, Duarte.
Mengki, envoy to Java.
Menjar (Májar?).
Menuvair and Grosvair.
Merghuz Boirúk Khan.
Merkit (Mecrit, Mescript), a Tartar tribe.
Meshid (more correctly Mashhad).
Messengers, Royal Mongol.
Mexico.
Meyer, Paul, _Alexandre le Grand_.
Miafarakain.
Miau-tzu.
Mien, Amien, Ava (Burma), king of,
  his battle with Tartars;
  City of;
  its gold and silver towers;
  how it was conquered;
  communications and war with Mongols;
  Chinese notices.
Mikado.
Military engines of the Middle Ages,
  dissertation on;
  two classes;
  _Trébuchets_;
  Balista;
  shot used, carrion, live men, bags of gold;
  _Mangonel_;
  Napoleon's experiments with heavy shot;
  size and accuracy;
  length of range (Sanudo on);
  effect of Mangonel on Saracens;
  procured by Kúblái for siege of Siang-yang;
  Chinese and Persian histories on;
  known to Mongols and Chinese;
  the _Karabugha_, or _Calabra_;
  the _P'ao_.
Milk, portable, or curd.
Milk, rite of sprinkling Mare's.
Million, use of the numeral.
Millione, Millioni, nickname for Polo and his book.
Millioni, Corte del.
Milne.
Minao district.
Mines and Minerals, _see_ Iron, Silver, etc.
Minever, _see_ Menuvair.
Ming, the Chinese dynasty which ousted the Mongols, A.D. 1368,
  their changes in Peking;
  their paper-money;
  their effeminate customs;
  expeditions to India;
  annals.
Mingan, Khan's Master of Hounds.
Ming-ti, Emperor.
Minján, dialect of.
Minotto, Professor A.S.
Min River (in Fokien).
---- River (in Szech'wan).
Mint, the Khan's.
Mintsing-hien.
Mious River.
Miracle Stories,
  fish in Lent;
  Mountain moved;
  St. Barsamo's girdles;
  Holy Fire;
  Stone at Samarkand;
  at St. Thomas' Shrine.

Mírat.
_Mire_ French for leech.
Mirkhond.
Mirobolans.
_Miskál_, a weight. (_See_ also Saggio.).
_Misri_, sugar-candy.
Missionary Friars, powers conferred on,
  in China in 14th century.
---- Martyrs.
Moa of New Zealand.
Modhafferians, the.
Modun Khotan ("Wood-ville").
Moghistan.
Mohammed, son of Yusuf Kelefi, founder of Shíráz.
Mohammerah.
Mohiuddin.
Mokli, the Jelair.
Molayu.
Molebar, _see_ Malabar.
Molephatan.
Molière, _Pastorale Comique_.
Moluccas.
Mombasa.
Momein.
Monasteries of Idolaters (Buddhists).
Money, paper.
---- values.
Mongol conquests,
  capture Soldaia;
  Bolghar;
  treachery and cruelty;
  their inroads;
  Bakh city;
  invade Balakhshán;
  invasion of Poland and Silesia.
Mongon Khan, _see_ Mangu.
Mongotay (Mangkutai), a Mongol officer.
Monkeys,
  passed off as pygmies.
Monks, idolatrous. (_See_ Monasteries.).
Monnier, Marcel, his visit to Karakorum,
  on the Ch'êng-tu Suspension Bridge.
Monoceros and Maiden, legend of.
Monophysitism.
Monsoons.
Montecorvino, John, Archbishop of Cambaluc.
Monte d'Ely.
Montgomerie, Major T.G. (R.E.) (Indian Survey),
  on fire at great altitudes;
  position of Kashgar and Yarkund.
Monument at Si-ngan fu, Christian.
Moon, Mountains of the.
Moore, _Light of the Harem_.
Moplas, _see_ Mapillas.
Morgan, E. Delmar.
Mortagne, siege of.
_Morus alba_, silk-worm tree.
Moscow, Tartar Massacre at.
Mosolin, or Muslin (Mosolini), _Mo-sze_, Arab Mauçili.
Mossos, a tribe.
Mosta'sim Billah, last Abbaside Khalif of Baghdad,
  story of his avarice and death.
_Mostocotto_.
Mosul (Mausul).
Motapallé, _see_ Mutfili.
Motawakkil, Khalif.
Moule, Bishop G.E.
Mount, Green, in Palace grounds at Peking.
---- St Thomas.
---- D'Ely, _see_ Monte d'Ely.
Mountain, Old Man of the, _see_ Old Man of the.
---- Miracle of the.
---- Road in Shensi, extraordinary.
Mourning customs,
  at Hormuz;
  in Tangut;
  at Kinsay.
Mozambique Channel.
Muang, term applied in Shan countries (Laos and W. Yunnan) to fortified.
    towns, as:--
  Muang-Chi;
  Muang, or Maung Maorong;
  Muang Shung;
  Muang Yong.
Muláhidah (Mulehet, Alamút, Chinese Mulahi), epithet of Ismaelites.
Mulberry Trees.
Mul-Java.
Müller, F.W.K.
Müller, Professor Max,
  on _Couvade_;
  on stories of Buddha and St. Josafat.
Multan.
Múnál pheasant (_Lopophorus impeyanus_), described by Aelian.
Mung (_Nicaea_).
Mungasht, hill fort, stronghold of the Atabegs.
Mungul, name applied to Tartars. (_See_ Mongol.).
Mungul-Temur and Mongo-Temur, _see_ Mangu-Temur.
Murad Beg, of Kunduz.
Murghab River.
Murray, Dr. J.A.H., on _Couvade_.
---- Hugh.
Murus Ussu (Brius, Upper Kiang).
Mus, Merdin (Mush, Mardin).
Musa'úd, Prince of Hormuz.
Musk, animal (Moschus).
---- earliest mention of and use in medicine.
Muslin, _see_ Mosolin.
Mutfili (Motapallé for Telingana),
  its diamonds;
  identified.
Muza.
Mynibar.
Mysore.
Mystic number, _see_ Numbers.

Nac, Nasich, Naques (Nakh), a kind of brocade.
_Nachetti_, silk stuff interwoven with gold.
_Nakhut_, gold brocade.
Nakkára (Naccara, Nacaires), the great kettledrum signalling action.
_Nákshatra_.
Nalanda.
Nan-Chao, formerly Ai-Lao, Shan dynasty in Yun-nan.
Nancouri.
Nanghin (Ngan-king).
Nangiass, Mongol name of Manzi.
Nankau, archway in Pass of, with polyglot inscription.
Nanking, not named by Polo.
Nanwuli.
Naobanján.
Naoshirwan.
Naphtha in the Caucasian country.
---- Fire used in war by the Karaunahs.
Napier, Sir C.
Napoleon III.,
  his researches and experiments on mediaeval engines of war.
Narikela-Dvipa.
Narin-Kaleh, fortress.
Narkandam, volcanic island.
Narsinga, King of.
Narwhal tusk, mediaeval Unicorn's Horn.
Nasich, _see_ Nac.
Nasruddin (Nescradin), officer in the Mongol Service.
Nassir-uddin, Mahmud, Sultan of Delhi.
Natigay, Tartar idol.
Nava-Khanda, or Nine Divisions of Ancient India.
Navapa (Lop?).
Naversa (ancient Anazarbus), in Cilicia, under Taurus.
Nayan, Kúblái's kinsman, his revolt,
  Kúblái marches against;
  routed in battle;
  put to death by Kúblái.
earchus at Hormuz.
Nebila and Mangla islands.
Nebuchadnezzar.
Necklaces, precious.
Necuveran, _see_ Nicobar.
Negapatam, Chinese Pagoda at.
Negroes described.
Negropont.
Nellore.
Nemej, Niemicz ("Dumb"), applied to Germans by Slavs.
Nerghi, Plain of.
_Neri_ (pigs).
Nescradin, _see_ Nasruddin.
_Nesnás_ (a goblin).
Nestorian Christians, at Mosul,
  Tauris;
  Kashgar;
  Samarkand;
  Yarkand;
  Tangut;
  Kamul;
  Chingintalas;
  Sukchur;
  Kampichu, Kan-chau;
  their diffusion in Asia;
  among the Mongols;
  Erguiul and Sinju;
  Egrigaia;
  Tenduc;
  China;
  Yachi, or Yun-nan fu;
  Cacanfu;
  Yang-chau;
  one in Polo's suite;
  churches at Chinghianfu;
  church at Kinsay;
  at St. Thomas;
  Patriarch of;
  Metropolitan.
Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople.
Nevergún Pass.
New Year Festival at Kúblái's Court.
Neza Tash Pass.
Ngan-king (Nanghin).
Ngan-ning-ho River.
Ngantung, Mongol general.
Ngo-ning, or Ho-nhi.
Nia (ancient Ni-jang), in Khotan.
Nias Island.
Nibong Palm.
Nicaea of Alexander.
Nicholson, Edward B.
Nicobar (Necuveran) Islands,
  etymology and people.
Nicolas of Pistoia.
Nicolas, Christian name of Ahmad Sultan.
---- Friar, of Vicenza.
Nicolas IV., Pope.
Nieuhoff.
Nigudar (Nogodar), Mongol princes.
Nigudarian bands.
Nilawár (Nellore).
Nile, sources of.
Nileshwaram.
_Nímchah Musulmán_, "Half-and-Halfs".
Nine, auspicious number among Tartars.
Nine Provinces (India),
  (China).
Ning-hsia, or hia (Egrigaia).
Ningpo.
Ning-yuan fu.
Niriz, steel mines of.
Nirvana, figures of Buddha in.
Nishapúr.
Niuché (Yuché), Chinese name for the Churchés or race of Kin Empire.
Noah's Ark in Armenia.
Nobles of Venice,
  Polo's claim to be one.
Nochdarizari, mountains north of Kabul.
Nogai Khan,
  his intrigues and wars;
  his history;
  wars with Toctai.
Nogodar (Nigudar), King of the Caraonas, story of.
Nomad tribes of Persia.
Nomogan (Numughan), Kúblái's son.
None, _Nono, Nuna_, title given to younger brothers or subordinate
    princes
North, regions of the Far.
North Star, _see_ Pole-Star.
Note Book, Polo's.
Novgorod.
Nubia, St. Thomas,
  alleged use of elephants in.
Nukdaris, tribe west of Kabul.
Nuksán Pass.
Numbers, mystic or auspicious,
  Nine;
  one hundred and eight.
_Nuna, see_ None.
Nusi-Ibrahim.
Nutmegs.
Nyuché, or Churché, race of Kin Emperors, _see_ Niuché.

Oak of Hebron, _see_ Terebinth.
Oaracta (Kishm, or Brakht).
Obedience of Ismaelites, extraordinary.
Obi River.
Observatory at Peking.
Ocean Sea,
  other seas, parts of.
Ocoloro Island.
Odoric, Friar,
  on Kinsay;
  on Fu-chau;
  Zayton;
  Java;
  Champa;
  Sumatra;
  on sago tree;
  on products of Ceylon;
  St. Thomas's;
  Pepper Forest;
  brazil-wood;
  Thána.
Oger, the Dane.
Ogotai Khan, _see_ Okkodai.
Oil from the Holy Sepulchre,
  fountain of (Naphtha) at Baku;
  whale.
---- head (Capidoglio, or Sperm whale).
---- walnut and Sesamé.
Oirad, or Uirad (Horiad), a great Tartar tribe.
Okkodai Khan, third son of Chinghiz.
Olak, Illuk, Aulak, _see_ Lac.
Old Man of the Mountain (Aloadin),
  his envoys to St. Lewis;
  account of;
  how he trained his Assassins;
  the Syrian;
  his subordinate chiefs;
  his end;
  modern representative.
Oljaïtu Khan, his correspondence with European princes,
  his tomb.
Oman.
Omens, much regarded in Maabar,
  by the Brahmans.
Onan Kerule, near Baikal.
Ondanique (fine kind of steel), Andaine, Andanicum, Hundwáníy,
  in Kerman;
  Chingintalas.
Oppert, Dr. Gustavus, Book on Prester John, _Der Presbyter Johannes in
    Sage und Geschichte_.
Orang Gugu.
Orang Malayu River.
_Or Batuz_.
Orbelian, John, identified by Bruun with Prester John.
Ordos, the Mongols of.
Organa (Jerún), Persian Gerún.
Oriental phrases in Polo's dictation.
Orissa.
Orkhon River.
Orleans, defence of.
---- Isle d'.
_Orloks_, or Marshals of the Mongol Host.
Oroech.
_Oron_, Mongol for a region or realm.
_Orphani_, strange customs of the.
_Osci_, the word.
Ostriches.
Ostyaks.
Otto, Bishop of Freisingen.
Oulatay (Uladai), Tartar envoy from Persia.
_Ovis Poli_, _see_ Sheep.
_Oweke_, _see_ Ucaca.
Owen, Professor.
Owen, Rev. Gray, on the Lolos.
_Owo_, Mongol for Musk.
Oxen, humped, in Kerman,
  wild, shaggy (Yaks).
---- wild (_Beyamini_),
  in East Tibet;
  Burma;
  in Bengal;
  Anin;
  worshipped;
  figures of, worn.
Oxenham, _Atlas_.
Oxydracae, the.
_Oxyrhynchus_.
Oxus Valley and River.
_Ozene_.

Pacamuria (Baccanor).
Pacauta! (an invocation).
Pacem, _see_ Pasei.
Paddle-wheel barges.
Paderin, Mr., visits Karákorum.
Pádishah Khátún of Kerman.
Padma Sambhava.
Pagán (in Burma),
  ruins at;
  empire of.
---- Old (Tagaung).
Pagaroyang, inscriptions from.
Paggi Islands.
Pagodas, Burmese,
  alleged Chinese in India.
Pahang.
Paï, or Peyih tribe.
Paipurth (Baiburt).
Pai-yen-ching.
_Paizah_, or Golden Tablet of Honour.
---- and _Yarligh_.
Pakwiha, China ware.
_Pala_, a bird.
Palace of Khan at Chagannor,
  at Chandu (Shangtu);
  of cane;
  at Langtin;
  Cambaluc;
  on Green Mount;
  at Kenjanfu (Si-ngan fu);
  of the Empire of Manzi at Kinsay;
  in Chipangu, paved and roofed with gold.
Palembang.
_Paliolle, Or de_, for gold dust.
Palladius, the Archimandrite.
Palm (Measure).
Palm Wine, _see_ Wine of Palm.
Pamier (Pamir), Plain of,
  its wild sheep;
  great height;
  pasture, etc.;
  described by Hiuen Tsang, Wood, Goës, Abdul Mejid, Colonel Gordon and
  others;
  Dr. M.A. Stein on;
  Lord Curzon on number of.
Pan-Asiatic usages.
Pandarani, or Fandaraina.
Pandit Manphul.
Pandrethan in Kashmir, Buddhist temple at.
Pandyan kings.
Panja River, or Upper Oxus.
Panjáb.
Panjkora.
Panjshir.
Pantaleon, coins of.
Panthé, or Mahomedan Kingdom in Yun-nan.
Panya (or Pengya), in Burma.
Pao-ki h'ien.
Paonano Pao.
Papé, Papesifu.
Paper-money (Chao), Kúblái's made from bark,
  modern. (_See_ also Currency.).
Papien River.
Paquier, Professor.
Paradise, Apples of.
---- in legend of the Cross.
---- of Persia.
---- of the Old Man of the Mountain,
  destroyed.
---- Rivers of.
Parákráma Bahu I.
Paramisura, founder of Malacca.
_Parapomisadae_.
_Parasol_.
Paravas.
Parez, Pariz, turquoise mines of.
---- falcons of.
Pariahs (_Paraiyar_),
  etymology of.
Parker, E.H.
Parlák, or Perlak, _see_ Ferlec.
---- Tanjong.
Parliament, Tartar.
Parpa iron mines.
Parrot, Professor, first to ascend Mount Ararat.
Parrots.
Partridges,
  black;
  Jiruftì;
  great (Chakors);
  in mew. (_See_ also Francolin.).
Parwana, a traitor eaten by the Tartars.
Paryán silver mines.
Pascal of Vittoria, Friar.
Pasei, Pacem (Basma), a kingdom of Sumatra.
---- Bay of.
---- History of.
Pasha-Afroz.
Pasha and Pashagar tribes.
Pashai,
  what region intended.
---- Dir.
Passo (or Pace), Venetian.
Patarins, heretics.
_Patera_, debased Greek, from Badakhshán.
Patlam.
_Patra_, or Alms-dish of Buddha,
  miraculous properties;
  Holy Grail of Buddhism.
Patriarchs of Eastern Christians. (_See_ also Catholicos and
    Nestorian.).
Patteik-Kará.
Patterns, beast and bird, on silk, etc.
Patu, _see_ Batu.
Paukin (Pao-ying).
Pauthier, G., remarks on text of Polo.
Paved roads in China.
---- streets of Kinsay.
Payan, _see_ Bayan.
Payangadi.
Pa-yi writing, specimen of.
Peaches, yellow and white (apricots).
Peacocks at St. Thomas's,
  special kind in Coilum.
Pearls,
  in Caindu;
  rose-coloured in Chipangu;
  fishery of;
  pearls and precious stones of kingdom of Maabar.
Pears, enormous.
Pedir.
Pedro, Prince of Portugal.
Pegu and Bengal confounded.
Pei-chau (Piju).
Pein (Pim), province,
  site of.
Peking, white pagoda at. (_See_ Cambaluc.).
Pelly, Col. Sir Lewis, British Resident at Bushire.
Pema-ching.
Pemberton, Captain R.
Pentam (Bintang).
Pepper, daily consumption of, at Kinsay,
  change in Chinese use of;
  great importation at Zayton, duty on;
  white and black;
  in Coilum;
  Eli and Cananore;
  Melibar;
  Guzerat;
  trade in, to Alexandria.
Pepper Country.
Peregrine falcons.
Perla (Ferlec).
Persia, extent of name to Bokhara,
  spoken of;
  three Magi of;
  its eight kingdoms.
Persia and India, boundary of.
Persian applied to language of foreigners at Mongol Court.
Persian Gulf (Sea of India?).
Pesháwar.
Peter, Tartar slave of Marco Polo's.
Pharaoh's rats (Gerboa).
Phayre, Major-General Sir Arthur.
Pheasants, large and long tailed,
  Reeves's.
Pheng (the Rukh).
Philip the Fair.
Philip III. and IV. of France.
Philippine Islands.
Phillips, G.
Phipps, Captain.
Phra Râma, Siamese kings so-called.
Phungan, Phungan-lu (Fungul?).
Physician, a virtuous.
Physicians.
Pianfu (P'ing-yang fu).
_Piccoli_.
Pichalok.
Pievtsov, General,
  expedition.
Pigeon posts.
Pig-shells.
Piju (Pei-chau).
Pilgrimage, to Adam's Sepulchre in Ceylon,
  to Shrine of St. Thomas.
"Pillar Road".
Pima (Pim).
Pinati, king of Kaulam.
Pine woods in Mongolian desert.
---- in South China.
P'ing-chang, Fanchán, or second class Minister.
P'ing-yang fu (Pianfu).
Pinna-Cael (Punnei-Káyal).
Pipino, Friar Francesco.
Pirabandi or Bir Pandi (Vira Pandi).
Pirada.
Pirates of Malabar,
  Guzerat;
  Tana;
  Somnath;
  Socotra.
Piratical customs at Eli.
Pistachioes.
Plane, Oriental or Chinár.
Plano Carpini.
Pog, or Fiag River.
Poison, antidote to.
Poisoning guests, custom of.
Poisonous pasturage.
Poison wind.
Poland, Mongol invasion of.
Pole, or Jackdaw on Polo's scutcheon.
Pole-star, invisible in Java the Less,
  visible again in India.
Police,
  of Cambaluc;
  Kinsay.
Politeness of Chinese.
Polo, Andrea, grandfather of Marco.
---- Antonio, illegitimate son of Elder Marco.
---- Bellela, second daughter,
  died before 1333.
---- Donata, wife of Traveller,
  sale of property to her husband;
  death between 1333-1336;
  before Council;
  may have been Loredano.
---- or Bragadino, Fantina, eldest daughter of Traveller.
---- Felice, a cousin.
---- Fiordelisa, wife of last.
Polo, Fiordelisa, daughter of Maffeo the Younger.
---- Maffeo, brother of Nicolo,
  in Kan-chau;
  time of death between 1309 and 1318.
---- Maffeo, brother of Traveller,
  probabilities as to birth;
  will of;
  abstract from.
---- Marco, the elder son of Andrea, Uncle of the Traveller,
  his will.
---- Marco, the Traveller,
  veracity;
  perplexities in his biography;
  Ramusio's notices, extracts from;
  recognition of his names of places, paralleled with Columbus;
  nicknamed _Millioni_;
  story of his capture at Curzola;
  writes his book in prison at Genoa;
  release and marriage;
  arms;
  claim to nobility;
  supposed autograph;
  his birth, circumstances of;
  is taken to East;
  employed by Kúblái, mentioned in Chinese Records;
  mission to Yun-nan;
  governor of Yang-chau;
  employed at Kan-chau, Kara Korum, Champa and Indian Seas;
  returns home;
  mentioned in his Uncle Marco's will;
  commands a galley at Curzola;
  taken prisoner and carried to Genoa;
  his imprisonment there;
  dictates his book to Rusticiano;
  release and return to Venice;
  evidence as to story of capture;
  dying vindication of his book;
  executor to his brother Maffeo;
  record of exemption from municipal penalty;
  gives copy of book to T. de Cepoy;
  marriage and daughters;
  lawsuit with Paulo Girardo, proceeding regarding house property;
  illness and last will;
  probable date of death;
  place of burial;
  professed portraits of;
  alleged wealth;
  estimate of him and of his book;
  true claims to glory;
  faint indications of personality;
  rare indications of humour;
  absence of scientific notions;
  geographical data in book;
  his acquisition of languages, ignorance of Chinese, deficiencies in
  Chinese notices;
  historical notices;
  allusions to Alexander;
  incredulity about his stories;
  contemporary recognition;
  by T. de Cepoy, Friar Pipino;
  J. d'Acqui, Giov. Villani, and P. d'Abano;
  notice by John of Ypres;
  borrowings in poem of Bauduin de Sebourc;
  Chaucer and;
  influence on geography, obstacles to its effect;
  character of mediaeval cosmography;
  Roger Bacon as geographer;
  Arab maps;
  Marino Sanudo's map;
  Medicean;
  Carta Catalana largely based on Polo's book;
  increased appreciation of Polo's book;
  confusions of nomenclature;
  introduction of block-printing into Europe and Polo;
  dictates his narrative;
  found at Venice;
  his age;
  noticed and employed by Kúblái;
  grows in favour, many missions;
  returns from one to India;
  escapes from the Karaunas;
  hears of breed of Bucephalus;
  recovers from illness in hill climate;
  hears from Zulficar about Salamander;
  at Kan-chau;
  brings home hair of yak;
  and head and feet of musk deer;
  witnesses events connected with Ahmad's death;
  noticed in Chinese annals;
  whether he had to do with Persian scheme of paper currency in;
  sent by Khan into Western provinces;
  governor of Yang-chau;
  probable extent of his authority;
  aids in constructing engines for siege of Siang-yang;
  difficulties as to this statement;
  on number of vessels on Great Kiang;
  ignorant of Chinese;
  on greatness of Kinsay;
  his notes;
  sent to inspect amount of revenue from Kinsay;
  his great experience;
  never in islands of Sea of Chin;
  in kingdom of Chamba;
  historical anecdotes;
  detained five months in Sumatra, stockade party against wild people;
  brings Brazil seed to Venice;
  partakes of tree-flour (sago);
  takes some to Venice;
  in six kingdoms of Sumatra;
  witnesses arrest for debt in Maabar;
  his erroneous view of Arabian coast;
  Indian geography;
  his unequalled travels;
  Venetian documents about him.
---- Marco, called Marcolino, son of Nicolo the Younger.
---- Marco, last male survivor.
---- Marco, others of this name.
---- Maroca, sister of Nicolo the Younger.
---- or Delfino, Moreta, youngest daughter.
Polo, Nicolo and Maffeo, sons of Andrea,
  their first journey;
  cross Black Sea to Soldaia;
  visit Volga country, etc.;
  go to Bokhara;
  join envoys to Khan's Court;
  Kúblái's reception of;
  sent back as envoys to Pope;
  receive a Golden Tablet;
  reach Ayas;
  Acre;
  Venice;
  find young Marco there
---- Nicolo, Maffeo and Marco, proceed to Acre;
  set out for East, recalled from Ayas;
  set out again with Pope's letters, etc.;
  reach Kúblái's Court;
  are welcomed;
  _see_ on their journey outward;
  their alleged service in capture of Siang-yang;
  Khan refuses them permission to return home;
  allowed to go with ambassadors;
  receive Golden Tablets;
  on return;
  story of their arrival at Venice;
  scheme to assert their identity.
---- Nicolo, his alleged second marriage and sons;
  probable truth as to time of;
  his illegitimate sons;
  approximate time of his death;
  his tomb.
---- Nicolo the Younger, cousin of traveller.
---- Stefano and Giovannino, illegitimate brothers of Traveller.
---- (?), or Trevisano (?), Fiordelisa, perhaps second wife of Nicolo Polo
    the Elder, and mother of Maffeo the Younger.
---- or Trevisano, Maria, last survivor of the family,
  doubts as to her kindred.
---- Family, its duration and end, according to Ramusio,
  origin;
  last notices of.
  (For relationship of different Polos, _see_ table).
---- Family, branch of S. Geremia.
_Po-lut_ (Pa-lut), _incense_.
Polygamy,
  supposed effect on population.
_Pomilo_ (Pamir).
_Pompholyx_.
Ponent, or West, term applied by Polo to Kipchak, the Mongol Khanate of
    the Volga, _see_ Kipchak.
Pong (Mediaeval Shan State).
Poods, Russian.
Popinjays.
Population, vast, of Cathay.
Porcelain manufacture,
  fragments found at Kayál;
  Chinese.
---- shells, _see_ Cowries.
Porcupines.
Pork, mention of, omitted.
_Postín_, sheep-skin coat.
Posts, post-houses and runners,
  in Siberia.
Po-sz' (Persia).
Potala at L'hasa.
Pottinger.
Poultry, kind of, in Coilum,
  in Abyssinia (guinea-fowl?).
Pound, sterling.
_Pourpre_, or _Purpura_.
P'o-yang Lake.
Pozdneiev, Professor.
Precious stones or gems,
  how discovered by pirates.
Prester John (Unc Can, Aung or Ung Khan),
  Tartar tribute to;
  account of;
  marriage relations with Chinghiz;
  insults Chinghiz' envoys;
  "these be no soldiers";
  marches to meet Chinghiz;
  real site of battle with Chinghiz;
  his real fate;
  slain in battle;
  his lineage in Tenduc;
  and the Golden King.
Prices of horses, _see_ Horses.
Printing, imaginary connection of Polo's name with introduction of.
Private names supposed.
Prjevalsky, Colonel N.M.
Probation of Jogis,
  parallel.
Prophecy regarding Bayan.
_Proques_, the word.
Prostitutes; at Cambaluc,
  Kinsay.
Provinces, thirty-four of Kúblái's Empire.
Pseudo-Callisthenes.
Ptolemies' trained African elephants.
Ptolemy,
  Sarmatic Gates.
P'u-chau fu.
Pu-ch'eng.
Puer and Esmok.
Pukan Mien-Wang.
Pulad Chingsang.
Pulisanghin, River and Bridge.
Pulo Bras.
Pulo Condore (Sondur and Condur).
Pulo Gommes (Gauenispola).
Pulo Nankai, or Nási.
Pulo Wé, Wai, or Wey.
Punnei-Káyal.
Puránas, the.
_Purpura_, see _Pourpre_.
Putchok.
Putu-ho, "Grape R.".
Pygmies, factitious (?).

Qal'ah Asgher, hot springs at.
Qara Ars-lán Beg, king of Kermán.
Quails in India.
Queen of Mutfili.
Quicksilver and sulphur potion.
---- as regarded by alchemists.
Quills of the Ruc, _see_ Ruc.
Quilon, Kaulam, etc., _see_ Coilum.
Qumadin (Camadi)

Rabelais.
Rabbanta, a Nestorian monk.
Radloff, Dr. W.,
  map.
Ráin.
Rainald, of Dassel, Archbishop.
Rain-makers, _see_ Conjurers.
Rainy season.
Rajkot leather-work.
Rakka, Rákshasas.
Rama Kamheng, king.
Rameshwaram.
Ramnad.
Rampart of Gog and Magog.
Ramusio, Giov. Battista, _passim_,
  his biographical notices of Polo;
  his edition of Polo.
Ráná Paramitá's Woman Country.
Ranking, John.
Raonano-Rao.
Rapson, E.J.
Ras Haili.
---- Kumhari.
Rashíduddín, _alias_ Fazl-ulla Rashid, Persian statesman and
    historian of the Mongols,
  frequently quoted in the Notes.
Ravenala tree (_Urania speciosa_).
Raw meat eaten.
Rawlinson, Sir H.
Reclus, _Asie russe_,
  on Caspian Sea fisheries.
Red gold and red Tangas.
_Re Dor_.
Red Sea, trade from India to Egypt by,
  described in some texts as a river;
  possible origin of mistake.
Red sect of Lamas.
Refraction, abnormal.
_Reg Ruwán_, of Kabul.
---- of Seistán.
Reindeer ridden.
Religion, indifference of Chinghizide Princes to,
  occasional power of among Chinese.
Remission of taxation by Kúblái
Rennell, Major James.
Reobarles (Rúdbár, etc.).
Revenue of Kinsay.
Rhinoceros (Unicorn), in Sumatra,
  habits;
  four Asiatic species.
---- _Tichorinus_.
Rhins, Dutreuil de.
Rhubarb, _Rheum palmatum_.
Riant, Comte.
Ricci, Matteo.
Rice.
Rice-wine,
  at Yachi.
---- trade on Grand Canal.
Richard II.
Richthofen, Baron F. von,
  on Fungul;
  on Tanpiju.
Right and Left, ministers of the.
Rio Marabia.
_Rishis_ (Eremites) of Kashmir.
"River of China".
Roads radiating from Cambaluc.
Robbers in Persia.
Robbers' River.
Robes distributed by Kúblái.
Roborovsky, Lieutenant.
Rochefort, "faire la couvade".
Rockets.
Rockhill (_Rubruck_ and _Diary of a Journey_),
  on the titles Khan, Khatun, etc.;
  on horn horse-shoes;
  earliest mention of name Mongol in Oriental works;
  Mongol storm-dispellers;
  charge of cannibalism against Tibetans;
  on Bonbo Lamas;
  Tablets (_hu_);
  mechanical contrivances at E. Court;
  Mongol etiquette;
  Chinese leather-money;
  Mongol post-stations;
  pocket-spittoons;
  from Peking to Si-ngan fu;
  descent of Yellow River;
  road between T'ung-kwan and Si-ngan fu;
  two famous Uigur Nestorians;
  on the word Salar;
  on the Hui-hui sects;
  on the Alan;
  on branch of Volga Bulgars.
Rofia palm (_sagus ruffia_).
_Roiaus dereusse_ (?).
Rome, the Sudarium at.
_Rondes_, ingenious but futile explanation of.
_Rook_, in Chess.
Rori-Bakkar, Sepoy name for Upper Sind.
Rosaries, Hindu.
Rostof and Susdal, Andrew, Grand Duke of.
Roth, H. Ling, on _couvade_.
Rouble.
Roxana, daughter of Darius, wife of Alexander.
Roze de l'Açur.
Rubies, Balas,
  of Ceylon;
  of Adam's Peak.
Rubruquis, or Rubruc, Friar William de.
Ruby mines in Badakhshan.
Ruc (Rukh), or Gryphon, bird called, described,
  its feathers and quills;
  wide diffusion and various forms of fable;
  eggs of the Aepyornis;
  Fra Mauro's story;
  genus of that bird, condor;
  discovery of bones of _Harpagornis_ in New Zealand;
  Sindbad, Rabbi Benjamin, romance of Duke Ernest;
  Ibn Batuta's sight of Ruc;
  rook in chess;
  various notices of.
Rúdbár-i-Lass, Robbers' River.
---- (Reobarles), district and River.
Rudder, single, noted by Polo as peculiar,
  double, used in Mediterranean.
Rúdkhánah-i-Duzdi (Robbers' River).
Rúdkhánah-i-Shor (Salt River).
Rudra Deva, King of Telingana.
Rudrama Devi, Queen of Telingana.
Rukh, Shah.
Rukhnuddin, Mahmud, Prince of Hormuz.
---- Masa'úd.
---- Khurshah, son of Alaodin, Prince of the Ismaelites.
Rúm.
Runiz.
Ruomedam-Ahomet, King of Hormuz.
Rupen, Bagratid, founder of Armenian State in Cilicia.
Rupert, Prince.
Rüppell's Table of Abyssinian kings.
Russia (Rosia), annexes Georgia,
  great cold, Arab accounts of;
  silver mines;
  subject to Tartars;
  conquered by Batu.
---- leather,
  clothes of.
Russians, trusty lieges of king.
Rusták.
Rusticiano of Pisa,
  introduces himself in prologue;
  writes down Polo's book;
  extracts and character of his compilation;
  his real name;
  his other writings.
Ruysch's map.

Saadi.
Saba (Sava, Savah), city of the Magi.
Sabaste, _see_ Sivas.
Sable, its costliness.
Sabreddin.
Sabzawur.
Sachiu (Sha-chau).
Sacrifices of people of Tangut.
---- human.
_Sadd-i-Iskandar_, rampart of Alexander.
Saffron, fruit-serving purposes of.
Sagacity of sledge-dogs.
Sagamon Borcan, _see_ Sakyamuni Buddha.
Sagatu, general of Kúblái's.
Saggio (1/6 oz.).
Sago.
Saianfu, _see_ Siang-yang-fu.
Saif Arad, king of Abyssinia.
Saifuddin Nazrat, ruler of Hormuz.
Saimur (Chaul).
Sain Khan (or Batu).
St. Anno of Cologne.
St. Barlaam and St. Josafat, story of Buddhist christianised.
St. Barsauma (Barsamo, Brassamus), and monastery of.
St. Blasius (Blaise), Church at Sivas.
St. Brandon.
St. Buddha!
St. Epiphanius.
St. George, Church of, in Sivas,
 at Quilon.
St. Helena.
St. James' Shrine, Gallicia.
St. John the Baptist, Church of, in Samarkand.
---- Major Oliver.
St. Leonard's Convent in Georgia, and the fish miracle.
St. Lewis,
  his campaign on the Nile.
St. Martin, Vivien de, Map.
St. Mary's Island, Madagascar.
St. Matthew, Monastery near Mosul.
St. Matthew's Gospel, story of the Magi.
St. Nina.
St. Sabba's at Acre.
St. Thomas, the Apostle,
  his shrine in India;
  his murderers, and their hereditary curse;
  reverenced by Saracens and heathen;
  miracles in India;
  story of his death;
  tradition of his preaching in India;
  translation of remains to Edessa;
  King Gondopharus of legend a real king;
  Roman Martyrology;
  the localities;
  alleged discovery of reliques;
  the Cross;
  church ascribed to;
  in Abyssinia.
St. Thomas's Isle.
---- Mounts.
Saker falcons.
Sakta doctrines.
Sakya Muni (Sagamon Borcan) Buddha,
  death of;
  recumbent figures of;
  story of;
  his footmark on Adam's Peak;
  Alms dish, Holy Grail;
  tooth relique.
Salamander, the.
Salar (Ho-chau).
Salem, dragoman, explores Rampart of Gog.
Salghur, Atabegs of Fars.
Sálih, Malik, son of Badruddin Lúlú.
Salsette Island.
Salt, H., his version of Abyssinian chronology.
---- rock,
  in Badakhshan;
  used for currency;
  extracted from deep wells;
  in Carajan province;
  manufactured in Eastern China;
  manufacture, revenue and traffic in;
  trade on the Kiang;
  junks employed therein.
---- stream.
Salwen River, or Lu-Kiang.
Samagar.
Samána.
Samara, kingdom of, _see_ Sumatra.
Samarkand (Samarcan),
  story of a miracle at;
  colony near Peking from.
Sampson, Theos., on grapes in China.
_Sámsúnji Báshi_.
Samudra, _see_ Sumatra.
Samuel, his alleged tomb at Sávah.
San Giovanni Grisostomo,
  parish in Venice where the Ca' Polo was;
  theatre.
San Lorenzo, Venice, burial place of Marco and his father.
Sandu, _see_ Chandu.
Sanf, _see_ Champa.
Sangín, Sangkan River.
Sanglich, dialect of.
Sang-Miau, tribe of Kwei-chau.
Sangon, the Title (Tsiang-kiun).
Sanitary effects of Mountain air.
Sanjar, sovereigns of Persia.
Sankin Hoto, Dalai.
Sanuto of Torcelli, Marino,
  his World Map;
  on long range.
Sappan wood, _see_ Brazil.
Sapta-Shaila.
Sapurgan (Sabúrkán, Shabúrkán, Shibrgán).
_Saputa, Sçue_, peculiar use of.
Saracanco (Saraichik), on the Yaik.
Saracens, _see_ Mahomedans.
Sarai (Sara), capital of Kipchak,
  city and its remains;
  perhaps occupied successive sites.
---- Sea of (Caspian).
_Sáras_, crane (_Grus antigone_).
Saratov.
Sarbizan Pass.
Sardines.
Sárdú Pass.
Sarghalan River.
Sarha, Port of Sumatra.
Sarhadd River.
Sar-i-kol, Lakes.
Sarsáti.
Sartak, the Great Khan's ambassador to Húlakú.
Sassanian dynasty.
Sati, _see_ Suttee.
Satin, probable origin of word.
_Saum, Sommo_,
  silver ingots used in Kipchak;
  apparently the original rouble.
_Sauromatae_.
Sávah (Saba).
Savast (Siwas).
Scanderoon, Gulf of.
Scasem.
Scherani, bandits.
Schiltberger, Hans.
Schindler, General Houtum-.
Schlegel, Dr. G.
Schmidt, Professor I.J.
Schönborn, Carl.
Schuyler, Eugene.
Scidmore, Miss E., on the Tide.
Scotra, _see_ Socotra.
Sea of Chin.
---- England.
---- Ghel, or Ghelan.
---- India.
---- Rochelle.
---- Sarain.
Seal, Imperial.
Sebaste, _see_ Sivas.
Sebourc, Bauduin de, _see Bauduin de Sebourc_.
Sees of Latin Church.
---- Nestorian Church.
Sefavíehs, the.
Seilan, _see_ Ceylon.
Self-decapitation.
Selitrennoyé Gorodok (Saltpetre Town).
Seljukian dynasty.
---- Turks.
_Selles, chevaux à deux_, the phrase.
Semal tree.
Semedo.
Semenat, _see_ Somnath.
Sempad, Prince, High Constable of Armenia.
Sendal, a silk texture.
_Sendaus_, generally Taffetas.
Sendemain, king of Seilan.
Seneca, _Epistles_.
Senecherim, king of Armenia.
Seni, Verzino.
_Senshing_.
Sensin, ascetics, devotees living on bran.
Sentemur.
Sepulchre of Adam, _see_ Adam's Sepulchre.
---- of our Lord,
  oil from.
Serano, Juan de.
Serazi (Shíráz), kingdom of Persia.
Serendib.
_Seres_, _Sinae_,
  their tree wool;
  ancient character of the.
Serpents, great, i.e. alligators.
Sertorius.
Sesamé.
_Sesnes_, mediaeval form of _cygnet_, _cigne_.
_Seta Ghella_, _seta Leggi_ (Ghellé), silk.
Seth's mission to Paradise.
Sevan Lake.
Seven Arts, the.
Severtsoff, shoots the _Ovis Poli_,
  on the name Bolor.
Seyyed Barghash, Sultan of Zanzibar.
Shabankara, or Shawankára (Soncara).
Shabar, son of Kaidu.
Sha-chau (Sachin), "Sand-district".
Shadow, augury from length of
Shah Abbas,
  his Court.
---- Jahan.
Shahr-i-Babek, turquoise mine at.
Shahr-i-Nao (Siam).
Shahr Mandi, or Pandi.
Shah Werdy, last of the Kurshid dynasty.
Shaibani Khan.
_Shaikh-ul-Jibal_.
Shaikhs (Esheks), in Madagascar.
Shakespeare, on relation of gold to silver.
Sháliát.
Shamanism. (_See_ also Devil-Dancing.).
Shampath, ancestor of Georgian kings.
Shamsuddin Shamatrani.
Shamuthera, _see_ Sumatra.
Shan (Laotian, or _Thai_).
---- race and country.
---- dynasty in Yun-nan.
---- ponies.
---- state of Pong, _see_ Pong.
Shanars of Tinnevelly,
  their devil-worship.
Shang-hai.
Shangking-Fungking.
Shangtu, Shangdu (Chandu),
  Kúblái's City and Summer Palace;
  Dr. Bushell's description of;
  Kúblái's annual visit to.
Shangtu Keibung.
Shan-hai-kwan.
Shankárah, Shabankára (Soncara).
Shan-si.
Shan-tung,
  silk in;
  pears from.
Shao-hing-fu.
Shao-ling, pariah caste of.
Sharakhs.
Shara-ul-buks (Forest of box on the Black Sea).
Sharks and shark charmers.
Shauls, or Shúls, the.
Shawánkára (Soncara).
Shaw, R.B.
Shawls of Kerman.
Sheep, fat-tailed in Kerman.
---- four-horned at Shehr.
---- large Indian.
---- none in Manzi.
---- of Pamir (_Ovis Poli_).
---- wild, of Badakhshan (Kachkar, _Ovis Vignei_).
---- with trucks behind.
---- Zanghibar.
Sheep's head given to horses.
Shehr, or Shihr, _see_ Esher.
Shehrizor (Kerkuk).
Shenrabs.
Shen-si.
Shentseu tribe.
Sheuping.
Shewá, cool plateau of.
Shibrgán (Sapurgan).
Shieng, Sheng, or Sing, the Supreme Board of Administration.
_Shien-sien_, _Shin-sien_.
Shighnan (Syghinan), ruby mines.
_Shijarat Malayu_, or Malay Chronicle.
Shikárgáh, applied to animal pattern textures, Benares brocades.
Shing-king, or Mukden.
Ships, of the Great Khan,
  of India at Fuju;
  of Manzi described;
  mediaeval, accounts of;
  in Japan;
  in Java Seas;
  at Eli.
Shíráz (Cerazi).
Shireghi.
Shirha.
Shirwan.
Shi-tsung, Emperor.
Shoa.
Shob'aengs of Nicobar.
Shodja ed-din Kurshid, Kurd.
Shor-Rud (Salt River).
Shot of Military Engines.
Shpilevsky.
Shúlistán (Suolstan).
Shúls of Shauls, people of Persia.
Shut up nations, legend of the.
Shwéli River.
Siam,
  king of.
Siang-yang-fu (Saianfu),
  Kúblái's siege of;
  Polo's aid in taking;
  difficulties in Polo's account;
  not removed by Pauthier, notice by Wassáf, Chinese account,
  Rashiduddin's;
  treasure buried.
Siberia.
Sibree, on rofia palm.
Sick men put to death and eaten by their friends.
_Siclatoun_, kind of texture.
Siddhárta.
Sidi Ali.
Sien, Sien-Lo, Sien-Lo-Kok (Siam, Locac).
Sifan.
Sigatay, _see_ Chagatai.
Sighelm, envoy from King Alfred to India.
Si Hia, language of Tangut.
Si-hu, Lake of Kinsay or Hang-chau.
Sijistán.
Siju (Suthsian).
Sikintinju (Kien-chow).
Silesia, Mongol invasion of.
Silk, called Ghellé (of Gilan),
  manufacture at Yezd;
  at Taianfu;
  in Shan-si and Shen-si;
  in Kenjanfu;
  Cuncun;
  Sindafu;
  Kwei-chau;
  Tasinfu;
  Piju;
  Pao-ying-Hien;
  Nanghin;
  Chinhiang-fu;
  Chinginju;
  Suju;
  Vughin;
  Kinsay;
  Ghiuju.
---- cotton tree.
---- duty on.
---- and gold stuffs.
---- stuffs and goods, Turcomania,
  Georgia;
  Baghdad;
  Yezd;
  Kerman;
  Tenduc province;
  Cambaluc;
  Juju;
  Sindafu;
  Cacanfu;
  Chinangli;
  Suju;
  Vughin;
  Kinsay;
  in animal patterns;
  with Cheetas;
  of Kelinfu;
  with giraffes.
Silk, tent ropes,
  bed furniture.
---- trade at Cambaluc,
  at Kinsay.
---- worms.
Silver chairs.
---- imported into Malabar,
  Cambay.
---- Island.
---- mines at Baiburt,
  Gumish-Khánah;
  in Badakhshan;
  in N. Shansi;
  Yun-nan;
  Russian.
---- plate in Chinese taverns.
Simon, Metropolitan of Fars.
---- Magus.
Simúm, effects of.
Simurgh.
Sinbad,
  his story of the diamonds;
  of the Rukh.
Sind (Sindhu-Sauvira).
Sindábúr (Goa).
Sindachu (Siuen-hwa fu).
Sindafu (Chengtu-fu).
Sindhu-Sauvira (Sindh-Ságor).
Si-ngan fu (Kenjanfu),
  Christian inscription at.
Singapore, Singhapura.
Singkel.
Singphos.
Sings.
Singtur, Mongol Prince.
Singuyli (Cranganor).
Sinhopala (Accambale), king of Chamba.
Sinju (Si-ning fu).
---- (Ichin-hien).
Sinju-matu.
Sínkalán, Sín-ul-Sín, Mahá-chin, or Canton.
Sinope.
Síráf (Kish, or Kais?).
Sir-i-Chashma.
Sirikol, Lake and River.
Sírján or Shirján.
Sis.
Sístán.
Sitting in air.
Siu chau.
Siuen-hwa-fu, _see_ Sindachu.
Siva.
Sivas, Siwas, Sebaste, Sevasd (Savast).
Siwastán.
Siwi, gigantic cotton in.
Sixtus V., Pope.
_Siya-gosh_, or lynx.
Siyurgutmish.
Sladen, Major.
Slaves in Bengal.
Sledges, dog-.
Sleeping-mats, leather.
Sluices of Grand Canal.
Smith, G., Bishop of Hongkong.
Smith (R.E.), Major R.M.
Sneezing, omen from.
Socotra (Scotra), island of,
  history of;
  Christian Archbishop;
  aloes of.
Soer (Suhar).
Sofala, trade to China from.
Sogoman Borcan, see Sakya Muni.
Sol, Arbre, see Arbre.
Soldaia, Soldachia, Sodaya (the Oriental Sudák).
Soldan, a Melic.
Soldurii, trusty lieges of Celtic kings.
Soli, Solli (_Chola_, or Tanjore), kingdom of.
Solomon, house of, in Abyssinia.
Soltania, Archbishop of (See Sultaniah.).
Somnath (Semenat),
  gates of.
Sonagar-pattanam.
Soncara (Shawankára).
Sender Bandi Davar, see Sundara Pandi.
Sondur and Condur (Pulo Condore Group).
Sorcerers, sorceries of Pashai (Udyana),
  Kashmir;
  Lamas and Tibetans.
---- Dagroian,
  Socotra (See also Conjurers.).
Sornau (Shahr-i-Nau), Siam.
Sotiates, tribe of Aquitania.
Soucat.
Southey, _St. Romuald_.
Spaan, Ispahan.
Sposk, district.
_Spezerie_.
Spice, Spicery.
Spice wood.
Spices in China, duty on.
Spikenard.
Spinello Aretini, fresco by.
Spirit drawings and spiritual flowers.
Spirits haunting deserts.
Spiritualism in China.
Spittoons, pocket.
Spodium (Spodos).
Sport and game,
 in Shan-si;
 Cachanfu;
  Cuncun;
  Acbalec Manzi;
  Tibet;
  Caindu;
  Zardandan;
  Mien;
  Linju;
  Cagu;
  Nanghin;
  Saianfu;
  Ching-hiang-fu;
  Chinginju;
  Changan;
  Kinsay;
  Fuju;
  Lambri;
  Maabar;
  Comari;
  Eli.
Springolds.
Springs, hot.
Sprinkling of drink, a Tartar rite.
Squares at Kinsay.
Sri-Thammarat.
Sri-Vaikuntham.
Sse River.
Stack, E., visits Kuh Banán.
Star Chart.
Star of Bethlehem, traditions about.
Steamers on Yangtse-kiang.
Steel mines at Kermán,
  in Chingintalas;
  Indian;
  Asiatic view of.
Stefani, Signor.
Stein, Dr. M.A., on Sorcery in Kashmir,
  on Paonano Pao;
  on Pamirs;
  on site of Pein.
Stiens of Cambodia.
Stirrups, short and long.
Stitched vessels.
Stockade erected by Polo's party in Sumatra.
Stone, miracle of the, at Samarkand.
---- the green.
---- towers in Chinese cities.
---- umbrella column.
Stones giving invulnerability.
Suákin.
Submersion of part of Ceylon.
Subterraneous irrigation.
Suburbs of Cambaluc.
Subutai, Mongol general.
Su-chau (Suju),
  plan of.
Suchnan River.
Sudarium, the Holy.
Súddhodhana.
Sugar, Bengal,
  manufactured;
  art of refining;
  of Egypt and China.
Suh-chau (Sukchur).
Suicides before an idol.
Sukchur, province Sukkothai.
Sukkothai.
_Suklát_, broadcloth.
Sukum Kala'.
Suleiman, Sultan.
Sulphur and quicksilver, potion of longevity.
Sultaniah, Monument at (_See_ Soltania.).
Sultan Shah, of Badakhshan.
Sumatra (Java the Less),
  described, its kingdoms;
  circuit.
Sumatra, Samudra,
  city and kingdom of (Samara for Samatva);
  legend of origin;
  Ibn Batuta there;
  its position;
  latest mention of;
  wine-pots.
Sumbawa.
Summers, Professor.
Sumutala, Sumuntala, _see_ Sumatra.
Sun and moon, trees of the.
Sundara Pandi Devar, Sondar Bandi Davar, king in Ma'bar,
  his death;
  Dr. Caldwell's views about.
Sundar Fúlát (Pulo Condore Group).
Sung, a native dynasty reigning in S. China till Kúblái's conquest,
  their paper-money, effeminacy;
  cremation;
  Kúblái's war against;
  end of them.
Sunnis and Shias.
Suolstan (Shulistan), a kingdom in Persia.
Superstitions in Tangut, the devoted sheep or ram (_Tengri Tockho_),
  the dead man's door;
  as to chance shots;
  in Carajan;
  devil-dancing;
  property of the dead;
  Sumatran;
  Malabar;
  as to omens.
Sur-Raja.
Survival, instances of.
Sushun, Regent of China, execution of.
Su-tásh, the Jadek.
Suttees in S. India,
  of men.
_Svastika_, sacred symbol of the Bonpos.
Swans, wild, at Chagan-Nor.
Swat.
---- River.
Swi-fu.
Sword blades of India.
Syghinan, _see_ Shighnan.
Sykes, Major P. Molesworth.
Sylen (Ceylon).
Symbolical messages, Scythian and Tartar.
Syrian Christians.
_Syrrhaptes Pallasii, see_ Barguerlac.
Szechényi, Count.
Sze-ch'wan (Ch'eng-tu),
  aborigines.

Tabashir.
Tabbas.
Table of the Great Khan.
Tables, how disposed at Mongol feasts.
Tablet, Emperor's, adored with incense.
Tablets of Authority, Golden (_Páizah_),
  presented by Khan to Polos;
  lion's head and gerfalcon;
  bestowed on distinguished captains, inscription;
  cat's head;
  granted to governors of different rank.
---- worshipped by Cathayans.
Tabriz (Tauris).
Tachindo, _see_ Ta-ts'ien-lu.
Tacitus, _Claustra Caspiorum_, Pass of Derbend.
Tactics, Tartar.
Tacuin.
Tadinfu.
Taeping Insurrection and Devastations.
Taeping, or Taiping, Sovereigns' effeminate customs.
Taffetas.
Taft, near Yezd, turquoise at.
Tafurs.
Tagachar.
Tagaung.
Tagharma Pass.
Taghdúngbásh River.
Taianfu (T'ai-yuan-fu), king of N. China.
Taiani.
Taican, _see_ Talikan.
Taichau (Tigu).
T'aiching-Kwan.
Taidu, Daitu, Tatu, Kúblái's new city of Cambaluc.
Taikung, _see_ Tagaung.
Tailed men, in Sumatra,
  elsewhere;
  English.
Tailors, none in Maabar.
Taimúni tribe.
Taiting-fu (Tadinfu), or Yenchau.
Taitong-fu, see Tathung.
Tai-tsu, Emperor.
T'ai Tsung, Emperor.
Tatyang Khan (Great King), king of the Naimans.
Tajiks of Badakhshan, great topers.
Takfúr.
Takhtapul.
Táki-uddin, Abdu-r Rahmán.
Takla-Makan.
Talains.
Talas River.
Tali, gold mines.
Talifu (Carajan).
Talikan, Thaikan (Taican).
Tallies, record by.
Tamarind, pirates use of.
Tamerlan.
Tana (Azov).
---- near Bombay, kingdom of
Tana-Maiambu.
Tana-Malayu.
Tánasi cloth.
Tanduc, see Tenduc.
T'ang dynasty.
Tangnu Oola, branch of Altai.
Tangut province, Chinese Si Hia, or Ho Si,
  five invasions of.
Tangutan, term applied to Tibetan speaking people round the Koko-nor.
Tanjore,
  Suttee at;
  Pagoda at;
  fertility of.
Tánkíz Khan, applied to Chinghiz.
Tanpiju (Shaohing?).
Tantras, Tantrika, Tantrists.
Tao-lin, a Buddhist monk.
Tao-sze (Taossé), sect,
  female idols of the.
Ta-pa-Shan range.
Taprobana, mistakes about.
Tarakai.
Tarantula.
_Tarcasci_.
Tarem, or Tarum.
Tares of the parable.
Taríkh-i-Rashídí.
Tarmabala, Kúblái's grandson.
_Tarok_, Burmese name for Chinese.
Tarok Man and Tarok Myo.
Tartar language,
  on Tartar, its correct form;
  misuse by Ramusio.
Tartars,
  different characters used by;
  identified with Gog and Magog;
  ladies;
  their first city;
  original country, tributary to Prester John;
  revolt and migration;
  earliest mention of the word;
  make Chinghiz their king;
  his successors;
  their customs and religion;
  houses;
  waggons;
  chastity of their women;
  polygamy, etc.;
  their gods and idols;
  their drink (Kumiz);
  cloths;
  arms, horses, and war customs;
  military organization;
  sustenance on rapid marches;
  blood-sucking;
  portable curd;
  tactics in war;
  degeneracy;
  administration of justice;
  laws against theft;
  posthumous marriage;
  the cudgel;
  Rubruquis' account of;
  Joinville's;
  custom before a fight;
  want of charity to the poor;
  conquerors of China, history of;
  excellence in archery;
  objection to meddling with things pertaining to the dead;
  admiration of the Polo mangonels;
  employment of military engines;
  their cruelties;
  arrows;
  marriage customs.
---- in the Far North.
---- of the Levant, see Levant.
---- of the Ponent, see Ponent.
Tartary cloths.
Tarungares, tribe.
Tásh Kurgán.
Tataríya coins.
Tathung, or Taitongfu.
Ta-t'sien-lu, or Tachindo, Tartsédo.
Ta Tsing River.
Tattooing,
  artists in.
Tatu (Taichu).
---- River.
Tauris, see Tabriz.
Taurizi, Torissi.
Tawálisi.
Taxes, see Customs, Duties.
Tchakiri Mondou (Modun).
_Tchekmen_, thick coarse cotton stuff.
Tea-houses at Kingszé.
Tea trees in E. Tibet.
Tebet, _see_ Tibet.
Tedaldo, _see_ Theobald.
Teeth, custom of casing in gold.
---- of Adam or of Buddha.
---- conservation of, by Brahmans.
Tegana.
Teghele, Atabeg of Lúr.
Teimur (Temur), Kúblái's grandson and successor.
Tekla, Hamainot.
Tekrit.
Telingana, _see_ Tilinga.
Telo Samawe.
Tembul (Betel), chewing.
Temkan, Kúblái's son.
Temple, connection of Cilician Armenia with Order of.
---- Master of the.
Temple's account of the Condor.
Temujin, _see_ Chinghiz.
Tenduc, or Tanduc, plain of,
  province of.
Tengri, Supreme deity of Tartars.
Tennasserim,
  (Tanasari).
Tents, the Khan's.
Terebinth,
  of Mamre.
_Terlán_, goshawk.
Terra Mountains.
Terra Australis.
Te-Tsung, Emperor.
Thai, Great and Little,
  race.
Thaigin.
Thai-yuanfu (Taianfu).
_Thard-wahsh_, _see_ Patterns, Beast and Bird.
Theft, Tartar punishment of.
Theistic worship.
Thelasar.
Theobald, or Tedaldo of Piacenza,
  chosen Pope as Gregory X.;
  sends friars with the Polos and presents.
Theodorus, king of Abyssinia.
Theodosius the Great.
Theophilus, Emperor of Constantinople.
---- missionary.
Thévenot, _Travels_.
Thian Shan.
Thianté-Kiun.
Thin l'Evêque, siege of.
_Thinae_ of Ptolemy.
Tholoman, _see_ Coloman.
Thomas, Edward.
---- of Mancasola, Bishop of Samarcand.
Thread, Brahmanical.
Three kingdoms (San-Kwé).
Threshold, a great offence to step on the.
Thurán Shah's History of Hormuz.
Tibet (Tebet) province,
  boundary of;
  its acquisition by Mongols;
  organisation under Kúblái;
  dogs of.
Tibetan language and character,
  origin of the Yue-chi.
Tibetans,
  superstitions of;
  and Kashmiris (Tebet and Keshimur), sorceries of;
  accused of cannibalism.
Tides in Hang-chau estuary.
Tierce, half tierce, etc., hours of.
Tiflis.
Tigado, Castle of.
Tigers (called lions by Polo),
  trained to the chase;
  in Cuncun;
  in Caindu;
  Kwei-chau.
  (_See_ also Lions.).
Tigris River (Volga),
  at Baghdad.
Tigúdar (Acomat Soldan).
Tiju.
Tiles, enamelled.
Tilinga, Telingana, Tiling, Telenc.
Tiling.
Timur of Toumen, chief of the Nikoudrians.
Timur the Great.
Timurids, the.
Ting, 10 taels of silver = tael of gold.
Tinju.
Tinnevelly.
Tithe on clothing material.
Tithing men, Chinese (_Pao-kia_).
Titus, Emperor.
Tjajya, _see_ Choiach.
Toba race.
Toctai, king, _see_ Toktai.
Tod, Colonel James.
Toddy, _see_ Wine of Palm.
Togan.
Toghontemur, last Mongol Emperor,
  his wail.
Toghrul I.
---- Shah of Kermán.
Togrul Wang Khan, _see_ Prester John.
Toka Tumir.
Tokát.
Toktai Khan (Toctai, Lord of the Ponent),
  wars with Noghai;
  his symbolic message.
Tolan-nur (Dolonnúr).
Toleto, John de, Cardinal Bishop of Portus.
Tolobuga.
Toman (Tuman, etc.), Mongol word for 10,000.
Tongking, Tungking.
Tooth-relique of Buddha,
  history of.
Torchi, Dorjé, Kúblái's first-born.
Tornesel.
Toro River.
Torshok.
Torture by constriction in raw hide.
_Toscaul, toskáúl_ (_toscaol_), watchman.
Tournefort, on cold at Erzrum.
Tower and Bell Alarm at Peking,
  at Kinsay.
Toyan (Tathung?).
Trade at Layas,
  by Baghdad;
  at Tauris;
  at Cambaluc;
  in Shan-si;
  on the Great Kiang;
  at Chinangli;
  at Sinju Matu;
  Kinsay;
  Fu-chau;
  Zayton;
  Java;
  Malaiur;
  Cail;
  Coilum;
  Melibar;
  Tana;
  Cambaet;
  Kesmacoran;
  Socotra.
---- of India with Hormuz,
  with Egypt by Aden;
  with Esher;
  with Dofar;
  with Calatu.
Trades in Manzi, alleged to be hereditary.
_Tramontaine_.
Transmigration.
Traps for fur animals.
Travancore,
  Rajas of.
Treasure of Maabar kings.
Trebizond,
  Emperors of, and their tails.
Trebuchets.
Trees, of the Sun and Moon,
  superstitions about;
  by the highways;
  camphor;
  producing wine;
  producing flour (sago).
_Tregetoures_.
Trench, Archbishop.
Trevisano, Azzo.
---- Marc' Antonio, Doge.
Trincomalee.
Tringano.
Trinkat.
'Trusty lieges,' devoted comrades of king of Maabar.
T'sang-chau.
_T'siang-kiun_ ('General').
T'sien T'ang River,
  bore in.
T'si-nan-fu (Chinangli).
T'sing-chau.
T'sing-ling range.
T'si-ning-chau.
Tsin-tsun.
Tsiuan-chau, T'swanchau, see Zayton.
Tsongkhapa, Tibetan Reformer.
Ts'uan-chou, see Zayton.
Tsukuzi in Japan.
Tsung-ngan-hien.
Tsushima, Island.
Tuan, Prince, chief of the Boxers.
_Tuc, tuk, tugh_, commanders of 100,000, horse-tail or yak-tail;
  standard.
Tudai, Ahmad Khan's wife.
Tudai-Mangku (Totamangu or Totamangul).
Tu-fan, ancient name of Tibet.
Tughan, Tukan, Kúblái's son.
Tughlak Shah, of Delhi (a Karaunah).
Tuktuyai Khan.
Tu-ku-hun.
Tuli, or Tulin, fourth son of Chinghiz.
Tuman, see Toman.
Tumba, Angelo di,
  Marco di.
Tún, city of E. Persia.
Tung-'an in Fokien.
_Tungani_, or Converts, Mahomedans in N. China and Chinese Turkestan.
Tung-chau (Tinju).
Tung-hwang-hien, ancient Shachau.
Tung-kwan, fortress of the Kin sovereigns.
_Tung-lo_ (Kumiz).
Tunguses.
Tunny fish.
Tun-o-kain (Tunocain), kingdom of Persia.
Turbit (radex Turpethi).
Turcomania (Anatolian Turkey).
Turgaut, day-watch.
Turkey, Great (Turkestan).
Turkistan chiefs send mission to kings of India.
Turkmans and Turks, distinction between,
  horses.
Turks, ancient mention of,
  friend of Polo's;
  and Mongols.
Turmeric.
Turner, Lieutenant Samuel, describes Yak of Tartary.
Turquans, Turkish horses.
Turquoises in Kermán,
  in Caindu.
Turtle doves.
Turumpak, Hormuz.
Tutia (Tutty), preparation of.
Tuticorin.
Tu T'song, Sung Emperor of China.
Tver.
Twelve, a favourite round number.
---- Barons over Khan's Administration.
Twigs or arrows, divination by.
Tyuman.
Tyunju, porcelain manufacture.
Tylor, Dr. E.B., on _Couvade_.
Tzarev.
Tzaritzyn.

Ucaca (Ukak, Ukek, Uwek),
  Ukák of Ibn Batuta, a different place.
Uch-baligh.
Uch-Multán.
Udoe country.
Udong.
Udyána.
Ughuz, legend of.
Uighúr character, parent of present Mongol writing.
Uighúrs, the.
Uiraca.
Uirad, _see_ Oirad.
Ujjain, legend of,
  (_Ozene_).
Ukak. (_See_ Ucaca.).
Ulatai (Oulatay), Tartar envoy from Persia.
Ulakhai.
Ulan Muren (Red River).
Ulugh Bagh, on Badakhshan border.
---- Mohammed.
Ulús, the.
U-man and Pe-man (Black and White Barbarians).
Umbrellas.
Unc Can (Aung Khan), _see_ Prester John
Ung (Ungkút), Tartar tribe..
Ungrat (Kungurat), Tartar tribe.
Unicorn (Rhinoceros), in Burma,
  Sumatra;
  legend of Virgin and;
  horns of.
Unken, City.
Unlucky hours.
U-nya-Mwezi superstition.
Urduja, Princess.
Uriangkadai.
Uriangkút (Tunguses).
Urianhai, the.
Urumtsi.
Urzú.
Uspenskoye (called also Bolgarskoye).
Uttungadeva, king of Java.
Uwek, _see_ Ucaca.
Uzbeg Khan of Sarai.
Uzbegs of Kunduz.
Uzun Tati, coins, Chinese porcelain from.

Vair, the fur and animal.
---- as an epithet of eyes.
Valaghir district.
Vámbéry, Prof. Hermann.
Vanchu (Wangchu), conspires with Chenchu against Ahmad.
Van Lake.
Varaegian, Varangian.
Varaha Mihira, astronomer.
Vardoj River.
_Varini_.
Varsach, or Mashhad River.
_Vasmulo_.
_Vateria Indica_.
Veil of the Temple, [Greek: péplos babylónios].
Vellalars.
Venádan, title of king of Kaulam.
Venetians, factory at Soldaia,
  expelled from Constantinople.
Venice,
  return of Polos to;
  its exaltation after Latin conquest of Constantinople;
  its nobles;
  Polo's mansion at;
  galleys;
  archives at;
  articles brought from East by Marco to.
Ventilators at Hormuz.
Verlinden, Belgian missionary.
_Verniques_.
_Verzino Colombino_. (_See_ also Brazil.).
Vessels, war,
  stitched of Kermán ([Greek: ploiária rhaptá]).
  (_See_ also Ships.).
Vial, Paul, French missionary.
Vijayanagar.
Vikramajit, legend of.
Vikrampúr.
Villard de Honnecourt, Album of.
Vincent of Beauvais.
Vincenzo, P.
Vineyards, in Taican,
  Kashgar;
  Khotan;
  in N. China.
Vinson, Prof., on _Couvade_.
Virgin of Cape Comorin.
Visconti, Tedaldo, or Tebaldo, _see_ Theobald of Piacenza.
Vissering, on _Chinese Currency_.
Vochan (Unchan, Yungchan),
  battle there.
Vogels, J.
Vokhan, _see_ Wakhán.
Volga, called Tigris.
Vos, Belgian Missionary.
Vughin.
Vuju in Kiangnan.
---- in Chekiang.

Wadoe tribe.
Wakf.
Wakhán (Vokhan), dialect.
---- Mountains.
Wakhjír Pass.
Wakhijrui Pass, _see_ Wakhjír Pass.
Wakhsh, branch of the Oxus.
Wakhtang II., king of Georgia.
Walashjird.
Wallachs.
Wall of Alexander (or Caucasian).
---- of Gog and Magog (i.e. China).
Walnut-oil.
Wami River.
_Wang_, Chinese silk.
Wang, king of Djungar.
Wangchu, _see_ Vanchu
Wapila.
Warangol Ku.
Warangs.
Warner, Dr.
War vessels, Chinese.
Wassáf, the historian,
  his character of the Karaunahs;
  notices of Hormuz;
  eulogy of Kúblái;
  story of Kúblái;
  his style;
  account of taking of Siang-yang;
  of Kinsay;
  Maabar;
  horse trade to India;
  treatment of them there;
  extract from his history.
Water, bitter.
---- custom of lying in,
  consecration by Lamas.
---- Clock.
Wathek, Khalif.
Wa-tzu, Lolo slaves.
Weather-conjuring.
Wei dynasty.
Weights and measures.
Wei-ning.
Wei River in Shen-si.
---- in Shan-tung.
Wen River.
Wen-chow.
Westermarck, _Human Marriage_.
Whale oil, including spermaceti.
Whales,
  in Socotra;
  Madagascar;
  species of Indian Ocean;
  sperm (Capdoille).
Wheaten bread not eaten,
  at Yachi.
White bears.
---- bone, Chinese for Lolos.
---- camels.
---- City, meaning of term among Tartars.
---- City, of Manzi frontier.
---- Devils.
---- Feast at Kúblái's City.
---- Horde.
---- horses and mares,
  offered to Khan.
Whittington and his cat in Persia.
Wild asses and oxen, _see_ Asses and Oxen.
William of Tripoli, Friar,
  his writings.
Williams, Dr. S.W., on the Chinese year,
  on elephants at Peking.
Williamson, Rev. A.
Wilson, General Sir C.
Wind, poison (Simúm),
  monsoons.
Wine, of the vine, Persians lax in abstaining from,
---- boiled.
---- of ancient Kapisa,
  Khotan;
  at Taianfu;
  imported at Kinsay.
---- rice (_Samshu or darásún_),
  and of wheat;
  at Yachi;
  spices, etc., in Caindu;
  Kien-ch'ang;
  Cangigu;
  Coloman;
  Kinsay.
---- Palm (toddy).
---- from sugar.
---- date.
---- (unspecified), at Khan's table,
  not used in Ma'bar;
  nor by Brahmans.
"Winter" used for "rainy season".
Wo-fo-sze, "Monastery of the lying Buddha".
Wolves in Pamir.
Women, Island of.
Women, of Kerman,
  their embroidery;
  mourners;
  of Khorasan, their beauty;
  of Badakhshan;
  Kashmir;
  Khotan;
  Kamul, fair and wanton;
  Tartar good and loyal;
  Erguiul, pretty creatures;
  of the town;
  of Tibet, evil customs;
  Caindu;
  Carajan; Zardandan, _couvade_;
  Anin;
  Kinsay, charming;
  respectful treatment of;
  Kelinfu, beautiful;
  Zanghibar, frightful.
Wonders performed by the Bacsi.
Wood, Lieutenant John, Indian Navy,
  his elucidations of Polo in Oxus regions.
Wood-oil.
Wool, Salamander's.
Worship of Mahomet (supposed).
---- of fire,
  Tartar;
  Chinese.
---- of first object seen in the day.
Worshipping the tablets.
Wu-chau (Vuju).
Wukiang-hien (Vughin).
Wüsus, or Wesses, people of Russia.
Wu-ti, Emperor.
Wylie, Alexander.

_Xanadu_.
Xavier, at Socotra.
Xerxes.

Ya-chau.
Yachi (Yun-nan-fu), city.
_Yadah, Jadagari, Jadah-tásh_, science and stone of weather-conjurer.
Yaik River.
Yájú, and Májúj, _see_ Gog and Magog.
Yak (dong),
  their tails carried to Venice;
  used in India for military decorations.
Ya'kúb Beg of Kasghar.
Yakuts.
Yalung River.
Yam, or Yamb (a post-stage or post-house).
Yamgán.
Yang-chau (Yanju), city,
  Marco's government there.
Yarbeg of Badakhshan.
Yarkand (Yarcan).
_Yarligh and P'aizah_.
Yasdi (Yezd).
---- silk tissue.
_Yashm_, jade.
Yasodhara, bride of Sakya Sinha.
Yavanas.
Yazdashir.
Ydifu.
Year, Chinese,
  Mongol and Chinese cycle.
Yelimala, _see_ Monté d'Ely.
Yeliu Chutsai, statesman and astronomer.
Yellow, or orthodox Lamas.
Yemen (_See_ also Aden.).
Yeng-chau (in Shan-tung).
---- (in Che-kiang).
Yen-king (Old Peking).
Yen-Ping.
Yenshan.
Yesubuka.
Yesudar.
Yesugai, father of Chinghiz.
Yetsina (Etzina).
Yezd (Yasdi),
  silk fabrics of.
Yiu-ki River.
Yoritomo, descendants of.
Yonting Ho River.
Yotkàn, village.
Youth, Island of.
Yrac, province.
Ysemain of Hiulie, western engineer.
Yu, _see_ Jade.
Yuan Ho.
Yu-chow, gold and silver mines.
Yue-chi.
Yuen, Mongol Imperial dynasty, so styled.
Yuen-hao, kingdom of Tangut.
Yuen ming-yuen, palace.
Yuen shi, History of Mongol Dynasty in China.
Yugria, or Yughra, in the Far North.
Yuh-shan.
Yule, Sir Henry,
  on Ravenala;
  on Maundeville.
Yun-Hien, a Buddhist Abbot.
Yung-chang fu (Shen-si).
---- (Yun-nan, Vochan).
Yung Lo, Emperor.
Yun-nan (Carajan), province,
  conquerors of;
  Mahomedans.
Yun-nan-fu city, _see_ Yachi.
Yurungkásh (white Jade) River.
Yusuf Kekfi.
Yuthia, Ayuthia (Ayodhya), mediaeval capital of Siam.
Yvo of Narbonne.

Zabedj.
Zaila.
_Zaitúníah_, probable origin of satin.
Zampa, _see_ Champa.
Zanghibar (Zangibar, Zanjibar, Zanzibar),
  currents off;
  Ivory trade;
  its blacks, women.
Zanton (Shantung ?).
Zanzale, James, or Jacob Baradaeus, Bishop of Edessa.
Zapharan, monastery near Baghdad.
Zardandan, or "Gold Teeth," a people of W. Yun-nan,
  identity doubtful;
  characteristic customs.
Zarneke, Fr.
Zayton, Zaitún, Zeiton, Cayton,
  (T'swan-chau, Chwan-chau, or Chinchew of modern charts);
  the great mediaeval port of China;
  Khan's revenue from;
  porcelain;
  language;
  etymology;
  mediaeval notices;
  identity;
  Chinchew, a name misapplied;
  Christian churches at;
  ships of.
Zayton, Andrew, Bishop of.
Zebák Valley.
Zebu, humped oxen.
Zedoary.
Zenghi.
Zerms (Jerms).
Zerumbet.
Zettani.
Zhafar, _see_ Dhafar.
Zic (Circassia).
Zikas.
Zimmé, _see_ Kiang-mai.
Zinc.
Zinj, Zinjis.
Zobeidah, the lady.
Zorza, _see_ Chorcha.
Zu-'lkarnain (Zulcarniain), "the Two Horned," an epithet of Alexander.
Zurficar (Zúrpica, Zulficar), a Turkish friend of Marco Polo's.



SER MARCO POLO

NOTES AND ADDENDA TO SIR HENRY YULE'S EDITION, CONTAINING THE RESULTS OF
RECENT RESEARCH AND DISCOVERY


BY HENRI CORDIER

[Illustration: THE LO-HAN SHAN-CHU TSUN CHE.
No. 100 IN THE SERIES OF THE FIVE HUNDRED LO-HAN.
_Frontispiece_.]



PREFACE


There is no need of a long Preface to this small book. When the third
edition of the _Book of Ser Marco Polo_ was published in 1903,
criticism was lenient to the Editor of YULE'S grand work, and it was
highly satisfactory to me that such competent judges as Sir Aurel STEIN
and Sven HEDIN gave their approval to the remarks I made on the
itineraries followed in Central Asia by the celebrated Venetian Traveller.

Nevertheless occasional remarks having been made by some of the reviewers,
proper notice was taken of them; moreover, it was impossible to avoid some
mistakes and omissions in a work including several hundreds of pages. As
years went on, extensive voyages were undertaken by travellers like Sir
Aurel STEIN, Sven HEDIN, PELLIOT, KOZLOV, and others, who brought fresh
and important information. I had myself collected material from new works
as they were issued and from old works which had been neglected. In the
mean time I had given a second edition of _Cathay and the Way
Thither_, having thus an opportunity to explore old ground again and
add new commentaries to the book.

All this material is embodied in the present volume which is to be
considered but as a supplementary volume of "Addenda" and "Corrigenda" to
the Book itself. I have gathered matter for a younger editor when a fourth
edition of the _Book of Ser Marco Polo_ is undertaken, age preventing the
present editor to entertain the hope to be able to do the work himself.

To many who lent their aid have I to give my thanks: all are named in the
following pages, but I have special obligation to Sir Aurel STEIN, to Dr.
B. LAUFER, of Chicago, to Sir Richard TEMPLE, and to Prof. Paul PELLIOT,
of the College de France, Paris, who furnished me with some of the more
important notes. A paper by Prof. E.H. PARKER in the _Asiatic Quarterly
Review_ proved also of considerable help.

HENRI CORDIER.

PARIS, 8, RUE DE SIAM,

11th of November, 1919.



A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SIR HENRY YULE'S WRITINGS.


---- Notes [miscellaneous] by H. Yule, Palermo, August 28th, 1872.
     (_Indian Antiquary_, I. 1872, pp. 320-321.)

---- "Discovery of Sanskrit." By H. Yule, Palermo, Dec. 26th, 1872.
     (_Indian Antiquary_, II. 1873, p. 96.)

---- "Sopeithes, King of the [Greek: Kaekeoí]." By H. Yule. (_Indian
     Antiquary_, II. 1873, p. 370.)

---- The Geography of Ibn Batuta's Travels in India. By Col. H. Yule,
     Palermo. (_Indian Antiquary_, III. 1874, pp. 114-117, 209-212.)

---- The Geography of Ibn Batuta's Travels. By Col. H. Yule, C.B.
     (Ibid. pp. 242-244.)

---- Mediaeval Ports of Western and Southern India, etc., named in the
     Tohfat-al-Majâhidîn. By Col. H. Yule, C.B., Palermo. (_Indian
     Antiquary_, III. 1874, pp. 212-214.)

---- Malifattan. By Col. H. Yule, C.B., Palermo. (_Indian Antiquary_,
     IV. 1875, pp. 8-10.)

---- Champa. By H. Yule. (_Indian Antiquary_, VI. 1877, pp. 228-230.)
     From the _Geog. Mag._, March, 1877, IV. pp. 66-67. Written for
     the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, but omitted.

---- Specimen of a Discursive Glossary of Anglo-Indian Terms. By H.Y. and
     A.C.B. (_Indian Antiquary_, VIII. 1879, pp. 52-54, 83-86,
     173-176, 201-204, 231-233.)



SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS


PREFACE

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SIR HENRY YULE'S WRITINGS

MARCO POLO AND HIS BOOK

INTRODUCTORY NOTICES

PROLOGUE

  Sarai--Shang tu--Khitán inscription

BOOK I. ACCOUNT OF REGIONS VISITED OR HEARD OF ON THE JOURNEY FROM THE
LESSER ARMENIA TO THE COURT OF THE GREAT KAAN AT CHANDU

  Baudas--Nasich--Death of Mostas'im--Tauris--Cala Ataperistan--Persia--
  Fat-tailed sheep--The Caraunas Robbers--Pashai--Hormos--Tun-o-Kain--
  Tutia--Arbre sec--Old Man of the Mountain--Road to Sapurgan--Dogana--
  Badakhshan--Wakhan--Plateau of Pamir--Paonano Pao--Yue Chi--Bolor--
  Khotan--Pein--City of Lop--Great Desert--Camul--Chingintalas--Sukchur
  --Campichu--Etzina--Tatar--Karacathayans--Keraits--Death of Chingiz
  Khan--Tailgan--Marriage--_Tengri_--Coats of Mail--Reindeer--
  Sinju--Gurun--King George--Tenduc--Christians.

BOOK II. PART I. THE KAAN, HIS COURT AND CAPITAL

  Nayan--_P'ai Tzu_--Mongol Imperial Family--Hunting Leopard--
  Cachar Modun--Bark of Trees--Value of Gold--_Ch'ing siang_--Cycle
  of Twelve--Persian.

BOOK II. PART II. JOURNEY TO THE WEST AND SOUTH-WEST OF CATHAY

  Wine and Vines--Christian Monument at Si-ngan fu--Khumdan--Mubupa--
  _Chien tao_--Sindafu--Tibet--Wild Oxen--Kiung tu--Karajang--
  Zardandan--Couvade--King of Mien--Burma--Nga-tshaung-gyan--Caugigu.

BOOK II. PART III. JOURNEY SOUTHWARD THROUGH EASTERN PROVINCES OF CATHAY
AND MANZI

  Ch'ang Lu Salt--_Sangon_-Li T'an--Sinjumatu--Great Canal--Caiju
  --Lin Ngan--Yanju--Yang Chau--Siege of Saianfu--_P'ao_--Alans--
  Vuju--Kinsay--Silky Fowls--Sugar--Zaitun.

BOOK III. JAPAN, THE ARCHIPELAGO, SOUTHERN INDIA, AND THE COASTS AND
ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN SEA

  Náfún--Japanese War--Chamba--Pulo Condore--Locac--Lawaki--Pentam--
  Tana-Malayu--Malacca--Sumatra--Ferlec--Sago Tree--Angamanain--
  Dog-headed Barbarians--Ceylon--Sagamoni Borcan--Barlaam and Josaphat--
  Tanjore--Chinese Pagoda at Negapatam--Suttees in India--Maabar--St.
  Thomas--Calamina--Cail--Sappan--Fandaraina--Gozurat--Two Islands
  called Male and Female--Scotra--The Rukh--Giraffes--Zanghibar--Aden--
  Esher--Dufar--Frankincense.

BOOK IV. WARS AMONG THE TARTAR PRINCES AND SOME ACCOUNT OF THE NORTHERN
COUNTRIES

  Russia

APPENDICES

LIST OF MSS. OF MARCO POLO'S BOOK SO FAR AS THEY ARE KNOWN

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MARCO POLO'S BOOK

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINTED EDITIONS

TITLES OF SUNDRY BOOKS AND PAPERS WHICH TREAT OF MARCO POLO AND HIS BOOK

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

INDEX



MARCO POLO AND HIS BOOK.

INTRODUCTORY NOTICES.


Introduction, p. 6.

Speaking of Pashai, Sir Aurel Stein (_Geog. Journ._), referring to
the notes and memoranda brought home by the great Venetian traveller, has
the following remarks: "We have seen how accurately it reproduces
information about territories difficult of access at all times, and far
away from his own route. It appears to me quite impossible to believe that
such exact data, learned at the very beginning of the great traveller's
long wanderings, could have been reproduced by him from memory alone close
on thirty years later when dictating his wonderful story to Rusticiano
during his captivity at Genoa. Here, anyhow, we have definite proof of the
use of those 'notes and memoranda which he had brought with him,' and
which, as Ramusio's 'Preface' of 1553 tells us (see Yule, _Marco
Polo_, I., Introduction, p. 6), Messer Marco, while prisoner of war,
was believed to have had sent to him by his father from Venice. How
grateful must geographer and historical student alike feel for these
precious materials having reached the illustrious prisoner safely!"

Introduction, p. 10 n.

KHAKHAN.

"Mr. Rockhill's remarks about the title _Khakhan_ require
supplementing. Of course, the Turks did not use the term before 560 (552
was the exact year), because neither they nor their name 'Turk' had any
self-assertive existence before then, and until that year they were the
'iron-working slaves' of the Jou-jan. The Khakhan of those last-named
Tartars naturally would not allow the petty tribe of Turk to usurp his
exclusive and supreme title. But even a century and a half before this,
the ruler of the T'u-kuh-hun nomads had already borne the title of
Khakhan, which (the late Dr. Bretschneider agreed with me in thinking) was
originally of Tungusic and not of Turkish origin. The T'u-kuh-hun were of
the same race as the half-Mongol, half-Tungusic Tobas, who ruled for two
centuries over North China.... The title of Khakhan, in various bastard
forms, was during the tenth century used by the Kings of Khoten and Kuche,
as well as by the petty Ouigour Kings of Kan Chou, Si Chou, etc." (E.H.
PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, pp. 139-140.)

Introduction, p. 19. [The] second start [of the Venetians] from Acre took
place about November, 1271.

M. Langlois remarks that the last stay of the Polos at Acre was
necessarily before the 18th November, 1271, date of the departure of
Gregory X. for the West. Cf. _Itinéraires à Jerusalem et Descriptions de
la Terre-Sainte rédigés en français aux XI'e, XII'e et XIII'e
siècles_, publ. par H. MICHELANT et G. RAYNAUD (Genève, 1882), pp.
xxviii-xxix:

"La date de 1269, donnée seulement par un des manuscrits de la rédaction
de Thibaut dé Cépoy, pour le premier séjour à Acre des Polo et leur
rencontre avec Tedaldo Visconti, qui allait être élu pape et prendre le
nom de Grégoire X., date préférée par tous les éditeurs à celles
évidemment erronées de Rusticien de Pise (1260) et des huit autres
manuscrits de Thibaut de Cépoy (1250 et 1260), n'est pas hors de toute
discussion. M.G. Tononi, archiprêtre de Plaisance, qui prépare une
histoire et une édition des ceuvres de Grégoire X., me fait remarquer que
les chroniqueurs ne placent le départ de Tedaldo pour la Terre-Sainte
qu'après celui de S. Louis pour Tunis (2 juillet 1270), et que, d'après un
acte du _Trésor des Chartes_, Tedaldo était encore à Paris le 28
décembre 1269. Il faudrait done probablement dater de 1271 le premier et
le deuxième séjour des Polo à Acre, et les placer tous deux entre le 9
mai, époque de l'arrivée en Terre-Sainte d'Edouard d'Angleterre,--avec
lequel, suivant _l'Eracles_, aborda Tedaldo--et le 18 novembre, date
du départ du nouveau pape pour l'Occident." (Cf. _Hist. litt. de la
France_, XXXV, _Marco Polo_.)

Introduction, p. 19 n.

I have here discussed Major Sykes' theory of Polo's itinerary in Persia;
the question was raised again by Major Sykes in the _Geographical
Journal_, October, 1905, pp. 462-465. I answered again, and I do not
think it necessary to carry on farther this controversy. I recall that
Major Sykes writes: "To conclude, I maintain that Marco Polo entered
Persia near Tabriz, whence he travelled to Sultania, Kashan, Yezd, Kerman,
and Hormuz. From that port, owing to the unseaworthiness of the vessels,
the presence of pirates, the fact that the season was past, or for some
other reason, he returned by a westerly route to Kerman, and thence
crossed the Lut to Khorasan."

I replied in the _Geographical Journal_, Dec., 1905, pp. 686-687:
"Baghdad, after its fall in 1258, did not cease immediately to be 'rather
off the main caravan route.' I shall not refer Major Sykes to what I say
in my editions of 'Odorico' and 'Polo' on the subject, but to the standard
work of Heyd, _Commerce du Levant_, Vol. 2, pp. 77, 78. The itinerary,
Tabriz, Sultania, Kashan, Yezd, was the usual route later on, at the
beginning of the fourteenth century, and it was followed, among others, by
Fra Odorico, of Pordenone. Marco Polo, on his way to the Far East--you
must not forget that he was at Acre in 1271--could not have crossed
Sultania, which _did not exist_, as its building was commenced by Arghún
Khan, who ascended the throne in 1284, and was continued by Oeljaitu
(1304-1316), who gave the name of Sultania to the city." Cf. Lieut.-Col.
P.M. SYKES, _A History of Persia_, 1915, 2 vols., 8vo; II., p. 181 n.

Introduction, p. 21. M. Pauthier has found a record in the Chinese Annals
of the Mongol dynasty, which states that in the year 1277, a certain POLO
was nominated a second-class commissioner or agent attached to the Privy
Council, a passage which we are happy to believe to refer to our young
traveller.

Prof. E.H. Parker remarks (_Asiatic Quart. Review_, 3rd Series, Vol.
XVII., Jan., 1904, pp. 128-131): "M. Pauthier has apparently overlooked
other records, which make it clear that the identical individual in
question had already received honours from Kúblái many years before
Marco's arrival in 1275. Perhaps the best way to make this point clear
would be to give all the original passages which bear upon the question.
The number I give refer to the chapter and page (first half or second half
of the double page) of the _Yuan Shï_:--

A. Chap. 7, p. 1-2/2: 1270, second moon. Kúblái inspects a court pageant
prepared by Puh-lo and others.

B. Chap. 7, p. 6-1/2: 1270, twelfth moon. The _yü-shï chung-ch'êng_
(censor) Puh-lo made also President of the _Ta-sz-nung_ department. One of
the ministers protested that there was no precedent for a censor holding
this second post. Kúblái insisted.

C. Chap. 8, p. 16-1/2: 1275, second moon. Puh-lo and another sent to look
into the Customs taxation question in Tangut.

D. Chap. 8, p. 22-1/2: 1275, fourth moon. The _Ta-sz-nung_ and _yü-shï
chung-ch'êng_ Puh-lo promoted to be _yü-shï ta-fu_.

E. Chap. 9, p. 11-2/2: 1276, seventh moon. The Imperial Prince Puh-lo
given a seal.

F. Chap. 9, p. 16-2/2: 1277, second moon. The _Ta-sz-nung_ and _yü-shï
ta-fu_, Puh-lo, being also _süan-wei-shï_ and Court Chamberlain, promoted
to be _shu-mih fu-shï_, and also _süan-hwei-shï_ and Court Chamberlain.

"The words _shu-mih fu-shï_ the Chinese characters for which are given on
p. 569 of M. Cordier's second volume, precisely mean 'Second-class
Commissioner attached to the Privy Council,' and hence it is clear that
Pauthier was totally mistaken in supposing the censor of 1270 to have been
Marco. Of course the Imperial Prince Puh-lo is not the same person as the
censor, nor is it clear who the (1) pageant and (2) Tangut Puh-los were,
except that neither could possibly have been Marco, who only arrived in
May--the third moon--at the very earliest.

"In the first moon of 1281 some gold, silver, and bank-notes were handed
to Puh-lo for the relief of the poor. In the second moon of 1282, just
before the assassination of Achmed, the words 'Puh-lo the Minister'
(_ch'êng-siang_) are used in connection with a case of fraud. In the
seventh moon of 1282 (after the fall of Achmed) the 'Mongol man Puh-lo'
was placed in charge of some gold-washings in certain towers of the then
Hu Pêh (now in Hu Nan). In the ninth moon of the same year a commission
was sent to take official possession of all the gold-yielding places in
Yün Nan, and Puh-lo was appointed _darugachi_ (= governor) of the mines.
In this case it is not explicitly stated (though it would appear most
likely) that the two gold superintendents were the same man; if they were,
then neither could have been Marco, who certainly was no 'Mongol man.'
Otherwise there would be a great temptation to identify this event with
the mission to '_una città, detta Carazan_' of the Ramusio Text.

"There is, however, one man who may possibly be Marco, and that is the
Poh-lo who was probably with Kúblái at Chagan Nor when the news of
Achmed's murder by Wang Chu arrived there in the third moon of 1282. The
Emperor at once left for Shang-tu (i.e. _K'ai-p'ing Fu_, north of
Dolonor), and 'ordered the _shu-mih fu-shï_ Poh-lo [with two other
statesmen] to proceed with all speed to Ta-tu (i.e. to Cambalu). On
receiving Poh-lo's report, the Emperor became convinced of the deceptions
practised upon him by Achmed, and said: "It was a good thing that Wang Chu
_did_ kill him."' In 1284 Achmed's successor is stated (chap, 209, p.
9-1/2) to have recommended Poh-lo, amongst others, for minor Treasury
posts. The same man (chap. 209, p. 12-1/2) subsequently got Poh-lo
appointed to a salt superintendency in the provinces; and as Yang-chou is
the centre of the salt trade, it is just possible that Marco's
'governorship' of that place may resolve itself into this.

"There are many other Puh-lo and Poh-lo mentioned, both before Marco's
arrival in, and subsequently to Marco's departure in 1292 from, China. In
several cases (as, for instance, in that of P. Timur) both forms occur in
different chapters for the same man; and a certain Tartar called 'Puh-lan
Hi' is also called 'Puh-lo Hi.' One of Genghis Khan's younger brothers was
called Puh-lo Kadei. There was, moreover, a Cathayan named Puh-lo, and a
Naiman Prince Poh-lo. Whether 'Puh-lo the Premier' or 'one of the
Ministers,' mentioned in 1282, is the same person as 'Poh-lo the _ts'an
chêng_,' or 'Prime Minister's assistant' of 1284, I cannot say. Perhaps,
when the whole _Yüan Shï_ has been thoroughly searched throughout in all
its editions, we may obtain more certain information. Meanwhile, one thing
is plain: Pauthier is wrong, Yule is wrong in that particular connection;
and M. Cordier gives us no positive view of his own. The other
possibilities are given above, but I scarcely regard any of them as
probabilities. On p. 99 of his Introduction, Colonel Yule manifestly
identifies the Poh-lo of 1282 with Marco; but the identity of his title
with that of Puh-lo in 1277 suggests that the two men are one, in which
case neither can be Marco Polo. On p. 422 of Vol. I. Yule repeats this
identification in his notes. I may mention that much of the information
given in the present article was published in Vol. XXIV. of the _China
Review_ two or three years ago. I notice that M. Cordier quotes that
volume in connection with other matters, but this particular point does
not appear to have caught his eye.

"As matters now stand, there is a fairly strong presumption that Marco
Polo is _once_ named in the Annals; but there is no irrefragable evidence;
and in any case it is only this once, and not as Pauthier has it."

Cf. also note by Prof. E.H. Parker, _China Review_, XXV. pp. 193-4, and,
according to Prof. Pelliot (_Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, July-Sept.,
1904, p. 769), the biography of Han Lin-eul in the _Ming shi_, k. 122, p.
3.

Prof. Pelliot writes to me: "Il faut renoncer une bonne fois à retrouver
Marco Polo dans le Po-lo mêlé à l'affaire d'Ahmed. Grâce aux titulations
successives, nous pouvons reconstituer la carrière administrative de ce
Po-lo, au moins depuis 1271, c'est-à-dire depuis une date antérieure à
l'arrivée de Marco Polo à la cour mongole. D'autre part, Rashid-ud-Din
mentionne le rôle joué dans l'affaire d'Ahmed par le Pulad-aqa,
c'est-à-dire Pulad Chinsang, son informateur dans les choses mongoles, mais
la forme mongole de ce nom de _Pulad_ est _Bolod_, en transcription
chinoise _Po-lo_. J'ai signalé (_T'oung Pao_, 1914, p. 640) que des textes
chinois mentionnent effectivement que Po-lo (Bolod), envoyé en mission
auprès d'Arghún en 1285, resta ensuite en Perse. C'est donc en définitive
le Pulad (= Bolod) de Rashid-ud-Din qui serait le Po-lo qu'à la suite de
Pauthier on a trop longtemps identifié à Marco Polo."

Introduction, p. 23.

"The _Yüan Shï_ contains curious confirmation of the facts which led up to
Marco Polo's conducting a wife to Arghún of Persia, who lost his spouse in
1286. In the eleventh moon of that year (say January, 1287) the following
laconic announcement appears: 'T'a-ch'a-r Hu-nan ordered to go on a
mission to A-r-hun.' It is possible that Tachar and Hunan may be two
individuals, and, though they probably started overland, it is probable
that they were in some way connected with Polo's first and unsuccessful
attempt to take the girl to Persia." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._,
Jan., 1904, p. 136.)

Introduction, p. 76 _n._

With regard to the statue of the Pseudo-Marco Polo of Canton, Dr. B.
Laufer, of Chicago, sends me the following valuable note:--

THE ALLEGED MARCO POLO LO-HAN OF CANTON.

The temple _Hua lin se_ (in Cantonese _Fa lum se_, i.e. Temple of the
Flowery Grove) is situated in the western suburbs of the city of Canton.
Its principal attraction is the vast hall, the Lo-han t'ang, in which are
arranged in numerous avenues some five hundred richly gilded images, about
three feet in height, representing the 500 Lo-han (Arhat). The workmanship
displayed in the manufacture of these figures, made of fine clay thickly
covered with burnished gilding, is said to be most artistic, and the
variety of types is especially noticeable. In this group we meet a statue
credited with a European influence. Two opinions are current regarding
this statue: one refers to it as representing the image of a Portuguese
sailor, the other sees in it a portrait of Marco Polo.

The former view is expressed, as far as I see, for the first time, by
MAYERS and DENNYS (_The Treaty Ports of China and Japan_, London and Hong
Kong, 1867, p. 162). "One effigy," these authors remark, "whose features
are strongly European in type, will be pointed out as the image of a
Portuguese seaman who was wrecked, centuries ago, on the coast, and whose
virtues during a long residence gained him canonization after death. This
is probably a pure myth, growing from an accidental resemblance of the
features." This interpretation of a homage rendered to a Portuguese is
repeated by C.A. MONTALTO DE JESUS, _Historic Macao_ (Hong Kong, 1902, p.
28). A still more positive judgment on this matter is passed by MADROLLE
(_Chine du Sud et de l'Est_, Paris, 1904, p. 17). "The attitudes of the
Venerable Ones," he says, "are remarkable for their life-like expression,
or sometimes, singularly grotesque. One of these personalities placed on
the right side of a great altar wears the costume of the 16th century, and
we might be inclined to regard it as a Chinese representation of Marco
Polo. It is probable, however, that the artist, who had to execute the
statue of a Hindu, that is, of a man of the West, adopted as the model of
his costume that of the Portuguese who visited Canton since the
commencement of the 16th century." It seems to be rather doubtful whether
the 500 Lo-han of Canton are really traceable to that time. There is
hardly any huge clay statue in China a hundred or two hundred years old,
and all the older ones are in a state of decay, owing to the brittleness
of the material and the carelessness of the monks. Besides, as stated by
Mayers and Dennys (l.c., p. 163), the Lo-han Hall of Canton, with its
glittering contents, is a purely modern structure, having been added to
the Fa-lum Temple in 1846, by means of a subscription mainly supported by
the Hong Merchants. Although this statue is not old, yet it may have been
made after an ancient model. Archdeacon Gray, in his remarkable and
interesting book, _Walks in the City of Canton_ (Hong Kong, 1875, p. 207),
justly criticized the Marco Polo theory, and simultaneously gave a correct
identification of the Lo-han in question. His statement is as follows: "Of
the idols of the five hundred disciples of Buddha, which, in this hall,
are contained, there is one, which, in dress and configuration of
countenance, is said to resemble a foreigner. With regard to this image,
one writer, if we mistake not, has stated that it is a statue of the
celebrated traveller Marco Polo, who, in the thirteenth century, visited,
and, for some time, resided in the flowery land of China. This statement,
on the part of the writer to whom we refer, is altogether untenable.
Moreover, it is an error so glaring as to cast, in the estimation of all
careful readers of his work, no ordinary degree of discredit upon many of
his most positive assertions. The person, whose idol is so rashly
described as being that of Marco Polo, was named Shien-Tchu. He was a
native of one of the northern provinces of India, and, for his zeal as an
apostle in the service of Buddha, was highly renowned."

Everard Cotes closes the final chapter of his book, _The Arising East_
(New York, 1907), as follows: "In the heart of Canton, within easy reach
of mob violence at any time, may be seen to-day the life-size statue of an
elderly European, in gilt clothes and black hat, which the Chinese have
cared for and preserved from generation to generation because the
original, Marco Polo, was a friend to their race. The thirteenth-century
European had no monopoly of ability to make himself loved and reverenced.
A position similar to that which he won as an individual is open to-day to
the Anglo-Saxon as a race. But the Mongolian was not afraid of Marco Polo,
and he is afraid of us. It can be attained, therefore, only by fair
dealing and sympathy, supported by an overwhelming preponderance of
fighting strength."

[Dr. Laufer reproduces here the note in _Marco Polo_, I., p. 76. I may
remark that I never said nor believed that the statue was Polo's. The
mosaic at Genoa is a fancy portrait.]

The question may be raised, however, Are there any traces of foreign
influence displayed in this statue? The only way of solving this problem
seemed to me the following: First to determine the number and the name of
the alleged Marco Polo Lo-han at Canton, and then by means of this number
to trace him in the series of pictures of the traditional 500 Lo-han (the
so-called _Lo han t'u_).

The alleged Marco Polo Lo-han bears the number 100, and his name is
Shan-chu tsun-che (_tsun-che_ being a translation of Sanskrit _arya_,
"holy, reverend"). The name Shan-chu evidently represents the rendering of
a Sanskrit name, and does not suggest a European name. The illustration
here reproduced is Lo-han No. 100 from a series of stone-engravings in the
temple T'ien-ning on the West Lake near Hang Chau. It will be noticed that
it agrees very well with the statue figured by M. Cordier. In every respect
it bears the features of an Indian Lo-han, with one exception, and this is
the curious hat. This, in fact, is the only Lo-han among the five hundred
that is equipped with a headgear; and the hat, as is well known, is not
found in India. This hat must represent a more or less arbitrary addition
of the Chinese artist who created the group, and it is this hat which led
to the speculations regarding the Portuguese sailor or Marco Polo. Certain
it is also that such a type of hat does not occur in China; but it seems
idle to speculate as to its origin, as long as we have no positive
information on the intentions of the artist. The striped mantle of the
Lo-han is by no means singular, for it occurs with seventeen others. The
facts simply amount to this, that the figure in question does not represent
a Portuguese sailor or Marco Polo or any other European, but solely an
Indian Lo-han (Arhat), while the peculiar hat remains to be explained.

Introduction, p. 92.

THIBAUT DE CHEPOY.

Thibaut de Chepoy (Chepoy, canton of Breteuil, Oise), son of the knight
Jean de Chepoy, was one of the chief captains of King Philip the Fair. He
entered the king's service in 1285 as squire and valet; went subsequently
to Robert d'Artois, who placed him in charge of the castle of Saint Omer,
and took him, in 1296, to Gascony to fight the English. He was afterwards
grand master of the cross-bow men. He then entered the service of Charles
de Valois, brother of Philip the Fair, who sent him to Constantinople to
support the claims to the throne of his wife, Catherine of Courtenay.
Thibaut left Paris on the 9th Sept., 1306, passed through Venice, where he
met Marco Polo who gave him a copy of his manuscript. Thibaut died between
22nd May, 1311, and 22nd March, 1312. (See Joseph PETIT, in _Le Moyen
Age_, Paris, 1897, pp. 224-239.)



THE BOOK OF MARCO POLO.



PROLOGUE


II., p. 6.

SARAI.

"Cordier (Yule) identifiziert den von Pegolotti gewählten Namen Säracanco
mit dem jüngeren Sarai oder Zarew (dem Sarai grande Fra Mauros), was mir
vollkommen untunlich erscheint; es wäre dann die Route des Reisenden
geradezu ein Zickzackweg gewesen, der durch nichts zu rechtfertigen wäre."
(Dr. Ed. FRIEDMANN, _Pegolotti_, p. 14.)

Prof. Pelliot writes to me: "Il n'y a aucune possibilité de retrouver dans
_Saracanco, Sarai + Kúnk_. Le mot _Kúnk_ n'est pas autrement
attesté, et la construction mongole ou turque exigerait _kunk-sarai_."

XIII., pp. 25-26.

SHANG TU.

See also A. POZDNEIEV, _Mongoliya i Mongoly_, II., pp. 303 seq.

XV., pp. 27, 28-30. Now it came that Marco, the son of Messer Nicolo, sped
wondrously in learning the customs of the Tartars, as well as their
language, their manner of writing, and their practice of war--in fact he
came in a brief space to know several languages, and four sundry written
characters.

On the linguistic office called _Sse yi kwan_, cf. an interesting
note by H. MASPERO, p. 8, of _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_,
XII., No. 1, 1912.

XV., p. 28 n. Of the Khitán but one inscription was known and no key.

Prof. Pelliot remarks, _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, IV., July-Sept.,
1904: "In fact a Chinese work has preserved but five k'i-tan characters,
however with the Chinese translation." He writes to me that we do not know
_any_ k'itan inscription, but half a dozen characters reproduced in a work
of the second half of the fourteenth century. The Uíghúr alphabet is of
Aramean origin through Sogdian; from this point of view, it is not
necessary to call for Estranghelo, nor Nestorian propaganda. On the other
hand we have to-day documents in Uíghúr writing older than the _Kudatku
Bilik_.



BOOK FIRST.

ACCOUNT OF REGIONS VISITED OR HEARD OF ON THE JOURNEY FROM THE LESSER
ARMENIA TO THE COURT OF THE GREAT KAAN AT CHANDU.



BOOK I.


VI., p. 63. "There is also on the river, as you go from Baudas to Kisi, a
great city called Bastra, surrounded by woods, in which grow the best
dates in the world."

"The products of the country are camels, sheep and dates." (At Pi-ssï-lo,
Basra. CHAU JU-KWA, p. 137.)

VI., pp. 63, 65. "In Baudas they weave many different kinds of silk stuffs
and gold brocades, such as _nasich_, and _nac_, and _cramoisy_, and many
other beautiful tissue richly wrought with figures of beasts and birds."

In the French text we have _nassit_ and _nac_.

"S'il faut en croire M. Defrémery, au lieu de _nassit_, il faut évidemment
lire _nassij_ (nécidj), ce qui signifie un tissu, en général, et désigne
particulièrement une étoffe de soie de la même espèce que le _nekh_. Quant
aux étoffes sur lesquelles étaient figurés des animaux et des oiseaux, le
même orientaliste croit qu'il faut y reconnaître le _thardwehch_, sorte
d'étoffe de soie qui, comme son nom l'indique, représentait des scènes de
chasse. On sait que l'usage de ces représentations est très ancien en
Orient, comme on le voit dans des passages de Philostrate et de
Quinte-Curce rapportés par Mongez." (FRANCISQUE-MICHEL, _Recherches sur le
Commerce_, I., p. 262.)

VI., p. 67.

DEATH OF MOSTAS'IM.

According to Al-Fakhri, translated by E. Amar (_Archives marocaines_ XVI.,
p. 579), Mostas'im was put to death with his two eldest sons on the 4th of
safar, 656 (3rd February, 1258).

XI., p. 75. "The [the men of Tauris] weave many kinds of beautiful and
valuable stuffs of silk and gold."

Francisque-Michel (I., p. 316) remarks: "De ce que Marco Polo se borne à
nommer Tauris comme la ville de Perse où il se fabriquait maints draps
d'or et de soie, il ne faudrait pas en conclure que cette industrie
n'existât pas sur d'autres points du même royaume. Pour n'en citer qu'un
seul, la ville d'Arsacie, ancienne capitale des Parthes, connue
aujourd'hui sous le nom de Caswin, possédait vraisemblablement déjà cette
industrie des beaux draps d'or et de soie qui existait encore au temps de
Huet, c'est-à-dire au XVII'e siècle."

XIII., p. 78. "Messer Marco Polo found a village there which goes by the
name of CALA ATAPERISTAN, which is as much as to say, 'The Castle of the
Fire-worshippers.'"

With regard to Kal'ah-i Atashparastan, Prof. A.V.W. Jackson writes
(_Persia_, 1906, p. 413): "And the name is rightly applied, for the people
there do worship fire. In an article entitled _The Magi in Marco Polo
(Journ. Am. Or. Soc._, 26, 79-83) I have given various reasons for
identifying the so-called 'Castle of the Fire-Worshippers' with Kashan,
which Odoric mentions or a village in its vicinity, the only rival to the
claim being the town of Naïn, whose Gabar Castle has already been
mentioned above."

XIV., p. 78.

PERSIA.

Speaking of Saba and of Cala Ataperistan, Prof. E.H. Parker (_Asiatic
Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 134) has the following remarks: "It is not
impossible that certain unexplained statements in the Chinese records may
shed light upon this obscure subject. In describing the Arab Conquest of
Persia, the Old and New T'ang Histories mention the city of Hia-lah as
being amongst those captured; another name for it was _Sam_ (according to
the Chinese initial and final system of spelling words). A later Chinese
poet has left the following curious line on record: 'All the priests
venerate Hia-lah.' The allusion is vague and undated, but it is difficult
to imagine to what else it can refer. The term _sêng_, or 'bonze,' here
translated 'priests,' was frequently applied to Nestorian and Persian
priests, as in this case."

XIV., p. 80. "Three Kings."

Regarding the legend of the stone cast into a well, cf. F.W.K. MÜLLER,
_Uigurica_, pp. 5-10 (Pelliot).

XVII., p. 90. "There are also plenty of veins of steel and _Ondanique_."

"The _ondanique_ which Marco Polo mentions in his 42nd chapter is almost
certainly the _pin t'ieh_ or 'pin iron' of the Chinese, who frequently
mention it as coming from Arabia, Persia, Cophene, Hami, Ouigour-land and
other High Asia States." (E.H. PARKER, _Journ. North China Br. Roy.
Asiatic Soc._, XXXVIII., 1907, p. 225.)

XVIII., pp. 97, 100. "The province that we now enter is called
REOBARLES.... The beasts also are peculiar.... Then there are sheep here
as big as asses; and their tails are so large and fat, that one tail shall
weight some 30 lbs. They are fine fat beasts, and afford capital mutton."

Prof. E.H. PARKER writes in the _Journ. of the North China Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, p. 196: "Touching the fat-tailed sheep
of Persia, the _Shan-haï-king_ says the Yuëh-chï or Indo-Scythy had a
'big-tailed sheep' the correct name for which is _hien-yang_. The Sung
History mentions sheep at Hami with tails so heavy that they could not
walk. In the year 1010 some were sent as tribute to China by the King of
Kuché."

"Among the native products [at Mu lan p'i, Murabit, Southern Coast of
Spain] are foreign sheep, which are several feet high and have tails as
big as a fan. In the spring-time they slit open their bellies and take out
some tens of catties of fat, after which they sew them up again, and the
sheep live on; if the fat were not removed, (the animal) would swell up
and die." (CHAU JU-KWA, pp. 142-3.)

"The Chinese of the T'ang period had heard also of the trucks put under
these sheep's tails. 'The Ta-shï have a foreign breed of sheep (_hu-yang_)
whose tails, covered with fine wool, weigh from ten to twenty catties; the
people have to put carts under them to hold them up. Fan-kuo-chï as quoted
in Tung-si-yang-k'au." (HIRTH and ROCKHILL, p. 143.)

Leo Africanus, _Historie of Africa_, III., 945 (Hakluyt Soc. ed.), says he
saw in Egypt a ram with a tail weighing eighty pounds!:

OF THE AFRICAN RAMME.

"There is no difference betweene these rammes of Africa and others, saue
onely in their tailes, which are of a great thicknes, being by so much the
grosser, but how much they are more fatte, so that some of their tailes
waigh tenne, and other twentie pounds a peece, and they become fatte of
their owne naturall inclination: but in Egypt there are diuers that feede
them fatte with bran and barly, vntill their tailes growe so bigge that
they cannot remooue themselves from place to place: insomuch that those
which take charge of them are faine to binde little carts vnder their
tailes, to the end they may haue strength to walke. I my selfe saw at a
citie in Egypt called Asiot, and standing vpon Nilus, about an hundred and
fiftie miles from Cairo, one of the saide rams tailes that weighed
fowerscore pounds, and others affirmed that they had seene one of those
tailes of an hundred and fiftie pounds weight. All the fatte therefore of
this beast consisteth in his taile; neither is there any of them to be
founde but onely in Tunis and in Egypt." (LEO AFRICANUS, edited by Dr.
Robert BROWN, III., 1896, Hakluyt Society, p. 945.)

XVIII., pp. 97, 100 n.

Dr. B. Laufer draws my attention to what is probably the oldest mention of
this sheep from Arabia, in Herodotus, Book III., Chap. 113:

"Concerning the spices of Arabia let no more be said. The whole country is
scented with them, and exhales an odour marvellously sweet. There are also
in Arabia two kinds of sheep worthy of admiration, the like of which is
nowhere else to be seen; the one kind has long tails, not less than three
cubits in length, which, if they were allowed to trail on the ground,
would be bruised and fall into sores. As it is, all the shepherds know
enough of carpentering to make little trucks for their sheep's tails. The
trucks are placed under the tails, each sheep having one to himself, and
the tails are then tied down upon them. The other kind has a broad tail,
which is a cubit across sometimes."

Canon G. Rawlinson, in his edition of Herodotus, has the following note on
this subject (II., p. 500):--

"Sheep of this character have acquired among our writers the name of Cape
Sheep, from the fact that they are the species chiefly affected by our
settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. They are common in Africa and
throughout the East, being found not only in Arabia, but in Persia, Syria,
Affghanistan, Egypt, Barbary, and even Asia Minor. A recent traveller,
writing from Smyrna, says: 'The sheep of the country are the Cape sheep,
having a kind of apron tail, entirely of rich marrowy fat, extending to
the width of their hind quarters, and frequently trailing on the ground;
the weight of the tail is often more than six or eight pounds' (FELLOWS'S
_Asia Minor_, p. 10). Leo Africanus, writing in the 15th century, regards
the broad tail as the great difference between the sheep of Africa and
that of Europe. He declares that one which _he had seen_ in Egypt weighed
80 lbs. He also mentions the use of trucks which is still common in North
Africa."

XVIII., p. 98. "Camadi.--Reobarles.--In this plain there are a number of
villages and towns which have lofty walls of mud, made as a defence
against the banditti, who are very numerous, and are called CARAONAS. This
name is given them because they are the sons of Indian mothers by Tartar
fathers."

Mirzá Haïdar writes (_Tárikh-i-Rashidi_, p. 148): "The learned Mirzá Ulugh
Beg has written a history which he has called _Ulus Arbaa_. One of the
'four hordes' is that of the Moghul, who are divided into two branches,
the Moghul and the Chaghatái. But these two branches, on account of their
mutual enmity, used to call each other by a special name, by way of
depreciation. Thus the Chaghatái called the Moghul _Jatah_, while the
Moghul called the Chaghatái _Karáwánás_."

Cf. Ney ELIAS, l.c., pp. 76-77, and App. B, pp. 491-2, containing an
inquiry made in Khorasán by Mr. Maula Bakhsh, Attaché at the Meshed
Consulate General, of the families of Kárnás, he has heard or seen; he
says: "These people speak Turki now, and are considered part of the Goklán
Turkomans. They, however, say they are Chingiz-Kháni Moghuls, and are no
doubt the descendants of the same Kárnás, or Karávanás, who took such a
prominent part in the victories in Persia.

"The word Kárnás, I was told by a learned Goklan Mullah, means _Tirandáz_,
or _Shikári_ (i.e. Archer or Hunter), and was applied to this tribe of
Moghuls on account of their professional skill in shooting, which
apparently secured them an important place in the army. In Turki the word
Kárnás means _Shikamparast_--literally, 'belly worshippers,' which implies
avarice. This term is in use at present, and I was told, by a Kázi of
Bujnurd, that it is sometimes used by way of reproach.... The Kárnás
people in Mána and Gurgán say it is the name of their tribe, and they can
give no other explanation."

XVIII., pp. 98, 102, 165. "The King of these scoundrels is called
NOGODAR."

Sir Aurel Stein has the following regarding the route taken by this Chief
in _Serindia_, I., pp. 11-12:--

"To revert to an earlier period it is noteworthy that the route in Marco
Polo's account, by which the Mongol partisan leader Nigudar, 'with a great
body of horsemen, cruel unscrupulous fellows,' made his way from
Badakhshan 'through another province called PASHAI-DIR, and then through
another called ARIORA-KESHEMUR' to India, must have led down the Bashgol
Valley. The name of _Pashai_ clearly refers to the Kafirs among whom this
tribal designation exists to this day, while the mention of Dir indicates
the direction which this remarkable inroad had taken. That its further
progress must have lain through Swat is made probable by the name which,
in Marco Polo's account, precedes that of 'Keshemur' or Kashmir; for in
the hitherto unexplained _Ariora_ can be recognized, I believe, the
present Agror, the name of the well-known hill-tract on the Hazara border
which faces Buner from the left bank of the Indus. It is easy to see from
any accurate map of these regions, that for a mobile column of horsemen
forcing its way from Badakhshan to Kashmir, the route leading through the
Bashgol Valley, Dir, Talash, Swat, Buner, Agror, and up the Jhelam Valley,
would form at the present day, too, the most direct and practicable line
of invasion."

In a paper on _Marco Polo's Account of a Mongol inroad into Kashmir_
(_Geog. Jour._, August, 1919), Sir Aurel Stein reverts again to the same
subject. "These [Mongol] inroads appear to have commenced from about 1260
A.D., and to have continued right through the reign of Ghiasuddin, Sultan
of Delhi (1266-1286), whose identity with Marco's _Asedin Soldan_ is
certain. It appears very probable that Marco's story of Nogodar, the
nephew of Chaghatái, relates to one of the earliest of these incursions
which was recent history when the Poli passed through Persia about 1272-73
A.D."

Stein thinks, with Marsden and Yule, that _Dilivar_ (pp. 99, 105) is
really a misunderstanding of "_Città_ di Livar" for _Lahawar_ or Lahore.

_Dir_ has been dealt with by Yule and Pauthier, and we know that it is
"the mountain tract at the head of the western branch of the Panjkora
River, through which leads the most frequented route from Peshawar and the
lower Swat valley to Chitral" (Stein, l.c.). Now with regard to the
situation of _Pashai_ (p. 104):

"It is clear that a safe identification of the territory intended cannot
be based upon such characteristics of its people as Marco Polo's account
here notes obviously from hearsay, but must reckon in the first place with
the plainly stated bearing and distance. And Sir Henry Yule's difficulty
arose just from the fact that what the information accessible to him
seemed to show about the location of the name _Pashai_ could not be
satisfactorily reconciled with those plain topographical data. Marco's
great commentator, thoroughly familiar as he was with whatever was known
in his time about the geography of the western Hindukush and the regions
between Oxus and Indus, could not fail to recognize the obvious connection
between our _Pashai_ and the tribal name _Pashai_ borne by Muhammanized
Kafirs who are repeatedly mentioned in mediaeval and modern accounts of
Kabul territory. But all these accounts seemed to place the Pashais in the
vicinity of the great Panjshir valley, north-east of Kabul, through which
passes one of the best-known routes from the Afghan capital to the
Hindukush watershed and thence to the Middle Oxus. Panjshir, like Kabul
itself, lies to the _south-west_ of Badakshan, and it is just this
discrepancy of bearing together with one in the distance reckoned to
Kashmir which caused Sir Henry Yule to give expression to doubts when
summing up his views about Nogodar's route."

From Sir George Grierson's _Linguistic Survey of India_ we learn that to
the south of the range of the Hindukush "the languages spoken from Kashmir
in the east to Kafiristan in the west are neither of Indian nor of Iranian
origin, but form a third branch of the Aryan stock of the great
Indo-European language family. Among the languages of this branch, now
rightly designated as 'Dardic,' the Kafir group holds a very prominent
place. In the Kafir group again we find the _Pashai_ language spoken over a
very considerable area. The map accompanying Sir George Grierson's
monograph on 'The Pisaca Languages of North-Western India' [Asiatic Society
Monographs, VIII., 1906], shows _Pashai_ as the language spoken along the
right bank of the Kunar river as far as the Asmar tract as well as in the
side valleys which from the north descend towards it and the Kabul river
further west. This important fact makes it certain that the tribal
designation of Pashai, to which this Kafir language owes its name, has to
this day an application extending much further east than was indicated by
the references which travellers, mediaeval and modern, along the Panjshir
route have made to the Pashais and from which alone this ethnic name was
previously known."

Stein comes to the conclusion that "the Mongols' route led across the
Mandal Pass into the great Kafir valley of Bashgol and thus down to
Arnawai on the Kunar. Thence Dir could be gained directly across the
Zakhanna Pass, a single day's march. There were alternative routes, too,
available to the same destination either by ascending the Kunar to Ashreth
and taking the present 'Chitral Road' across the Lowarai, or descending
the river to Asmar and crossing the Binshi Pass."

From Dir towards Kashmir for a large body of horsemen "the easiest and in
matter of time nearest route must have led them as now down the Panjkora
Valley and beyond through the open tracts of Lower Swat and Buner to the
Indus about Amb. From there it was easy through the open northern part of
the present Hazara District (the ancient Urasa) to gain the valley of the
Jhelam River at its sharp bend near Muzzaffarabad."

The name of _Agror_ (the direct phonetic derivative of the Sanskrit
_Atyugrapura_) = _Ariora_; it is the name of the hill-tract on the Hazara
border which faces Buner on the east from across the left bank of the
Indus.

XVIII., p. 101.

Line 17, Note 4. _Korano_ of the Indo-Scythic Coins is to be read
_Kosano_. (PELLIOT.)

XVIII., p. 102.

On the Mongols of Afghanistan, see RAMSTEDT, _Mogholica_, in _Journ. de la
Soc. Finno-Ougrienne_, XXIII., 1905. (PELLIOT.)

XIX., p. 107. "The King is called RUOMEDAN AHOMET."

About 1060, Mohammed I. Dirhem Kub, from Yemen, became master of Hormuz,
but his successors remained in the dependency of the sovereigns of Kermán
until 1249, when Rokn ed-Din Mahmud III. Kalhaty (1242-1277) became
independent. His successors in Polo's time were Seïf ed-Din Nusrat
(1277-1290), Mas'ud (1290-1293), Beha ed-Din Ayaz Seyfin (1293-1311).

XIX., p. 115.

HORMOS.

The Travels of Pedro Teixeira, a Portuguese traveller, probably of Jewish
origin, certainly not a Jesuit, have been published by the Hakluyt
Society:

The Travels of Pedro Teixeira; with his "Kings of Harmuz," and extracts
from his "King of Persia." Translated and annotated by William F.
Sinclair, Bombay Civil Service (Rtd.); With further Notes and an
Introduction by Donald Ferguson, London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society,
MDCCCCII, 8 vo. pp. cvii-292.

See Appendix A. A Short Narrative of the Origin of the Kingdom of Harmusz,
and of its Kings, down to its Conquest by the Portuguese; extracted from
its History, written by Torunxa, King of the Same, pp. 153-195. App. D.
Relation of the Chronicle of the Kings of Ormuz, taken from a Chronicle
composed by a King of the same Kingdom, named Pachaturunza, written in
Arabic, and summarily translated into the Portuguese language by a friar
of the order of Saint Dominick, who founded in the island of Ormuz a house
of his order, pp. 256-267.

See Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_, s.v. _Ormus_.

Mr. Donald Ferguson, in a note, p. 155, says: "No dates are given in
connection with the first eleven rulers of Hormuz; but assuming as correct
the date (1278) given for the death of the twelfth, and allowing to each
of his predecessors an average reign of thirteen years, the foundation of
the kingdom of Hormuz would fall in A.D. 1100. Yule places the founding
somewhat earlier; and Valentyn, on what authority I know not, gives A.D.
700 as the date of the founder Muhammad."

XIX., I., p. 116; II., p. 444.

DIET OF THE GULF PEOPLE.

Prof. E.H. Parker says that the T'ang History, in treating of the Arab
conquests of Fuh-lin [or Frank] territory, alludes to the "date and dry
fish diet of the Gulf people." The exact Chinese words are: "They feed
their horses on dried fish, and themselves subsist on the _hu-mang_, or
Persian date, as Bretschneider has explained." (_Asiatic Quart. Rev._,
Jan., 1904, p. 134.)

Bretschneider, in _Med. Researches_, II., p. 134, n. 873, with regard to
the dates writes: "_Wan nien tsao_, 'ten thousand years' jujubes'; called
also _Po-sze tao_, or 'Persian jujubes.' These names and others were
applied since the time of the T'ang dynasty to the dates brought from
Persia. The author of the _Pen ts'ao kang mu_ (end of the sixteenth
century) states that this fruit is called _k'u-lu-ma_ in Persia. The
Persian name of the date is _khurma_."

Cf. CHAU JU-KWA, p. 210.

XXII., p. 128 n.

TUN-O-KAIN.

Major Sykes had adopted Sir Henry Yule's theory of the route from
Kuh-benan to Tun. He has since altered his opinion in the _Geographical
Journal_, October, 1905, p. 465: "I was under the impression that a route
ran direct from Kubunán to Tabas, but when visiting this latter town a few
months ago I made careful inquiries on the subject, which elicited the fact
that this was not the case, and that the route invariably followed by
Kubunán-Tabas caravans joined the Kermán-Rávar-Naiband route at Cháh-Kuru,
12 miles south of Darbana. It follows this track as far as Naiband, whence
the route to Tabas branches off; but the main caravan route runs viâ
Zenagan and Duhuk to Tun. This new information, I would urge, makes it
almost certain that Ser Marco travelled to Tun, as Tabas falls to the west
of the main route. Another point is that the district of Tabas only grows
four months' supplies, and is, in consequence, generally avoided by
caravans owing to its dearness.

"In 1893 I travelled from Tun to the south across the Lut as far as Cháh
Kuru by this very route, and can testify to the general accuracy of Ser
Marco's description,[1] although there are now villages at various points
on the way. Finally, as our traveller especially mentions Tonocain, or Tun
va Kain, one is inclined to accept this as evidence of first-rate
importance, especially as it is now corroborated by the information I
gained at Tabas. The whole question, once again, furnishes an example of
how very difficult it is to make satisfactory inquiries, except on the
spot."

It was also the opinion (1882) of Colonel C.E. Stewart, who says: "I was
much interested in hearing of Kuh Banan, as it is one of the places
mentioned by Marco Polo as on his route. Kuh Banan is described as a group
of villages about 26 miles from the town of Rawar, in the Kárman district.
I cannot help thinking the road travelled by Marco Polo from Kárman to
Kain is the one by Naiband. Marco Polo speaks of Tun-o-Cain, which,
Colonel Yule has pointed out, undoubtedly means Tun and Kain. At present
Tun does not belong to the Kain district, but to the Tabbas district, and
is always spoken of as Tun-o-Tabbas; and if it belonged, as I believe it
formerly did, to the Kain district, it would be spoken of as Tun-o-Kain,
exactly as Marco Polo does. Through Naiband is the shortest and best road
to either Tun or Kain." (_Proc. Royal Geog. Soc._, VIII., 1886, p. 144.)

Support to Yule's theory has been brought by Sven Hedin, who devotes a
chapter to Marco Polo in his _Overland to India_, II., 1910, Chap. XL.,
and discusses our traveller's route between Kuh-benan and Tabbas, pp. 71
seq.:

"As even Sykes, who travelled during several years through Persia in all
directions, cannot decide with full certainty whether Marco Polo travelled
by the western route through Tebbes or the eastern through Naibend, it is
easy to see how difficult it is to choose between the two roads. I cannot
cite the reasons Sir Henry Yule brings forward in favour of the western
route--it would take us too far. I will, instead, set forth the grounds of
my own conviction that Marco Polo used the direct caravan road between
Kuh-benan and Tebbes.

"The circumstance that the main road runs through Naibend is no proof, for
we find that Marco Polo, not only in Persia but also in Central Asia,
exhibited a sovereign contempt for all routes that might be called
convenient and secure.

"The distance between Kerman and Kuh-benan in a direct line amounts to 103
miles. Marco Polo travelled over this stretch in seven days, or barely 15
miles a day. From Kuh-benan to Tebbes the distance is 150 miles, or fully
18 miles a day for eight days. From Kuh-benan viâ Naibend to Tun, the
distance is, on the other hand, 205 miles, or more than 25 miles a day. In
either case we can perceive from the forced marches that after leaving
Kuh-benan he came out into a country where the distances between the wells
became much greater.

"If he travelled by the eastern route he must have made much longer day's
journeys than on the western. On the eastern route the distances between
the wells were greater. Major Sykes has himself travelled this way, and
from his detailed description we get the impression that it presented
particular difficulties. With a horse it is no great feat to ride 25 miles
a day for eight days, but it cannot be done with camels. That I rode
42-1/2 miles a day between Hauz-i-Haji-Ramazan and Sadfe was because of the
danger from rain in the Kevir, and to continue such a forced march for more
than two days is scarcely conceivable. Undoubtedly Marco Polo used camels
on his long journeys in Eastern Persia, and even if he had been able to
cover 205 miles in eight days, he would not be obliged to do so, for on the
main road through Naibend and Duhuk to Tun there are abundant opportunities
of procuring water. Had he travelled through Naibend, he would in any case
have had no need to hurry on so fast. He would probably keep to the same
pace as on the way from Kerman to Kuh-benan, and this length he
accomplished in seven days. Why should he have made the journey from
Kuh-benan to Tun, which is exactly double as far, in only eight days
instead of fourteen, when there was no necessity? And that he actually
travelled between Kuh-benan and Tunocain in eight days is evident, because
he mentions this number twice.

"He also says explicitly that during these eight days neither fruits nor
trees are to be seen, and that you have to carry both food and water. This
description is not true of the Naibend route, for in Naibend there are
excellent water, fine dates, and other fruits. Then there is Duhuk, which,
according to Sykes, is a very important village with an old fort and about
200 houses. After leaving Duhuk for the south, Sykes says: 'We continued
our journey, and were delighted to hear that at the next stage, too, there
was a village, proving that this section of the Lut is really quite
thickly populated.' [_Ten Thousand Miles in Persia_, p. 35.] This does not
agree at all with Marco Polo's description.

"I therefore consider it more probable that Marco Polo, as Sir Henry Yule
supposes, travelled either direct to Tebbes, or perhaps made a trifling
détour to the west, through the moderate-sized village Bahabad, for from
this village a direct caravan road runs to Tebbes, entirely through
desert. Marco Polo would then travel 150 miles in eight days compared with
103 miles in seven days between Kerman and Kuh-benan. He therefore
increased his speed by only 4 miles a day, and that is all necessary on
the route in question.

"Bahabad lies at a distance of 36 miles from Kubenan--all in a straight
line. And not till beyond Bahabad does the real desert begin.

"To show that a caravan road actually connects Tebbes with Bahabad, I have
inserted in the first and second columns of the following table the data I
obtained in Tebbes and Fahanunch, and in the third the names marked on the
'Map of Persia (in six sheets) compiled in the Simla Drawing Office of the
Survey of India, 1897.'

    From Tebbes to Bahabad  |   From Fahanunch to Bahabad
 1. Kurit . . . . . . .   4 | 2. Moghu . . . . . . . .   4-1/2
 2. Moghu . . . . . . .   9 | 3. Sefid-ab  . . . . . .   6
 3. Sefid-ab  . . . . .   6 | 4. Belucha . . . . . . .   5
 4. Burch . . . . . . .   5 | 5. God-i-shah-taghi  . .   6
 5. God . . . . . . . .   5 | 6. Rizab . . . . . . . .   5
 6. Rizab . . . . . . .   6 | 7.{Teng-i-Tebbes . . . .   4-1/2
 7. Pudenum . . . . . .   8 |   {Pudenun . . . . . . .   4-1/2
 8. Ser-i-julge . . . .   4 | 8. Kheirabad . . . . . .   4
 9. Bahabad . . . . . .   4 | 9. Bahabad . . . . . . .   4
                         -- |                           --
      Farsakh . . . . .  51 |      Farsakh . . . . . .  43-1/2

     _Map of Persia_.
 2. Maga . . . . . . . Salt well.
 3. Chashma Sufid  . .  "    "
 4.{Khudafrin  . . . . Sweet spring.
   {Pir Moral  . . . . Salt well.
 5. God Hashtaki . . .  "    "
 6. Rezu . . . . . . .  "    "

"These details are drawn from different authorities, but are in excellent
agreement. That the total distances are different in the first two columns
is because Fahanunch lies nearer than Tebbes to Bahabad. Two or three
discrepancies in the names are of no importance. Burch denotes a castle or
fort; Belucha is evidently Cha-i-beluch or the well of the Baluchi, and it
is very probable that a small fort was built some time or other at this
well which was visited by raiders from Baluchistan. Ser-i-julge and
Kheirabad may be two distinct camping grounds very near each other. The
Chasma Sufid or 'white spring' of the English map is evidently the same
place as Sefid-ab, or 'white water.' Its God Hashtaki is a corruption of
the Persian God-i-shah-taghi, or the 'hollow of the royal saxaul.'
Khudafrin, on the other hand, is very apocryphal. It is no doubt
Khuda-aferin or 'God be praised!'--an ejaculation very appropriate in the
mouth of a man who comes upon a sweet spring in the midst of the desert. If
an Englishman travelled this way he might have mistaken this ejaculation
for the name of the place. But then 'Unsurveyed' would hardly be placed
just in this part of the Bahabad Desert.

"The information I obtained about the road from Tebbes to Bahabad was
certainly very scanty, but also of great interest. Immediately beyond
Kurit the road crosses a strip of the Kevir, 2 farsakh broad, and
containing a river-bed which is said to be filled with water at the end of
February. Sefid-ab is situated among hillocks and Burch in an upland
district; to the south of it follows Kevir barely a farsakh broad, which
may be avoided by a circuitous path. At God-i-shah-taghi, as the name
implies, saxaul grows (_Haloxylon Ammodendron_). The last three
halting-places before Bahabad all lie among small hills.

"This desert route runs, then, through comparatively hilly country,
crosses two small Kevir depressions, or offshoots of one and the same
Kevir, has pasturage at at least one place, and presents no difficulties
of any account. The distance in a direct line is 113 miles, corresponding
to 51 Persian farsakh--the farsakh in this district being only about 2.2
miles long against 2.9 in the great Kevir. The caravans which go through
the Bahabad desert usually make the journey in ten days, one at least of
which is a rest day, so that they cover little more than 12 miles a day.
If water more or less salt were not to be found at all the eight
camping-grounds, the caravans would not be able to make such short marches.
It is also quite possible that sweet water is to be found in one place;
where saxaul grows driftsand usually occurs, and wells digged in sand are
usually sweet.

"During my stay in Tebbes a caravan of about 300 camels, as I have
mentioned before, arrived from Sebsevar. They were laden with _naft_
(petroleum), and remained waiting till the first belt of Kevir was dried
after the last rain. As soon as this happened the caravan would take the
road described above to Bahabad, and thence to Yezd. And this caravan
route, Sebsevar, Turshiz, Bajistan, Tun, Tebbes, Bahabad, and Yezd, is
considered less risky than the somewhat shorter way through the great
Kevir. I myself crossed a part of the Bahabad desert where we did not once
follow any of the roads used by caravans, and I found this country by no
means one of the worst in Eastern Persia.

"In the above exposition I believe that I have demonstrated that it is
extremely probable that Marco Polo travelled, not through Naibend to Tun,
but through Bahabad to Tebbes, and thence to Tun and Kain. His own
description accords in all respects with the present aspect and
peculiarities of the desert route in question. And the time of eight days
he assigns to the journey between Kuh-benan and Tonocain renders it also
probable that he came to the last-named province at Tebbes, even if he
travelled somewhat faster than caravans are wont to do at the present day.
It signifies little that he does not mention the name Tebbes; he gives
only the name of the province, adding that it contains a great many towns
and villages. One of these was Tebbes."

XXII., p. 126.

TUTIA.

"It seems that the word is 'the Arabicized word _dúdhá_, being Persian for
"smokes."' There can be little doubt that we have direct confirmation of
this in the Chinese words _t'ou-t'ieh_ (still, I think, in use) and
_t'ou-shik_, meaning '_tou_-iron' and '_t'ou_-ore.' The character _T'ou_
[Chinese] does not appear in the old dictionaries; its first appearance is
in the History of the Toba (Tungusic) Dynasty of North China. This History
first mentions the name 'Persia' in A.D. 455 and the existence there of
this metal, which, a little later on, is also said to come from a State in
the Cashmeer region. K'ang-hi's seventeenth-century dictionary is more
explicit: it states that Termed produces this ore, but that 'the true sort
comes from Persia, and looks like gold, but on being heated it turns
carnation, and _not_ black.' As the Toba Emperors added 1000 new characters
to the Chinese stock, we may assume this one to have been invented, for the
specific purpose indicated.'" (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan.,
1904, pp. 135-6.) Prof. Parker adds the following note, l.c., p. 149:
"Since writing the above, I have come across a passage in the 'History of
the Sung Dynasty' (chap. 490, p. 17) stating that an Arab junk-master
brought to Canton in A.D. 990, and sent on thence to the Chinese Emperor in
Ho Nan, 'one vitreous bottle of _tutia_.' The two words mean
'metropolis-father,' and are therefore without any signification, except as
a foreign word. According to Yule's notes (I., p. 126), _tútiá_, or
_dudhá_, in one of its forms was used as an eye-ointment or collyrium."

XXII., pp. 127-139. The Province of Tonocain "contains an immense plain on
which is found the ARBRE SOL, which we Christians call the _Arbre Sec_;
and I will tell you what it is like. It is a tall and thick tree, having
the bark on one side green and the other white; and it produces a rough
husk like that of a chestnut, but without anything in it. The wood is
yellow like box, and very strong, and there are no other trees near it nor
within a hundred miles of it, except on one side, where you find trees
within about ten miles distance."

In a paper published in the _Journal of the R. As. Soc._, Jan., 1909, Gen.
Houtum-Schindler comes to the conclusion, p. 157, that Marco Polo's tree
is not the "Sun Tree," but the Cypress of Zoroaster; "Marco Polo's _arbre
sol_ and _arbre seul_ stand for the Persian _dirakht i sol, i.e. the
cypress-tree. If General Houtum Schindler had seen the third edition of
the _Book of Ser Marco Polo_, I., p. 113, he would have found that I read
his paper of the _J.R.A.S._, of January, 1898."

XXII., p. 132, l. 22. The only current coin is millstones.

Mr. T.B. CLARKE-THORNHILL wrote to me in 1906: "Though I can hardly
imagine that there can be any connection between the Caroline Islands and
the 'Amiral d'Outre l'Arbre Sec,' still it may interest you to know that
the currency of 'millstones' existed up to a short time ago, and may do so
still, in the island of Yap, in that group. It consisted of various-sized
discs of quartz from about 6 inches to nearly 3 feet in diameter, and from
1/2 an inch to 3 or 4 inches in thickness."

XXV., p. 146.

OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN.

Regarding the reduction of the Ismaelites, the _Yuän Shï_ tells us that
in 1222, on his way back after the taking of Nishapur, Tuli, son of
Genghis, plundered the State of Mu-la-i, captured Herat, and joined his
father at Talecan. In 1229 the King of Mu-lei presented himself at the
Mongol Court.... The following statement is also found in the Mongol
Annals: "In the seventh moon [1252] the Emperor ordered K'i-t'ah-t'êh
Pu-ha to carry war against the Ma-la-hi.'" (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart.
Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 136.)

XXVI., p. 149. "On leaving the Castle [of the Old Man], you ride over fine
plains and beautiful valleys, and pretty hill-sides producing excellent
grass pasture, and abundance of fruits, and all other products.... This
kind of country extends for six days' journey, with a goodly number of
towns and villages, in which the people are worshippers of Mahommet.
Sometimes also you meet with a tract of desert extending for 50 or 60
miles, or somewhat less, and in these deserts you find no water, but have
to carry it along with you.... So after travelling for six days as I have
told you, you come to a city called Sapurgan...."

Sven Hedin remarks: "From this it is apparent that the six days' journey
of fine country were traversed immediately before Marco Polo reached
Sapurgan. Sir Henry Yule says in a note: 'Whether the true route be, as I
suppose, by Nishapur and Meshed, or, as Khanikoff supposes, by Herat and
Badghis, it is strange that no one of those famous cities is mentioned.
And we feel constrained to assume that something has been misunderstood in
the dictation, or has dropped out of it.' Yule removes the six days of
fine country to the district between Sebsevar and Meshed, and considers
that for at least the first day's marches beyond Nishapur Marco Polo's
description agrees admirably with that given by Fraser and Ferrier.

"I travelled between Sebsevar and Meshed in the autumn of 1890, and I
cannot perceive that Marco Polo's description is applicable to the country.
He speaks of six days' journey through beautiful valleys and pretty
hillsides. To the east of Sebsevar you come out into desert country, which,
however passes into fertile country with many villages.[2] Then there comes
a boundless dreary steppe to the south. At the village Seng-i-kal-i-deh you
enter an undulating country with immense flocks of sheep. 'The first
stretch of the road between Shurab and Nishapur led us through perfect
desert..; but the landscape soon changed its aspect; the desert passed by
degrees into cultivated lands, and we rode past several villages surrounded
by fields and gardens.... We here entered the most fertile and densely
peopled region in Khorasan, in the midst of which the town of Nishapur is
situated.' Of the tract to the east of Nishapur I say: 'Here are found
innumerable villages. The plain and slopes are dotted with them. This
district is extraordinarily densely inhabited and well cultivated.' But
then all this magnificence comes to an end, and of the last day's journey
between Kademgah and Meshed I write: 'The country rose and we entered a
maze of low intricate hillocks.... The country was exceedingly dreary and
bare. Some flocks of sheep were seen, however, but what the fat and sleek
sheep lived on was a puzzle to me.... This dismal landscape was more and
more enlivened by travellers.... To the east stretched an undulating steppe
up to the frontier of Afghanistan.'

"The road between Sebsevar and Meshed is, in short, of such a character
that it can hardly fit in with Marco Polo's enthusiastic description of
the six days. And as these came just before Sapurgan, one cannot either
identify the desert regions named with the deserts about the middle course
of the Murgab which extend between Meshed and Shibirkhan. He must have
crossed desert first, and it may be identified with the nemek-sar or salt
desert east of Tun and Kain. The six days must have been passed in the
ranges Paropamisus, Firuz-kuh, and Bend-i-Turkestan. Marco Polo is not
usually wont to scare his readers by descriptions of mountainous regions,
but at this place he speaks of mountains and valleys and rich pastures. As
it was, of course, his intention to travel on into the heart of Asia, to
make a détour through Sebsevar was unnecessary and out of his way. If he
had travelled to Sebsevar, Nishapur, and Meshed, he would scarcely call
the province of Tun-o-Kain the extremity of Persia towards the north, even
as the political boundaries were then situated.

"From Balkh his wonderful journey proceeded further eastwards, and
therefore we take leave of him. Precisely in Eastern Persia his
descriptions are so brief that they leave free room for all kinds of
speculations. In the foregoing pages it has been simply my desire to
present a few new points of view. The great value of Marco Polo's
description of the Persian desert consists in confirming and proving its
physical invariableness during more than six hundred years. It had as
great a scarcity of oases then as now, and the water in the wells was not
less salt than in our own days." (_Overland to India_, II., pp. 75-77.)

XXVII., p. 152 n.

DOGANA.

"The country of Dogana is quite certain to be the Chinese T'u-ho-lo or
Tokhara; for the position suits, and, moreover, nearly all the other
places named by Marco Polo along with Dogana occur in Chinese History
along with Tokhara many centuries before Polo's arrival. Tokhara being the
most important, it is inconceivable that Marco Polo would omit it. Thus,
Poh-lo (Balkh), capital of the Eptals; Ta-la-kien (Talecan), mentioned by
Hiuan Tsang; Ho-sim or Ho-ts'z-mi (Casem), mentioned in the _T'ang
History_; Shik-nih or Shï-k'i-ni (Syghinan) of the _T'ang History_;
Woh-k'an (Vochan), of the same work; several forms of Bolor, etc. (see also
my remarks on the Pamir region in the _Contemporary Review_ for Dec.,
1897)." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 142.)

XIX., p. 160.

BADAKHSHAN.

"The Chinese name for 'Badakhshan' never appears before the Pa-ta-shan of
Kúblái's time." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 143.)

XXX., pp. 164-166. "You must know that ten days' journey to the south of
Badashan there is a province called PASHAI, the people of which have a
peculiar language, and are Idolaters, of a brown complexion. They are
great adepts in sorceries and the diabolic arts. The men wear earrings and
brooches of gold and silver set with stones and pearls. They are a
pestilent people and a crafty; and they live upon flesh and rice. Their
country is very hot."

Sir A. STEIN writes (_Ancient Khotan_, I., pp. 14-15 n.): "Sir Henry Yule
was undoubtedly right in assuming that Marco Polo had never personally
visited these countries and that his account of them, brief as it is, was
derived from hearsay information about the tracts which the Mongol
partisan leader Nigudar had traversed, about 1260 A.D., on an adventurous
incursion from Badakhshan towards Kashmir and the Punjab. In Chapter
XVIII., where the Venetian relates that exploit (see Yule, _Marco Polo_,
I., p. 98, with note, p. 104), the name of Pashai is linked with _Dir_,
the territory on the Upper Panjkora river, which an invader, wishing to
make his way from Badakhshan into Kashmir by the most direct route, would
necessarily have to pass through.

"The name _Pashai_ is still borne to this day by a Muhamadanized tribe
closely akin to the Siah-posh, settled in the Panjshir Valley and in the
hills on the west and south of Kafiristan. It has been very fully
discussed by Sir Henry Yule (Ibid., I., p. 165), who shows ample grounds
for the belief that this tribal name must have once been more widely
spread over the southern slopes of the Hindu kush as far as they are
comprised in the limits of Kafiristan. If the great commentator
nevertheless records his inability to account for Marco Polo's application
of 'the name Pashai to the country south-east of Badakhshan,' the reason
of the difficulty seems to me to lie solely in Sir Henry Yule's assumption
that the route heard of by the traveller, led 'by the Doráh or the Nuksán
Pass, over the watershed of Hindu kúsh into Chitrál and so to Dir.'

"Though such a route via Chitral would, no doubt, have been available in
Marco Polo's time as much as now, there is no indication whatever forcing
us to believe that it was the one really meant by his informants. When
Nigudar 'with a great body of horsemen, cruel unscrupulous fellows' went
off from Badakhshan towards Kashmir, he may very well have made his way
over the Hindu kúsh by the more direct line that passes to Dir through the
eastern part of Kafiristan. In fact, the description of the Pashai people
and their country, as given by Marco Polo, distinctly points to such a
route; for we have in it an unmistakable reflex of characteristic features
with which the idolatrous Siah-posh Kafirs have always been credited by
their Muhammadan neighbours.

"It is much to be regretted that the Oriental records of the period, as
far as they were accessible to Sir Henry Yule, seemed to have retained
only faint traces of the Mongol adventurer's remarkable inroad. From the
point of view of Indian history it was, no doubt, a mere passing episode.
But some details regarding it would possess special interest as
illustrating an instance of successful invasion by a route that so far has
not received its due share of attention." [See supra, pp. 4, 22-24.]

XXX., p. 164.

"The Chinese Toba Dynasty History mentions, in company with Samarcand,
_K'a-shi-mih_ (Cashmeer), and Kapisa, a State called _Pan-shê_, as sending
tribute to North China along with the Persian group of States. This name
_Pan-shê_ [Chinese] does not, to the best of my belief, occur a second
time in any Chinese record." (PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904,
p. 135.)

XXX., p. 164. "Now let us proceed and speak of another country which is
seven day's journey from this one [Pashai] towards the south-east, and the
name of which is KESHIMUR."

This short estimate has perplexed Sir Henry Yule, l.c., p. 166. Sir
Aurel Stein remarks in a note, _Serindia_, I., p. 12: "The route above
indicated [Nigudar's route] permits an explanation. Starting from some
point like Arnawal on the Kunar River which certainly would be well within
'Pashai,' lightly equipped horsemen could by that route easily reach the
border of Agror on the Indus within seven days. Speaking from personal
knowledge of almost the whole of the ground I should be prepared to do the
ride myself by the following stages: Dir, Warai, Sado, Chakdara, Kin
kargalai, Bajkatta, Kai or Darband on the Indus. It must be borne in mind
that, as Yule rightly recognized, Marco Polo is merely reproducing
information derived from a Mongol source and based on Nigudar's raid; and
further that Hazara and the valley of the Jhelam were probably then still
dependent on the Kashmir kingdom, as they were certainly in Kalhana's
time, only a century earlier. As to the rate at which Mongols were
accustomed to travel on 'Dak,' cf. Yule, _Marco Polo_, I., pp. 434 seq."

XXXII., pp. 170, 171. "The people [of Badashan] are Mahommetans, and
valiant in war.... They [the people of Vokhan] are gallant soldiers."

In Afghan Wakhan, Sir Aurel Stein writes:

"On we cantered at the head of quite a respectable cavalcade to where, on
the sandy plain opposite to the main hamlet of Sarhad, two companies of
foot with a squad of cavalry, close on two hundred men in all, were drawn
up as a guard of honour. Hardy and well set up most of them looked, giving
the impression of thoroughly serviceable human material, in spite of a
manifestly defective drill and the motley appearance of dress and
equipment.

"They belonged, so the Colonel explained to me afterwards, to a sort of
militia drafted from the local population of the Badakhshan valleys and
Wakhan into the regiments permanently echeloned as frontier guards along
the Russian border on the Oxus. Apart from the officers, the proportion of
true Pathans among them was slight. Yet I could well believe from all I
saw and heard, that, properly led and provided for, these sturdy Iranian
hillmen might give a good account of themselves. Did not Marco Polo speak
of the people of 'Badashan' as 'valiant in war' and of the men of 'Vokhan'
as gallant soldiers?" (_Ruins of Desert Cathay_, I., p. 66.)

XXXII., pp. 170 seq.

In Chap. III., pp. 64-66, of his _Serindia_, Sir Aurel Stein has the
following on Marco Polo's account of Wakhan:--

"After Wu-k'ung's narrative of his journey the Chinese sources of
information about the Pamirs and the adjoining regions run dry for nearly
a thousand years. But that the routes leading across them from Wakhan
retained their importance also in Muhammedan times is attested by the
greatest mediaeval travellers, Marco Polo. I have already, in _Ancient
Khotan_ [pp. 41 seq.], discussed the portion of his itinerary which
deals with the journey across the Pamirs to 'the kingdom of Cascar' or
Kashgar, and it only remains here to note briefly what he tells us of the
route by which he approached them from Badakhshan: 'In leaving Badashan
you ride twelve days between east and north-east, ascending a river that
runs through land belonging to a brother of the Prince of Badashan, and
containing a good many towns and villages and scattered habitations. The
people are Mahommetans, and valiant in war. At the end of those twelve
days you come to a province of no great size, extending indeed no more
than three days' journey in any direction, and this is called VOKHAN. The
people worship Mahommet, and they have a peculiar language. They are
gallant soldiers, and they have a chief whom they call NONE, which is as
much as to say _Count_, and they are liegemen to the Prince of Badashan.'
[Polo, I., pp. 170-171.]

"Sir Henry Yule was certainly right in assuming that 'the river along
which Marco travels from Badakhshan is no doubt the upper stream of the
Oxus, locally known as the Panja.... It is true that the river is reached
from Badakhshan Proper by ascending another river (the Vardoj) and
crossing the 'Pass of Ishkáshm, but in the brief style of our narrative we
must expect such condensation.' [Polo, I., pp. 172-3.] Marco's great
commentator was guided by equally true judgment when he recognized in the
indications of this passage the same system of government that prevailed
in the Oxus valleys until modern times. Under it the most of the hill
tracts dependent from Badakhshan, including Ishkashim and Wakhan, were
ruled not direct by the Mir, but by relations of his or hereditary chiefs
who held their districts on a feudal tenure. The twelve days' journey
which Marco records between Badashan and 'Vokhan' are, I think, easily
accounted for if it is assumed that the distance from capital to capital
is meant; for twelve marches are still allowed for as the distance from
Baharak, the old Badakhshan capital on the Vardoj, to Kila Panja.

"That the latter was in Marco's days, as at present, the chief place of
Wakhan is indicated also by his narrative of the next stage of his
journey. 'And when you leave this little country, and ride three days
north-east, always among mountains, you get to such a height that 'tis
said to be the highest place in the world! And when you have got to this
height you find [a great lake between two mountains, and out of it] a fine
river running through a plain.... The plain is called PAMIER.' The bearing
and descriptive details here given point clearly to the plain of the Great
Pamir and Victoria Lake, its characteristic feature. About sixty-two miles
are reckoned from Langar-kisht, the last village on the northern branch of
the Ab-i-Panja and some six miles above Kila Panja, to Mazar-tapa where
the plain of the Great Pamir may be said to begin, and this distance
agrees remarkably well with the three marches mentioned by Marco.

"His description of Wakhan as 'a province of no great size, extending
indeed no more than three days' journey in any direction' suggests that a
portion of the valley must then have formed part of the chiefship of
Ishkashim or Zebak over which we may suppose 'the brother of the Prince of
Badashan' to have ruled. Such fluctuations in the extent of Wakhan
territory are remembered also in modern times. Thus Colonel Trotter, who
visited Wakhan with a section of the Yarkand Mission in 1874, distinctly
notes that 'Wakhan formerly contained three "sads" or hundreds, i.e.,
districts, containing 100 houses each' (viz. Sad-i-Sar-hadd, Sad Sipang,
Sad Khandut). To these Sad Ishtragh, the tract extending from Digargand to
Ishkashim, is declared to have been added in recent times, having formerly
been an independent principality. It only remains to note that Marco was
right, too, in his reference to the peculiar language of Wakhan; for
Wakhi--which is spoken not only by the people of Wakhan but also by the
numerous Wakhi colonists spread through Mastuj, Hunza Sarikol, and even
further east in the mountains--is a separate language belonging to the
well-defined group of Galcha tongues which itself forms the chief extant
branch of Eastern Iranian."

XXXII., pp. 171 seq., 175, 182.

THE PLATEAU OF PAMIR.

"On leaving Tash-kurghan (July 10, 1900), my steps, like those of
Hiuan-tsang, were directed towards Kashgar.... In Chapters V.-VII. of my
Personal Narrative I have given a detailed description of this route, which
took me past Muztagh-Ata to Lake Little Kara-kul, and then round the foot
of the great glacier-crowned range northward into the Gez defile, finally
debouching at Tashmalik into the open plain of Kashgari. Though scarcely
more difficult than the usual route over the Chichiklik Pass and by
Yangi-Hisar, it is certainly longer and leads for a considerably greater
distance over ground which is devoid of cultivation or permanent
habitations.

"It is the latter fact which makes me believe that Professor H. Cordier
was right in tracing by this very route Marco Polo's itinerary from the
Central Pamirs to Kashgar. The Venetian traveller, coming from Wakhan,
reached, after three days, a great lake which may be either Lake Victoria
or Lake Chakmak, at a 'height that is said to be the highest place in the
world.' He then describes faithfully enough the desert plain called
'Pamier,' which he makes extend for the distance of a twelve days' ride,
and next tells us: 'Now, if we go on with our journey towards the
east-north-east, we travel a good forty days, continually passing over
mountains and hills, or through valleys, and crossing many rivers and
tracts of wilderness. And in all this way you find neither habitation of
man, nor any green thing, but must carry with you whatever you require.'

"This reference to continuous 'tracts of wilderness' shows clearly that,
for one reason or another, Marco Polo did not pass through the cultivated
valleys of Tash-kurghan or Tagharma, as he would necessarily have done if
his route to Kashgar, the region he next describes, had lain over the
Chichiklik Pass. We must assume that, after visiting either the Great or
Little Pamir, he travelled down the Ak-su river for some distance, and
then crossing the watershed eastwards by one of the numerous passes struck
the route which leads past Muztagh-Ata and on towards the Gez defile. In
the brief supplementary notes contributed to Professor Cordier's critical
analysis of this portion of Marco Polo's itinerary, I have pointed out how
thoroughly the great Venetian's description of the forty days' journey to
the E.N.E. of the Pamir Lake can be appreciated by any one who has passed
through the Pamir region and followed the valleys stretching round the
Muztagh-Ata range on the west and north (cf. Yule, _Marco Polo_, II., pp.
593 seq.). After leaving Tash-kurghan and Tagharma there is no local
produce to be obtained until the oasis of Tashmalik is reached. In the
narrow valley of the Yaman-yar river, forming the Gez defile, there is
scarcely any grazing; its appearance down to its opening into the plain
is, in fact, far more desolate than that of the elevated Pamir regions.

"In the absence of any data as to the manner and season in which Marco
Polo's party travelled, it would serve no useful purpose to hazard
explanations as to why he should assign a duration of forty days to a
journey which for a properly equipped traveller need not take more than
fifteen or sixteen days, even when the summer floods close the passage
through the lower Gez defile, and render it necessary to follow the
circuitous track over the Tokuk Dawan or 'Nine Passes.' But it is
certainly worth mention that Benedict Goëz, too, speaks of the desert of
'Pamech' (Pamir) as taking forty days to cross if the snow was extensive,
a record already noted by Sir H. Yule (_Cathay_, II., pp. 563 seq.). It
is also instructive to refer once more to the personal experience of the
missionary traveller on the alternative route by the Chichiklik Pass.
According to the record quoted above, he appears to have spent no less
than twenty-eight days in the journeys from the hamlets of 'Sarcil'
(Sarikol, i.e. Tash-kurghan) to 'Hiarchan' (Yarkand)--a distance of some
188 miles, now reckoned at ten days' march." (Stein, _Ancient Khotan_, pp.
40-42.)

XXXII., p. 171. "The Plain is called PAMIER, and you ride across it for
twelve days together, finding nothing but a desert without habitations or
any green thing, so that travellers are obliged to carry with them
whatever they have need of."

At Sarhad, Afghan Wakhan, Stein, _Ruins of Desert Cathay_, I., p. 69,
writes: "There was little about the low grey houses, or rather hovels, of
mud and rubble to indicate the importance which from early times must have
attached to Sarhad as the highest place of permanent occupation on the
direct route leading from the Oxus to the Tarim Basin. Here was the last
point where caravans coming from the Bactrian side with the products of
the Far West and of India could provision themselves for crossing that
high tract of wilderness 'called Pamier' of which old Marco Polo rightly
tells us: 'You ride across it ...' And as I looked south towards the
snow-covered saddle of the Baroghil, the route I had followed myself, it
was equally easy to realize why Kao Hsien-chih's strategy had, after the
successful crossing of the Pamirs, made the three columns of his Chinese
Army concentrate upon the stronghold of Lien-yün, opposite the present
Sarhad. Here was the base from which Yasin could be invaded and the
Tibetans ousted from their hold upon the straight route to the Indus."

XXXII., p. 174.

"The note connecting Hiuan Tsang's Kieh sha with Kashgar is probably based
upon an error of the old translators, for the Sita River was in the Pamir
region, and _K'a sha_ was one of the names of Kasanna, or Kieh-shwang-na,
in the Oxus region." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p.
143.)

XXXII., I. p. 173; II. p. 593.

PAONANO PAO.

Cf. _The Name Kushan_, by J.F. Fleet, _Jour. Roy. As. Soc._, April, 1914,
pp. 374-9; _The Shaonano Shao Coin Legend;_ and a Note on the name Kushan
by J. Allan, Ibid., pp. 403-411. PAONANO PAO. Von Joh. Kirste. (_Wiener
Zeit. f. d. Kunde d. Morg._, II., 1888, pp. 237-244.)

XXXII., p. 174.

YUE CHI.

"The old statement is repeated that the Yüeh Chi, or Indo-Scyths (i.e.
the Eptals), 'are said to have been of Tibetan origin.' A long account of
this people was given in the _Asiatic Quart. Rev._ for July, 1902. It
seems much more likely that they were a branch of the Hiung-nu or Turks.
Albiruni's 'report' that they were of Tibetan origin is probably founded
on the Chinese statement that some of their ways were like Tibetan ways,
and that polyandry existed amongst them; also that they fled from the
Hiung-nu westwards along the _north edge_ of the Tibetan territory, and
some of them took service as Tibetan officials." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic
Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 143.)

XXXII., pp. 178-179.

BOLOR.

We read in the _Tarikh-i-Rashidi_ of Mirza Haidar (Notes by Ney Elias;
translated by E.D. Ross, 1895), p. 135, that Sultán Said Khán, son of
Mansur Khán, sent the writer in the year 934 (1528), "with Rashid Sultán,
to Balur, which is a country of infidels [_Káfiristán_], between
Badakhshan and Kashmir, where we conducted successfully a holy war
[_ghazát_], and returned victorious, loaded with booty and covered with
glory."

Mirza Haidar gives the following description of Bolor (pp. 384-5): "Balur
is an infidel country [_Káfiristán_], and most of its inhabitants are
mountaineers. Not one of them has a religion or a creed. Nor is there
anything which they [consider it right to] abstain from or to avoid [as
impure]; but they do whatever they list, and follow their desires without
check or compunction. Baluristán is bounded on the east by the province of
Káshgar and Yárkand; on the north by Badakhshán; on the west by Kábul and
Lumghán; and on the south by the dependencies of Kashmir. It is four
months' journey in circumference. Its whole extent consists of mountains,
valleys, and defiles, insomuch that one might almost say that in the whole
of Baluristán, not one _farsákh_ of level ground is to be met with. The
population is numerous. No village is at peace with another, but there is
constant hostility, and fights are continually occurring among them."

From the note to this passage (p. 385) we note that "for some twenty years
ago, Mr. E.B. Shaw found that the Kirghiz of the Pamirs called Chitrál by
the name of _Pálor_. To all other inhabitants of the surrounding regions,
however, the word appears now to be unknown....

"The Balur country would then include Hunza, Nagar, possibly Tásh Kurghán,
Gilgit, Panyál, Yasin, Chitrál, and probably the tract now known as
Kafiristan: while, also, some of the small states south of Gilgit, Yasin,
etc., may have been regarded as part of Balur....

"The conclusions arrived at [by Sir H. Yule], are very nearly borne out by
Mirza Haidar's description. The only differences are (1) that, according
to our author, Baltistán cannot have been included in Balur, as he always
speaks of that country, later in his work, as a separate province with the
name of _Balti_, and says that it bordered on Balur; and (2) that _Balur_
was confined almost entirely, as far as I am able to judge from his
description in this passage and elsewhere, to the southern slopes of the
Eastern Hindu Kush, or Indus water-parting range; while Sir H. Yule's map
makes it embrace Sárigh-Kul and the greater part of the eastern Pamirs."

XXXIII., p. 182. "The natives [of Cascar] are a wretched, niggardly set of
people; they eat and drink in miserable fashion."

The people of Kashgar seem to have enjoyed from early times a reputation
for rough manners and deceit (Stein, _Ancient Khotan_, p. 49 n). Stein, p.
70, recalls Hiuan Tsang's opinion: "The disposition of the men is fierce
and impetuous, and they are mostly false and deceitful. They make light of
decorum and politeness, and esteem learning but little." Stein adds, p.
70, with regard to Polo's statement: "Without being able to adduce from
personal observation evidence as to the relative truth of the latter
statement, I believe that the judgements recorded by both those great
travellers may be taken as a fair reflex of the opinion in which the
'Kashgarliks' are held to this day by the people of other Turkestan
districts, especially by the Khotanese. And in the case of Hiuan Tsang at
least, it seems probable from his long stay in, and manifest attachment
to, Khotan that this neighbourly criticism might have left an impression
upon him."

XXXVI., p. 188.

KHOTAN.

Sir Aurel Stein writes (_Ancient Khotan_, I., pp. 139-140): "Marco Polo's
account of Khotan and the Khotanese forms an apt link between these early
Chinese notices and the picture drawn from modern observation. It is brief
but accurate in all details. The Venetian found the people 'subject to the
Great Kaan' and 'all worshippers of Mahommet.' 'There are numerous towns
and villages in the country, but Cotan, the capital, is the most noble of
all and gives its name to the kingdom. Everything is to be had there in
plenty, including abundance of cotton [with flax, hemp, wheat, wine, and
the like]. The people have vineyards and gardens and estates. They live by
commerce and manufactures, and are no soldiers.' Nor did the peculiar
laxity of morals, which seems always to have distinguished the people of
the Khotan region, escape Marco Polo's attention. For of the 'Province of
Pein' which, as we shall see, represents the oases of the adjoining modern
district of Keriya, he relates the custom that 'if the husband of any
woman go away upon a journey and remain away for more than twenty days, as
soon as that term is past the woman may marry another man, and the husband
also may then marry whom he pleases.'

"No one who has visited Khotan or who is familiar with the modern accounts
of the territory, can read the early notices above extracted without being
struck at once by the fidelity with which they reflect characteristic
features of the people at the present day. Nor is it necessary to
emphasize the industrial pre-eminence which Khotan still enjoys in a
variety of manufactures through the technical skill and inherited training
of the bulk of its population."

Sir Aurel Stein further remarks (_Ancient Khotan_, I., p. 183): "When
Marco Polo visited Khotan on his way to China, between the years 1271 and
1275, the people of the oasis were flourishing, as the Venetian's
previously quoted account shows. His description of the territories
further east, Pein, Cherchen, and Lop, which he passed through before
crossing 'the Great Desert' to Sha-chou, leaves no doubt that the route
from Khotan into Kan-su was in his time a regular caravan road. Marco Polo
found the people of Khotan 'all worshippers of Mahommet' and the territory
subject to the 'Great Kaan', i.e. Kúblái, whom by that time almost the
whole of the Middle Kingdom acknowledged as emperor. While the
neighbouring Yarkand owed allegiance to Kaidu, the ruler of the Chagatai
dominion, Khotan had thus once more renewed its old historical connexion
with China."

XXVI., p. 190.

"A note of Yule's on p. 190 of Vol. I. describes Johnson's report on the
people of Khoten (1865) as having 'a slightly Tartar cast of countenance.'
The Toba History makes the same remark 1300 years earlier: 'From
Kao-ch'ang (Turfan) westwards the people of the various countries have deep
eyes and high noses; the features in only this one country (Khoten) are not
very _Hu_ (Persian, etc.), but rather like Chinese.' I published a
tolerably complete digest of Lob Nor and Khoten early history from Chinese
sources, in the _Anglo-Russian Society's Journal_ for Jan. and April, 1903.
It appears to me that the ancient capital Yotkhan, discovered thirty-five
years ago, and visited in 1891 by MM. de Rhins and Grenard, probably
furnishes a clue to the ancient Chinese name of Yu-t'ien." (E.H. PARKER,
_Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 143.)

XXXVII., p. 190 n.

Stein has devoted a whole chapter of his _Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan_,
Chap. XVI., pp. 256 seq. to _Yotkan, the Site of the Ancient Capital_.

XXXVII., p. 191, n. 1.

PEIN.

"It is a mistake to suppose that the earlier pilgrim Fa-hien (A.D. 400)
followed the 'directer route' from China; he was obliged to go to Kao
ch'ang, and then turn sharp south to Khoten." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic
Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 143.)

XXXVII., p. 192.

I have embodied, in Vol. II., p. 595, of Marco Polo, some of the remarks
of Sir Aurel Stein regarding Pein and Uzun Tati. In _Ancient Khotan_, I.,
pp. 462-3, he has given further evidence of the identity of Uzun Tati and
P'i mo, and he has discussed the position of Ulug-Ziarat, probably the Han
mo of Sung Yun.

XXXVII., p. 191; II., p. 595.

"Keriya, the Pein of Marco Polo and Pimo of Hwen Tsiang, writes
Huntington, is a pleasant district, with a population of about fifteen
thousand souls." Huntington discusses (p. 387) the theory of Stein:

"Stein identifies Pimo or Pein, with ancient Kenan, the site ... now known
as Uzun Tetti or Ulugh Mazar, north of Chira. This identification is
doubtful, as appears from the following table of distances given by Hwen
Tsiang, which is as accurate as could be expected from a casual traveller.
I have reckoned the 'li,' the Chinese unit of distance, as equivalent to
0.26 of a mile.

                                                     Distance according to
Names of Places.                      True Distance.     Hwen Tsiang.
Khotan (Yutien) to Keriya (Pimo)           97 miles.    330 li   86 miles.
Keriya (Pimo) to Niya (Niyang)             64 "         200 "    52 "
Niya (Niyang) to Endereh (Tuholo)          94 "         400 "   104 "
Endereh (Tuholo) to Kotak Sheri? (Chemotona) 138? "     600 "   156 "
Kotak Sheri (Chemotona) to Lulan (Nafopo) 264? "       1000 "   260 "

"If we use the value of the 'li' 0.274 of a mile given by Hedin, the
distances from Khotan to Keriya and from Keriya to Niya, according to Hwen
Tsiang, become 91 and 55 miles instead of 86 and 52 as given in the table,
which is not far from the true distances, 97 and 64.

"If, however, Pimo is identical with Kenan, as Stein thinks, the distances
which Hwen Tsiang gives as 86 and 52 miles become respectively 60 and 89,
which is evidently quite wrong.

"Strong confirmation of the identification of Keriya with Pimo is found in
a comparison of extracts from Marco Polo's and Hwen Tsiang's accounts of
that city with passages from my note-book, written long before I had read
the comments of the ancient travellers. Marco Polo says that the people of
Pein, or Pima, as he also calls it, have the peculiar custom 'that if a
married man goes to a distance from home to be about twenty days, his wife
has a right, if she is so inclined, to take another husband; and the men,
on the same principle, marry wherever they happen to reside.' The
quotation from my notes runs as follows: 'The women of the place are noted
for their attractiveness and loose character. It is said that many men
coming to Keriya for a short time become enamoured of the women here, and
remain permanently, taking new wives and abandoning their former wives and
families.'

"Hwen Tsiang observed that thirty 'li,' seven or eight miles, west of
Pimo, there is 'a great desert marsh, upwards of several acres in extent,
without any verdure whatever. The surface is reddish black.' The natives
explained to the pilgrim that it was the blood-stained site of a great
battle fought many years before. Eighteen miles north-west of Keriya
bazaar, or ten miles from the most westerly village of the oasis, I
observed that 'some areas which are flooded part of the year are of a deep
rich red colour, due to a small plant two or three inches high.' I saw
such vegetation nowhere else and apparently it was an equally unusual
sight to Hwen Tsiang.

"In addition to these somewhat conclusive observations, Marco Polo says
that jade is found in the river of Pimo, which is true of the Keriya, but
not of the Chira, or the other rivers near Kenan." (Ellsworth HUNTINGTON,
_The Pulse of Asia_, pp. 387-8.)

XXVIII., p. 194. "The whole of the Province [of Charchan] is sandy, and so
is the road all the way from Pein, and much of the water that you find is
bitter and bad. However, at some places you do find fresh and sweet
water."

Sir Aurel Stein remarks (_Ancient Khotan_, I., p. 436): "Marco Polo's
description, too, 'of the Province of Charchan' would agree with the
assumption that the route west of Charchan was not altogether devoid of
settlements even as late as the thirteenth century.... [His] account of
the route agrees accurately with the conditions now met with between Niya
and Charchan. Yet in the passage immediately following, the Venetian tells
us how 'when an army passes through the land, the people escape with their
wives, children, and cattle a distance of two or three days' journey into
the sandy waste; and, knowing the spots where water is to be had, they are
able to live there, and to keep their cattle alive, while it is impossible
to discover them.' It seems to me clear that Marco Polo alludes here to
the several river courses which, after flowing north of the Niya-Charchan
route, lose themselves in the desert. The jungle belt of their terminal
areas, no doubt, offered then, as it would offer now, safe places of
refuge to any small settlements established along the route southwards."

XXXIX., P. 197.

OF THE CITY OF LOP.

Stein remarks, _Ruins of Desert Cathay_, I., p. 343: "Broad
geographical facts left no doubt for any one acquainted with local
conditions that Marco Polo's Lop, 'a large town at the edge of the Desert'
where 'travellers repose before entering on the Desert' _en route_
for Sha chou and China proper, must have occupied the position of the
present Charklik. Nor could I see any reason for placing elsewhere the
capital of that 'ancient kingdom of Na-fo-po, the same as the territory of
Lou-lan,' which Hiuan Tsang reached after ten marches to the north-east of
Chü-mo or Charchan, and which was the pilgrim's last stage before his
return to Chinese soil."

In his third journey (1913-1916), Stein left Charchan on New Year's Eve,
1914, and arrived at Charkhlik on January 8, saying: "It was from this
modest little oasis, the only settlement of any importance in the Lop
region, representing Marco Polo's 'City of Lop,' that I had to raise the
whole of the supplies, labour, and extra camels needed by the several
parties for the explorations I had carefully planned during the next three
months in the desert between Lop-nor and Tunhuang."

"The name of LOB appears under the form _Lo pou_ in the _Yuan-shi_, _s.a._
1282 and 1286. In 1286, it is mentioned as a postal station near those of
K'ie-t'ai, Che-ch'an and Wo-tuan. Wo-tuan is Khotan. Che-ch'an, the name
of which reappears in other paragraphs, is Charchan. As to K'ie-t'ai, a
postal station between those of Lob and Charchan, it seems probable that
it is the Kätäk of the _Tarikh-i-Rashidi_." (PELLIOT.)

See in the _Journ. Asiatique_, Jan.-Feb., 1916, pp. 117-119, Pelliot's
remarks on _Lob, Navapa_, etc.

XXXIX., pp. 196-7.

THE GREAT DESERT.

After reproducing the description of the Great Desert in Sir Henry Yule's
version, Stein adds, _Ruins of Desert Cathay_, I., p. 518:

"It did not need my journey to convince me that what Marco here tells us
about the risks of the desert was but a faithful reflex of old folklore
beliefs he must have heard on the spot. Sir Henry Yule has shown long ago
that the dread of being led astray by evil spirits haunted the imagination
of all early travellers who crossed the desert wastes between China and
the oases westwards. Fa-hsien's above-quoted passage clearly alludes to
this belief, and so does Hiuan Tsang, as we have seen, where he points in
graphic words the impressions left by his journey through the sandy desert
between Niya and Charchan.

"Thus, too, the description we receive through the Chinese
historiographer, Ma Tuan-lin, of the shortest route from China towards
Kara-shahr, undoubtedly corresponding to the present track to Lop-nor,
reads almost like a version from Marco's book, though its compiler, a
contemporary of the Venetian traveller, must have extracted it from some
earlier source. 'You see nothing in any direction but the sky and the
sands, without the slightest trace of a road; and travellers find nothing
to guide them but the bones of men and beasts and the droppings of camels.
During the passage of this wilderness you hear sounds, sometimes of
singing, sometimes of wailing; and it has often happened that travellers
going aside to see what these sounds might be have strayed from their
course and been entirely lost; for they were voices of spirits and
goblins.'...

"As Yule rightly observes, 'these Goblins are not peculiar to the Gobi.'
Yet I felt more than ever assured that Marco's stories about them were of
genuine local growth, when I had travelled over the whole route and seen
how closely its topographical features agree with the matter-of-fact
details which the first part of his chapter records. Anticipating my
subsequent observations, I may state here at once that Marco's estimate of
the distance and the number of marches on this desert crossing proved
perfectly correct. For the route from Charklik, his 'town of Lop,' to the
'City of Sachiu,' i.e. Sha-chou or Tun-huang, our plane-table survey,
checked by cyclometer readings, showed an aggregate marching distance of
close on 380 miles."

XXXIX., p. 196.

OF THE CITY OF LOP AND THE GREAT DESERT.

"In the hope of contributing something toward the solution of these
questions [contradictory statements of Prjevalsky, Richthofen, and Sven
Hedin]," writes Huntington, "I planned to travel completely around the
unexplored part of the ancient lake, crossing the Lop desert in its widest
part. As a result of the journey, I became convinced that two thousand
years ago the lake was of great size, covering both the ancient and the
modern locations; then it contracted, and occupied only the site shown on
the Chinese maps; again, in the Middle Ages, it expanded; and at present
it has contracted and occupies the modern site.

"Now, as in Marco Polo's days, the traveller must equip his caravan for
the desert at Charklik, also known as Lop, two days' journey south-west of
the lake." (Ellsworth HUNTINGTON, _The Pulse of Asia_, pp. 240-1.)

XXXIX., pp. 197, 201.

NOISES IN THE GREAT DESERT.

As an answer to a paper by C. TOMLINSON, in _Nature_, Nov. 28, 1895, p.
78, we find in the same periodical, April 30, 1896, LIII., p. 605, the
following note by KUMAGUSU MINAKATA: "The following passage in a Chinese
itinerary of Central Asia--Chun Yuen's _Si-yih-kien-wan-luh_, 1777
(British Museum, No. 15271, b. 14), tom. VII., fol. 13 b.--appears to
describe the icy sounds similar to what Ma or Head observed in North
America (see supra, ibid., p. 78).

"Muh-süh-urh-tah-fan (= Muzart), that is Ice Mountain [_Snowy_ according
to Prjevalsky], is situated between Ili and Ushi.... In case that one
happens to be travelling there close to sunset, he should choose a rock of
moderate thickness and lay down on it. In solitary night then, he would
hear the sounds, now like those of gongs and bells, and now like those of
strings and pipes, which disturb ears through the night: these are
produced by multifarious noises coming from the cracking ice."

Kumagusu Minakata has another note on remarkable sounds in Japan in
_Nature_, LIV., May 28, 1896, p. 78.

Sir T. Douglas Forsyth, _Buried Cities in the Shifting Sands of the Great
Desert of Gobi, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc._, Nov. 13, 1876, says, p. 29: "The
stories told by Marco Polo, in his 39th chapter, about shifting sands and
strange noises and demons, have been repeated by other travellers down to
the present time. Colonel Prjevalsky, in pp. 193 and 194 of his
interesting _Travels_, gives his testimony to the superstitions of the
Desert; and I find, on reference to my diary, that the same stories were
recounted to me in Kashghar, and I shall be able to show that there is
some truth in the report of treasures being exposed to view."

P. 201, Line 12. Read the Governor of Urumtsi _founded_ instead of
_found_.

XL., p. 203. Marco Polo comes to a city called Sachiu belonging to a
province called Tangut. "The people are for the most part Idolaters....
The Idolaters have a peculiar language, and are no traders, but live by
their agriculture. They have a great many abbeys and minsters full of
idols of sundry fashions, to which they pay great honour and reverence,
worshipping them and sacrificing to them with much ado."

Sachiu, or rather Tun Hwang, is celebrated for its "Caves of Thousand
Buddhas"; Sir Aurel Stein wrote the following remarks in his _Ruins of
Desert Cathay_, II., p. 27: "Surely it was the sight of these colossal
images, some reaching nearly a hundred feet in height, and the vivid first
impressions retained of the cult paid to them, which had made Marco Polo
put into his chapter on 'Sachiu,' i.e. Tun-huang, a long account of the
strange idolatrous customs of the people of Tangut.... Tun-huang manifestly
had managed to retain its traditions of Buddhist piety down to Marco's
days. Yet there was plentiful antiquarian evidence showing that most of the
shrines and art remains at the Halls of the Thousand Buddhas dated back to
the period of the T'ang Dynasty, when Buddhism flourished greatly in China.
Tun-huang, as the westernmost outpost of China proper, had then for nearly
two centuries enjoyed imperial protection both against the Turks in the
north and the Tibetans southward. But during the succeeding period, until
the advent of paramount Mongol power, some two generations before Marco
Polo's visit, these marches had been exposed to barbarian inroads of all
sorts. The splendour of the temples and the number of the monks and nuns
established near them had, no doubt, sadly diminished in the interval."

XL., p. 205.

Prof. Pelliot accepts as a Mongol plural _Tangut_, but remarks that it is
very ancient, as _Tangut_ is already to be found in the Orkhon
inscriptions. At the time of Chingiz, _Tangut_ was a singular in Mongol,
and _Tangu_ is nowhere to be found.

XL., p. 206.

The Tangutans are descendants of the Tang-tu-chueh; it must be understood
that they are descendants of _T'u Kiueh_ of the T'ang Period. (PELLIOT.)

Lines 7 and 8 from the foot of the page: instead of T'ung hoang, read Tun
hoang; Kiu-kaan, read Tsiu tsüan.

XL., p. 207, note 2. The "peculiar language" is si-hia (PELLIOT).

XLI., pp. 210, 212, n. 3.

THE PROVINCE OF CAMUL.

See on the discreditable custom of the people of Qamul, a long note in the
second edition of _Cathay_, I., pp. 249-250.

XLI., p. 211.

Prof. Parker remarks (_Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 142) that:
"The Chinese (Manchu) agent at Urga has not (nor, I believe, ever had) any
control over the Little Bucharia Cities. Moreover, since the reconquest of
Little Bucharia in 1877-1878, the whole of those cities have been placed
under the Governor of the New Territory (Kan Suh Sin-kiang Sun-fu), whose
capital is at Urumtsi. The native Mohammedan Princes of Hami have still
left to them a certain amount of home rule, and so lately as 1902 a decree
appointing the rotation of their visits to Peking was issued. The present
Prince's name is _Shamu Hust_, or _Hussot_."

XLII., p. 215.

THE PROVINCE OF CHINGINTALAS.

Prof. E.H. PARKER writes in the _Journ. of the North China Branch of the
Royal As. Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, p. 195: "On p. 215 of Yule's Vol. I. some
notes of Palladius' are given touching Chingkintalas, but it is not stated
that Palladius supposed the word _Ch'ih kin_ to date after the Mongols,
that is, that Palladius felt uncertain about his identification. But
Palladius is mistaken in feeling thus uncertain: in 1315 and 1326 the
Mongol History twice mentions the garrison starts at _Ch'ih kin_, and in
such a way that the place must be where Marco Polo puts it, i.e. west of
Kia-yüh Kwan."

OF THE PROVINCE OF SUKCHUR.

XLIII., p. 217. "Over all the mountains of this province rhubarb is found
in great abundance, and thither merchants come to buy it, and carry it
thence all over the world. Travellers, however, dare not visit those
mountains with any cattle but those of the country, for a certain plant
grows there which is so poisonous that cattle which eat it loose their
hoofs. The cattle of the country know it and eschew it."

During his crossing of the Nan Shan, Sir Aurel Stein had the same
experience, five of his ponies being "benumbed and refusing to touch grass
or fodder." The traveller notes that, _Ruins of Desert Cathay_, II., p.
303: "I at once suspected that they had eaten of the poisonous grass which
infests certain parts of the Nan Shan, and about which old Marco has much
to tell in his chapter on 'Sukchur' or Su-chou. The Venetian's account had
proved quite true; for while my own ponies showed all the effects of this
inebriating plant, the local animals had evidently been wary of it. A
little bleeding by the nose, to which Tila Bai, with the veterinary skill
of an old Ladak 'Kirakash,' promptly proceeded, seemed to afford some
relief. But it took two or three days before the poor brutes were again in
full possession of their senses and appetites."

"Wild rhubarb, for which the Nan-shan was famous in Marco Polo's days,
spread its huge fleshy leaves everywhere." (STEIN, _Ruins of Desert
Cathay_, II., p. 305.)

XLIII., p. 218.

SUKCHUR.

The first character of Suchau was pronounced _Suk_ at the time of the
T'ang; we find a _Sughciu_ in von Le Coq's MSS. from Turkestan and
_Sughcu_ in the runnic text of W. Thomsen; cf. PELLIOT, _J. As._,
Mai-Juin, 1912, p. 591; the pronunciation _Suk_-chau was still used by
travellers coming from Central Asia--for instance, by the envoys of Shah
Rukh. See _Cathay_, III., p. 126 n.

OF THE CITY OF CAMPICHU.

XLIV., pp. 219 seq. "The Idolaters have many minsters and abbeys after
their fashion. In these they have an enormous number of idols, both small
and great, certain of the latter being a good ten paces in stature; some
of them being of wood, others of clay, and others yet of stone. They are
all highly polished, and then covered with gold. The great idols of which
I speak lie at length. And round about them there are other figures of
considerable size, as if adoring and paying homage before them."

The ambassadors of Shah Rukh to China (1419-1422) wrote:

"In this city of Kamchau there is an idol temple five hundred cubits
square. In the middle is an idol lying at length, which measures fifty
paces. The sole of the foot is nine paces long, and the instep is
twenty-one cubits in girth. Behind this image and overhead are other idols
of a cubit (?) in height, besides figures of _Bakshis_ as large as life.
The action of all is hit off so admirably that you would think they were
alive. Against the wall also are other figures of perfect execution. The
great sleeping idol has one hand under his head, and the other resting on
his thigh. It is gilt all over, and is known as _Shakamuni-fu_. The people
of the country come in crowds to visit it, and bow to the very ground
before this idol" (_Cathay_, I., p. 277).

XLV., p. 223.

OF THE CITY OF ETZINA.

I said, I., p. 225, that this town must be looked for on the river
_Hei-shui_ called _Etsina_ by the Mongols, and would be situated on the
river on the border of the Desert, at the top of a triangle, whose bases
would be Suhchau and Kanchau. My theory seems to be fully confirmed by Sir
Aurel Stein, who writes:

"Advantages of geographical position must at all times have invested this
extensive riverine tract, limited as are its resources, with considerable
importance for those, whether armed host or traders, who would make the
long journey from the heart of Mongolia in the north to the Kansu oases.
It had been the same with the ancient Lou-lan delta, without which the
Chinese could not have opened up the earliest and most direct route for
the expansion of their trade and political influence into Central Asia.
The analogy thus presented could not fail to impress me even further when
I proceeded to examine the ruins of Khara-khoto, the 'Black Town' which
Colonel Kozloff, the distinguished Russian explorer, had been the first
European to visit during his expedition of 1908-1909. There remained no
doubt for me then that it was identical with Marco Polo's 'City of
Etzina.' Of this we are told in the great Venetian traveller's narrative
that it lay a twelve days' ride from the city of Kan-chou, 'towards the
north on the verge of the desert; it belongs to the Province of Tangut.'
All travellers bound for Kara-koram, the old capital of the Mongols, had
here to lay in victuals for forty days in order to cross the great 'desert
which extends forty days' journey to the north, and on which you meet with
no habitation nor baiting place.'

"The position thus indicated was found to correspond exactly to that of
Khara-khoto, and the identification was completely borne out by the
antiquarian evidence brought to light. It soon showed me that though the
town may have suffered considerably, as local tradition asserts, when
Chingiz Khan with his Mongol army first invaded and conquered Kansu from
this side about 1226 A.D., yet it continued to be inhabited down to Marco
Polo's time, and partially at least for more than a century later. This
was probably the case even longer with the agricultural settlement for
which it had served as a local centre, and of which we traced extensive
remains in the desert to the east and north-east. But the town itself must
have seen its most flourishing times under Tangut or Hsi-hsia rule from
the beginning of the eleventh century down to the Mongol conquest.

"It was from this period, when Tibetan influence from the south seems to
have made itself strongly felt throughout Kansu, that most of the Buddhist
shrines and memorial Stupas dated, which filled a great portion of the
ruined town and were conspicuous also outside it. In one of the latter
Colonel Kozloff had made his notable find of Buddhist texts and paintings.
But a systematic search of this and other ruins soon showed that the
archaeological riches of the site were by no means exhausted. By a careful
clearing of the débris which covered the bases of Stupas and the interior
of temple cellas we brought to light abundant remains of Buddhist
manuscripts and block prints, both in Tibetan and the as yet very
imperfectly known old Tangut language, as well as plenty of interesting
relievos in stucco or terra-cotta and frescoes. The very extensive refuse
heaps of the town yielded up a large number of miscellaneous records on
paper in the Chinese, Tangut, and Uigur scripts, together with many
remains of fine glazed pottery, and of household utensils. Finds of
Hsi-hsia coins, ornaments in stone and metal, etc., were also abundant,
particularly on wind-eroded ground.

"There was much to support the belief that the final abandonment of the
settlement was brought about by difficulties of irrigation." (_A Third
Journey of Exploration in Central Asia_, 1913-16, _Geog. Jour._,
Aug.-Sept., 1916, pp. 38-39.)

M. Ivanov (_Isviestia_ Petrograd Academy, 1909) thinks that the ruined
city of Kara Khoto, a part at the Mongol period of the Yi-tsi-nai circuit,
could be its capital, and was at the time of the Si Hia and the beginning
of the Mongols, the town of Hei shui. It also confirms my views.

Kozlov found (1908) in a stupa not far from Kara Khoto a large number of
Si Hia books, which he carried back to Petrograd, where they were studied
by Prof. A. IVANOV, _Zur Kenntniss der Hsi-hsia Sprache_ (_Bul. Ac. Sc.
Pet._, 1909, pp. 1221-1233). See _The Si-hia Language_, by B. LAUFER
(_T'oung Pao_, March, 1916, pp. 1-126).

XLVI., p. 226. "Originally the Tartars dwelt in the north on the borders
of Chorcha."

Prof. Pelliot calls my attention that Ramusio's text, f. 13 _v_, has:
"Essi habitauano nelle parti di Tramontana, cioè in Giorza, _e Bargu_,
doue sono molte pianure grandi ..."

XLVI., p. 230.

TATAR.

"Mr. Rockhill is quite correct in his Turkish and Chinese dates for the
first use of the word _Tatar_, but it seems very likely that the much
older eponymous word _T'atun_ refers to the same people. The Toba History
says that in A.D. 258 the chieftain of that Tartar Tribe (not yet arrived
at imperial dignity) at a public durbar read a homily to various chiefs,
pointing out to them the mistake made by the Hiung-nu (Early Turks) and
'T'a-tun fellows' (Early Mongols) in raiding his frontiers. If we go back
still further, we find the _After Han History_ speaking of the 'Middle
T'atun'; and a scholion tells us _not to pronounce the final 'n.'_ If we
pursue our inquiry yet further back, we find that _T'ah-tun_ was
originally the name of a Sien-pi or Wu-hwan (apparently Mongol) Prince,
who tried to secure the _shen-yü_ ship for himself, and that it gradually
became (1) a title, (2) and the name of a tribal division (see also the
_Wei Chi_ and the _Early Han History_). Both _Sien-pi_ and _Wu-hwan_ are
the names of mountain haunts, and at this very day part of the Russian
Liao-tung railway is styled the 'Sien-pi railway' by the native Chinese
newspapers." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p.
141.)

Page 231, note 3. Instead of _Yuché_, read _Juché_.

XLVI., p. 232.

KARACATHAYANS.

"There seems to be no doubt that Kerman in South Persia is the city to
which the Kara-Cathayan refugee fled from China in 1124; for Major Sykes,
in his recent excellent work on Persia, actually mentions [p. 194] the
Kuba Sabz, or 'Green Dome,' as having been (until destroyed in 1886 by an
earthquake) the most conspicuous building, and as having also been the
tomb of the Kara-Khitai Dynasty. The late Dr. Bretschneider (_N. China B.
R. As. Soc. Journal_, Vol. X., p. 101) had imagined the Kara-Cathayan
capital to be Kerminé, lying between Samarcand and Bokhara (see _Asiatic
Quart. Rev._ for Dec., 1900, 'The Cathayans'). Colonel Yule does not
appear to be quite correct when he states (p. 232) that 'the Gurkhan
himself is not described to have extended his conquests into Persia,' for
the Chinese history of the Cathayan or Liao Dynasties distinctly states
that at Samarcand, where the Cathayan remained for ninety days, the 'King
of the Mohammedans' brought tribute to the emigrant, _who then went West
as far as K'i-r-man_, where he was proclaimed Emperor by his officers.
This was on the fifth day of the second moon in 1124, in the thirty-eighth
year of his age, and he then assumed the title of _Koh-r-han_" (E.H.
Parker, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, pp. 134-5.)

XLVI., p. 236.

KERAITS.

"In his note to Vol. I., p. 236, M. Cordier [read Mr. Rockhill], who seems
to have been misled by d'Avezac, confuses the Ch'ih-lêh or T'ieh-lêh (who
have been clearly proved to be identical with the Tölös of the Turkish
inscriptions) with the much later K'êh-lieh or Keraits of Mongol history;
at no period of Chinese history were the Ch'ih-lêh called, as he supposes,
_K'i-lê_ and therefore the Ch'ih-lêh of the third century cannot possibly
be identified with the K'ê-lieh of the thirteenth. Besides, the 'value' of
_lêh_ is 'luck,' whilst the 'value' of _lieh_ is 'leet,' if we use English
sounds as equivalents to illustrate Chinese etymology. It is remarkable
that the Kin (Nüchen) Dynasty in its Annals leaves no mention whatever of
the Kerait tribe, or of any tribe having an approximate name, although the
_Yüan Shï_ states that the Princes of that tribe used to hold a Nüchen
patent. A solution of this unexplained fact may yet turn up." (E.H.
PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan. 1904, p. 139.)

Page 236, note [dagger] Instead of _Tura_, read _Tula_. (PELLIOT.)

LI., pp. 245, 248.

DEATH OF CHINGIZ KHAN.

"Gaubil's statement that he was wounded in 1212 by a stray arrow, which
compelled him to raise the siege of Ta-t'ung Fu, is exactly borne out by
the _Yüan Shï_, which adds that in the seventh moon (August) of 1227
(shortly after the surrender of the Tangut King) the conqueror died at the
travelling-palace of Ha-la T'u on the Sa-li _stream_ at the age of
sixty-six (sixty-five by our reckoning). As less than a month before he was
present at Ts'ing-shui (lat. 34-1/2°, long. 106-1/2°), and was even on his
dying bed, giving instructions how to meet the Nüchên army at T'ung-kwan
(lat. 34-1/2°, long. 110-1/4°), we may assume that the place of his death
was on the Upper Wei River near the frontiers joining the modern Kan Suh
and Shen Si provinces. It is true the Sa-li _River_ (not stream) is thrice
mentioned, and also the Sa-lê-chu River, both in Mongolia; on the other
hand, the Sa-li Ouigours are frequently mentioned as living in West Kan
Suh; so that we may take it the word _Sali_ or _Sari_ was a not uncommon
Turkish word. Palladius' identification, of _K'i-lien_ with 'Kerulen' I am
afraid cannot be entertained. The former word frequently occurs in the
second century B.C., and is stated to be a second Hiung-nu (Turkish) word
for 'sky' or 'heaven.' At or about that date the Kerulen was known to the
Chinese as the Lu-kü River, and the geographies of the present dynasty
clearly identify it as such. The T'ien-Shan are sometimes called the
K'i-lien Shan, and the word _K'i-lien_ is otherwise well established along
the line of the Great Wall." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan.,
1904, pp. 136-7.)

Prof. Pelliot informs me that in No. 3 (Sept., 1918) of Vol. III of
_Chinese Social and Political Science Review_ these is an article on the
_Discovery of and Investigation concerning the Tomb of Gengis Khan_. I
have not seen it.

LI., p. 249.

TAILGAN.

"The _táilgan_, or autumn meeting of the Mongols, is probably the
_tái-lin_, or autumn meeting, of the ancient Hiung-nu described on p. 10,
Vol. XX. of the _China Review_. The Kao-ch'ê (= High Carts, Tölös, or early
Ouigours) and the early Cathayans (Sien-pi) had very similar customs.
Heikel gives an account of analogous 'Olympic games' witnessed at Urga in
the year 1890." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, pp.
140-1.)

LI., p. 251. Read T'ung hwo period (A.D. 992) instead of (A.D. 692).

LII., pp. 252, 254, n. 3. "[The Tartars] live on the milk and meat which
their herds supply, and on the produce of the chase; and they eat all
kinds of flesh, including that of horses and dogs, and Pharaoh's rats, of
which last there are great numbers in burrows on those plains."

Pharaoh's rat was the mangouste or ichneumon (_Herpestes ichneumon_)
formerly found in this part of Asia as well as in Egypt where it was
venerated. Cf. _Cathay_, II., p. 116.

LII., p. 254. Instead of "his tent invariably facing _south_," read
"facing _east_" according to the _Chou Shu_. (PELLIOT.)

LII., p. 256 n.

MARRIAGE.

The _China Review_, Vol. XX. "gives numerous instances of marrying
mothers-in-law and sisters-in-law amongst the Hiung nu. The practice was
common with all Tartars, as, indeed, is stated by Yule." (E.H. PARKER,
_Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 141.)

LII., p. 257 n.

_TENGRI_ (HEAVEN).

"The Mongol word _Tengri_ (= Heaven) appears also in Hiung-nu times; in
fact, the word _shen yü_ is stated to have been used by the Hiung-nu
alternatively with _Tengri kudu_ (Son of Heaven)." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic
Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 141.)

LIV., p. 263 n.

COATS OF MAIL.

Parker's note is erroneous.--See Laufer, _Chinese Clay Figures_, Part I.

LV., p. 267. "They [the Tartars] have another notable custom, which is
this. If any man have a daughter who dies before marriage, and another man
have had a son also die before marriage, the parents of the two arrange a
grand wedding between the dead lad and lass. And marry them they do,
making a regular contract! And when the contract papers are made out they
put them in the fire, in order (as they will have it) that the parties in
the other world may know the fact, and so look on each other as man and
wife. And the parents thenceforward consider themselves sib to each other,
just as if their children had lived and married. Whatever may be agreed on
between the parties as dowry, those who have to pay it cause to be painted
on pieces of paper and then put these in the fire, saying that in that way
the dead person will get all the real articles in the other world."

Mr. KUMAGUSU MINAKATA writes on the subject in _Nature_, Jan. 7, 1897, pp.
224-5:

"As it is not well known whether or not there is a record of this strange
custom earlier than the beginning of the dynasty of Yuen, I was in doubt
whether it was originally common to the Chinese and Tartars until I lately
came across the following passage in _Tsoh-mung-luh_ (Brit. Mus. copy,
15297, _a_ 1, fol. 11-12), which would seem to decide the question--'In the
North there is this custom. When a youth and a girl of marriageable ages
die before marriage, their families appoint a match-maker to negotiate
their nuptials, whom they call "Kwei-mei" (i.e. "Match-Maker of Ghosts").
Either family hands over to another a paper noticing all pre-requisites
concerning the affair; and by names of the parents of the intended couple
asks a man to pray and divine; and if the presage tells that the union is a
lucky one, clothes and ornaments are made for the deceased pair. Now the
match-maker goes to the burying-ground of the bridegroom, and, offering
wine and fruits, requests the pair to marry. There two seats are prepared
on adjoining positions, either of which having behind it a small banner
more than a foot long. Before the ceremony is consecrated by libation, the
two banners remain hanging perpendicularly and still; but when the libation
is sprinkled and the deceased couple are requested to marry, the banners
commence to gradually approach till they touch one another, which shows
that they are both glad of the wedlock. However, when one of them dislikes
another, it would happen that the banner representing the unwilling party
does not move to approach the other banner. In case the couple should die
too young to understand the matter, a dead man is appointed as a tutor to
the male defunct, and some effigies are made to serve as the instructress
and maids to the female defunct. The dead tutor thus nominated is informed
of his appointment by a paper offered to him, on which are inscribed his
name and age. After the consummation of the marriage the new consorts
appear in dreams to their respective parents-in-law. Should this custom be
discarded, the unhappy defuncts might do mischief to their negligent
relatives.... On every occasion of these nuptials both families give some
presents to the match-maker ("Kwei-mei"), whose sole business is annually
to inspect the newly-deceased couples around his village, and to arrange
their weddings to earn his livelihood.'"

Mr. Kumagusu Minakata adds:

"The passage is very interesting, for, besides giving us a faithful
account of the particulars, which nowadays we fail to find elsewhere, it
bears testimony to the Tartar, and not Chinese, origin of this practice.
The author, Kang Yu-chi, describes himself to have visited his old home in
Northern China shortly after its subjugation by the Kin Tartars in 1126
A.D.; so there is no doubt that among many institutional novelties then
introduced to China by the northern invaders, Marriage of the Dead was so
striking that the author did not hesitate to describe it for the first
time.

"According to a Persian writer, after whom Pétis de la Croix writes, this
custom was adopted by Jenghiz Kân as a means to preserve amity amongst his
subjects, it forming the subject of Article XIX. of his Yasa promulgated
in 1205 A.D. The same writer adds: 'This custom is still in use amongst
the Tartars at this day, but superstition has added more circumstances to
it: they throw the contract of marriage into the fire after having drawn
some figures on it to represent the persons pretended to be so marry'd,
and some forms of beasts; and are persuaded that all this is carried by
the smoke to their children, who thereupon marry in the other world'
(Pétis de la Croix, _Hist. of Genghizcan_, trans. by P. Aubin, Lond.,
1722, p. 86). As the Chinese author does not speak of the burning of
papers in this connection, whereas the Persian writer speaks definitely of
its having been added later, it seems that the marriage of the dead had
been originally a Tartar custom, with which the well-known Chinese
paper-burning was amalgamated subsequently between the reigns of Genghiz
and his grandson Kúblai--under the latter Marco witnessed the customs
already mingled, still, perhaps, mainly prevailing amongst the Tartar
descendants."

LV., p. 266. Regarding the scale of blows from seven to 107, Prof. Pelliot
writes to me that these figures represent the theoretical number of tens
diminished as a favour made to the culprit by three units in the name of
Heaven, Earth and the Emperor.

LV., p. 268, n. 2. In the _Yuan Shi_, XX. 7, and other Chinese Texts of
the Mongol period, is to be found confirmation of the fact, "He is
slaughtered like a sheep," i.e. the belly cut open lengthwise.
(Pelliot.)

LVI., p. 269. "The people there are called MESCRIPT; they are a very wild
race, and live by their cattle, the most of which are stags, and these
stags, I assure you, they used to ride upon."

B. Laufer, in the _Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association_,
Vol. IV., No. 2, 1917 (_The Reindeer and its Domestication_), p. 107, has
the following remarks: "Certainly this is the reindeer. Yule is inclined
to think that Marco embraces under this tribal name in question
characteristics belonging to tribes extending far beyond the Mekrit, and
which in fact are appropriate to the Tungus; and continues that
Rashid-eddin seems to describe the latter under the name of Uriangkut of
the Woods, a people dwelling beyond the frontier of Barguchin, and in
connection with whom he speaks of their reindeer obscurely, as well as of
their tents of birchbark, and their hunting on snowshoes. As W. Radloff
[_Die Jakutische Sprache, Mém. Ac. Sc. Pet._, 1908, pp. 54-56] has
endeavoured to show, the Wooland Uryangkit, in this form mentioned by
Rashid-eddin, should be looked upon as the forefathers of the present
Yakut. Rashid-eddin, further, speaks of other Uryangkit, who are genuine
Mongols, and live close together in the Territory Barguchin Tukum, where
the clans Khori, Bargut, and Tumat, are settled. This region is east of
Lake Baikal, which receives the river Barguchin flowing out of Lake Bargu
in an easterly direction. The tribal name Bargut (_-t_ being the
termination of the plural) is surely connected with the name of the said
river."

LVII., p. 276.

SINJU.

"Marco Polo's Sinju certainly seems to be the site of Si-ning, but not on
the grounds suggested in the various notes. In 1099 the new city of Shen
Chou was created by the Sung or 'Manzi' Dynasty on the site of what had
been called Ts'ing-t'ang. Owing to this region having for many centuries
belonged to independent Hia or Tangut, very little exact information is
obtainable from any Chinese history; but I think it almost certain that
the great central city of Shen Chou was the modern Si-ning. Moreover,
there was a very good reason for the invention of this name, as this
_Shen_ was the first syllable of the ancient Shen-shen State of Lob Nor
and Koko Nor, which, after its conquest by China in 609, was turned into
the Shen-shen prefecture; in fact, the Sui Emperor was himself at Kam Chou
or 'Campichu' when this very step was taken." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic
Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 144.)

LVIII., p. 282. _Alashan_ is not an abbreviation of Alade-Shan and has
nothing to do with the name of Eleuth, written in Mongol _Ögälät_.
_Nuntuh_ (_nuntük_) is the mediaeval Mongol form of the actual _nutuk_, an
encampment. (PELLIOT.)

LVIII., p. 283, n. 3.

GURUN.

Gurun = Kurun = Chinese K'u lun = Mongol Urga.

LVIII., p. 283, n. 3. The stuff _sa-ha-la_ (= _saghlat_) is to be found
often in the Chinese texts of the XIVth and XVth Centuries. (PELLIOT.)

LIX., pp. 284 seq.

KING GEORGE.

King or Prince George of Marco Polo and Monte Corvino belonged to the
Öngüt tribe. He was killed in Mongolia in 1298, leaving an infant child
called Shu-ngan (Giòvanni) baptized by Monte Corvino. George was
transcribed Körgüz and Görgüz by the Persian historians. See PELLIOT,
_T'oung Pao_, 1914, pp. 632 seq. and _Cathay_, III., p. 15 n.

LIX., p. 286.

TENDUC.

Prof. Pelliot (_Journ. As._, Mai-Juin, 1912, pp. 595-6) thinks that it
might be _Tien tö_, [Chinese], on the river So ling (Selenga).

LIX., p. 291.

CHRISTIANS.

In the Mongol Empire, Christians were known under the name of _tarsa_ and
especially under this of _ärkägün_, in Chinese _ye-li-k'o-wen; tarsa_, was
generally used by the Persian historians. Cf. PELLIOT, _T'oung Pao_, 1914,
p. 636.

LIX., p. 295, n. 6. Instead of _Ku-wei_, read _K'u-wai_. (PELLIOT.)

LXI., pp. 302, 310.

"The weather-conjuring proclivities of the Tartars are repeatedly
mentioned in Chinese history. The High Carts (early Ouigours) and Jou-jan
(masters of the Early Turks) were both given this way, the object being
sometimes to destroy their enemies. I drew attention to this in the
_Asiatic Quart. Rev._ for April, 1902 ('China and the Avars')." (E.H.
PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 140.)

LXI., p. 305, n. Harlez's inscription is a miserable scribble of the
facsimile from Dr. Bushell. (PELLIOT.)

LXI., p. 308, n. 5. The _Yuan Shi_, ch. 77, f° 7 _v._, says that: "Every
year, [the Emperor] resorts to Shang tu. On the 24th day of the 8th moon,
the sacrifice called 'libation of mare's milk' is celebrated." (PELLIOT.)


[1] The eight stages would be:--(1) Hasanábad, 21 miles; (2) Darband, 28
    miles; (3) Chehel Pái, 23 miles; (4) Naiband, 39 miles; (5) Zenagán,
    47 miles; (6) Duhuk, 25 miles; (7) Chah Khusháb, 36 miles; and (8)
    Tun, 23 miles.

[2] _Genom Khorasan och Turkestan_, I., pp. 123 seq.



BOOK SECOND.


PART I.--THE KAAN, HIS COURT AND CAPITAL.


II., p. 334.

NAYAN.

It is worthy of note that Nayan had given up Buddhism and become a
Christian as well as many of his subjects. Cf. PELLIOT 1914, pp. 635-6.

VII., pp. 352, 353.

Instead of _Sir-i-Sher_, read _Sar-i-Sher_. (PELLIOT.)

_P'AI TZU_.

"Dr. Bushell's note describes the silver _p'ai_, or tablets (not then
called _p'ai tsz_) of the Cathayans, which were 200 (not 600) in number.
But long before the Cathayans used them, the T'ang Dynasty had done so for
exactly the same purpose. They were 5 inches by 1-1/2 inches, and marked
with the five words, 'order, running horses, silver _p'ai_,' and were
issued by the department known as the _mên-hia-shêng_. Thus, they were not
a Tartar, but a Chinese, invention. Of course, it is possible that the
Chinese must have had the idea suggested to them by the ancient wooden
orders or tallies of the Tartars." (E.H. PARKER, _As. Quart. Review_,
Jan., 1904, p. 146.)

Instead of "Publication No. 42" read only No. 42, which is the number of
the _pai tzu_. (PELLIOT.)

VIII., p. 358, n. 2.

_Kún kú = hon hu_ may be a transcription of _hwang heu_ during the Mongol
Period, according to Pelliot.

IX. p. 360.

MONGOL IMPERIAL FAMILY.

"Marco Polo is correct in a way when he says Kúblái was the sixth Emperor,
for his father Tu li is counted as a _Divus_ (Jwei Tsung), though he never
reigned; just as his son Chin kin (Yü Tsung) is also so counted, and under
similar conditions. Chin kin was appointed to the _chung shu_ and
_shu-mih_ departments in 1263. He was entrusted with extensive powers in
1279, when he is described as 'heir apparent.' In 1284 Yün Nan,
Chagan-jang, etc., were placed under his direction. His death is recorded
in 1285. Another son, Numugan, was made Prince of the Peking region
(Pêh-p'ing) in 1266, and the next year a third son, Hukaji, was sent to
take charge of Ta-li, Chagan-jang, Zardandan, etc. In 1272 Kúblái's son,
Mangalai, was made Prince of An-si, with part of Shen Si as his appanage.
One more son, named Ai-ya-ch'ih, is mentioned in 1284, and in that year yet
another, Tu kan, was made Prince of Chên-nan, and sent on an expedition
against Ciampa. In 1285 Essen Temur, who had received a _chung-shu_ post in
1283, is spoken of as Prince of Yün Nan, and is stated to be engaged in
Kara-jang; in 1286 he is still there, and is styled 'son of the Emperor.' I
do not observe in the Annals that Hukaji ever bore the title of Prince of
Yün Nan, or, indeed, any princely title. In 1287 Ai-ya-ch'ih is mentioned
as being at Shên Chou (Mukden) in connection with Kúblái's 'personally
conducted' expedition against Nayen. In 1289 one more son, Géukju, was
patented Prince of Ning Yüan. In 1293 Kúblái's _third son_ Chinkin,
received a posthumous title, and Chinkin's son Temur was declared
heir-apparent to Kúblái.

"The above are the only sons of Kúblái whose names I have noticed in the
Annals. In the special table of Princes Numugan is styled Pêh-an (instead
of Pêh-p'ing) Prince. Aghrukji's name appears in the table (chap. 108, p.
107), but though he is styled Prince of Si-p'ing, he is not there stated
to be a son of Kúblái; nor in the note I have supplied touching Tibet is
he styled a _hwang-tsz_ or 'imperial son.' In the table Hukaji is
described as being in 1268 Prince of Yün Nan, a title 'inherited in 1280
by Essen Temur.' I cannot discover anything about the other alleged sons
in Yule's note (Vol. I., p. 361). The Chinese count Kúblái's years as
eighty, he having died just at the beginning of 1294 (our February); this
would make him seventy-nine at the very outside, according to our mode of
reckoning, or even seventy-eight if he was born towards the end of a year,
which indeed he was (eighth moon). If a man is born on the last day of the
year he is two years old the very next day according to Chinese methods of
counting, which, I suppose, include the ten months which they consider are
spent in the womb." (E.H. PARKER, _As. Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, pp.
137-139.)

XI., p. 370, n. 13.

The character _King_ in _King-shan_ is not the one representing Court
[Chinese] but [Chinese].--Read "Wan-_sui_-Shan" instead of _Wan-su-Shan_.

XII., p. 380.

_Keshikten_ has nothing to do with _Kalchi_. (PELLIOT.)

XVIII., p. 398.

THE CHEETA, OR HUNTING LEOPARD.

Cf. Chapters on Hunting Dogs and Cheetas, being an extract from the
"_Kitab'u' l-Bazyarah_," a treatise on Falconry, by _Ibn Kustrajim_, an
Arab writer of the Tenth Century. By Lieut.-Colonel D.C. Phillott and Mr.
R.F. Azoo (_Journ. and Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal_, Jan., 1907, pp.
47-50):

"The cheeta is the offspring of a lioness, by a leopard that coerces her,
and, for this reason, cheetas are sterile like mules and all other
hybrids. No animal of the same size is as weighty as the cheeta. It is the
most somnolent animal on earth. The best are those that are
'hollow-bellied,' roach backed, and have deep black spots on a dark tawny
ground, the spots on the back being close to each other; that have the eyes
bloodshot, small and narrow; the mouth 'deep and laughing'; broad
foreheads; thick necks; the black line from the eyes long; and the fangs
far apart from each other. The fully mature animal is more useful for
sporting purposes than the cub; and the females are better at hunting than
are the males, and such is the case with all beasts and birds of prey."

See Hippolyte Boussac, _Le Guépard dans l'Egypte ancienne_ (_La Nature_,
21st March, 1908, pp. 248-250).

XIX., p. 400 n. Instead of _Hoy tiao_, read _Hey tiao_ (_Hei tiao_).

XIX., p. 400. "These two are styled _Chinuchi_ (or _Cunichi_), which is as
much as to say, 'The Keepers of the Mastiff Dogs.'"

Dr. Laufer writes to me: "The word _chinuchi_ is a Mongol term derived
from Mongol _cinoa_ (pronounced _cino_ or _cono_ which means 'wolf,' with
the possessive suffix _-ci_, meaning accordingly a 'wolf-owner' or
'wolf-keeper).' One of the Tibetan designations for the mastiff is
_cang-k'i_ (written _spyang-k'yi_), which signifies literally 'wolf-dog.'
The Mongol term is probably framed on this Tibetan word. The other
explanations given by Yule (401-402) should be discarded."

Prof. Pelliot writes to me: "J'incline à croire que les _Cunichi_ sont à
lire _Cuiuci_ et répondent au _kouei-tch'e_ ou _kouei-yeou-tch'e_,
'censeurs,' des textes chinois; les formes chinoises sont transcrites du
mongol et se rattachent au verbe _güyü_, ou _güyi_, 'courir'; on peut
songer à restituer _güyükci_. Un _Ming-ngan_ (= _Minghan_), chef des
_kouei-tch'e_, vivait sous Kúblái et a sa biographie au ch. 135 du _Yuan
Che_; d'autre part, peut-être faut-il lire, par déplacement de deux points
diacritiques, _Bayan güyükci_ dans Rashid ed-Din, ed. BLOCHET, II., 501."

XX., p. 408, n. 6. _Cachar Modun_ must be the place called
_Ha-ch'a-mu-touen_ in the _Yuan Shi_, ch. 100, f°. 2 r. (PELLIOT.)

XXIV., pp. 423, 430. "Bark of Trees, made into something like Paper, to
pass for Money over all his Country."

Regarding Bretschneider's statement, p. 430, Dr. B. Laufer writes to me:
"This is a singular error of Bretschneider. Marco Polo is perfectly
correct: not only did the Chinese actually manufacture paper from the bark
of the mulberry tree (_Morus alba_), but also it was this paper which was
preferred for the making of paper-money. Bretschneider is certainly right
in saying that paper is made from the _Broussonetia_, but he is assuredly
wrong in the assertion that paper is not made in China from mulberry
trees. This fact he could have easily ascertained from S. Julien,[1] who
alludes to mulberry tree paper twice, first, as 'papier de racines et
d'écorce de mûrier,' and, second, in speaking of the bark paper from
_Broussonetia:_ 'On emploie aussi pour le même usage l'écorce d'_Hibiscus
Rosa sinensis_ et de mûrier; ce dernier papier sert encore à recueillir
les graines de vers à soie,' What is understood by the latter process may
be seen from Plate I. in Julien's earlier work on sericulture,[2] where
the paper from the bark of the mulberry tree is likewise mentioned.

"The _Chi p'u_, a treatise on paper, written by Su I-kien toward the close
of the tenth century, enumerates among the various sorts of paper
manufactured during his lifetime paper from the bark of the mulberry tree
(_sang p'i_) made by the people of the north.[3]

"Chinese paper-money of mulberry bark was known in the Islamic World in the
beginning of the fourteenth century; that is, during the Mongol period.
Accordingly it must have been manufactured in China during the Yuan
Dynasty. Ahmed Shibab Eddin, who died in Cairo in 1338 at the age of 93,
and left an important geographical work in thirty volumes, containing
interesting information on China gathered from the lips of eye-witnesses,
makes the following comment on paper-money, in the translation of Ch.
Schefer:[4]

"'On emploie dans le Khita, en guise de monnaie, des morceaux d'un papier
de forme allongée fabriqué avec des filaments de mûriers sur lesquels est
imprimé le nom de l'empereur. Lorsqu'un de ces papiers est usé, on le
porte aux officiers du prince et, moyennant une perte minime, on reçoit un
autre billet en échange, ainsi que cela a lieu dans nos hotels des
monnaies, pour les matières d'or et d'argent que l'on y porte pour être
converties en pièces monnayées.'

"And in another passage: 'La monnaie des Chinois est faite de billets
fabriqués avec l'écorce du mûrier. Il y en a de grands et de petits....
Ou les fabrique avec des filaments tendres du mûrier et, après y avoir
opposé un sceau au nom de l'empereur, on les met en circulation.'[5]

"The banknotes of the Ming Dynasty were likewise made of mulberry pulp, in
rectangular sheets one foot long and six inches wide, the material being
of a greenish colour, as stated in the Annals of the Dynasty.[6] It is
clear that the Ming Emperors, like many other institutions, adopted this
practice from their predecessors, the Mongols. Klaproth[7] is wrong in
saying that the assignats of the Sung, Kin, and Mongols were all made from
the bark of the tree _cu (Broussonetia)_, and those of the Ming from all
sorts of plants.

"In the _Hui kiang chi_, an interesting description of Turkistan by two
Manchu officials, Surde and Fusambô, published in 1772,[8] the following
note headed 'Mohamedan Paper' occurs:

"'There are two sorts of Turkistan paper, black and white, made from
mulberry bark, cotton and silk refuse equally mixed, resulting in a
coarse, thick, strong, and tough material. It is cut into small rolls
fully a foot long, which are burnished by means of stones, and then are
fit for writing.'

"Sir Aurel Stein[9] reports that paper is still manufactured from mulberry
trees in Khotan. Also J. Wiesner,[10] the meritorious investigator of
ancient papers, has included the fibres of _Morus alba_ and _M. nigra_
among the material to which his researches extended.

"Mulberry-bark paper is ascribed to Bengal in the _Si yang ch'ao kung tien
lu_ by Wu Kiën-hwang, published in 1520.[11]

"As the mulberry tree is eagerly cultivated in Persia in connection with
the silk industry, it is possible also that the Persian paper in the
banknotes of the Mongols was a product of the mulberry.[12] At any rate,
good Marco Polo is cleared, and his veracity and exactness have been
established again."

XXIV., p. 427.

VALUE OF GOLD.

"L'or valait quatre fois son poids d'argent au commencement de la dynastie
Ming (1375), sept ou huit fois sous l'empereur Wan-li de la même dynastie
(1574), et dix fois à la fin de la dynastie (1635); plus de dix fois sous
K'ang hi (1662); plus de vingt fois sous le règne de K'ien long; dix-huit
fois au milieu du règne de Tao-koang (1840), quatorze fois au commencement
du règne de Hien-fong (1850); dix-huit fois en moyenne dans les années
1882-1883. En 1893, la valeur de l'or augmenta considérablement et égala
28 fois celle de l'argent; en 1894, 32 fois; au commencement de 1895, 33
fois; mais il baissa un peu et à la fin de l'année il valait seulement 30
fois plus." (Pierre HOANG, _La Propriété en Chine_, 1897, p. 43.)

XXVI., p. 432.

_CH'ING SIANG_.

Morrison, _Dict._, Pt. II, Vol. I., p. 70, says: "Chin-seang, a Minister
of State, was so called under the Ming Dynasty." According to Mr. E.H.
Parker (_China Review_, XXIV., p. 101), _Ching Siang_ were abolished in
1395.

In the quotation from the _Masálak al Absár_ instead of _Landjun_ (Lang
Chang), read _Landjun_ (_Lang Chung_).

XXXIII., pp. 447-8. "You must know, too, that the Tartars reckon their
years by twelves; the sign of the first year being the Lion, of the second
the Ox, of the third the Dragon, of the fourth the Dog, and so forth up to
the twelfth; so that when one is asked the year of his birth he answers
that it was in the year of the Lion (let us say), on such a day or night,
at such an hour, and such a moment. And the father of a child always takes
care to write these particulars down in a book. When the twelve yearly
symbols have been gone through, then they come back to the first, and go
through with them again in the same succession."

"Ce témoignage, writes Chavannes (_T'oung Pao_, 1906, p. 59), n'est pas
d'une exactitude rigoureuse, puisque les animaux n'y sont pas nommés à
leur rang; en outre, le lion y est substitué au tigre de l'énumération
chinoise; mais cette dernière difference provient sans doute de ce que
Marco Polo connaissait le cycle avec les noms mongols des animaux; c'est
le léopard dout il a fait le lion. Quoiqu'il en soit, l'observation de
Marco Polo est juste dans son ensemble et d'innombrables exemples prouvent
que le cycle des douze animaux était habituel dans les pièces officielles
émanant des chancelleries impériales à l'époque mongole."

XXXIII., p. 448.

PERSIAN.

With regard to the knowledge of Persian, the only oriental language
probably known by Marco Polo, Pelliot remarks (_Journ. Asiat._, Mai-Juin,
1912, p. 592 n.): "C'est l'idée de Yule (cf. exemple I., 448), et
je la crois tout à fait juste. On peut la fortifier d'autres indices. On
sait par exemple que Marco Polo substitue le lion au tigre dans le cycle
des douze animaux. M. Chavannes (_T'oung pao_, II., VII., 59) suppose que
'cette dernière différence provient sans doute de ce que Marco Polo
connaissait le cycle avec les noms mongols des animaux: c'est le léopard
dont il a fait le lion.' Mais on ne voit pas pourquoi il aurait rendu par
'lion' le turco-mongol _bars_, qui signifie seulement 'tigre.' Admettons
au contraire qu'il pense en persan: dans toute l'Asie centrale, le persan
[Arabic] _sir_ a les deux sens de lion et de tigre. De même, quand Marco
Polo appelle la Chine du sud Manzi, il est d'accord avec les Persans, par
exemple avec Rachid ed-din, pour employer l'expression usuelle dans la
langue chinoise de l'époque, c'est-à-dire Man-tseu; mais, au lieu de
Manzi, les Mongols avaient adopté un autres nom, Nangias, dont il n'y a
pas trace dans Marco Polo. On pourrait multiplier ces exemples."

XXXIII., p. 456, n. Instead of _Hui Heng_, read _Hiu Heng_.


[1] _Industries anciennes et modernes de l'Empire chinois_. Paris,
    1869, pp. 145, 149.

[2] _Résumé des principaux Traités chinois sur la culture des mûriers et
    l'éducation des vers à soie_, Paris, 1837, p. 98. According to the
    notions of the Chinese, Julien remarks, everything made from hemp like
    cord and weavings is banished from the establishments where silkworms
    are reared, and our European paper would be very harmful to the
    latter. There seems to be a sympathetic relation between the silkworm
    feeding on the leaves of the mulberry and the mulberry paper on which
    the cocoons of the females are placed.

[3] _Ko chi king yuan_, Ch. 37, p. 6.

[4] _Relations des Musulmans avec les Chinois (Centenaire de
    l'Ecole des Langues Orientales vivante_, Paris, 1895, p. 17).

[5] Ibid., p. 20.

[6] _Ming Shi_, Ch. 81, p. 1.--The same text is found on a bill issued in
    1375 reproduced and translated by W. Vissering (_On Chinese Currency_,
    see plate at end of volume), the minister of finance being expressly
    ordered to use the fibres of the mulberry tree in the composition of
    these bills.

[7] _Mémoires relatifs à l'Asie_, Vol. I., p. 387.

[8] A. WYLIE, _Notes on Chinese Literature_, p. 64. The copy used by
    me (in the John Crerar Library of Chicago) is an old manuscript
    clearly written in 4 vols. and chapters, illustrated by nine
    ink-sketches of types of Mohammedans and a map. The volumes are not
    paged.

[9] _Ancient Khotan_, Vol. I., p. 134.

[10] _Mikroskopische Untersuchung alter ostturkestanischer Papiere_, p. 9
    (Vienna, 1902). I cannot pass over in silence a curious error of this
    scholar when he says (p. 8) that it is not proved that _Cannabis
    sativa_ (called by him "genuine hemp") is cultivated in China, and
    that the so-called Chinese hemp-paper should be intended for China
    grass. Every tyro in things Chinese knows that hemp (_Cannabis
    sativa_) belongs to the oldest cultivated plants of the Chinese, and
    that hemp-paper is already listed among the papers invented by Ts'ai
    Lun in A.D. 105 (cf. CHAVANNES, _Les livres chinois avant l'invention
    du papier, Journal Asiatique_, 1905, p. 6 of the reprint).

[11] Ch. B., p. 10b (ed. of _Pie hia chai ts'ung shu_).

[12] The Persian word for the mulberry, _tud_, is supposed to be a
    loan-word from Aramaic. (HORN, _Grundriss iran. Phil._, Vol. I.,
    pt. 2, p. 6.)



BOOK SECOND.


PART II.--JOURNEY TO THE WEST AND SOUTH-WEST OF CATHAY.


XXXVII, p. 13. "There grow here [Taianfu] many excellent vines, supplying
great plenty of wine; and in all Cathay this is the only place where wine
is produced. It is carried hence all over the country."

Dr. B. Laufer makes the following remarks to me: "Polo is quite right in
ascribing vines and wine to T'ai Yüan-fu in Shan Si, and is in this respect
upheld by contemporary Chinese sources. The _Yin shan cheng yao_ written in
1330 by Ho Se-hui, contains this account[1]: 'There are numerous brands of
wine: that coming from Qara-Khodja[2] (Ha-la-hwo) is very strong, that
coming from Tibet ranks next. Also the wines from P'ing Yang and T'aï Yüan
(in Shan Si) take the second rank. According to some statements, grapes,
when stored for a long time, will develop into wine through a natural
process. This wine is fragrant, sweet, and exceedingly strong: this is the
genuine grape-wine.' _Ts'ao mu tse_, written in 1378 par Ye Tse-k'i,[3]
contains the following information: 'Under the Yüan Dynasty grape-wine was
manufactured in Ki-ning and other circuits of Shan Si Province. In the
eighth month they went to the T'ai hang Mountain,[4] in order to test the
genuine and adulterated brands: the genuine kind when water is poured on
it, will float; the adulterated sort, when thus treated, will freeze.[5]
In wine which has long been stored, there is a certain portion which even
in extreme cold will never freeze, while all the remainder is frozen: this
is the spirit and fluid secretion of wine.[6] If this is drunk, the
essence will penetrate into a man's armpits, and he will die. Wine kept for
two or three years develops great poison." For a detailed history of
grape-wine in China, see Laufer's _Sino-Iranica_.

XXXVII., p. 16.

VINE.

Chavannes (_Chancellerie chinoise de l'époque mongole_, II., pp. 66-68,
1908) has a long note on vine and grape wine-making in China, from Chinese
sources. We know that vine, according to Sze-ma Ts'ien, was imported from
Farghânah about 100 B.C. The Chinese, from texts in the _T'ai p'ing yu
lan_ and the _Yuan Kien lei han_, learned the art of wine-making after
they had defeated the King of Kao ch'ang (Turfan) in 640 A.D.

XLI., p. 27 seq.

CHRISTIAN MONUMENT AT SI-NGAN FU.

The slab _King kiao pei_, bearing the inscription, was found, according to
Father Havret, 2nd Pt., p. 71, in the sub-prefecture of Chau Chi, a
dependency of Si-ngan fu, among ancient ruins. Prof. Pelliot says that the
slab was not found at Chau Chi, but in the western suburb of Si-ngan, at
the very spot where it was to be seen some years ago, before it was
transferred to the _Pei lin_, in fact at the place where it was erected in
the seventh century inside the monastery built by Olopun. (_Chrétiens de
l'Asie centrale, T'oung pao_, 1914, p. 625.)

In 1907, a Danish gentleman, Mr. Frits V. Holm, took a photograph of the
tablet as it stood outside the west gate of Si-ngan, south of the road to
Kan Su; it was one of five slabs on the same spot; it was removed without
the stone pedestal (a tortoise) into the city on the 2nd October 1907, and
it is now kept in the museum known as the _Pei lin_ (Forest of Tablets).
Holm says it is ten feet high, the weight being two tons; he tried to
purchase the original, and failing this he had an exact replica made by
Chinese workmen; this replica was deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art in the City of New York, as a loan, on the 16th of June, 1908. Since,
this replica was purchased by Mrs. George Leary, of 1053, Fifth Avenue,
New York, and presented by this lady, through Frits Holm, to the Vatican.
See the November number (1916) of the _Boll, della R. Soc. Geog.
Italiana_. "The Original Nestorian Tablet of A.D. 781, as well as my
replica, made in 1907," Holm writes, "are both carved from the stone
quarries of Fu Ping Hien; the material is a black, sub-granular limestone
with small oolithes scattered through it" (Frits V. Holm, _The Nestorian
Monument_, Chicago, 1900). In this pamphlet there is a photograph of the
tablet as it stands in the Pei lin.

Prof. Ed. Chavannes, who also visited Si-ngan in 1907, saw the Nestorian
Monument; in the album of his _Mission archéologique dans la Chine
Séptentrionale_, Paris, 1909, he has given (Plate 445) photographs of the
five tablets, the tablet itself, the western gate of the western suburb of
Si-ngan, and the entrance of the temple _Kin Sheng Sze_.

Cf. Notes, pp. 105-113 of Vol. I, of the second edition of _Cathay and the
Way thither_.

II., p. 27.

KHUMDAN.

Cf. _Kumudana_, given by the Sanskrit-Chinese vocabulary found in Japan
(Max MÜLLER, _Buddhist Texts from Japan_, in _Anecdota Oxoniensia_, Aryan
Series, t. I., part I., p. 9), and the _Khumdan_ and _Khumadan_ of
Theophylactus. (See TOMASCHEK, in _Wiener Z.M._, t. III., p. 105;
Marquart, _Eransahr_, pp. 316-7; _Osteuropäische und Ostasiatische
Streifzüge_, pp. 89-90.) (PELLIOT.)

XLI., p. 29 n. The vocabulary _Hwei Hwei_ (Mahomedan) of the College of
Interpreters at Peking transcribes King chao from the Persian Kin-chang, a
name it gives to the Shen-si province. King chao was called Ngan-si fu in
1277. (DEVÉRIA, _Epigraphie_, p. 9.) Ken jan comes from Kin-chang =
King-chao = Si-ngan fu.

Prof. Pelliot writes, _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, IV., July-Sept.,
1904, p. 29: "Cette note de M. Cordier n'est pas exacte. Sous les Song,
puis sous les Mongols jusqu'en 1277, Si-ngan fou fut appelé King-tchao
fou. Le vocabulaire _houei-houei_ ne transcrit pas 'King-tchao du persan
kin-tchang,' mais, comme les Persans appelaient alors Si-ngan fou
Kindjanfou (le Kenjanfu de Marco Polo), cette forme _persane_ est à son
tour transcrite phonétiquement en chinois Kin-tchang fou, sans que les
caractères choisis jouent là aucun rôle sémantique; Kin-tchang fou
n'existe pas dans la géographie chinoise. Quant à l'origine de la forme
persane, il est possible, mais non par sûr, que ce soit King-tchao fou. La
forme 'Quen-zan-fou,' qu'un écolier chinois du Chen Si fournit à M. von
Richthofen comme le nom de Si-ngan fou au temps des Yuan, doit avoir été
fautivement recueillie. Il me parait impossible qu'un Chinois d'une
province quelconque prononce _zan_ le caractère [Chinese] _tchao_."

XLI., p. 29 n. A clause in the edict also orders the _foreign bonzes of Ta
T'sin_ and _Mubupa_ (Christian and _Mobed_ or Magian) _to return to
secular life_.

_Mubupa_ has no doubt been derived by the etymology _mobed_, but it is
faulty; it should be _Muhupa_. (PELLIOT, _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_,
IV., July-Sept., 1904, p. 771.) Pelliot writes to me that there is now no
doubt that it is derived from _mu-lu hien_ and that it must be understood
as the "[religion of] the Celestial God of the Magi."

XLIII., p. 32.

"The _chien-tao_, or 'pillar road,' mentioned, should be _chan-tao_, or
'scaffolding road.' The picture facing p. 50 shows how the shoring up or
scaffolding is effected. The word _chan_ is still in common use all over
the Empire, and in 1267 Kúblái ordered this identical road ('Sz Ch'wan
_chan-tao_') to be repaired. There are many such roads in Sz Ch'wan
besides the original one from Han-chung-Fu." (E.H. PARKER, _As. Quart.
Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 144.)

XLIV., p. 36. SINDAFU (Ch'êng tu fu).--Through the midst of this great
city runs a large river.... It is a good half-mile wide....

"It is probable that in the thirteenth century, when Marco Polo was on his
travels, the 'great river a good half-mile wide,' flowing past Chengtu,
was the principal stream; but in the present day that channel is
insignificant in comparison to the one which passes by Ta Hsien, Yung-Chia
Chong, and Hsin-Chin Hsien. Of course, these channels are stopped up or
opened as occasion requires. As a general rule, they follow such contour
lines as will allow gravitation to conduct the water to levels as high as
is possible, and when it is desired to raise it higher than it will
naturally flow, chain-pumps and enormous undershot water-wheels of bamboo
are freely employed. Water-power is used for driving mills through the
medium of wheels, undershot or overshot, or turbines, as the local
circumstances may demand." (R. Logan JACK, _Back Blocks_, p. 55.)

XLIV., p. 36.

SINDAFU.

"The story of the 'three Kings' of Sindafu is probably in this wise: For
nearly a century the Wu family (Wu Kiai, Wu Lin, and Wu Hi) had ruled as
semi-independent Sung or 'Manzi' Viceroys of Sz Ch'wan, but in 1206 the
last-named, who had fought bravely for the Sung (Manzi) Dynasty against
the northern Dynasty of the Nüchên Tartars (successors to Cathay),
surrendered to this same Kin or Golden Dynasty of Nüchêns or Early
Manchus, and was made King of Shuh (Sz Ch'wan). In 1236, Ogdai's son,
K'wei-t'eng, effected the partial conquest of Shuh, entering the capital,
Ch'êng-tu Fu (Sindafu), towards the close of the same year. But in 1259
Mangu in person had to go over part of the same ground again. He proceeded
up the rapids, and in the seventh moon attacked Ch'ung K'ing, but about a
fortnight later he died at a place called Tiao-yü Shan, apparently near
the Tiao-yü Ch'êng of my map (p. 175 of _Up the Yangtsze_, 1881), where I
was myself in the year 1881. Colonel Yule's suggestion that Marco's
allusion is to the tripartite Empire of China 1000 years previously is
surely wide of the mark. The 'three brothers' were probably Kiai, Lin, and
T'ing, and Wu Hi was the son of Wu T'ing. An account of Wu Kiai is given
in Mayers' _Chinese Reader's Manual_." (E.H. PARKER, _As. Quart. Rev._,
Jan., 1904, pp. 144-5.)

Cf. MAYERS, No. 865, p. 259, and GILES, _Biog. Dict._, No. 2324, p. 880.

XLIV., p. 38.

SINDAFU.

Tch'eng Tu was the capital of the Kingdom of Shu. The first Shu Dynasty
was the Minor Han Dynasty which lasted from A.D. 221 to A.D. 263; this Shu
Dynasty was one of the Three Kingdoms (_San Kwo chi_); the two others
being Wei (A.D. 220-264) reigning at Lo Yang, and Wu (A.D. 222-277)
reigning at Kien Kang (Nan King). The second was the Ts'ien Shu Dynasty,
founded in 907 by Wang Kien, governor of Sze Chw'an since 891; it lasted
till 925, when it submitted to the Hau T'ang; in 933 the Hau T'ang were
compelled to grant the title of King of Shu (Hau Shu) to Mong Chi-siang,
governor of Sze Chw'an, who was succeeded by Mong Ch'ang, dethroned in 965;
the capital was also Ch'eng Tu under these two dynasties.

TIBET.

XLV., p. 44. No man of that country would on any consideration take to
wife a girl who was a maid; for they say a wife is nothing worth unless
she has been used to consort with men. And their custom is this, that when
travellers come that way, the old women of the place get ready, and take
their unmarried daughters or other girls related to them, and go to the
strangers who are passing, and make over the young women to whomsoever
will accept them; and the travellers take them accordingly and do their
pleasure; after which the girls are restored to the old women who brought
them....

Speaking of the Sifan village of Po Lo and the account given by Marco Polo
of the customs of these people, M.R. Logan JACK (_Back Blocks_, 1904, pp.
145-6) writes: "I freely admit that the good looks and modest bearing of
the girls were the chief merits of the performance in my eyes. Had the
_danseuses_ been scrubbed and well dressed, they would have been a
presentable body of _débutantes_ in any European ballroom. One of our
party, frivolously disposed, asked a girl (through an interpreter) if she
would marry him and go to his country. The reply, 'I do not know you,
sir,' was all that propriety could have demanded in the best society, and
worthy of a pupil 'finished' at Miss Pinkerton's celebrated
establishment.... Judging from our experience, no idea of hospitalities of
the kind [Marco's experience] was in the people's minds."

XLV., p. 45. Speaking of the people of Tibet, Polo says: "They are very
poorly clad, for their clothes are only of the skins of beasts, and of
canvas, and of buckram."

Add to the note, I., p. 48, n. 5:--

"Au XIV'e siècle, le bougran [buckram] était une espèce de tissu de lin: le
meilleur se fabriquait en Arménie et dans le royaume de Mélibar, s'il faut
s'en rapporter à Marco Polo, qui nous apprend que les habitants du Thibet,
qu'il signale comme pauvrement vêtus, l'étaient de canevas et de bougran,
et que cette dernière étoffe se fabriquait aussi dans la province
d'Abasce. Il en venait également de l'île de Chypre. Sorti des
manufactures d'Espagne ou importé dans le royaume, à partir de 1442, date
d'une ordonnance royale publiée par le P. Saez, le bougran le plus fin
payait soixante-dix maravédis de droits, sans distinction de couleur"
(FRANCISQUE-MICHEL, _Recherches sur le commerce, la fabrication et l'usage
des étoffes de soie, d'or et d'argent_.... II., 1854, pp. 33-4). Passage
mentioned by Dr. Laufer.

XLV., pp. 46 n., 49 seq.

Referring to Dr. E. Bretschneider, Prof. E.H. Parker gives the following
notes in the _Asiatic Quart. Review_, Jan., 1904, p. 131: "In 1251
Ho-êrh-t'ai was appointed to the command of the Mongol and Chinese forces
advancing on Tibet (T'u-fan). [In my copy of the _Yüan Shi_ there is no
entry under the year 1254 such as that mentioned by Bretschneider; it may,
however, have been taken by Palladius from some other chapter.] In 1268
Mang-ku-tai was ordered to invade the Si-fan (outer Tibet) and _Kien-tu_
[Marco's Caindu] with 6000 men. Bretschneider, however, omits Kien-tu, and
also omits to state that in 1264 eighteen Si-fan clans were placed under
the superintendence of the _an-fu-sz_ (governor) of An-si Chou, and that in
1265 a reward was given to the troops of the decachiliarch Hwang-li-t'a-rh
for their services against the T'u fan, with another reward to the troops
under Prince Ye-suh-pu-hwa for their successes against the Si-fan. Also
that in 1267 the Si-fan chieftains were encouraged to submit to Mongol
power, in consequence of which A-nu-pan-ti-ko was made Governor-General of
Ho-wu and other regions near it. Bretschneider's next item after the
doubtful one of 1274 is in 1275, as given by Cordier, but he omits to state
that in 1272 Mang-ku-tai's eighteen clans and other T'u-fan troops were
ordered in hot haste to attack Sin-an Chou, belonging to the Kien-tu
prefecture; and that a post-station called Ning-ho Yih was established on
the T'u-fan and Si-Ch'wan [= Sz Ch'wan] frontier. In 1275 a number of
Princes, including Chi-pi T'ie-mu-r, and Mang-u-la, Prince of An-si, were
sent to join the Prince of Si-p'ing [Kúblái's son] Ao-lu-ch'ih in his
expedition against the Tu-fau. In 1276 all Si-fan bonzes (lamas) were
forbidden to carry arms, and the Tu-fan city of Hata was turned into
Ning-yüan Fu [as it now exists]; garrisons and civil authorities were
placed in Kien-tu and Lo-lo-sz [the Lolo country]. In 1277 a Customs
station was established at Tiao-mên and Li-Chou [Ts'ing-k'i Hien in Ya-chou
Fu] for the purposes of Tu-fan trade. In 1280 more Mongol troops were sent
to the Li Chou region, and a special officer was appointed for T'u-fan
[Tibetan] affairs at the capital. In 1283 a high official was ordered to
print the official documents connected with the _süan-wei-sz_
[governorship] of T'u-fan. In 1288 six provinces, including those of Sz
Chw'an and An-si, were ordered to contribute financial assistance to the
_süan-wei-shï_ [governor] of U-sz-tsang [the indigenous name of Tibet
proper]. Every year or two after this, right up to 1352, there are entries
in the Mongol Annals amply proving that the conquest of Tibet under the
Mongols was not only complete, but fully narrated; however, there is no
particular object in carrying the subject here beyond the date of Marco's
departure from China. There are many mentions of Kien-tu (which name dates
from the Sung Dynasty) in the _Yüan-shï_; it is the Kien-ch'ang Valley of
to-day, with capital at Ning-yüan, as clearly marked on Bretschneider's
Map. Baber's suggestion of the _Chan-tui_ tribe of Tibetans is quite
obsolete, although Baber was one of the first to explore the region in
person. A petty tribe like the _Chan-tui_ could never have given name to
_Caindu_; besides, both initials and finals are impossible, and the
_Chan-tui_ have never lived there. I have myself met Si-fan chiefs at
Peking; they may be described roughly as Tibetans _not under_ the Tibetan
Government. The T'u-fan, T'u-po, or Tubot, were the Tibetans _under Tibetan
rule_, and they are now usually styled 'Si-tsang' by the Chinese. Yaci
[Ya-ch'ih, Ya-ch'ï] is frequently mentioned in the _Yüan-shï_, and the
whole of Devéria's quotation given by Cordier on p. 72 appears there [chap.
121, p. 5], besides a great deal more to the point, without any necessity
for consulting the _Lei pien_. Cowries, under the name of _pa-tsz_, are
mentioned in both Mongol and Ming history as being in use for money in Siam
and Yung-ch'ang [Vociam]. The porcelain coins which, as M. Cordier quotes
from me on p. 74, I myself saw current in the Shan States or Siam about ten
years ago, were of white China, with a blue figure, and about the size of a
Keating's cough lozenge, but thicker. As neither form of the character _pa_
appears in any dictionary, it is probably a foreign word only locally
understood. Regarding the origin of the name Yung-ch'ang, the discussions
upon p. 105 are no longer necessary; in the eleventh moon of 1272 [say
about January 1, 1273] Kúblái 'presented the name Yung-ch'ang to the new
city built by Prince Chi-pi T'ie-mu-r.'"

XLVI., p. 49. They have also in this country [Tibet] plenty of fine
woollens and other stuffs, and many kinds of spices are produced there
which are never seen in our country.

Dr. Laufer draws my attention to the fact that this translation does not
give exactly the sense of the French text, which runs thus:

"Et encore voz di qe en ceste provence a gianbelot [camelot] assez et
autres dras d'or et de soie, et hi naist maintes especes qe unques ne
furent veue en nostre païs." (_Ed. Soc. de Géog._, Chap, cxvi., p. 128.)

In the Latin text (Ibid., p. 398), we have:

"In ista provincia sunt giambelloti satis et alii panni de sirico et auro;
et ibi nascuntur multae species quae nunquam fuerunt visae in nostris
contractis."

Francisque-Michel (_Recherches_, II., p. 44) says: "Les Tartares
fabriquaient aussi à Aias de très-beaux camelots de poil de chameau, que
l'on expédiait pour divers pays, et Marco Polo nous apprend que cette
denrée était fort abondante dans le Thibet. Au XV'e siècle, il en venait
de l'île de Chypre."

XLVII., pp. 50, 52,

WILD OXEN CALLED _BEYAMINI_.

Dr. Laufer writes to me: "Yule correctly identifies the 'wild oxen' of
Tibet with the gayal (_Bos gavaeus_), but I do not believe that his
explanation of the word _beyamini_ (from an artificially constructed
_buemini_ = Bohemian) can be upheld. Polo states expressly that these wild
oxen are called _beyamini_ (scil. by the natives), and evidently alludes
to a native Tibetan term. The gayal is styled in Tibetan _ba-men_ (or
_ba-man_), derived from _ba_ ('cow'), a diminutive form of which is _beu_.
Marco Polo appears to have heard some dialectic form of this word like
_beu-men_ or _beu-min_."

XLVIII., p. 70.

KIUNG TU AND KIEN TU.

Kiung tu or Kiang tu is Caindu in Sze-Ch'wan; Kien tu is in Yun Nan. Cf.
PELLIOT, _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, July-Sept, 1904, p. 771. Caindu
or Ning Yuan was, under the Mongols, a dependency of Yun Nan, not of Sze
Ch'wan. (PELLIOT.)

XLVIII., p. 72. The name _Karájáng_. "The first element was the Mongol or
Turki _Kárá_.... Among the inhabitants of this country some are black, and
others are white; these latter are called by the Mongols _Chaghán-Jáng_
('White Jang'). Jang has not been explained; but probably it may have been
a Tibetan term adopted by the Mongols, and the colours may have applied to
their clothing."

Dr. Berthold Laufer, of Chicago, has a note on the subject in the _Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Soc._, Oct., 1915, pp. 781-4: "M. Pelliot (_Bul.
Ecole franç. Ext. Orient._, IV., 1904, p. 159) proposed to regard the
unexplained name _Jang_ as the Mongol transcription of _Ts'uan_, the
ancient Chinese designation of the Lo-lo, taken from the family name of
one of the chiefs of the latter; he gave his opinion, however, merely as
an hypothesis which should await confirmation. I now believe that Yule was
correct in his conception, and that, in accordance with his suggestion,
_Jang_ indeed represents the phonetically exact transcription of a Tibetan
proper name. This is the Tibetan _a Jan_ or _a Jans_ (the prefixed letter
_a_ and the optional affix _-s_ being silent, hence pronounced _Jang_ or
_Djang_), of which the following precise definition is given in the
_Dictionnaire tibétain-latin français par les Missionnaires Catholiques du
Tibet_ (p. 351): 'Tribus et regionis nomen in N.W. provinciae Sinarum
Yun-nan, cuius urbs principalis est Sa-t'am seu Ly-kiang fou. Tribus
vocatur Mosso a Sinensibus et Nashi ab ipsismet incolis.' In fact, as here
stated, _Ja'n_ or _Jang_ is the Tibetan designation of the Moso and the
territory inhabited by them, the capital of which is Li-kiang-fu. This
name is found also in Tibetan literature...."

XLVIII., p. 74, n. 2. One thousand Uighúr families (_nou_) had been
transferred to Karajáng in 1285. (_Yuan Shi_, ch. 13, 8_v_°, quoted by
PELLIOT.)

L., pp. 85-6. Zardandan. "The country is wild and hard of access, full of
great woods and mountains which 'tis impossible to pass, the air in summer
is so impure and bad; and any foreigners attempting it would die for
certain."

"An even more formidable danger was the resolution of our 'permanent' (as
distinguished from 'local') soldiers and mafus, of which we were now
apprised, to desert us in a body, as they declined to face the malaria of
the Lu-Kiang Ba, or Salwen Valley. We had, of course, read in Gill's book
of this difficulty, but as we approached the Salwen we had concluded that
the scare had been forgotten. We found, to our chagrin, that the dreaded
'Fever Valley' had lost none of its terrors. The valley had a bad name in
Marco Polo's day, in the thirteenth century, and its reputation has clung
to it ever since, with all the tenacity of Chinese traditions. The
Chinaman of the district crosses the valley daily without fear, but the
Chinaman from a distance _knows_ that he will either die or his wife will
prove unfaithful. If he is compelled to go, the usual course is to write
to his wife and tell her that she is free to look out for another husband.
Having made up his mind that he will die, I have no doubt that he often
dies through sheer funk." (R. Logan JACK, _Back Blocks of China_, 1904, p.
205.)

L., pp. 84, 89.

CONCERNING THE PROVINCE OF ZARDANDAN.

We read in Huber's paper already mentioned (_Bul. Ecole Ext. Orient_,
Oct.-Dec., 1909, p. 665): "The second month of the twelfth year (1275), Ho
T'ien-tsio, governor of the Kien Ning District, sent the following
information: 'A-kouo of the Zerdandan tribe, knows three roads to enter
Burma, one by T'ien pu ma, another by the P'iao tien, and the third by the
very country of A-kouo; the three roads meet at the 'City of the Head of
the River' [Kaung si] in Burma." A-kouo, named elsewhere A-ho, lived at
Kan-ngai. According to Huber, the Zardandan road is the actual caravan
road to Bhamo on the left of the Nam Ti and Ta Ping; the second route
would be by the Tien ma pass and Nam hkam, the P'iao tien route is the
road on the right bank of the Nam Ti and the Ta Ping leading to Bhamo
viâ San Ta and Man Waing.

The _Po Yi_ and _Ho Ni_ tribes are mentioned in the _Yuan Shi_, s.a. 1278.
(PELLIOT.)

L., p. 90.

Mr. H.A. OTTEWILL tells me in a private note that the Kachins or Singphos
did not begin to reach Burma in their emigration from Tibet until last
century or possibly this century. They are not to be found east of the
Salwen River.

L., p. 91.

COUVADE.

There is a paper on the subject in the _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_ (1911,
pp. 546-63) by Hugo Kunicke, _Das sogennante, "Mannerkindbett,"_ with a
bibliography not mentioning Yule's _Marco Polo_, Vinson, etc. We may also
mention: _De la "Covada" en Espana_. Por el Prof. Dr. Telesforo de
Aranzadi, Barcelona (_Anthropos_, T.V., fasc. 4, Juli-August, 1910, pp.
775-8).

L., p. 92 n.

I quoted Prof. E.H. Parker (_China Review_, XIV., p. 359), who wrote
that the "_Langszi_ are evidently the _Szi lang_, one of the six
_Chao_, but turned upside down." Prof. Pelliot (_Bul. Ecole franç.
Ext. Orient_, IV., July-Sept., 1904, p. 771) remarks: "Mr. Parker is
entirely wrong. The _Chao_ of Shi-lang, which was annexed by Nan Chao
during the eighth century, was in the western part of Yun Nan, not in Kwei
chau; we have but little information on the subject." He adds: "The custom
of Couvade is confirmed for the Lao of Southern China by the following
text of the _Yi wu chi_ of Fang Ts'ien-li, dating at least from the
time of the T'ang dynasty: 'When a Lao woman of Southern China has a
child, she goes out at once. The husband goes to bed exhausted, like a
woman giving suck. If he does not take care, he becomes ill. The woman has
no harm.'"

L., pp. 91-95.

Under the title of _The Couvade or "Hatching,"_ John Cain writes from
Dumagudem, 31st March, 1874, to the _Indian Antiquary_, May, 1874, p.
151:

"In the districts in South India in which Telugu is spoken, there is a
wandering tribe of people called the Erukalavandlu. They generally pitch
their huts, for the time being, just outside a town or village. Their
chief occupations are fortune-telling, rearing pigs, and making mats.
Those in this part of the Telugu country observe the custom mentioned in
Max Müller's _Chips from a German Workshop_, Vol. II., pp. 277-284.
Directly the woman feels the birth-pangs, she informs her husband, who
immediately takes some of her clothes, puts them on, places on his
forehead the mark which the women usually place on theirs, retires into a
dark room where is only a very dim lamp, and lies down on the bed,
covering himself up with a long cloth. When the child is born, it is
washed and placed on the cot beside the father. Assafoetida,
_jaggery_, and other articles are then given, not to the mother, but
to the father. During the days of ceremonial uncleanness the man is
treated as the other Hindus treat their women on such occasions. He is not
allowed to leave his bed, but has everything needful brought to him."

Mr. John Cain adds (l.c., April, 1879, p. 106): "The women are called
'hens' by their husbands, and the male and female children 'cock children'
and 'hen children' respectively."

LI., p. 99 n. "M. Garnier informs me that _Mien Kwé_ or _Mien Tisong_ is
the name always given in Yun Nan to that kingdom."

_Mien Tisong_ is surely faulty, and must likely be corrected in _Mien
Chung_, proved especially at the Ming Period. (PELLIOT, _Bul. Ecole franç.
Ext. Orient_, IV., July-Sept, 1904, p. 772.)

LI., LII., pp. 98 seq.

WAR AGAINST THE KING OF MIEN.

The late Edouard HUBER of Hanoi, writing from Burmese sources, throws new
light on this subject: "In the middle of the thirteenth century, the
Burmese kingdom included Upper and Lower Burma, Arakan and Tenasserim;
besides the Court of Pagan was paramount over several feudatory Shan
states, until the valleys of the Yunnanese affluents of the Irawadi to the
N.E., and until Zimmé at the least to the E. Narasihapati, the last king
of Pagan who reigned over the whole of this territory, had already to
fight the Talaings of the Delta and the governor of Arakan who wished to
be independent, when, in 1271, he refused to receive Kúblái's ambassadors
who had come to call upon him to recognize himself as a vassal of China.
The first armed conflict took place during the spring of 1277 in the Nam
Ti valley; it is the battle of Nga-çaung-khyam of the Burmese Chronicles,
related by Marco Polo, who, by mistake, ascribes to Nasr ed-Din the merit
of this first Chinese victory. During the winter of 1277-78, a second
Chinese expedition with Nasr ed-Din at its head ended with the capture of
Kaung sin, the Burmese stronghold commanding the defile of Bhamo. The
_Pagan Yazawin_ is the only Burmese Chronicle giving exactly the spot of
this second encounter. During these two expeditions, the invaders had not
succeeded in breaking through the thick veil of numerous small thai
principalities which still stand to-day between Yun Nan and Burma proper.
It was only in 1283 that the final crush took place, when a third
expedition, whose chief was Siang-wu-ta-eul (Singtaur), retook the fort of
Kaung sin and penetrated more into the south in the Irawadi Valley, but
without reaching Pagan. King Narasihapati evacuated Pagan before the
impending advancing Chinese forces and fled to the Delta. In 1285 parleys
for the establishment of a Chinese Protectorship were begun; but in the
following year, King Narasihapati was poisoned at Prome by his own son
Sïhasura. In 1287, a fourth Chinese expedition, with Prince Ye-sin Timur
at its head, reached at last Pagan, having suffered considerable
losses.... A fifth and last Chinese expedition took place during the
autumn of 1300 when the Chinese army went down the Irawadi Valley and
besieged Myin-Saing during the winter of 1300-1301. The Mongol officers of
the staff having been bribed the siege was raised." (_Bul. Ecole
Extrême-Orient_, Oct.-Dec., 1909, pp. 679-680; cf. also p. 651 _n._)

Huber, p. 666 _n._, places the battle-field of Vochan in the Nam Ti
Valley; the Burmese never reached the plain of Yung Ch'ang.

LII., p. 106 n.

BURMA.

We shall resume from Chinese sources the history of the relations between
Burma and China:

1271. Embassy of Kúblái to Mien asking for allegiance.

1273. New embassy of Kúblái.

1275. Information supplied by A-kuo, chief of Zardandan.

1277. First Chinese Expedition against Mien--Battle of Nga-çaung-khyam won
      by Hu Tu.

1277. Second Chinese Expedition led by Naçr ed-Din.

1283. Third Chinese Expedition led by Prince Singtaur.

1287. Fourth Chinese Expedition led by Yisun Timur; capture of Pagan.

1300-1301. Fifth Chinese Expedition; siege of Myin-saing.

Cf. E. HUBER, _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, Oct.-Dec., 1909, pp.
633-680.--VISDELOU, _Rev. Ext. Orient_, II., pp. 72-88.

LIII.-LIV., pp. 106-108. "After leaving the Province of which I have been
speaking [Yung ch'ang] you come to a great Descent. In fact you ride for
two days and a half continually down hill.... After you have ridden those
two days and a half down hill, you find yourself in a province towards the
south which is pretty near India, and this province is called AMIEN. You
travel therein for fifteen days.... And when you have travelled those 15
days ... you arrive at the capital city of this Province of Mien, and it
also is called AMIEN...."

I owe the following valuable note to Mr. Herbert Allan OTTEWILL, H.M.'s
Vice-Consul at T'eng Yueh (11th October, 1908):

"The indications of the route are a great descent down which you ride
continually for two days and a half towards the south along the main route
to the capital city of Amien.

"It is admitted that the road from Yung Ch'ang to T'eng Yueh is not the one
indicated. Before the Hui jen Bridge was built over the Salween in 1829,
there can be no doubt that the road ran to Ta tu k'ou--great ferry
place--which is about six miles below the present bridge. The distance to
both places is about the same, and can easily be accomplished in two days.

"The late Mr. Litton, who was Consul here for some years, once stated that
the road to La-mêng on the Salween was almost certainly the one referred
to by Marco Polo as the great descent to the kingdom of Mien. His stages
were from Yung Ch'ang: (1) Yin wang (? Niu wang); (2) P'ing ti; (3) Chen
an so; (4) Lung Ling. The Salween was crossed on the third day at La-mêng
Ferry. Yung Ch'ang is at an altitude of about 5,600 feet; the Salween at
the Hui jen Bridge is about 2,400, and probably drops 200-300 feet between
the bridge and La-mêng, Personally I have only been along the first stage
to Niu Wang, 5,000 feet; and although aneroids proved that the highest
point on the road was about 6,600, I can easily imagine a person not
provided with such instruments stating that the descent was fairly
gradual. From Niu Wang there must be a steady drop to the Salween,
probably along the side of the stream which drains the Niu Wang Plain.

"La-mêng and Chen an so are in the territory of the Shan Sawbwa of Mang
Shih [Möng Hkwan]."

"It is also a well-known fact that the Shan States of Hsen-wi (in Burma)
and Meng mao (in China) fell under Chinese authority at an early date. Mr.
E.H. Parker, quoted by Sir G. Scott in the _Upper Burma Gazetteer_,
states: 'During the reign of the Mongol Emperor Kúblái a General was
sent to punish Annam and passed through this territory or parts of it
called Meng tu and Meng pang,' and secured its submission. In the year 1289
the Civil and Military Governorship of Muh Pang was established. Muh Pang
is the Chinese name of Hsen-wi.

"Therefore the road from Yung Ch'ang to La-mêng fulfils the conditions of
a great descent, riding two and a half days continually down hill finding
oneself in a (Shan) Province to the south, besides being on a well-known
road to Burma, which was probably in the thirteenth century the only road
to that country.

"Fifteen days from La-mêng to Tagaung or Old Pagan is not an impossible
feat. Lung Ling is reached in 1-1/2 days, Keng Yang in four, and it is
possible to do the remaining distance about a couple of hundred miles in
eleven days, making fifteen in all.

"I confess I do not see how any one could march to Pagan in Latitude 21°
13' in fifteen days."

LIV., p. 113.

NGA-TSHAUNG-GYAN.

According to the late E. HUBER, Ngan chen kue is not Nga-çaung-khyam, but
Nga Singu, in the Mandalay district. The battle took place, not in the
Yung Ch'ang plain, but in the territory of the Shan Chief of Nan-tien. The
official description of China under the Ming (_Ta Ming yi lung che_, k.
87, 38 v°) tells us that Nan-tien before its annexation by Kúblái Khan,
bore the name of Nan Sung or Nang Sung, and to-day the pass which cuts
this territory in the direction of T'eng Yueh is called Nang-Sung-kwan. It
is hardly possible to doubt that this is the place called Nga-çaung-khyam
by the Burmese Chronicles. (_Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, Oct.-Dec.,
1909, p. 652.)

LVI., p. 117 n.

A Map in the Yun Nan Topography Section 9, "Tu-ssu" or Sawbwas, marks the
Kingdom of "Eight hundred wives" between the mouths of the Irrawaddy and
the Salween Rivers. (Note kindly sent by Mr. H.A. OTTEWILL.)

LIX., p. 128.

CAUGIGU.

M. Georges Maspero, _L'Empire Khmèr_, p. 77 n., thinks that Canxigu =
Luang Prabang; I read Caugigu and I believe it is a transcription of
_Kiao-Chi Kwé_, see p. 131.

LIX., pp. 128, 131.

"I have identified, II., p. 131, Caugigu with _Kiao-Chi kwé_ (Kiao Chi),
i.e. Tung King." Hirth and Rockhill (_Chau Ju-kua_, p. 46 n.) write:
"'Kiáu chi' is certainly the original of Marco Polo's Caugigu and of
Rashideddin's Kafchi kué."


[1] _Pen ts'ao kang mu_, Ch. 25, p. 14b.

[2] Regarding this name and its history, see PELLIOT, _Journ. Asiatique_,
    1912, I., p. 582. Qara Khodja was celebrated for its abundance of
    grapes. (BRETSCHNEIDER, _Mediaeval Res._, I., p. 65.) J. DUDGEON (_The
    Beverages of the Chinese_, p. 27) misreading it Ha-so-hwo, took it for
    the designation of a sort of wine. STUART (_Chinese Materia Medica_,
    p. 459) mistakes it for a transliteration of "hollands," or may be
    "alcohol." The latter word has never penetrated into China in any
    form.

[3] This work is also the first that contains the word _a-la-ki_,
    from Arabic 'araq. (See _T'oung Pao_, 1916, p, 483.)

[4] A range of mountains separating Shan Si from Chi li and Ho Nan.

[5] This is probably a phantasy. We can make nothing of it, as it is not
    stated how the adulterated wine was made.

[6] This possibly is the earliest Chinese allusion to alcohol.



BOOK SECOND.--CONTINUED.


PART III.--JOURNEY SOUTHWARD THROUGH EASTERN PROVINCES OF CATHAY AND
MANZI.


LX., p. 133.

CH'ANG LU.

The Rev. A.C. MOULE (_T'oung Pao_, July, 1915, p. 417) says that "Ciang
lu [Ch'anglu] was not, I think, identical with Ts'ang chou," but does not
give any reason in support of this opinion.

CH'ANG LU SALT.

"To this day the _sole name_ for this industry, the financial centre of
which is T'ien Tsin, is the 'Ch'ang-lu Superintendency.'" (E.H. PARKER,
_As. Quart. Review_, Jan., 1904, p. 147.) "The 'Ch'ang-lu,' or Long Reed
System, derives its name from the city Ts'ang chou, on the Grand Canal
(south of T'ientsin), once so called. In 1285 Kúblái Khan 'once more
divided the Ho-kien (Chih-li) and Shan Tung interests,' which, as above
explained, are really one in working principle. There is now a First Class
Commissary at Tientsin, with sixteen subordinates, and the Viceroy (who
until recent years resided at Pao ting fu) has nominal supervision."
(PARKER, _China_, 1901, pp. 223-4.)

"Il y a 10 groupes de salines, _Tch'ang_, situés dans les districts de Fou
ning hien, Lo t'ing hien, Loan tcheou, Fong joen hien, Pao tch'e hien,
T'ien tsin hien, Tsing hai hien, Ts'ang tcheou et Yen chan hien. Il y a
deux procédés employés pour la fabrication du sel: 1° On étale sur un sol
uni des cendres d'herbes venues dans un terrain salé et on les arrose
d'eau de mer; le liquide qui s'en écoule, d'une densité suffisante pour
faire flotter un ceuf de poule ou des graines de nénuphar, _Che lien_, est
chauffé pendant 24 heures avec de ces mêmes herbes employées comme
combustible, et le sel se dépose. Les cendres des herbes servent à une
autre opération. 2° L'eau de mer est simplement évaporée au soleil....
L'administrateur en chef de ce commerce est le Vice-roi même de la
province de Tche-li." (P. HOANG, _Sel, Variétés Sinologiques_, No. 15, p.
3.)

LXI., pp. 136, 138.

SANGON--T'SIANG KIUN.

"Le titre chinois de _tsiang kiun_ 'général' apparâit toujours dans les
inscriptions de l'Orkhon sous la forme _sänün_, et dans les manuscrits
turcs de Tourfan on trouve _sangun_; ces formes avaient prévalu en Asie
centrale et c'est à elles que répond le _sangon_ de Marco Polo" (éd.
Yule-Cordier, II., 136, 138). PELLIOT, _Kao tch'ang_, _J. As._, Mai-Juin,
1912, p. 584 _n._

LXI., p. 138.

LITAN.

"For Li T'an's rebellion and the siege of Ts'i-nan, see the _Yüan Shih_,
c. v, fol. 1, 2; c. ccvi, fol. 2x°; and c. cxviii, fol. 5r'o. From the last
passage it appears that Aibuga, the father of King George of Tenduc, took
some part in the siege. Prince Ha-pi-ch'i and Shih T'ien-tsê, but not,
that I have seen, Agul or Mangutai, are mentioned in the _Yüan Shih_." (A.
C. MOULE, _T'oung Pao_, July, 1915, p. 417.)

LXII., p. 139.

SINJUMATU

This is Ts'i ning chau. "Sinjumatu was on a navigable stream, as Marco
Polo expressly states and as its name implies. It was not long after 1276,
as we learn from the _Yüan Shih_ (lxiv), that Kúblái carried out very
extensive improvements in the waterways of this very region, and there is
nothing improbable in the supposition that the _ma-t'ou_ or landing-place
had moved up to the more important town, so that the name of Chi chou had
become in common speech Sinjumatu (Hsin-chou-ma-t'ou) by the time that
Marco Polo got to know the place." (A.C. MOULE, _Marco Polo's Sinjumatu,
T'oung Pao_, July, 1912, pp. 431-3.)

LXII., p. 139 n.

GREAT CANAL.

"Et si voz di qu'il ont un fluns dou quel il ont grant profit et voz dirai
comant. Il est voir qe ceste grant fluns vient de ver midi jusque à ceste
cité de Singuimatu, et les homes de la ville cest grant fluns en ont fait
deus: car il font l'une moitié aler ver levant, et l'autre moitié aler ver
ponent: ce est qe le un vait au Mangi, et le autre por le Catai. Et si voz
di por verité que ceste ville a si grant navile, ce est si grant quantité,
qe ne est nul qe ne veisse qe peust croire. Ne entendés qe soient grant
nés, mès eles sunt tel come besogne au grant fluns, et si voz di qe ceste
naville portent au Mangi e por le Catai si grant abondance de mercandies
qe ce est mervoille; et puis quant elles revienent, si tornent encore
cargies, et por ce est merveieliosse chouse à veoir la mercandie qe por
celle fluns se porte sus et jus." (_Marco Polo, Soc. de Geog._, p. 152.)

LXIV., p. 144.

CAIJU.

The Rev. A.C. Moule writes (_T'oung Pao_, July, 1915, p. 415): "Hai chou
is the obvious though by no means perfectly satisfactory equivalent of
Caigiu. For it stands not on, but thirty or forty miles from, the old bed
of the river. A place which answers better as regards position is Ngan
tung which was a _chou_ (_giu_) in the Sung and Yuan Dynasties. The
_Kuang-yü-hsing-shêng_, Vol. II., gives Hai Ngan as the old name of Ngan
Tung in the Eastern Wei Dynasty."

LXIV., p. 144 n.

"La voie des transports du tribut n'était navigable que de Hang tcheou au
fleuve Jaune, [Koublai] la continua jusqu'auprès de sa capitale. Les
travaux commencèrent en 1289 et trois ans après on en faisait l'ouverture.
C'était un ruban de plus de (1800) mille huit cents li (plus de 1000
kil.). L'étendue de ce Canal, qui mérite bien d'être appelé impérial (Yu
ho), de Hang Tcheou à Peking, mesure près de trois mille li, c'est-à-dire
plus de quatre cents lieues." GANDAR, _Le Canal Impérial_, 1894, pp.
21-22. Kwa Chau (Caiju), formerly at the head of the Grand Canal on the
Kiang, was destroyed by the erosions of the river.

LXV., p. 148 n.

Instead of K_o_tan, note 1, read K_i_tan. "The ceremony of leading a sheep
was insisted on in 926, when the Tungusic-Corean King of Puh-hai (or
Manchuria) surrendered, and again in 946, when the puppet Chinese Emperor
of the Tsin Dynasty gave in his submission to the Kitans." (E.H. PARKER,
_As. Quart. Rev._, January, 1904, p. 140.)

LXV., p. 149.

LIN NGAN.

It is interesting to note that the spoils of Lin Ngan carried to Khan
Balig were the beginning of the Imperial Library, increased by the
documents of the Yuen, the Ming, and finally the Ts'ing; it is noteworthy
that during the rebellion of Li Tze-ch'eng, the library was spared, though
part of the palace was burnt. See N. PERI, _Bul. Ecole franç. Ext.
Orient_, Jan.-June, 1911, p. 190.

LXVIII., p. 154 n.

YANJU.

Regarding Kingsmill's note, Mr. John C. Ferguson writes in the _Journal
North China Branch Roy. As. Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, p. 190: "It is evident
that Tiju and Yanju have been correctly identified as Taichow and
Yangchow. I cannot agree with Mr. Kingsmill, however, in identifying Tinju
as Ichin-hien on the Great River. It is not probable that Polo would
mention Ichin twice, once before reaching Yangchow and once after
describing Yangchow. I am inclined to believe that Tinju is Hsien-nü-miao
[Chinese], a large market-place which has close connection both with
Taichow and Yangchow. It is also an important place for the collection of
the revenue on salt, as Polo notices. This identification of Tinju with
Hsien-nü-miao would clear up any uncertainty as to Polo's journey, and
would make a natural route for Polo to take from Kao yu to Yangchow if he
wished to see an important place between these two cities."

LXVIII., p. 154.

YANG CHAU.

In a text of the _Yuen tien chang_, dated 1317, found by Prof. Pelliot,
mention is made of a certain Ngao-la-han [Abraham?] still alive at Yang
chau, who was, according to the text, the son of the founder of the
Church of the Cross of the ãrkägün (_Ye-li-k'o-wen she-tze-sze_), one of
the three Nestorian churches of Yang-chau mentioned by Odoric and omitted
by Marco Polo. Cf. _Cathay_, II., p. 210, and PELLIOT, _T'oung Pao_, 1914,
p. 638.

LXX., p. 167.

SIEGE OF SAIANFU.

Prof. E.H. PARKER writes in the _Journ. of the North China Branch of the
Roy. As. Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, p. 195: "Colonel Yule's note requires some
amendment, and he has evidently been misled by the French translations.
The two Mussulmans who assisted Kúblái with guns were not 'A-la-wa-ting of
Mu-fa-li and Ysemain of Huli or Hiulie,' but A-la-pu-tan of Mao-sa-li and
Y-sz-ma-yin of Shih-la. Shih-la is Shiraz, the Serazy of Marco Polo, and
Mao-sa-li is Mosul. Bretschneider cites the facts in his _Mediaeval Notes_,
and seems to have used another edition, giving the names as A-lao-wa-ting
of Mu-fa-li and Y-sz-ma-yin of Hü-lieh; but even he points out that
Hulagu is meant, i.e. 'a man from Hulagu's country.'"

LXX., p. 169.

"P'AO."

"Captain Gill's testimony as to the ancient 'guns' used by the Chinese is,
of course (as, in fact, he himself states), second-hand and hearsay. In
Vol. XXIV. of the _China Review_ I have given the name and date of a
General who used _p'ao_ so far back as the seventh century." (E.H. PARKER,
_Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, pp. 146-7.)

LXXIV., p. 179 n.

THE ALANS.

According to the _Yuen Shi_ and Devéria, _Journ. Asiat._, Nov.-Dec., 1896,
432, in 1229 and 1241, when Okkodai's army reached the country of the Aas
(Alans), their chief submitted at once and a body of one thousand Alans
were kept for the private guard of the Great Khan; Mangu enlisted in his
bodyguard half the troops of the Alan Prince, Arslan, whose younger son
Nicholas took a part in the expedition of the Mongols against Karajang (Yun
Nan). This Alan imperial guard was still in existence in 1272, 1286, and
1309, and it was divided into two corps with headquarters in the Ling pei
province (Karakorúm). See also Bretschneider, _Mediaeval Researches_, II.,
pp. 84-90.

The massacre of a body of Christian Alans related by Marco Polo (II., p.
178) is confirmed by Chinese sources.

LXXIV., p. 180, n. 3.

ALANS.

See Notes in new edition of _Cathay and the Way thither_, III., pp. 179
seq., 248.

The massacre of the Alans took place, according to Chinese sources, at
Chen-ch'ao, not at Ch'ang chau. The Sung general who was in charge of the
city, Hung Fu, after making a faint submission, got the Alans drunk at
night and had them slaughtered. Cf. PELLIOT, _Chrétiens d'Asie centrale et
d'Extrême-Orient, T'oung Pao_, Dec., 1914, p. 641.

LXXVI., pp. 184-5.

VUJU, VUGHIN, CHANGAN.

The Rev. A.C. Moule has given in the _T'oung Pao_, July, 1915, pp. 393
seq., the Itinerary between Lin Ngan (Hang Chau) and Shang Tu, followed by
the Sung Dynasty officials who accompanied their Empress Dowager to the
Court of Kúblái after the fall of Hang Chau in 1276; the diary was written
by Yen Kwang-ta, a native of Shao King, who was attached to the party.

The Rev. A.C. Moule in his notes writes, p. 411: "The connexion between
Hu-chou and Hang-chou is very intimate, and the north suburb of the
latter, the Hu-shu, was known in Marco Polo's day as the Hu-chou shih. The
identification of Vughin with Wu-chiang is fairly satisfactory, but it is
perhaps worth while to point out that there is a place called Wu chên
about fifty _li_ north of Shih-mên; and for Ciangan there is a tempting
place called Ch'ang-an chên just south of Shih-mên on a canal which was
often preferred to the T'ang-hsi route until the introduction of steam
boats."


LXXVI., p. 192. "There is one church only [at Kinsay], belonging to the
Nestorian Christians."

It was one of the seven churches built in China by Mar Sarghis, called _Ta
p'u hing sze_ (Great Temple of Universal Success), or _Yang yi Hu-mu-la_,
near the _Tsien k'iao men_. Cf. _Marco Polo_, II., p. 177; VISSIÈRE, _Rev.
du Monde Musulman_, March, 1913, p. 8.

LXXVI., p. 193.

KINSAY.

Chinese Atlas in the Magliabecchian Library.

The Rev. A.C. Moule has devoted a long note to this Atlas in the _Journ.
R. As. Soc._, July, 1919, pp. 393-395. He has come to the conclusion that
the Atlas is no more nor less than the _Kuang yü t'u_, and that it seems
that _Camse_ stands neither for Ching-shih, as Yule thought, nor for Hang
chau as he, Moule, suggested in 1917, but simply for the province of
Kiangsi. (_A Note on the Chinese Atlas in the Magliabecchian Library, with
reference to Kinsay in Marco Polo_.)

Mr. P. von Tanner, Commissioner of Customs at Hang chau, wrote in 1901 in
the _Decennial Reports, 1892-1901, of the Customs_, p. 4: "While
Hangchow owes its fame to the lake on the west, it certainly owes its
existence towards the south-west to the construction of the sea wall,
called by the Chinese by the appropriate name of bore wall. The erection
of this sea wall was commenced about the year A.D. 915, by Prince Ts'ien
Wu-su; it extends from Hang Chau to Chuan sha, near the opening of the
Hwang pu.... The present sea wall, in its length of 180 miles, was built.
The wall is a stupendous piece of work, and should take an equal share of
fame with the Grand Canal and the Great Wall of China, as its engineering
difficulties were certainly infinitely greater.... The fact that Marco Polo
does not mention it shows almost conclusively that he never visited Hang
Chau, but got his account from a Native poet. He must have taken it,
besides, without the proverbial grain of salt, and without eliminating the
over-numerous 'thousands' and 'myriads' prompted less by facts than by
patriotic enthusiasm and poetical licence."

LXXVI., p. 194 n.

BRIDGES OF KINSAY.

In the heart of Hang-chau, one of the bridges spanning the canal which
divides into two parts the walled city from north to south is called _Hwei
Hwei k'iao_ (Bridge of the Mohamedans) or _Hwei Hwei Sin k'iao_ (New
Bridge of the Mohamedans), while its literary name is _Tsi Shan k'iao_
(Bridge of Accumulated Wealth); it is situated between the Tsien k'iao on
the south and the _Fung lo k'iao_ on the north. Near the _Tsi Shan k'iao_
was a mosk, and near the _Tsien k'iao_, at the time of the Yuen, there
existed Eight Pavilions (_Pa kien lew_) inhabited by wealthy Mussulmans.
Mohamedans from Arabia and Turkestan were sent by the Yuen to Hang-chau;
they had prominent noses, did not eat pork, and were called _So mu chung_
(Coloured-eye race). VISSIÈRE, _Rev. du Monde Musulman_, March, 1913.

LXXVI., p. 199.

KINSAY, KHANFU.

Pelliot proposes to see in Khanfu a transcription of Kwang-fu, an
abridgment of Kwang chau fu, prefecture of Kwang chau (Canton). Cf. _Bul.
Ecole franç Ext. Orient_, Jan.-June, 1904, p. 215 n., but I cannot very
well accept this theory.

LXXX., pp. 225, 226. "They have also [in Fu Kien] a kind of fruit
resembling saffron, and which serves the purpose of saffron just as well."

Dr. Laufer writes to me: "Yule's identification with a species of
_Gardenia_ is all right, although this is not peculiar to Fu Kien. Another
explanation, however, is possible. In fact, the Chinese speak of a certain
variety of saffron peculiar to Fu Kien. The _Pen ts'ao kang mu shi i_ (Ch.
4, p. 14 b) contains the description of a 'native saffron' (_t'u hung hwa_,
in opposition to the 'Tibetan red flower' or genuine saffron) after the
Continued Gazetteer of Fu Kien, as follows: 'As regards the native saffron,
the largest specimens are seven or eight feet high. The leaves are like
those of the p'i-p'a (_Eriobotrya japonica_), but smaller and without hair.
In the autumn it produces a white flower like a grain of maize (_Su-mi, Zea
mays_). It grows in Fu Chou and Nan Ngen Chou (now Yang Kiang in Kwang
Tung) in the mountain wilderness. That of Fu Chou makes a fine creeper,
resembling the _fu-yung_ (_Hibiscus mutabilis_), green above and white
below, the root being like that of the _ko_ (_Pachyrhizus thunbergianus_).
It is employed in the pharmacopeia, being finely chopped for this purpose
and soaked overnight in water in which rice has been scoured; then it is
soaked for another night in pure water and pounded: thus it is ready for
prescriptions.' This plant, as far as I know, has not yet been identified,
but it may well be identical with Polo's saffron of Fu Kien."

LXXX., pp. 226, 229 n.

_THE SILKY FOWLS OF MARCO POLO_.

Tarradale, Muir of Ord, Ross-shire, May 10, 1915.

In a letter lately received from my cousin Mr. George Udny Yule (St.
John's College, Cambridge) he makes a suggestion which seems to me both
probable and interesting. As he is at present too busy to follow up the
question himself, I have asked permission to publish his suggestion in _The
Athenaeum_, with the hope that some reader skilled in mediaeval French and
Italian may be able to throw light on the subject.

Mr. Yule writes as follows:--

"The reference [to these fowls] in 'Marco Polo' (p. 226 of the last
edition; not p. 126 as stated in the index) is a puzzle, owing to the
statement that they are _black_ all over. A black has, I am told, been
recently created, but the common breed is white, as stated in the note and
by Friar Odoric.

"It has occurred to me as a possibility that what Marco Polo may have
meant to say was that they were _black all through_, or some such phrase.
The flesh of these fowls is deeply pigmented, and looks practically black;
it is a feature that is very remarkable, and would certainly strike any
one who saw it. The details that they 'lay eggs just like our fowls,' i.e.,
not pigmented, and are 'very good to eat,' are facts that would naturally
deserve especial mention in this connexion. Mr. A.D. Darbishire (of
Oxford and Edinburgh University) tells me that is quite correct: the flesh
look horrid, but it is quite good eating. Do any texts suggest the
possibility of such a reading as I suggest?"

The references in the above quotation are, of course, to my father's
version of Marco Polo. That his nephew should make this interesting little
contribution to the subject would have afforded him much gratification.

A.F. YULE.

_The Athenaeum_, No. 4570, May 29, 1915, p. 485.

LXXX., pp. 226, 230.

SUGAR.

"I may observe that the _Pêh Shï_ (or 'Northern Dynasties History') speaks
of a large consumption of sugar in Cambodgia as far back as the fifth
century of our era. There can be no mistake about the meaning of the words
_sha-t'ang_, which are still used both in China and Japan (_sa-to_). The
'History of the T'ang Dynasty,' in its chapter on Magadha, says that in the
year 627 the Chinese Emperor 'sent envoys thither to procure the method of
boiling out sugar, and then ordered the Yang-chou sugar-cane growers to
press it out in the same way, when it appeared that both in colour and
taste ours excelled that of the Western Regions' [of which Magadha was
held to be part]." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904,
p. 146.)

ZAITUN.

LXXXII., p. 237.

M.G. Ferrand remarks that _Tze tung_ = [Arabic], _zitun_ in Arabic,
inexactly read _Zaytun_, on account of its similitude with its homonym
[Arabic], _zyatun_, olive. (_Relat de Voy._, I., p. 11.)

LXXXII., pp. 242-245.

"Perhaps it may not be generally known that in the dialect of Foochow
Ts'üan-chou and Chang-chou are at the present day pronounced in _exactly
the same way_--i.e., 'Chiong-chiu,' and it is by no means impossible that
Marco Polo's _Tyunju_ is an attempt to reproduce this sound, especially
as, coming to Zaitun viâ Foochow, he would probably first hear the Foochow
pronunciation." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 148)



BOOK THIRD.


JAPAN, THE ARCHIPELAGO, SOUTHERN INDIA, AND THE COASTS AND ISLANDS OF THE
INDIAN SEA.


II., p. 256, n. 1.

NÁFÚN.

Regarding the similitude between _Nipon_ and _Nafún_, Ferrand,
_Textes_, I., p. 115 n., remarks: "Ce rapprochement n'a aucune chance
d'être exact [Arabic] _Nafun_ est certainement une erreur de graphic
pour [Arabic] _Yakut_ ou [Arabic] _Nakus_."

III., p. 261.

JAPANESE WAR.

"Hung Ts'a-k'iu, who set out overland viâ Corea and Tsushima in
1281, is much more likely than Fan Wên-hu to be Von-sain-_chin_
(probably a misprint for _chiu_), for the same reason _Vo_-cim
stands for _Yung_-ch'ang, and _sa_ for _sha, ch'a, ts'a_,
etc. A-la-han (not A-ts'ï-han) fell sick at the start, and was replaced by
A-ta-hai. To copy _Abacan_ for _Alahan_ would be a most natural
error, and I see from the notes that M. Schlegel has come to the same
conclusion independently." (E.H. PARKER, _Asiatic Quart. Rev._,
Jan., 1904, p. 147.)

V., pp. 270, 271 n.

CHAMBA.

Lieut.-General Sagatu, So Tu or So To, sent in 1278 an envoy to the King
known as Indravarman VI. or Jaya Sinhavarman. Maspero (_Champa_, pp. 237,
254) gives the date of 1282 for the war against Champa with Sagatu
appointed at the head of the Chinese Army on the 16th July, 1282; the war
lasted until 1285. Maspero thinks 1288 the date of Marco's visit to Champa
(L.c., p. 254).

VII., p. 277 n.

SONDUR AND CONDUR (PULO CONDORE).

Mr. C.O. Blagden has some objection to Sundar Fulat being Pulo Condor:
"In connexion with Sundur-Fulat, some difficulties seem to arise. If it
represents Pulo Condor, why should navigators on their way to China call
at it _after_ visiting Champa, which lies beyond it? And if _fulat_
represents a Persian plural of the Malay _Pulau_,'island,' why does it not
precede the proper name as generic names do in Malay and in Indonesian and
Southern Indo-Chinese languages generally? Further, if _sundur_
represents a native form _cundur_, whence the hard _c_ (= _k_) of our
modern form of the word? I am not aware that Malay changes _c_ to _k_ in
an initial position." (_J. R. As. Soc._, April, 1914, p. 496.)

"L'île de Sendi Foulat est très grande; il y a de l'eau douce, des champs
cultivés, du, riz et des cocotiers. Le roi s'appelle Resed. Les habitants
portent la fouta soit en manteau, soit en ceinture.... L'île de Sendi
Foulat est entourée, du côté de la Chine, de montagnes d'un difficile
accès, et ou soufflent des vents impétueux. Cette île est une des portes
de la Chine. De là à la ville de Khancou, X journées." EDRISI, I., p. 90.
In Malay Pulo Condor is called Pulau Kundur (Pumpkin Island) and in
Cambodian, Koh Tralàch. See PELLIOT, _Deux Itinéraires_, pp. 218-220.
Fulat = _ful_ (Malay _pule_) + Persian plural suffix _-at_. _Cundur fulat_
means Pumpkin Island. FERRAND, _Textes_, pp. ix., 2.

VII., p. 277.

LOCAC.

According to W. Tomaschek (_Die topographischen Capitel des Indischen
Seespiegels Mohit_, Vienna, 1897, Map XXIII.) it should be read _Losak_ =
The _Lochac_ of the G.T. "It is _Lankaçoka_ of the Tanjore inscription of
1030, the _Ling ya ssi kia_ of the _Chu-fan-chï_ of Chau Ju-kua, the
_Lenkasuka_ of the _Nagarakretagama_, the _Lang-saka_ of Sulayman al
Mahri, situated on the eastern side of the Malay Peninsula." (G. FERRAND,
_Malaka, le Malayu et Malayur_, _J. As._, July-Aug, 1918, p. 91.) On the
situation of this place which has been erroneously identified with
Tenasserim, see Ibid., pp. 134-145 M. Ferrand places it in the region of
Ligor.

VII., pp. 278-279.

LAWÁKI.

_Lawáki_ comes from Lovek, a former capital of Cambodia; referring to the
aloes-wood called _Lawáki_ in the _Ain-i-Akbari_ written in the 16th
century, FERRAND, _Textes_, I., p. 285 n., remarks: "On vient de voir que
Ibn-al-Baytar a emprunté ce nom à Avicenne (980-1037) qui écrivit son
_Canon de la Médecine_ dans les premières années du XI'e siècle. _Lawák_
ou Lowak nous est donc attesté sous le forme _Lawáki_ ou _Lowaki_ dès le
X'e siècle, puis qu'il est mentionné, au début du XI'e, par Avicenne qui
résidait alors à Djurdjan, sur la Caspienne."

VIII., pp. 280-3.

OF THE ISLAND CALLED PENTAM, AND THE CITY MALAIUR.

The late Col. G.E. Gerini published in the _J.R.A.S._, July, 1905, pp.
485-511, a paper on the _Nagarakretagama_, a Javanese poem composed by a
native bard named Prapañca, in honour of his sovereign Hayam Wuruk
(1350-1389), the greatest ruler of Majapahit. He upsets all the theories
accepted hitherto regarding _Panten_. The southernmost portion of the Malay
Peninsula is known as the _Malaya_ or _Malayu_ country (Tanah-Malayu) =
Chinese _Ma-li-yü-êrh = Malayur = Maluir_ of Marco Polo, witness the river
_Malayu_ (_Sungei Malayu_) still so called, and the village _Bentan_, both
lying there (ignored by all Col. Gerini's predecessors) on the northern
shore of the Old Singapore Strait. Col. Gerini writes (p. 509): "There
exists to this day a village _Bentam_ on the mainland side of Singapore
Strait, right opposite the mouth of the Sungei Selitar, on the northern
shore of Singapore Island, it is not likely that both travellers [Polo and
Odoric] mistook the coast of the Malay Peninsula for an island. The island
of _Pentam_, _Paten_, or _Pantem_ must therefore be the _Be-Tumah_ (Island)
of the Arab Navigators, the _Tamasak_ Island of the Malays; and, in short,
the Singapore Island of our day." He adds: "The island of _Pentam_ cannot
be either Batang or Bitang, the latter of which is likewise mentioned by
Marco Polo under the same name of _Pentam_, but 60 + 30 = 90 miles before
reaching the former. Batang, girt all round by dangerous reefs, is
inaccessible except to small boats. So is Bintang, with the exception of
its south-western side, where is now Riau, and where, a little further
towards the north, was the settlement at which the chief of the island
resided in the fourteenth century. There was no reason for Marco Polo's
junk to take that roundabout way in order to call at such, doubtlessly
insignificant place. And the channel (i.e. Rhio Strait) has far more than
four paces' depth of water, whereas there are no more than two fathoms at
the western entrance to the Old Singapore Strait."

Marco Polo says (II., p. 280): "Throughout this distance [from Pentam]
there is but four paces' depth of water, so that great ships in passing
this channel have to lift their rudders, for they draw nearly as much
water as that." Gerini remarks that it is unmistakably the _Old Singapore
Strait_, and that there is no channel so shallow throughout all those
parts except among reefs. "The _Old Strait_ or _Selat Tebrau_, says N.B.
Dennys, _Descriptive Dict. of British Malaya_, separating Singapore from
Johore. Before the settlement of the former, this was the only known route
to China; it is generally about a mile broad, but in some parts little
more than three furlongs. Crawford went through it in a ship of 400 tons,
and found the passage tedious but safe." Most of Sinologists, Beal,
Chavannes, Pelliot, _Bul. Ecole Ext. Orient._, IV., 1904, pp. 321-2,
323-4, 332-3, 341, 347, place the Malaiur of Marco Polo at Palembang in
Sumatra.

VIII., pp. 281, n. 283 n.

TANA-MALAYU.

"On a traduit _Tanah Malayu_ par 'Pays des Malais,' mais cette
traduction n'est pas rigoureusement exacte. Pour prendre une expression
parallèle, _Tanah Djawa_ signifie 'Pays de Java,' mais non 'Pays des
Javanais.'

"En réalité, _tanah_ 'terre, sol, pays, contrée' s'emploie seulement avec
un toponyme qui doit étre rendu par un toponyme équivalent. Le nom des
habitants du pays s'exprime, en malais, en ajoutant _oran_ 'homme,
personne, gens, numéral des êtres humains' au nom du pays: '_oran
Malayu_' Malais, litt. 'gens de Malayu'; _oran Djawa_ Javanais, litt.
'gens de Java.' _Tanah Malayu_ a done très nettement le sens de 'pays de
Malayu'; cf. l'expression kawi correspondante dans le _Nagarakrêtugama:
tanah ri Malayu_ 'pays de Malayu' où chaque mot français recouvre
exactement le substantif, la préposition et le toponyme de l'expression
kawi. Le _taná Malayo_ de Barros s'applique donc à un pays déterminé du
nom de Malayu qui, d'après l'auteur des _Décades_, était situé entre
Djambi et Palemban. Nous savons, d'autre part, que le pays en question
avait sa capitale dans l'intérieur de l'île, mais qu'il s'étendait dans
l'Est jusqu'à la mer et que la côte orientale a été désignée par les
textes chinois du VII'e siècle sous le nom de _Mo-lo-yeou, Mo-lo-yu =
Malayu_, c'est-à-dire par le nom de l'Etat ou royaume dont elle faisait
partie." (G. FERRAND, _J. As._, July-Aug., 1918, pp. 72-73.)

VIII., p. 282.

MALACCA.

See G. FERRAND, _Malaka, le Malayu et Malayur, J.As._, 1918. Besides
Malayu of Sumatra, there was a city of Malayur which M. Ferrand thinks is
Malacca.

VIII., p. 282 n. "This informs us that Malacca first acknowledged itself
as tributary to the Empire in 1405, the king being _Sili-ju-eul-sula_(?)."

In this name _Si-li-ju-eul-su-la_, one must read [Chinese] _pa_, instead of
[Chinese], and read _Si-li-pa-eul-su-la_ = Siri Paramisura (Çri
Paramaçvara). (PELLIOT, _Bul. Ecole franc. Ext. Orient_, IV., July-Sept.,
1904, p. 772.)

IX., p. 285. "They [the rhinoceros] do no mischief, however, with the
horn, but with the tongue alone; for this is covered all over with long
and strong prickles [and when savage with any one they crush him under
their knees and then rasp him with their tongue]."

"Its tongue is like the burr of a chestnut." (CHAU JU-KWA, P. 233.)

IX., p. 289.

SUMATRA.

In 1017, an embassy was sent to the Court of China by Haji Sumutrabhumi,
"the king of the land of Sumutra" (Sumatra). The envoys had a letter in
golden characters and tribute in the shape of pearls, ivory, Sanscrit,
books folded between boards, and slaves; by an imperial edict they were
permitted to see the emperor and to visit some of the imperial buildings.
When they went back an edict was issued addressed to their king,
accompanied by various presents, calculated to please them. (GROENEVELT,
_Notes on the Malay Archipelago_, p. 65.) G. Ferrand writes (_J. As._,
Mars-Avril, 1917, p. 335) that according to the texts quoted by him in his
article the island of Sumatra was known to the Chinese under the name
_Sumuta = Sumutra_, during the first years of the eleventh century, nearly
300 years before Marco Polo's voyage; and under the name of _Sumutra_, by
the Arab sailors, previously to the first voyage of the Portuguese in
Indonesia.

IX., p. 287.

FERLEC.

Prof. Pelliot writes to me that the _Ferlec_ of Marco Polo is to be found
several times in the _Yuan Shi_, year 1282 and following, under the forms
_Fa-li-lang_ (Chap. 12, fol. 4 v.), _Fa-li-la_ (Chap. 13, fol. 2 v.),
_Pie-li-la_ (Chap. 13, fol. 4 v.), _Fa-eul-la_ (Chap. 18, fol. 8 v.); in
the first case, it is quoted near _A-lu_ (_Aru_) and _Kan-pai_ (Kampei).
--Cf. FERRAND, _Textes_, II., p. 670.

XI., pp. 304-5.

SAGO TREE.

Sago Palm = _Sagus Rumphianus_ and _S. Laevis_ (DENNYS).--"From Malay
_sagu_. The farinaceous pith taken out of the stem of several species of a
particular genus of palm, especially _Metroxylon laeve_, Mart., and _M.
Rumphii_, Willd., found in every part of the Indian Archipelago, including
the Philippines, wherever there is proper soil." (_Hobson-Jobson_.)

XII., p. 306. "In this island [Necuveran] they have no king nor chief, but
live like beasts. And I tell you they go all naked, both men and women,
and do not use the slightest covering of any kind."

We have seen (_Marco Polo_, II., p. 308) that Mr. G. Phillips writes
(_J.R.A.S._, July, 1895, p. 529) that the name Tsui-lan given to the
Nicobars by the Chinese is, he has but little doubt, "a corruption of
Nocueran, the name given by Marco Polo to the group. The characters
Tsui-lan are pronounced Ch'ui lan in Amoy, out of which it is easy to make
Cueran. The Chinese omitted the initial syllable and called them the Cueran
Islands, while Marco Polo called them the Nocueran Islands." Schlegel,
_T'oung Pao_, IX., p. 182-190, thinks that the Andaman Islands are alone
represented by Ts'ui-lan; the Nicobar being the old country of the Lo-ch'a,
and in modern time, _Mao shan_, "Hat Island." Pelliot, _Bul. Ecole Ext.
Orient_, IV., 1904, pp. 354-5, is inclined to accept Phillip's opinion. He
says that Mao-shan is one island, not a group of islands; it is not proved
that the country of the Lo ch'a is the Nicobar Islands; the name of
_Lo-hing-man_, Naked Barbarians, is, contrary to Schlegel's opinion, given
to the Nicobar as well as to the Andaman people; the name of Andaman
appears in Chinese for the first time during the thirteenth century in Chao
Ju-kwa under the form _Yen-t'o-man_; Chao Ju-kwa specifies that going from
Lambri (_Sumatra_) to Ceylon, it is an unfavourable wind which makes ships
drift towards these islands; on the other hand, texts show that the
Ts'ui-lan islands were on the usual route from Sumatra to Ceylon.--Gerini,
_Researches_, p. 396, considers that _Ts'ui-lan shan_ is but the phonetic
transcript of _Tilan-chong_ Island, the north-easternmost of the
Nicobars.--See Hirth and Rockhill's _Chau Ju-kwa_, p. 12n.--Sansk.
_narikera_, "cocoanuts," is found in Necuveram.

XIII., p. 309.

ANGAMANAIN.

"When sailing from Lan-wu-li to Si-lan, if the wind is not fair, ships may
be driven to a place called Yen-t'o-man [in Cantonese, An-t'o-man]. This
is a group of two islands in the middle of the sea, one of them being
large, the other small; the latter is quite uninhabited. The large one
measures seventy _li_ in circuit. The natives on it are of a colour
resembling black lacquer; they eat men alive, so that sailors dare not
anchor on this coast.

"This island does not contain so much as an inch of iron, for which reason
the natives use (bits of) conch-shell (ch'ö-k'ü) with ground edges instead
of knives. On this island is a sacred relic, (the so-called) 'Corpse on a
bed of rolling gold....'" (CHAU JU-KWA, p. 147.)

XIII., p. 311.

DOG-HEADED BARBARIANS.

Rockhill in a note to Carpini (_Rubruck_, p. 36) mentions "the Chinese
annals of the sixth century (_Liang Shu_, bk. 54; _Nan shih_, bk. 79)
which tell of a kingdom of dogs (_Kou kuo_) in some remote corner of
north-eastern Asia. The men had human bodies but dogs' heads, and their
speech sounded like barking. The women were like the rest of their sex in
other parts of the world."

Dr. Laufer writes to me: "A clear distinction must be made between
dog-headed people and the motive of descent from a dog-ancestor,--two
entirely different conceptions. The best exposition of the subject of the
cynocephali according to the traditions of the Ancients is now presented by
J. MARQUART (_Benin-Sammlung des Reichsmuseums in Leiden_, pp. cc-ccxix).
It is essential to recognize that the mediaeval European, Arabic, and
Chinese fables about the country of the dog-heads are all derived from one
common source, which is traceable to the Greek Romance of Alexander; that
is an Oriental-Hellenistic cycle. In a wider sense, the dog-heads belong to
the cycle of wondrous peoples, which assumed shape among the Greek mariners
under the influence of Indian and West-Asiatic ideas. The tradition of the
_Nan shi_ (Ch. 79, p. 4), in which the motive of the dog-heads, the women,
however, being of human shape, meets its striking parallel in Adam of
Bremen (_Gesta Hamburg, ecclesiae pontificum_, 4, 19), who thus reports on
the _Terra Feminarum_ beyond the Baltic Sea: 'Cumque pervenerint ad partum,
si quid masculini generis est, fiunt cynocephali, si quid femini,
speciosissimae mulieres.' See further KLAPROTH, _J. As._, XII., 1833, p.
287; DULAURIER, _J. As._, 1858, p. 472; ROCKHILL, _Rubruck_, p. 36."

In an interesting paper on Walrus and Narwhal Ivory, Dr. Laufer (_T'oung
Pao_, July, 1916, p. 357) refers to dog-headed men with women of human
shape, from a report from the Mongols received by King Hethum of Armenia.

XIV., p. 313. "The people [of Ceylon] are Idolaters, and go quite naked
except that they cover the middle.... The King of this Island possesses a
ruby which is the finest and biggest in the world; I will tell you what it
is like. It is about a palm in length, and as thick as a man's arm; to
look at, it is the most resplendent object upon earth; it is quite free
from flaw and as red as fire. Its value is so great that a price for it in
money could hardly be named at all."

Chau Ju-kwa, p. 73, has: "The King holds in his hand a jewel five inches
in diameter, which cannot be burnt by fire, and which shines in (the
darkness of) night like a torch. The King rubs his face with it daily, and
though he were passed ninety he would retain his youthful looks.

"The people of the country are very dark-skinned, they wrap a sarong round
their bodies, go bare-headed and bare-footed."

XIV., p. 314 n.

THE ISLAND OF CEYLON.

The native kings of this period were Pandita Prakama Bahu II., who reigned
from 1267 to 1301 at Dambadenia, about 40 miles north-north-east of
Columbo (Marco Polo's time); Vijaya Bahu IV. (1301-1303); Bhuwaneka Bahu
I. (1303-1314); Prakama Bahu III. (1314-1319); Bhuwaneka Bahu II. (1319).

SAGAMONI BORCAN.

= Sakya Muni Burkhan.

XV., p. 319. Seilan-History of Sagamoni Borcan. "And they maintain ...
that the teeth, and the hair, and the dish that are there were those of
the same king's son, whose name was Sagamoni Borcan, or Sagamoni the
Saint."

See J.F. FLEET, _The Tradition about the corporeal Relics of Buddha_.
(_Jour. R. As. Soc._, 1906, and April, 1907, pp. 341-363.)

XV., p. 320.

In a paper on _Burkhan_ printed in the _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, XXXVI., 1917, pp. 390-395, Dr. Berthold Laufer has come to the
following conclusion: "Burkhan in Mongol by no means conveys exclusively
the limited notion of Buddha, but, first of all, signifies 'deity, god,
gods,' and secondly 'representation or image of a god.' This general
significance neither inheres in the term Buddha nor in Chinese Fo; neither
do the latter signify 'image of Buddha'; only Mongol _burkhan_ has this
force, because originally it conveyed the meaning of a shamanistic image.
From what has been observed on the use of the word _burkhan_ in the
shamanistic or pre-Buddhistic religions of the Tungusians, Mongols and
Turks, it is manifest that the word well existed there before the arrival
of Buddhism, fixed in its form and meaning, and was but subsequently
transferred to the name of Buddha."

XV., pp. 323 seq.

BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT.

The German traveller von Le Coq has found at Turfan fragments of this
legend in Turki which he published in 1912 in his _Türkische Manichaica_,
which agree with the legend given by the Persian Ibn Bâbawaih of Qum, who
died in 991. (S. d'OLDENBOURG, _Bul. Ac. I. des Sc._, Pet., 1912, pp.
779-781; W. RADLOFF, _Alttürk. Stud._, VI., zu _Barlaam und Joasaph_). M.P.
Alfaric (_La Vie chrétienne du Bouddha, J. Asiatique_, Sept.-Oct., 1917,
pp. 269 seq.; _Rev. de l'Hist. des Religions_, Nov.-Dec., 1918, pp. 233
seq.) has studied this legend from a Manichaean point of view.

XV., p. 327.

See _La "Vie des Saints Barlaam et Josaphat" et la légende du Bouddha_, in
Vol. I., pp. xxxxvii-lvi, of _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ par Emmanuel
COSQUIN, Paris, Vieweg, n.d. [1886].

XVI., p. 335 n.

TANJORE.

Speaking of Chu-lién (Chola Dominion, Coromandel Coast), Chau Ju-kwa, pp.
93-4, says:--

"The kingdom of Chu-lién is the Southern Yin-tu of the west. To the east
(its capital) is five _li_ distant from the sea; to the west one comes to
Western India (after) 1500 _li_; to the south one comes to Lo-lan (after)
2500 _li_; to the north one comes to Tun-t'ien (after) 3000 _li_."

Hirth and Rockhill remark, p. 98: "Ma Tuan-lin and the _Sung-shï_
reproduce textually this paragraph (the former writer giving erroneously
the distance between the capital and the sea as 5000 _li_). Yule, _Marco
Polo_, II, p. 335, places the principal port of the Chola kingdom at
Kaveripattanam, the 'Pattanam' par excellence of the Coromandel Coast, and
at one of the mouths of the Kaveri. He says that there seems to be some
evidence that the Tanjore ports were, before 1300, visited by Chinese
trade. The only Lo-lan known to mediaeval Chinese is mentioned in the
_T'ang-shu_, 221'8, and is identified with the capital of Bamian, in
Afghanistan. I think our text is corrupt here and that the character _lo_
should be changed to _si_, and that we should read Si-lan, our Ceylon.
Both Ma and the _Sung-shï_ say that 2500 _li_ south-east of Chu-lién was
'Si-lan-ch'ï-kuo with which it was at war. Of course the distance
mentioned is absurd, but all figures connected with Chu-lién in Chinese
accounts are inexplicably exaggerated."

XVI., pp. 336-337.

CHINESE PAGODA AT NEGAPATAM.

Sir Walter ELLIOT, K.C.S.I., to whom Yule refers for the information given
about this pagoda, has since published in the _Indian Antiquary_,
VII., 1878, pp. 224-227, an interesting article with the title: _The
Edifice formerly known as the Chinese or Jaina Pagoda at Negapatam_,
from which we gather the following particulars regarding its
destruction:--

"It went by various names, as the _Puduveli-gôpuram_, the old pagoda,
Chinese pagoda, black pagoda, and in the map of the Trigonometrical Survey
(Sheet 79) it stands as the Jeyna (Jaina) pagoda. But save in name it has
nothing in common with Hindu or Muhammadan architecture, either in form or
ornament."

"In 1859, the Jesuit Fathers presented a petition to the Madras Government
representing the tower to be in a dangerous condition, and requesting
permission to pull it down and appropriate the materials to their own
use...." In 1867 "the Fathers renewed their application for leave to
remove it, on the following grounds: '1st, because they considered it to
be unsafe in its present condition; 2nd, because it obstructed light and
sea-breeze from a chapel which they had built behind it; 3rd, because they
would very much like to get the land on which it stood; and 4th, because
the bricks of which it was built would be very useful to them for building
purposes.'

"The Chief Engineer, who meanwhile had himself examined the edifice, and
had directed the District Engineer to prepare a small estimate for its
repair, reported that the first only of the above reasons had any weight,
and that it would be met if Colonel O'Connell's estimate, prepared under
his own orders, received the sanction of Government. He therefore
recommended that this should be given, and the tower allowed to stand....

"The Chief Engineer's proposal did not meet with approval, and on the 28th
August 1867, the following order was made on the Jesuits' petition: 'The
Governor in Council is pleased to sanction the removal of the old tower at
Negapatam by the officers of St. Joseph's College, at their own expense,
and the appropriation of the available material to such school-building
purposes as they appear to have in contemplation.

"The Fathers were not slow in availing themselves of this permission. The
venerable building was speedily levelled, and the site cleared."

In making excavations connected with the college a bronze image
representing a Buddhist or Jaina priest in the costume and attitude of the
figures in wood and metal brought from Burma was found; it was presented
to Lord Napier, in 1868; a reproduction of it is given in Sir Walter
Elliot's paper.

In a note added by Dr. Burnell to this paper, we read: "As I several times
in 1866 visited the ruin referred to, I may be permitted to say that it
had become merely a shapeless mass of bricks. I have no doubt that it was
originally a _vimâna_ or shrine of some temple; there are some of
precisely the same construction in parts of the Chingleput district."

XVI., p. 336 n.

NEGAPATAM.

We read in the _Tao yi chi lio_ (1349) that "T'u t'a (the eastern stupa)
is to be found in the flat land of Pa-tan (Fattan, Negapatam?) and that it
is surrounded with stones. There is stupa of earth and brick many feet
high; it bears the following Chinese inscription: 'The work was finished
in the eighth moon of the third year _hien chw'en_ (1267).' It is related
that these characters have been engraved by some Chinese in imitation of
inscriptions on stone of those countries; up to the present time, they
have not been destroyed." Hien chw'en is the _nien hao_ of Tu Tsung, one
of the last emperors of the Southern Sung Dynasty, not of a Mongol
Sovereign. I owe this information to Prof. Pelliot, who adds that the
comparison between the Chinese Pagoda of Negapatam and the text of the
_Tao yi chi lio_ has been made independent of him by Mr. Fujita in the
_Tokyo-gakuho_, November, 1913, pp. 445-46. (_Cathay_, I., p. 81 n.)

XVII., p. 340. "Here [Maabar] are no horses bred; and thus a great part of
the wealth of the country is wasted in purchasing horses; I will tell you
how. You must know that the merchants of Kis and Hormes, Dofar and Soer
and Aden collect great numbers of destriers and other horses, and these
they bring to the territories of this King and of his four brothers, who
are kings likewise as I told you..."

Speaking of Yung (or Wöng) man, Chau Ju-kwa tells us (p. 133): "In the
mountains horse-raising is carried on a large scale. The other countries
which trade here purchase horses, pearls and dates which they get in
exchange for cloves, cardamom seeds and camphor."

XVII., p. 341.

SUTTEES IN INDIA.

"Suttee is a Brahmanical rite, and there is a Sanskrit ritual in existence
(see _Classified Index to the Tanjore MSS._, p. 135a.). It was
introduced into Southern India with the Brahman civilization, and was
prevalent there chiefly in the Brahmanical Kingdom of Vijayanagar, and
among the Mahrattas. In Malabar, the most primitive part of S. India, the
rite is forbidden (Anacharanirnaya, v. 26). The cases mentioned by
Teixeira, and in the _Lettres édifiantes_, occurred at Tanjore and Madura.
A (Mahratta) Brahman at Tanjore told one of the present writers that he
had to perform commemorative funeral rites for his grandfather and
grandmother on the same day, and this indicated that his grandmother had
been a _sati_." YULE, _Hobson-Jobson_. Cf. _Cathay_, II., pp. 139-140.

MAABAR.

XVII., p. 345. Speaking of this province, Marco Polo says: "They have
certain abbeys in which are gods and goddesses to whom many young girls
are consecrated; their fathers and mothers presenting them to that idol
for which they entertain the greatest devotion. And when the [monks] of a
convent desire to make a feast to their god, they send for all those
consecrated damsels and make them sing and dance before the idol with
great festivity. They also bring meats to feed their idol withal; that is
to say, the damsels prepare dishes of meat and other good things and put
the food before the idol, and leave it there a good while, and then the
damsels all go to their dancing and singing and festivity for about as
long as a great Baron might require to eat his dinner. By that time they
say the spirit of the idols has consumed the substance of the food, so
they remove the viands to be eaten by themselves with great jollity. This
is performed by these damsels several times every year until they are
married."

Chau Ju-kwa has the following passage in Cambodia (p. 53): "(The people)
are devout Buddhists. There are serving (in the temples) some three
hundred foreign women; they dance and offer food to the Buddha. They are
called _a-nan_ or slave dancing-girls."

Hirth and Rockhill, who quote Marco Polo's passage, remark, p. 55 n.:
"_A-nan_, as here written, is the usual transcription of the Sanskrit word
_ananda_, 'joy, happiness.' The almeh or dancing-girls are usually called
in India _deva-dasi_ ('slave of a god') or _ramjani_."

In Guzerat, Chau Ju-kwa, p. 92, mentions: "Four thousand Buddhist temple
buildings, in which live over twenty thousand dancing-girls who sing twice
daily while offering food to the Buddha (i.e., the idols) and while
offering flowers."

XVIII., p. 356.

TRADITIONS OF ST. THOMAS.

"The traditional site of the Apostle's Tomb, now adjacent to the sea-shore,
has recently come to be enclosed in the crypt of the new Cathedral of San
Thomé." (A.E. MEDLYCOTT, _India and the Apostle Thomas. An inquiry. With a
critical analysis of the Acta Thomae_. London, David Nutt, 1905, 8vo.)

In the beginning of the sixteenth century Barbosa found the church of St.
Thomas half in ruins and grown round with jungle. A Mahomedan fakir kept
it and maintained a lamp. Yet in 1504, which is several years earlier than
Barbosa's voyage, the Syrian Bishop Jaballaha, who had been sent by the
Patriarch to take charge of the Indian Christians, reported that the House
of St. Thomas had begun to be inhabited by some Christians, who were
engaged in restoring it.

Mr. W.R. Philipps has a valuable paper on _The Connection of St. Thomas
the Apostle with India_ in the _Indian Antiquary_, XXXII., 1903, pp. 1-15,
145-160; he has come to the following conclusions: "(1) There is good
early evidence that St. Thomas was the apostle of the Parthian empire; and
also evidence that he was the apostle of 'India' in some limited sense,
--probably of an 'India' which included the Indus Valley, but nothing to
the east or south of it. (2) According to the Acts, the scene of the
martyrdom of St. Thomas was in the territory of a king named, according to
the Syriac version, Mazdai, to which he had proceeded after a visit to the
city of a king named, according to the same version, Gudnaphar or
Gundaphar. (3) There is no evidence at all that the place where St. Thomas
was martyred was in Southern India; and all the indications point to
another direction. (4) We have no indication whatever, earlier than that
given by Marco Polo, who died 1324, that there ever was even a tradition
that St. Thomas was buried in Southern India."

In a recent and learned work (_Die Thomas Legende_, 1912, 8vo.) Father J.
Dahlmann has tried to prove that the story of the travels of St. Thomas in
India has an historical basis. If there is some possibility of admitting a
voyage of the Apostle to N.W. India (and the flourishing state of Buddhism
in this part of India is not in favour of Christian Evangelization), it is
impossible to accept the theory of the martyrdom of St. Thomas in Southern
India.

The late Mr. J.F. FLEET, in his paper on St. Thomas and Gondophernes
(_Journ. Roy. As. Soc._, April, 1905, pp. 223-236), remarks that "Mr.
Philipps has given us an exposition of the western traditional statements
up to the sixth century." He gives some of the most ancient statements;
one in its earliest traceable form runs thus: "According to the Syriac
work entitled The Doctrine of the Apostles, which was written in perhaps
the second century A.D., St. Thomas evangelized 'India.' St. Ephraem the
Syrian (born about A.D. 300, died about 378), who spent most of his life
at Edessa, in Mesopotamia, states that the Apostle was martyred in 'India'
and that his relics were taken thence to Edessa. That St. Thomas
evangelized the Parthians, is stated by Origen (born A.D. 185 or 186, died
about 251-254). Eusebius (bishop of Caesarea Palaestinae from A.D. 315 to
about 340) says the same. And the same statement is made by the Clementine
Recognitions, the original of which may have been written about A.D. 210.
A fuller tradition is found in the Acts of St. Thomas, which exist in
Syriac, Greek, Latin, Armenian, Ethiopic, and Arabic, and in a fragmentary
form in Coptic. And this work connects with St. Thomas two eastern kings,
whose names appear in the Syriac version as Gudnaphar, Gundaphar, and
Mazdai; and in the Greek version as Goundaphoros, Goundiaphoros,
Gountaphoros, and Misdaios, Misdeos; in the Latin version as Gundaforus,
Gundoforus, and Misdeus, Mesdeus, Migdeus; and in the remaining versions
in various forms, of the same kind, which need not be particularized
here." Mr. Fleet refers to several papers, and among them to one by Prof.
Sylvain Lévi, _Saint Thomas, Gondopharès et Mazdeo (Journ., As.,_
Janv.-Fév., 1897, pp. 27-42), who takes the name Mazdai as a transformation
of a Hindu name, made on Iranian soil and under Mazdean influences, and
arrived at through the forms Bazodeo, Bazdeo, or Bazodeo, Bazdeo, which
occur in Greek legends on coins, and to identify the person with the king
Vasudeva of Mathura, a successor of Kanishka. Mr. Fleet comes to the
conclusion that: "No name, save that of Guduphara--Gondophernès, in any way
resembling it, is met with in any period of Indian history, save in that of
the Takht-i-Bahi inscription of A.D. 46; nor, it may be added, any royal
name, save that of Vasudeva of Mathura, in any way resembling that of
Mazdai. So also, as far as we know or have any reason to suppose, no name
like that of Guduphara--Gondophernes is to be found anywhere outside India,
save in the tradition about St. Thomas."

XVIII., p. 357.

CALAMINA.

On this city of the martyrdom of St. Thomas, see _Indian Antiquary_,
XXXII., pp. 148 seq. in Mr. Philipps' paper, and XXXIII., Jan., 1904,
pp. 31-2, a note signed W.R.P.

XIX., p. 361. "In this kingdom [Mutfili] also are made the best and most
delicate buckrams, and those of highest price; in sooth they look like
tissue of spider's web!"

In Nan p'i (in Malabar) Chau Ju-kwa has (p. 88): "The native products
include pearls, foreign cotton-stuff of all colours (i.e. coloured
chintzes) and _tou-lo mién_ (cotton-cloth)." Hirth and Rockhill remark
that this cotton-cloth is probably "the buckram which looks like tissue of
spider's web" of which Polo speaks, and which Yule says was the famous
muslin of Masulipatam. Speaking of Cotton, Chau Ju-kwa (pp. 217-8) writes:
"The _ki pe_ tree resembles a small mulberry-tree, with a hibiscus-like
flower furnishing a floss half an inch and more in length, very much like
goose-down, and containing some dozens of seeds. In the south the people
remove the seed from the floss by means of iron chopsticks, upon which the
floss is taken in the hand and spun without troubling about twisting
together the thread. Of the cloth woven therefrom there are several
qualities; the most durable and the strongest is called _t'ou-lo-mién_;
the second quality is called _fan-pu_ or 'foreign cloth'; the third 'tree
cotton' or _mu-mién_; the fourth _ki-pu_. These textures are sometimes
dyed in various colours and brightened with strange patterns. The pieces
measure up to five or six feet in breadth."

XXI., p. 373.

THE CITY OF CAIL.

Prof. E.H. PARKER writes in the _Journal of the North-China Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, p. 196: "Yule's identification of
Kayal with the Kolkhoi of Ptolemy is supported by the Sung History, which
calls it both Ko-ku-lo and Ku-lo; it was known at the beginning of the
tenth century and was visited by several Chinese priests. In 1411 the Ming
Dynasty actually called it Ka-i-lêh and mention a chief or king there
named Ko-pu-che-ma."

XXII., p. 376. "OF THE KINGDOM OF COILUM.--So also their wine they make
from [palm-] sugar; capital drink it is, and very speedily it makes a man
drunk."

Chau Ju-kwa in Nan p'i (Malabar) mentions the wine (p. 89): "For wine they
use a mixture of honey with cocoanuts and the juice of a flower, which
they let ferment." Hirth and Rockhill remark, p. 91, that the Kambojians
had a drink which the Chinese called _mi-t'ang tsiu_, to prepare which
they used half honey and half water, adding a ferment.

XXII., p. 380 n. "This word [_Sappan_] properly means _Japan_, and seems
to have been given to the wood as a supposed product of that region."

"The word _sappan_ is not connected with Japan. The earliest records of
this word are found in Chinese sources. _Su-fang su-pwan_, to be restored
to _'supang_ or _'spang_, _'sbang_; _Caesalpinia sappan_, furnishing the
sappan wood, is first described as a product of Kiu-chen (Tong King) in
the _Nan fang ts'ao mi chuang_, written by Ki Han at the end of the third
or beginning of the fourth century. J. de Loureiro (_Flora
cochinchinensis_, p. 321) observes in regard to this tree, 'Habitat in
altis montibus Cochinchinae: indeque a mercatoribus sinensibus abunde
exportatur.' The tree accordingly is indigenous to Indo-China, where the
Chinese first made its acquaintance. The Chinese transcription is surely
based on a native term then current in Indo-China, and agrees very well
with Khmer _sban_ (or _sbang_): see AYMONIER et CABATON, _Dict.
cam-français_, 510, who give further Cam _hapan_, Batak _sopan_, Makassar
_sappan_, and Malay _sepan_. The word belongs to those which the Mon-Khmer
and Malayan languages have anciently in common." (Note of Dr. B. LAUFER.)

XXIV., p. 386, also pp. 391, 440.

FANDARAINA.

Prof. E.H. PARKER writes in the _Journal of the North-China Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, p. 196: "Regarding the Fandaráina
country of the Arabs mentioned by Yule in the Notes to pages 386, 391, and
440 of Vol. II., it may be interesting to cite the following important
extract from Chapter 94, page 29, of the _Yuän Shï_:--'In 1295 sea-traders
were forbidden to take fine values to trade with the three foreign states
of Ma-pa-r; Pei nan, and Fan-ta-la-i-na, but 2,500,000 nominal taels in
paper money were set apart for the purpose.'"

XXV., p. 391.

In the _Yuen Shi_, ch. 94, fol. 11 r'o, the "three barbarian kingdoms of
_Ma-pa-eul_ (Ma'abar), _Pei-nan_ (corr. _Kiu-nam, Coilam_) and
_Fan-ta-la-yi-na_" are mentioned. No doubt the last kingdom refers to the
_Fandaraina_ of Ibn Batuta, and Prof. Pelliot, who gives me this
information, believes it is also, in the middle of the fourteenth century,
_Pan-ta-li_ of the _Tao yi chi lio_.

GOZURAT.

XXV., p. 393. "In this province of Gozurat there grows much pepper, and
ginger, and indigo. They have also a great deal of cotton. Their cotton
trees are of very great size, growing full six paces high, and attaining
to an age of 20 years."

Chau Ju-kwa has, p. 92: "The native products comprise great quantities of
indigo, red kino, myrobolans and foreign cotton stuffs of every colour.
Every year these goods are transported to the Ta shï countries for sale."

XXXI., p. 404.

TWO ISLANDS CALLED MALE AND FEMALE.

Speaking of the fabulous countries of women, Chau Ju-kwa, p. 151, writes:
"The women of this country [to the south-east (beyond Sha-hua kung?)
Malaysia] conceive by exposing themselves naked to the full force of the
south wind, and so give birth to female children."

"In the Western Sea there is also a country of women where only three
females go to every five males; the country is governed by a queen, and
all the civil offices are in the hands of women, whereas the men perform
military duties. Noble women have several males to wait upon them; but the
men may not have female attendants. When a woman gives birth to a child,
the latter takes its name from the mother. The climate is usually cold.
The chase with bow and arrows is their chief occupation. They carry on
barter with Ta-t'sin and T'ien-chu, in which they make several hundred per
cent. profit."

Cf. F. Hirth, _China and the Roman Orient_, pp. 200-202.

XXXII., pp. 406-7. Speaking of Scotra, Marco (II., p. 406) says: "The
ambergris comes from the stomach of the whale, and as it is a great object
of trade, the people contrive to take the whales with barbed iron darts,
which, once they are fixed in the body, cannot come out again. A long cord
is attached to this end, to that a small buoy which floats on the surface,
so that when the whale dies they know where to find it. They then draw the
body ashore and extract the ambergris from the stomach and the oil from
the head."

Chau Ju-kwa, at Chung-li (Somali Coast), has (p. 131): "Every year there
are driven on the coast a great many dead fish measuring two hundred feet
in length and twenty feet through the body. The people do not eat the
flesh of these fish, but they cut out their brains, marrow, and eyes, from
which they get oil, often as much as three hundred odd _töng_ (from a
single fish). They mix this oil with lime to caulk their boats, and use it
also in lamps. The poor people use the ribs of these fish to make rafters,
the backbones for door leaves, and they cut off vertebrae to make mortars
with."

SCOTRA.

XXXII., p. 407. "And you must know that in this island there are the best
enchanters in the world. It is true that their Archbishop forbids the
practice to the best of his ability; but 'tis all to no purpose, for they
insist that their forefathers followed it, and so must they also. I will
give you a sample of their enchantments. Thus, if a ship be sailing past
with a fair wind and a strong, they will raise a contrary wind and compel
her to turn back. In fact they make the wind blow as they list, and
produce great tempests and disasters; and other such sorceries they
perform, which it will be better to say nothing about in our Book."

Speaking of Chung-li (Somali Coast), Chau Ju-kwa writes, p. 130: "There
are many sorcerers among them who are able to change themselves into
birds, beasts, or aquatic animals, and by these means keep the ignorant
people in a state of terror. If some of them in trading with some foreign
ship have a quarrel, the sorcerers pronounce a charm over the ship, so
that it can neither go forward nor backward, and they only release the
ship when it has settled the dispute. The government has formally
forbidden this practice."

Hirth and Rockhill add, p. 132: "Friar Joanno dos Santos (A.D. 1597) says:
'In the Ile of Zanzibar dwelt one Chande, a great sorcerer, which caused
his Pangayo, which the Factor had taken against his will, to stand still
as it were in defiance of the Winde, till the Factor had satisfied him,
and then to fly forth the River after her fellowes at his words. He made
that a Portugall which had angered him, could never open his mouth to
speake, but a Cocke crowed in his belly, till he had reconciled himselfe:
with other like sorceries.'" See PURCHAS, _His Pilgrimes_, IX., 254.

"Not twenty years ago, Theo. Bent found that the Somalis were afraid of
the witchcraft of the natives of Socotra. Theo. BENT, _Southern Arabia_,
p. 361."

XXXIII., p. 412. Speaking of the bird Ruc at Madeigascar, Marco Polo says:
"It is so strong that it will seize an elephant in its talons and carry
him high into the air, and drop him so that he is smashed to pieces;
having so killed him the bird gryphon swoops down on him and eats him at
leisure."

Chau Ju-kwa writing of K'un lun ts'öng' ki, on the coast of Africa,
writes, p. 149: "This country is in the sea to the south-west. It is
adjacent to a large island. There are usually (there, i.e., on the great
island) great _p'öng_ birds which so mask the sun in their flight that the
shade on the sundial is shifted. If the great _p'öng_ finds a wild camel
it swallows it, and if one should chance to find _p'öng's_ feather, he can
make a water-butt of it, after cutting off the hollow quill."

XXXIII., p. 421.

THE RUKH.

The Chinese traveller Chau Ju-kwa in his work _Chu-fan-chï_ on the Chinese
and Arab trade in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, speaking of the
country of Pi p'a lo (Berbera), says: "The country brings forth also the
(so-called) 'camel crane', which measures from the ground to its crown
from six to seven feet. It has wings and can fly, but not to any great
height." The translators and commentators Hirth and Rockhill have (p. 129)
the following notes: "Quotation from _Ling-wai-tai-ta_, 3, 6a. The ostrich
was first made known to the Chinese in the beginning of the second century
of our era, when some were brought to the court of China from Parthia. The
Chinese then called them _An-si-tsio_ 'Parthian bird.' See _Hou Han Shu_,
88, and Hirth, _China and Roman Orient_, 39. In the _Weï shu_, 102, 12b,
no name is given them, they are simply 'big birds which resemble a camel,
which feed on herbs and flesh and are able to eat fire. In the _T'ang
shu_, 221, 7a, it is said that this bird is commonly called 'camel-bird.'
It is seven feet high, black of colour, its feet like those of the camel,
it can travel three hundred _li_ a day, and is able to eat iron. The
ostrich is called by the Persians _ushturmurgh_ and by the Arabs
_teir al-djamal_, both meaning 'camel birds.'"

Dr. Bretschneider in his Notes on _Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the
West_ (1875), p. 87, n. 132, has a long note with a figure from the _Pen
ts'ao kang mu_ on the "camel-bird" (p. 88).

Cf. F. Hirth, _Die Länder des Islam_, Supp. Vol. V. of _T'oung Pao_, 1894,
p. 54. Tsuboi Kumazo, _Actes XII'e Cong, Int. Orient.,_ Rome, 1899, II., p.
120.

XXXIII., p. 421.

GIRAFFES.

Speaking of Pi p'a lo (Berbera Coast) Chau Ju-kwa (p. 128) says: "There is
also (in this country) a wild animal called _tsu-la;_ it resembles a camel
in shape, an ox in size, and is of a yellow colour. Its fore legs are five
feet long, its hind legs only three feet. Its head is high up and turned
upwards. Its skin is an inch thick." Giraffe is the iranised form of the
arabic _zuräfa_. Mention is made of giraffes by Chinese authors at Aden
and Mekka. Cf. FERRAND, _J. Asiatique_, July-August, 1918, pp. 155-158.

XXXIV., p. 422.

ZANGHIBAR.

We read in the _Tao i chi lio_: "This country [Ts'eng yao lo] is to the
south-west of the Ta Shih (Arabs). There are no trees on the coast; most
of the land is saline. The arable ground is poor, so there is but little
grain of any kind, and they mostly raise yams to take its place.

"If any ship going there to trade carries rice as cargo, it makes very
large profits.

"The climate is irregular. In their usages they have the rectitude of
olden times.

"Men and women twist up their hair; they wear a short seamless shirt. The
occupation of the people is netting birds and beasts for food.

"They boil sea-water to make salt and ferment the juice of the sugar-cane
to make spirits. They have a ruler.

"The native products comprise red sandal-wood, dark red sugar-cane,
elephants' tusks, ambergris, native gold, _ya tsui tan-fan_, lit.,
'duck-bill sulphate of copper.'

"The goods used in trading are ivory boxes, trade silver, coloured satins,
and the like." (ROCKHILL, _T'oung Pao_, XVI., 1915, pp. 622-3.) Cf. CHAU
JU-KWA, p. 126.

XXXIV., p. 423. "There is a great deal of trade, and many merchants and
vessels go thither. But the staple trade of the Island is elephants'
teeth, which are very abundant; and they have also much ambergris, as
whales are plentiful."

Chau Ju-kwa has, p. 126: "The products of the country [Ts'öng-pa] consist
of elephants' tusks, native gold, ambergris and yellow sandal-wood."

XXXVI., p. 438.

ADEN.

In the _Ying yai shêng lan_ we read that "the kingdom (of A-tan) is on the
sea-coast. It is rich and prosperous, the people follow the doctrine of
the Moslims and their speech is Arabic. Their tempers are overbearing and
violent. They have seven to eight thousand well-trained soldiers, horse
and foot, whom the neighbouring countries fear." (W.W. ROCKHILL, _T'oung
Pao_ XVI., 1915, p. 607.) There is a description of the giraffe under the
name of _K'i lin_; it "has forelegs over nine feet long, its hind ones are
about six feet. Beside its ears grow fleshy horns. It has a cow's tail and
a deer's body. It eats millet, beans, and flour cakes" (p. 609). In the
_Si Yang Chao kung tien lu_ (1520 A.D.), we have a similar description:
"Its front legs are nine feet long, its hind legs six feet. Its hoofs have
three clefts, it has a flat mouth. Two short fleshy horns rise from the
back of the top of its head. It has a cow's tail and a deer's body. This
animal is called _K'i lin_; it eats grain of any kind." (Ibid.) Cf.
FERRAND, J. _Asiatique,_ July-Aug., 1918, pp. 155-158.

XXXVI., p. 439.

At the time of Chau Ju-kwa, Aden was perhaps the most important port of
Arabia for the African and Arabian trade with India and the countries
beyond. It seems highly probable that the Ma-li-pa of the Chinese must be
understood as including Aden, of which they make no mention whatsoever,
but which was one of "the great commercial centres of the Arabs." HIRTH
and ROCKHILL, p. 25 n.

XXXVI., pp. 442 seq.

THE CITY OF ESHER.

Shehr, a port on the Hadramaut coast, is mentioned by Chau Ju-kwa under
the name of _Shï ho_ among the dependencies of the country of the _Ta-shï_
(Arabs.). (HIRTH and ROCKHILL, p. 116.)

XXXVIII., pp. 444-445.

DUFAR.

We read in the _Ying yai shêng lan:_ "This country [Tsu fa erh] is between
the sea and the mountains. To the east and south is nothing but the sea.
To the north and west are ranges of mountains. One reaches it from the
kingdom of Ku-li (Calicut) journeying north-westward for ten days and
nights. It has no walled towns or villages. The people all follow the
religion of the Moslims. Their physical appearance is good, their culture
is great, the language sincere.

"The native products are frankincense, which is the sap of a tree. There
is also dragon's blood, aloes, myrrh, _an-hsi-hsiang_ (benzoin), liquid
storax, _muh-pieh-tzu (Momordica cochinchinensis)_, and the like, all of
which they exchange for Chinese hempen cloth, silks, and china-ware."
(ROCKHILL, _T'oung Pao_, XVI., 1915, pp. 611-612.)

The _Sing ch'a shêng lan_ mentions: "The products are the _tsu-la-fa_
(giraffe), gold coins, leopards, ostriches, frankincense, ambergris."
(Ibid., p. 614.)

Dufar is mentioned by Chau Ju-kwa under the name of Nu-fa among the
dependencies of the country of the _Ta-shï_ (Arabs). (HIRTH and ROCKHILL,
pp. 116, 121.)

XXXVIII., pp. 445-449.

FRANKINCENSE.

Chau Ju-kwa (HIRTH and ROCKHILL, pp. 195-196) tells us: _Ju hiang_ ('milk
incense'), or _hün-lu-hiang_, comes from the three Ta-shï countries of
Ma-lo-pa, Shï-ho, and Nu-fa, from the depths of the remotest mountain
valleys. The tree which yields this drug may, on the whole, be compared to
the _sung_ (pine). Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon which the
resin flows out, and when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered
and made into lumps. It is transported on elephants to the Ta-shi (on the
coast); the Ta-shi load it upon their ships for barter against other goods
in San-fo-ts'i: and it is for this reason that the incense is commonly
collected at San-fo-ts'i [the three ports of the Hadhranaut coast].

"When the foreign merchants come to that place to trade, the Customs
authorities, according to the relative strength of its fragrance,
distinguish thirteen classes of incense. Of these, the very best is called
_kién-hiang_ or 'picked incense': it is round and of the size of the end
of a finger; it is commonly called _ti-ju_ or 'dripping milk.' The second
quality is called _p'ing ju_, or 'potted milk,' and its colour is inferior
to that of the 'picked incense.' The next quality is called _p'ing hiang_,
or 'potted incense.' so called, they say, owing to its being prized so
much at the time of gathering, that it is placed in pots (_p'ing_). In
this _p'ing hiang_ (variety of frankincense) there are three grades,
superior, medium and inferior. The next quality is called _tai-hiang_, or
'bag incense'; thus called, they say, because at the time of gathering, it
is merely put into bags; it is also divided into three qualities, like the
_p'ing hiang_.

"The next kind is the _ju-t'a_; it consists of incense mixed with gravel.

"The next kind is the _heï-t'a_, because its colour is black. The next
kind is the _shui-shï-heï-t'a_, because it consists of incense which has
been 'water damaged' the aroma turned, and the colour spoiled while on
board ship.

"Mixed incense of various qualities and consisting of broken pieces is
called _chö-siau_ ('cut-up'); when passed through a sieve and made into
dust, it is called _ch'an-mo_ ('powder'). The above are the various
varieties of frankincense."



BOOK FOURTH.


WARS AMONG THE TARTAR PRINCES AND SOME ACCOUNT OF THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES.


XXII., p. 488.

RUSSIA.

"It seems that Russia [Chinese _A-lo-sz'_ = Mongol _Oros_; the modern
Chinese name for Russia is _Wo-lo-sz'_] was unknown to the nations of
Eastern Asia before the Mongol period. In the Mongol and Chinese annals
the Russians are first mentioned after Subutai's invasion of Southern
Russia in 1223. The _Yüan chao pi shi_ terms Russia or the Russians
_Orus_, as they are called even now by the Mongols. The Chinese of the
Mongol period write _A-lo-sz'_, sometimes also _Wa-lo-sz'_ or _U-lu-sz'_.
All these names evidently render the Mongol appellation _Orus_.

"In the _Yüan shï_, Russia is frequently mentioned.... I may notice here
some other instances where the Russians are spoken of in the _Yüan-shï_.
We read in the annals, _s.a._ 1253, that the Emperor Meng k'o (Mangu)
ordered Bi-dje Bie-rh-k'o to be sent to Wu-lo-sz' in order to take a
census of the people.

"It is an interesting fact recorded in the _Yüan shï_ that there was in
the first half of the fourteenth century a settlement of Russians near
Peking. In the annals, chap. XXXIV., _s.a._ 1330, it is stated that the
Emperor Wen Tsung (Tob Timur, 1329-32, the great grandson of Kubilai),
formed a regiment composed of _U-lo-sz'_ or Russians. This regiment being
commanded by a _wan hu_ (commander of ten thousand of the third degree),
received the name 'The Ever-faithful Russian Life-guard.' It was placed
under the direct control of the council of war. Farther on in the same
chapter it is stated that 140 _king_ of land, north of _Ta tu_ (Peking)
was bought from the peasants and allotted to these Russians, to establish
a camp and to form a military colony. We read again in the same chapter
that they were furnished with implements of agriculture, and were bound to
present for the imperial table every kind of game, fish, etc., found in
the forests, rivers, and lakes of the country where their camp was
situated. This Russian regiment is again mentioned in chap. XXXV.

"In chapter XXXVI. it is recorded that in the year 1332 the prince
Djang-ghi presented 170 Russian prisoners and received a pecuniary reward.
On the same page we read that clothes and corn were bestowed on a thousand
Russians. In the same year the prince Yen t'ie-mu-rh presented 1500 Russian
prisoners to the Chinese emperor, and another prince, A-rh-ghia-shi-li,
presented thirty.

"Finally, in the biography of Bo yen, chap. CXXXVIII., he is stated to
have been appointed in 1334 commander of the emperor's life-guard,
composed of Mongols, Kipchaks, and Russians." (E. BRETSCHNEIDER,
_Mediaeval Researches_, II., pp. 79-81.)

Prof. Parker (_Asiatic Q. Rev._, Jan., 1904, p. 148) mentions the
appointment of a Russian Governor in 1337, and says: "It was the practice
of Princes in the West to send 'presents' of Russian captives. In one case
Yen Temur sent as many as 2500 in one batch."



APPENDICES.


LIST OF MSS. OF MARCO POLO'S BOOK SO FAR AS THEY ARE KNOWN.[1]


II., p. 533.

GLASGOW, Hunterian Museum.[2] No. 84, vellum, 4to, Cent. XV.: 1. Guido de
Colonna's Destruction of Troy. 2. Julius Valerius' History of Alexander
the Great. 3. Archbishop Turpin's Itinerary. 4. Marco Polo.

_Begins_ (25, 5 [f. 191 (197) r'o, lines 1-3): ¶ [blue] Incipit liber
domini marci Pauli de Venecijs | de condicionibus et consuetudinibus
orientalium regionum [rubric] L [small illuminated initial] Ibrum
prudentis honorabilis ac fidelissimi domini marci.

_Ends_ (33, 3 [f. 253 (259) r'o, lines 8-12): girfalci et herodij qui inde
postmodum ad diuersas prouincias | et regiones deferuntur et cetera.
¶ [blue] Explicit liber domini marci Pauli | de Venecijs de diuisionibus et
consue- | tudinibus orientalium regionum [Pipino's Version].

5. Frater Odoricus Forojuliensis.

6. Iohannis Mandeville, _De Mirabilibus_.

II., p. 533.

GLASGOW, Hunterian Museum, Cent. XIV.[3] No. 458, vellum, 4to. 1. Marci
Pavli Veneti, _De Orientalibus Regionibus_.

_Begins_--after a preface by "Frater Franciscus Pipinus de Bononia"
beginning (I, 1 r'o, lines 1-4): Incipit liber primus domini marci pauli de
venecijs de orien [rubric] | L [gilt historiated initial with gestures
forming a floreated border.] Ibrum prudentis talibus regionibus. Prolo
[last three words rubric] | honorabilis ac fidelissimi domini gus. [last
word rubric] | marci pauli de venetijs de conditio | and ending (i, 2 r'o,
line 3): nostri ihesu christi cunctorum uisibilium et inuisibilium
creatoris, after which comes a list of the chapters, titles and numbers
(the latter rubricated) which concludes (i, 7 r'o, line i): D (small blue
initial with red ornament) e prouincia ruthenorum, xlix.--(i, 7 r'o, lines
2-5): Capitulum primum primi libri. Qualiter et quare dominus | nicholaus
pauli de venetijs, et dominus marchus [rubric] | T [blue and red
illuminated initial with minute spread eagle in centre] Empore quo
transierunt ad partes [last three words rubric] | balduinus princeps
orientales. [last words rubric.]

_Ends_ (14, 1 r'o, lines 26, 27): et diuersas prouincias deferuntur.
Explicit liber domini | marci pauli de venetis de diuisionibus et
consuetudinibus orientalium.

2. Odoric.

II., p. 534.

PARIS, see No. 18--Bibliothèque Nationale Département des
Manuscrits--Livre des Merveilles, Odoric de Pordenone, Mandeville, Hayton,
etc.--Reproduction des 265 miniatures du Manuscrit français 2810 de la
Bibliothèque Nationale. Paris, Imprimerie Berthaud frères, 31, rue de
Bellefond, 2 vol. in 8.

Marco Polo, Planches, 1-84.

II., p. 539.

ANTWERP, Museum Plantin-Moretus. Exhibited in Room III., No. 61:
_Extraits du Livre de Marco Polo de Venise_ et d'un livre sur l'origine de
quelques villes belges.

132 leaves; 185 × 270 millimeters, XVth Century. Adorned initials,
alternately blue and red. Headings of chapters underlined in red. Leather
binding XVIth century, with small flowers de luce; copper clasps and ten
nails. On the last leaf, in a running hand: _Este liber partinet Nicholao
le buqueteur_; the name of _Abraham Vander Veken_ (Abra Vander Veque), and
the date 1600, 3/22, on the first and on the last but one leaves.

Fol. 2 _recto. Extracta de libro dni Pauli de Venecijs de diver sis
provincijs et regnis maior[um] et de diversis moribus habitantiu[m] et de
multis mirabilibus in hijs locis et Asije_. Eleven lines further: _Quomodo
iverunt at Berchaman_. Fol. 95 _r: De Sancto Thoma apto ubi jacet et qno
mortu(us) est_. Fol. 106 _r: Epilogatio de maiori Yndia_. F. 117 v, last
chapter: _De dissentione orta inter Alandum Tartaror[um] et Bcha regem_.
Ends, f. 118 r: _Hii tamen reges proximi parentis erant et ambo ex
Chinchini imperialis progenie descendentes. Explicit_.

The end of the MS. (f. 118-132) has for object the origin of Belgian
villages.

I owe this information to M.J. DENUCÉ.

II., p. 542.

FLORENCE, Riccardian Library, Catalan.

This manuscript has been discovered by Prof. Giovanni Vacca who has kindly
sent me the following information regarding this curious document not
mentioned by Yule, Amat di S. Filippo, or Uzielli: MS., 2048 cartac. sec.
XV. (?), bearing the following faulty title: Storia del Catay in lingua
_spagnuola_; 66 leaves, the last of which with a note by Piero Vaglienti.
Writing is pretty clear, much like that of the Catalan Map of 1375.

The text begins with the description of the city of Lop, and ends with
Georgia,

Fol. 65 _v_: "anaquesta provencia sisfa molta de seda evy ciutatz e viles
e castels assaiz e ay moltz bons azcos. Calre no se queus pusca dir er
perque fas vos si anaquest libre veus na sra benefit."

Somewhat similar to the end of MS. 2207, Ottob., sec. XIV., membr. of the
Vatican Library (reproduced by Amat di S. Filippo):

"En ycelle province fait on moult de soyt. Et si y a moult de villes,
cites et chasteaux, moult bons et beau. Autre chose ne vous en scay dire
par quoi je vous fais fins en ce livre."

Generally the text is correct; one does not find the great errors
contained in the Italian text given by Bartoli; it seems to follow very
closely the French text of the Société de Géographie edited in 1824.

Here is a description of the city of Gambalech (fol. 20 _r_-20 _v_)
reproducing very closely a legend of the Catalan Map of 1375.

"Les ver _que costa la ciutat de Camalech avia una grant Ciutat
antichament qui avi a nom garimbalu_ qui vol dir la Ciut del seyor _e lo
gran cham troba per los strologians que aquesta ciutat se devia revelar
contra el axi que feila desabitar a feu fer la ciutat de Sambaleth_ e
axi .|. flum al miq evay fer venir poblar tota la jent que y staba, _e ha
entorn a questa ciutat de Gambalech. XXIIIJ. legues e es ben murada e es
acayre sique ha de cascun cayre. VI. legues e a dalt lo mur XX. paces_ e
es de terre _e ha. X. paces de gros_ e son totz los murs tant blanchs con
a neu e a en cascun cayre. IIJ. portes & en cascuna porta ha .|. palau dela
semblansa de les XII. que ditz vos aven e en cascun palau ha de beles
cambres e sales plenes darmatures ops da quells qui garden la ciutat los
carres son amples e lonchs e ayi que anant de la .|. porta alantre troba
hom de bells alberchs e de bels palaus qui son de gran seyors ayi que ela
es abitada de bells alberchs E en miss loch de la ciutat a 1. gran palau
en que _ha 1'n. gran torra enquesta .|. gran seny | sona ho abans axique
pus que ha sonat no gosa anar ne gun per la vila_ si dons gran ops non ha
e ab lum e _a cascuna porta garden. M. homes no per temensa_ que nayen
_mes per honor del seyor_ e per latres e malfeitos.

"Per gardar la granea del seyor alo poder ell se fa gardar a XIJ'm homes a
Caval e ape-lense casitans, qui vol dir leyals cavalers a son seyor a
quests. XIJ'm. homes an. IIIJ. capitans ..."

The words _underlined_ are included almost verbatim in the Catalan Map.
Cf. H. CORDIER, _L'Extrême Orient dans l'Atlas Catalan_, p. 14.

The manuscript begins, fol. I _recto_: "Aci comensa lo libre de les
provincies et de les encontrades que sont sotz la seyoria del gran
Emperador del Catay | lo qual ha la seyoria del Gamballech et seyor de los
Tartres ayi com ho reconta o messer March Pollo ciutada noble de Venecia.
Et primerament diun ay de la provincia de Tangut hon el stech XXVI. anys
per saber la veritat de les coses daval scrites."

Cf. _Un manoscritto inedito del viaggi di_ Marco Polo. Di Giovanni Vacca
(_Riv. Geog. Ital._, XIV., 1907, pp. 107-108).

II., p. 546.

ESCURIAL, Latin, Pipino's (?). See No. 60. This is probably the MS.
mentioned by the second Viscount of Santarem, p. 574, in his volume,
_Ineditos (Miscellanea)_ Lisboa, 1914, large 8vo: "Un Ms. de Marc Polo du
XV'e. siècle qui est mal indiqué par le titre suivant: _Consuetudines et
condiciones orientalium regionum descripto per mestrum Paulum de Venetiis
scripto chartis vix saeculo XV. incipiente_, Q-ij--13."

My late friend, Prof. H. Derenbourg, gives me a few notes regarding this
Latin MS., paper, small 4to, ff. 1-95 _v_; contains 187 chapters with a
special title in red ink. Begins: _Librum prudentis honorabilis ac
fidelissimi viri Domini Marci Pauli De Venetiis de conditionibus
orientalium ab me vulgari edictum et scriptum_.

II., p. 548.

NUREMBERG. Latin MS. containing _Marco Polo, St. Brandan, Mandeville,
Odoric, Schildtberger_; bad handwriting. See French edition of Odoric, p.
LXXXII.


[1] See _The Book of Ser Marco Polo_, Vol. II., pp. 530 seq.

[2] Pages 89, 90 of _A Catalogue of the Manuscripts in the Library of
    the Hunterian Museum in the University of Glasgow planned and begun by
    the late John Young ... continued and completed under the direction of
    the Young Memorial Committee by_ P. Henderson Aitken.... Glasgow,
    James Maclehose and Sons, 1908, gr. in -4.

[3] Cf. Young's _Catalogue_, p. 378.



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MARCO POLO'S BOOK.[1]


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINTED EDITIONS.


1.--Die Reisen des Venezianers Marco Polo im 13. Jahrhundert Bearbeitet
und herausgegeben von Dr. Hans Lemke Mit einem Bilde Marco Polos. Hamburg,
Ernst Schultze, 1908, 8vo, pp. 573.

_Bibliothek wertvoller Memoiren_.

Lebensdokumente hervorragender Menschen aller Zeiten und Völker
Herausgegeben von Dr. Ernst Schultze. 1 Band.

Revised edition of Bürck's translation of Ramusio's Italian text published
in 1845.

2.--*Marco Polo: Abenteuerliche Fahrten. Neu herausgegeben von Dr. Otto
St. Brandt. Mit 3 Spezialkarten. Druck und Verlag von August Scherl in
Berlin, small 8vo, pp. 319.

Notices: _Mitt. K.K. Geogr. Ges. Wien_, Bd. LVI., 1913, pp. 258-259.
Von E.G.--_Geog. Zeitschft. Leipzig_, XIX., 1913, pp. 531. By K.
Kretschmer.

3.--Marco Polo Il Milione secondo il testo della "Crusca" reintegrato con
gli altri codici italiani a cura di Dante Olivieri. Bari, Gius. Laterza &
figli, 1912, in--8, 2 ff. n. ch. + pp. 317.

_Scrittori d'Italia_.

4.--Cosmographia breue introductoria en el libro d'Marco Polo. Seville,
1518.--See II., p. 566.

The bookseller Karl W. Hiersemann, of Leipzig, has in his catalogue
_America_, no. 336, in 1907, no. 2323, quoted M.11.000 a copy of the
_Cosmographia_ with the colophon: Elql se emprimio por Juan varela |
d'salamaca en la muy noble y muy | leal ciudad de Seuilla. Año de | mill y
q°nientos y diez y ocho | año a. XVI. dias de mayo.-Fol., 4 ff. not
numbered + ff. 31 numbered on 2 columns.

5.--YULE-CORDIER.--_The Book of Ser Marco Polo_ ... Third Edition....
London, John Murray, 1903, 2 vols., 8vo.

Notices: _Glasgow Herald_, 11 June, 1903.--_Scotsman_, 11 June,
1903.--_Outlook_, 13 June, 1903.--_Morning Post_, 18 June, 1903.--_Bulletin
Comité Asie française_, Juin, 1903.--_Standard_, 17 June, 1903.--_Daily
Chronicle_, 20 June, 1903.--_Manchester Guardian_, 23 June, 1903.--_Pall
Mall Gazette_, 15 July, 1903.--_Bombay Gazette_, 11 July, 1903.--_The
Spectator_, 15 Aug., 1903.--_The Guardian_ (by C. Raymond Beazley), 2
Sept., 1903.--_Times_ (by H.J. Mackinder), 2 Oct., 1903.--_Blackwood's
Mag._ (by Charles Whibley), Oct., 1903.--_Illustrated Evening News_,
Chicago, 26 Sept., 1903.--_The Sun_, New York, 4 Oct., 1903 (by M.W.
H.).--_Hongkong Daily Press_, 10 and 11 Sept., 1903.--_The Athenaeum_, 17
Oct., 1903.--_Outlook_, 14 Nov., 1903.--Some new Facts about Marco Polo's
Book, by E.H. Parker (_Imp. & Asiat. Quart. Review_, Jan., 1904, pp.
125-149).--_Saturday Review_, 27 Feb., 1904.--_T'oung Pao_, Oct., 1903, pp.
357-366, from _The Athenaeum_.--_Geographical Journal_, March, 1904, pp.
379-380, by C.R.B. [eazley].--_Bul. Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, IV,
Juillet-Sept., 1904, pp. 768-772, by Paul Pelliot.--Marco Polo and his
Followers in Central Asia, by Archibald R. Colquhoun (_Quarterly Review_,
April, 1904, pp. 553-575).

6.--The most noble and famous Travels of Marco Polo one of the Nobility of
the State of Venice, into the east Parts of the World, as Armenia, Persia,
Arabia, Tartary, with many other Kingdoms and Provinces. The translation
of Marsden revised by Thomas Wright, F.S.A.--London: George Newnes; New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904, 16mo, pp. xxxix-461, Portrait and
maps.

7.--Voyages and Travels of Marco Polo, With an Introduction by Henry
Morley. Cassell and Company, London, Paris, New York and Melbourne, MCMIV,
16mo, pp. 192, front.

8.--Everyman's Library, edited by Ernest Rhys--Travel and
Topography--Marco Polo's Travels with an Introduction by John Masefield.

The Travels of Marco Polo the Venetian. London: Published by J.M. Dent &
Co., and in New York by E.P. Dutton & Co., 16mo, pp. xvi-461, n. d.
[1907].

9.--[Russian: Shemyakin', A.N.--Puteshestviya Venetsiantsa Marko Polo v'
XIII stod'tii, natsegatann'iya v' perv'iy raz' vpodi' na n'metskom' po
duchshim' ietsaniyam' i s' ob'yasneniyami Avg. Byurkom' S' dopodneniyami i
popravkami K.F. Nenmanna. Perevots' C' n'mstskago. Moskva, 1863.]

Had been published in [Russian: 'Iteniyakh' v' Nmn. Obsch. Istorii i
Drevnostey Rossiiskikh' nri Mosk. Universitet']

Mentioned by Barthold in Minaev's _Marco Polo_.

10.--*Marco Polo's Resa i Asien ([Folkskrifter] allm. hist. No. 32)
Stockholm, 1859, P.G. Berg.

11.--Venetianaren Marco Polos Resor i det XIII. århundraded Översättning
samt inledning och anmärkningar av Bengt Thordeman.--Stockholm: Albert
Bonniers Förlag, n. d. [1917], 2 vol. 8vo, pp. xx-248, 249 to 490,
genealogical table of the Tartars, Map.

Pages 345-480 are devoted to notes.

12.--There is a Japanese piratical edition of the second edition of Yule's
Marco Polo brought out by the firm Kyoyekishosha in 1900 and costing 8
_yen_. Cf. _Bulletin Ecole franç. Ext. Orient_, IV, p. 769, note.


[1] See II., pp. 554 seq.



TITLES OF SUNDRY BOOKS AND PAPERS WHICH TREAT OF MARCO POLO AND HIS BOOK.


1.--_Histoire des Établissements européens aux Indes orientales par_
A. CHARDIN, suivie d'un extrait de l'article sur _Marco Polo_, de
M. WALKENAER, Membre de l'Institut; d'un extrait de la vie de Jonh
[sic] Mandeville, par Washington Irving; et d'une notice sur le
Camoens, par Mme de Stael.--Paris, Rue et Place Saint-André des Arts,
no. 30--1832, 12mo, pp. 104.

Marco Polo, p. 87.--John Mandeville, p. 94.

Marco Polo, after la _Biographie universelle_; Mandeville, after
_l'Histoire de Christophe Colomb._, de W. Irving.

Fait partie de la _Bibliothèque populaire ou l'Instruction mise à la
portée de toutes les classes et de toutes les intelligences par_
MM. ARAGO ... et AJASSON de GRANDSAGNE, chargé de la Direction.

2.--MAYERS, W.F.--_Marco Polo's Legend concerning Bayan. (Notes and
Queries on China and Japan_, Nov., 1868, p. 162.)

3.--PALLADIUS' _Elucidations_. See II., p. 579, No. 63.

Notice in _Magazin für die Litteratur des Auslandes_, 1876, p.
345.

4.--_Marco Polo und die Anianstrasse_. Von Prof. S. RUGE, Dresden.
(_Globus_, LXIX., 1896, pp. 133-137.)

5.--_Un capitaine du règne de Philippe le Bel_ Thibaut de Chepoy
_par_ Joseph PETIT. (_Le Moyen Age_, Paris, 1897, pp.
224-239).

6.--[Russian: Kommentarii Arkhimandrita Paddadiya Katharova na putemestvie
Marko Polo no s'vernomu Kitayu s' tsrsdisloviem' N.I. Besedobskago.
Sankpeterburg', Tip. Imp. Akad. Nauk'] 1902, 8vo, pp. 47, portrait.

7.--MOULE, Rev. G.E.--_Notes on Col._ YULE'S _Edition of Marco
Polo's_ "Quinsay." (_Jour. North-China Br. R. As. Soc._, N.
S., IX., 1875, pp. 1-24.)

8.--_The_ Tarikh-i-Rashidi _of_ MIRZA MUHAMMAD HAIDAR, DUGHLÁT
_A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia_, An English Version
Edited, with Commentary, Notes, and Map by N. ELIAS. The Translation
by E. Denison Ross ... London, Sampson Low, 1895, 8vo.

9.--A. Slieptsov.--[Russian: Mark' Polo i ego stranstbobaniya no tsarstvu
Mongol'skomu, po Kitayu i Indii.]--small 8vo, pp. 83, fig. [St.
Petersb., 1901.]

[Russian: "Knizhka za knizhkoi," ki. 108-aya.]

10.--STEIN, Sir Aurel.--_Preliminary Report of a Journey of
Archaeological and Topographical Exploration in Chinese Turkestan_.
London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1901, 4to.

---- _Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan_. London, T. Fisher Unwin,
1903, 8vo, pp. xliii-524.

---- _Ancient Khotan_. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907, 2 vols., 4to.

---- _Ruins of Desert Cathay_. Personal Narrative of Explorations
in Central Asia and Westernmost China. With numerous Illustrations,
Colour Plates, Panoramas, and Maps from Original Surveys. Macmillan
and Co., 1912, 2 vols. 8vo.

---- _Les Documents chinois découverts par_ Aurel STEIN _dans les
sables du Turkestan oriental publiés et traduits par_ Edouard
CHAVANNES. Oxford, Imprimerie de l'Université, 1913, 4to.

---- _Explorations in Central Asia_ (1906-1908). (_Geographical
Journal_, July and Sept., 1909.)

---- _Expedition in Central Asia. (Geog. Journ._, May, 1915.)

---- _Expedition in Central Asia. (Geog. Journ._, Oct., 1915.)

---- _Expedition in Central Asia. (Geog. Journ._, May, 1916.)

---- _A Third Journey of Exploration in Central Asia_, 1913-16.
(_Geog. Journ._, Aug. and Sept., 1916.)

---- _Marco Polo's Account of a Mongol Inroad into Kashmir. (Geog.
Journ._, Aug., 1919, pp. 92-103.)

11.--H.A. GILES' _Dictionary_, Part III., pp. 1378-9.

List of Places mentioned by Marco Polo and identified by Yule.

12.--E.H. PARKER.--_Some New Facts about Marco Polo's Book.

(Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review_, Jan., 1904, pp. 125-149.)

---- _Notes on Yule_. (_Journ.N.C.B.R.A.Soc._, XXXVII., 1906,
pp. 195, 196.)

13.--Cesare-Augusto LEVI.--_Il vero Segreto di Dante e Marco
Polo_.--Comunicazione al Comitato di Treviso della "Dante
Alighieri" letta la sera del 17 Novembre, 1905--Treviso, Zoppelli,
1905, 8vo, pp. 37.

14.--_The Dry Sea and the Carrenare_--John Livingstone LOWES.
Printed at the University of Chicago Press, 8vo, pp. 46.

Reprinted from _Modern Philology_, Vol. III., No. 1, June, 1905.

15.--SYKES, Major P. Molesworth, H.B.M.'s Consulate-General,
Meshed. (_Geog. Journ._, XXVI., Oct., 1905, pp. 462-466.)

I. Did Marco Polo visit Baghdad?--II. Did Marco Polo visit the Tabas?

Henri Cordier's reply, Ibid., Dec., 1905, pp. 686, 687.

16.--_Noted Men who have helped China_.--II. _Marco Polo_. By
Dr. Gilbert REID. (_North China Herald_, April 6, 1906.)

17.--C. Raymond BEAZLEY.--_The Dawn of Modern Geography_. Vol. III.
_A History of Exploration and Geographical Science from the Middle
of the Thirteenth to the early Years of the Fifteenth Century_ (c.
A.D. 1260-1420). With reproductions of the Principal Maps of the Time.
Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1906, 8vo, pp. xvi-638.

Chap. II. The Great Asiatic Travellers, 1260-1420. Part I. The Polos,
1260-1295, pp. 15-160.

18.--HALLBERG, Ivar.--_l'Extrême Orient dans la Littérature et la
Cartographie de l'Occident des XIII'e, XIV'e et XV'e siècles_--Étude
sur l'histoire de la géographie.--Göteborg, 1906, 8vo, pp. viii-573.

19.--A.V. JACKSON.--_The Magi in Marco Polo and the Cities in Persia
from which they came to worship the Infant Christ. (Journ. Amer.
Orient. Soc._, XXVI., I., pp. 79-83.)

---- _Persia Past and Present_. A Book of Travel and Research with
more than two hundred illustrations and a map by A.V. Williams
Jackson, Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages, and sometime adjunct
Professor of the English Language and Literature in Columbia
University. New York, The Macmillan Co., 1906, 8vo, pp. xxxi-471.

20.--_Marco Polo's Journey in Manzi_. By John C. FERGUSON.
(_Journal North China Branch R. As. Soc._, XXXVII., 1906, pp.
190, 191.)

21.--_The Pulse of Asia: A Journey in Central Asia illustrating the
Geographic Basis of History_, by Ellsworth HUNTINGTON, Illustrated.
Boston and New York, Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1907, 8vo, pp.
xxi-415.

22.--BRUCE, Major Clarence Dalrymple.--_In the Footsteps of Marco
Polo_, Being the Account of a Journey Overland from Simla to Pekin.
W. Blackwood, Edinburgh and London, 1907, 8vo, pp. xiv-379, ill., map.

23.--HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, A.--_Marco Polo's Travels; New editions; his
"Arbre Sol" not "Sun-tree," but Cypress of Zoroaster (Journal R. As.
Soc._, Jan., 1909, pp. 154-162.)

24.--SVEN HEDIN.--_Overland to India_, with 308 Illustrations from
Photographs, Water-colour Sketches, and Drawings by the Author, and 2
Maps. Macmillan and Co., London, 1910, 2 vols., 8vo, pp. xix-416,
xiv-357.

25.--_L'itinéraire de Marco Polo en Perse_, par M. Henri Cordier,
membre de l'Académie. (_Bull. Ac. Inscr. & Belles-Lettres_, Ctes.
rendus, Mai, 1911, pp. 298-309.)

26.--Hirth, Friedrich, and Rockhill, W.W.--_Chau Ju-kua_: His Work
on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the twelfth and thirteenth Centuries,
entitled _Chu-fan-chï_, Translated from the Chinese and
Annotated. St. Petersburg, Printing Office of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences, 1912, large 8vo, pp. x-288.

Mr. Rockhill has edited the Chinese Text of Chau Ju-kua at Tokyo, in
1914.

27.--Rockhill, W.W.--_Notes on the Relations and Trade of China with
the Eastern Archipelago and the Coast of the Indian Ocean during the
Fourteenth Century_. (_T'oung Pao_, 1914, July; 1915, March,
May, July, October, December.)

28.--Paul Pelliot.--_Kao-tch'ang Qoco, Houo-tcheou et Qarâ-khodja_,
par M. Paul Pelliot, avec une note additionnelle de M. Robert
Gauthiot. (_Journal Asiatique_, Mai-Juin, 1912, pp. 579-603.)

---- _Les documents chinois trouvés par la Mission_ Kozlov à
_Khara-Khoto_. Ext. du _Journal Asiatique_ (Mai-Juin, 1914). Paris,
Imp. Nat., 1914, 8vo, pp. 20.

---- Chrétiens d'Asie centrale et d'Extrême-Orient par Paul Pelliot.
(_T'oung Pao_, December, 1914, pp. 623-644.)

29.--Ferrand, Gabriel.--_Relations des voyages et textes géographiques
arabes, persans et turks relatifs à l'Extrême-Orient du VIII'e au
XVIII'e siècles_, traduits, revus et annotés. Paris, Ernest Leroux,
1913-1914, 2 vols. 8vo.

_Documents historiques et géographiques relatifs à l'Indo-chine publiés
sous le direction de_ MM. Henri Cordier et Louis Finot.

---- _La plus ancienne mention du nom de l'île de Sumatra_. Ext. du
_Journal Asiatique_ (Mars-Avril, 1917). Paris, Imp. Nat., 1917,
8vo, pp. 7.

---- _Malaka le Malayu et Malayur_. Ext. du _Journal Asiatique_
(Mai-Juin et Juillet-Août, 1918). Paris, Imp. Nat., 1918, 8vo,
pp. 202.

---- _Le nom de la girafe dans le Ying Yai Cheng Lan_. Ext. du
_Journal Asiatique_ (Juillet-Août, 1918). Paris, Imp. Nat., 1918,
8vo, pp. 4.

30.--Yule-Cordier.--_Cathay and the Way Thither being a Collection of
Medieval Notices of China_. New Edition. Vol. I. Preliminary Essay on the
Intercourse between China and the Western Nations previous to the Discovery
of the Cape Route. London, Hakluyt Society, 1915.--Vol. II. Odoric of
Pordenone.--Ibid., 1913.--Vol. III. Missionary Friars--Rashíduddín--
Pegolotti--Marignolli.--Ibid., 1914.--Vol. IV., Ibn Batuta.-- Benedict
Goës.--Index. Ibid., 1916; 4 vols., 8vo.

31.--_Karajang_, by B. LAUFER (Chicago). (_Journ. Roy. As.
Soc._, Oct., 1915, pp. 781-784.)

Cf. _Geographical Journal_, Feb., 1916, p. 146.

32.--MOULE, Rev. A.C.--_Notices of Christianity_. Extracted from
Marco Polo. (_Journ. North China Br. R. As. Soc._, XLVI., 1915,
pp. 19-37.)

Facsimile of a page of French MS. 1116 in the Bibliothèque nationale.

---- _Marco Polo's Sinjumatu_. (_T'oung Pao_, July, 1912, pp.
431-3.)

---- _Hang-chou to Shang-tu_, A.D. 1276. (_T'oung Pas_, July,
1915, pp. 393-419.)

---- _Documents relating to the Mission of the Minor Friars to China in
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries_. (_Jour. Roy. As.
Soc._, July, 1914, pp. 533-599.)

---- A.C. M[OULE].--_A Note on the Chinese Atlas in the Magliabecchian
Library, with reference to Kinsay in Marco Polo_. (_Jour. Roy.
As. Soc._, July, 1919, pp. 393-395.)

33.--Charles V. LANGLOIS.--Marco Polo Voyageur. (_Histoire littéraire
de la France_, XXXV.)

34.--CORDIER, Henri.--_Le Christianisme en Chine et en Asie sous les
Mongols_. (Ext. du _T'oung Pao_, 2'e Sér., XVIII., 1917).
Leide, E.J. Brill, 1918, 8vo, pp. 67.



SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.


XII., pp. 307 seq.

Sir Richard C. TEMPLE, has kindly sent me the following valuable notes:--

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS.

_General Note_.

Both the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have been very closely studied by
Indian Government officials for about fifty years, and they and the people
occupying them are now thoroughly understood. There is a considerable
literature about them, ethnographical, historical, geographical, and so
on.

I have myself been Chief Commissioner, i.e., Administrator, of both
groups for the Government of India for ten years, 1894-1903, and went
deeply into the subjects connected with them, publishing a good many
papers about them in the _Indian Antiquary_, _Journal of the Royal Society
of Arts_, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, and elsewhere.
A general survey of all information to that date concerning the islands
will be found in the _Census of India_, 1901, vol. III., which I wrote; in
this volume there is an extensive bibliography. I also wrote the Andaman
and Nicobar volumes of the Provincial and District _Gazetteers_, published
in 1909, in which current information about them was again summarised. The
most complete and reliable book on the subject is E.H. MAN'S _Aboriginal
Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands_, London, 1883. KLOSS, _Andamans and
Nicobars_, 1902, is a good book. GERINI'S _Researches on Ptolemy's
Geography of Eastern Asia_, 1909, is valuable for the present purpose.

The best books on the Nicobars are MAN'S _Nicobarese Vocabulary_,
published in 1888, and MAN'S _Dictionary of the Central Nicobarese
Language_, published in 1889. I am still publishing Mr. MAN'S _Dictionary
of the South Andaman Language in the Indian Antiquary_.

Recent information has so superseded old ideas about both groups of
islands that I suggest several of the notes in the 1903 edition of Marco
Polo be recast in reference to it.

With reference to the _Census Report_ noted above, I may remark that this
was the first Census Report ever made on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
and according to the custom of the Government of India, such a report has
to summarise all available information under headings called Descriptive,
Ethnography, Languages. Under the heading Descriptive are sub-heads,
Geography, Meteorology, Geography, History, so that practically my _Census
Report_ had to include in a summarised form all the available information
there was about the islands at that time. It has a complete index, and I
therefore suggest that it should be referred to for any point on which
information is required.

NICOBARS.

P. 307. _No king or chief_.--This is incorrect. They have distinct village
communities, governed each by its own chief, with definite rules of
property and succession and marriage. See _Census Report_ pp. 214, 212.

Pp. 307-308, Note 1. For Pulo Gomez, see BOWREY, _Countries Round the Bay
of Bengal_, ed. Temple, Hakluyt Society, p. 287 and footnote 4. Bowrey (c.
1675) calls it Pullo Gomus, and a marine journal of 1675 calls it Polo
Gomos.

_Origin of the name Nicobars_.--On this point I quote my paragraph thereon
on p. 185, _Census Report_.

"The situation of the Nicobars along the line of a very ancient trade has
caused them to be reported by traders and sea-farers through all
historical times. Gerini has fixed on Maniola for Car-Nicobar and
Agathodaimonos for Great Nicobar as the right ascription of Ptolemy's
island names for this region. This ascription agrees generally with the
mediaeval editions of Ptolemy. Yule's guess that Ptolemy's Barussae is the
Nicobars is corrected by Gerini's statement that it refers to Nias. In the
1490 edition of Ptolemy, the Satyrorum Insulae placed to the south-east of
the Malay Peninsula, where the Anamba islands east of Singapore, also on
the line of the old route to China, really are, have opposite them the
remark:--_qui has inhabitant caudas habere dicuntur_--no doubt in
confusion with the Nicobars. They are without doubt the Lankhabalus of the
_Arab Relations_ (851 A.D.), which term may be safely taken as a
misapprehension or mistranscription of some form of Nicobar (through
Nakkavar, Nankhabar), thus affording the earliest reference to the modern
term. But there is an earlier mention of them by I-Tsing, the Chinese
Buddhist monk, in his travels, 672 A.D., under the name of the Land of the
Naked People (Lo-jen-kuo), and this seems to have been the recognised name
for them in China at that time. 'Land of the Naked' translates Nakkavaram,
the name by which the islands appear in the great Tanjore inscription of
1050. This name reappears in Marco Polo's Necuveran 1292, in Rashiduddin's
Nakwaram 1300, and in Friar Odoric's Nicoveran 1322, which are the lineal
ancestors of the 15th and 16th Century Portuguese Nacabar and Nicubar and
the modern Nicobar. The name has been Nicobar since at least 1560. The
fanciful story of the tails is repeated by the Swede Kjoeping as late as
1647."

Nicobar clearly means the Land of the Naked, but that does not correctly
describe the people. I have never seen either a naked man or woman in the
Nicobars. The men are nearly naked, but they wear a string round the waist
with a very small loincloth. The string is so tied as to leave two long
streamers behind, which have very much the appearance of a tail as the man
walks along, and no doubt this gave rise to the idea that they were tailed
men. The women wear a petticoat coming below the knees, generally red.

The Nicobarese are not savages and live in well-built clean villages, are
born traders, and can calculate accurately up to very high figures. They
deliberately do not cultivate, because by using their cocoanuts as
currency they can buy from Chinese, Malay, Burmese, Indian, and other
traders all that they want in the way of food and comforts. They are good
gardeners of fruit. They seem to have borne their present characteristics
through all historical times.

Pp. 307-308, Note 1.--Nancowry is a native name for two adjacent islands,
now known as Camorta and Nankauri, and I do not think it has anything to
do with the name Nicobar. For a list of the geographical names of the
islands, see _Census Report_, pp. 179-180.

_Race and Dialect_.--The Nicobarese are generally classed as Malays,
i.e., they are "Wild Malays," and probably in reality an overflow of Mon
tribes from the mainland of the Malay Peninsula (_Census Report_, p. 250).
They are a finely built race of people, but they have rendered their faces
ugly by the habit of chewing betel with lime until they have destroyed
their teeth by incrustations of lime, so that they cannot close their lips
properly.

I think it is a mistake to class the Nicobarese as Rakshasas or demons, a
term that would apply in Indian parlance more properly to the Andamanese.

The Nicobarese are all one race, including the Shom Pen, for long a
mysterious tribe in the centre of Great Nicobar, but now well known. They
speak dialects of one language, though the dialects as spoken are mutually
unintelligible. There is no Negrito tribe in the Nicobars. A detailed
grammar of the language will be found in the _Census Report_, pp. 255-284.

The Nicobarese have long been pirates, and one of the reasons for the
occupation of their islands by the Indian Government was to put down the
piracy which had become dangerous to general navigation, but which now no
longer exists.

P. 309.--The great article of trade is the cocoanut, of which a detailed
account will be found in the _Census Report_, pp. 169-174, 219-220, 243. I
would suggest the recasting of the remarks on the products of the Nicobars
in your note on p. 309 in view of the statements made in those pages of
the Report, bearing in mind that the details of the Nicobar Islands are
now practically as well known as those relating to any other part of the
East.

P. 312.--The Nicobarese tradition is that they are descended from a man
and a dog, but this is only one phase of the ordinary Far Eastern
animal-descent story.

The projecting teeth mentioned by Colonel Man are common in the Nicobars
in the case of adults only, usually confined to men and women advanced in
life. They are not natural, but caused, as stated above, by the excessive
use of betel and lime, which forms a dark unsightly incrustation on the
teeth and finally destroys them. Children and youth of both sexes have
good white normal teeth,

P. 312.

NARCONDAM.

Narcondam, an island I know well, has a separate bibliography of its own.
It belongs to the Sunda group of volcanoes, but it has been so long
extinct that there are no obvious signs now of its ever having been
active. It has a species of hornbill which I have captured and shot that
has differentiated itself from all others. I do not think, therefore, it
can have been recognised as a volcano by mariners in historical times, and
consequently the derivation of Narakakundam is to my mind doubtful. The
obvious volcano in the neighbourhood is Barren Island, which is still
alive.

ANDAMANS.

Pp. 309-310, Note 1.--The Andamanese are not an ill-looking race, and are
not negroes in any sense, but it is true that they are Negritos in the
lowest known state of barbarism, and that they are an isolated race.
Reasons for the isolation will be found in the _Census Report_, p. 51, but
I should not call their condition, mentally or physically, degraded. The
mental characteristics of the race will be found on pp. 59-61 of the
_Census Report_, and for your information I here extract from my remarks
thereon the section on character.

"In childhood the Andamanese are possessed of a bright intelligence,
which, however, soon reaches its climax, and the adult may be compared in
this respect with the civilised child of ten or twelve. He has never had
any sort of agriculture, nor until the English taught him the use of dogs
did he ever domesticate any kind of animal or bird, nor did he teach
himself to turn turtle or to use hook and line in fishing. He cannot
count, and all his ideas are hazy, inaccurate, and ill-defined. He has
never developed unaided any idea of drawing or making a tally or record
for any purpose, but he readily understands a sketch or plan when shown
him. He soon becomes mentally tired, and is apt to break down physically
under mental training.

"He retains throughout life the main characteristics of the child: of very
short but strong memory, suspicious of but hospitable to strangers,
ungrateful, imitative and watchful of his companions and neighbours, vain,
and under the spur of vanity industrious and persevering, teachable up to
a quickly reached limit, fond of undefined games and practical jokes, too
happy and careless to be affected in temperament by his superstitions, too
careless indeed to store water even for a voyage, plucky but not
courageous, reckless only from ignorance or from inappreciation of danger,
selfish but not without generosity, chivalry or a sense of honour,
petulant, hasty of temper, entirely irresponsible and childish in action
in his wrath, and equally quick to forget, affectionate, lively in his
movements, and exceedingly taking in his moments of good temper. At these
times the Andamanese are gentle and pleasant to each other, considerate to
the aged, the weakly or the helpless, and to captives, kind to their wives
and proud of their children, whom they often over-pet; but when angered,
cruel, jealous, treacherous and vindictive, and always unstable. They are
bright and merry companions, talkative, inquisitive and restless, busy in
their own pursuits, keen sportsmen and naturally independent, absorbed in
the chase from sheer love of it and other physical occupations, and not
lustful, indecent, or indecently abusive.

"As the years advance they are apt to become intractable, masterful, and
quarrelsome. A people to like but not to trust. Exceedingly conservative
and bound up in ancestral custom, not amenable to civilisation, all the
teachings of years bestowed upon some of them having introduced no
abstract ideas among the tribesmen, and changed no habit in practical
matters affecting comfort, health, and mode of life. Irresponsibility is a
characteristic, though instances of a keen sense of responsibility are not
wanting. Several Andamanese can take charge of the steering of a large
steam launch through dangerous channels, exercising then caution, daring,
and skill though not to an European extent, and the present (1901)
dynamo-man of the electric lighting on Ross Island is an Andamanese, while
the wire-man is a Nicobarese, both of whom exhibit the liveliest sense of
their responsibilities, though retaining a deep-rooted and unconquerable
fear of the dynamo and wires when at work. The Nicobarese shows, as is to
be expected, the higher order of intellect. Another Andamanese was used by
Portman for years as an accountant and kept his accounts in English
accurately and well.

"The intelligence of the women is good, though not as a rule equal to that
of the men. In old age, however, they frequently exhibit a considerable
mental capacity which is respected. Several women trained in a former
local Mission Orphanage from early childhood have shown much mental
aptitude and capacity, the 'savagery' in them, however, only dying down as
they grew older. They can read and write well, understand and speak
English correctly, have acquired European habits completely, and possess
much shrewdness and common sense: one has herself taught her Andamanese
husband, the dynamo-man above mentioned, to read and write English and
induced him to join the Government House Press as a compositor. She writes
a well-expressed and correctly-spelt letter in English, and has a shrewd
notion of the value of money. Such women, when the instability of youth is
past, make good 'ayas,' as their menkind make good waiters at table.

"The highest general type of intelligence yet noticed is in the Jarawa
tribe."

P. 310. _The name Andaman_.--To my mind the modern Andaman is the Malay
Handuman = Hanuman, representing "monkey" or savage aboriginal antagonist
of the Aryans = also the Rakshasa. Individuals of the race, when seen in
the streets of Calcutta in 1883, were at once recognised as Rakshasas. It
may amuse you to know that the Andamanese returned the compliment, and to
them all Orientals are Chauga or Ancestral Ghosts, i.e., demons (see
_Census Report_, pp. 44-45 for reasons). I agree with you that Angamanain
is an Arabic dual, the Great and the Little Andaman. To a voyager who did
not land, the North, Middle, and South Andaman would appear as one great
island, whereas the strait separating these three islands from the Little
Andaman would be quite distinctly seen.

P. 311. _Cannibalism_.--The charge of cannibalism is entirely untrue. I
quote here my paragraph as to how it arose (_Census Report_, p. 48).

"The charge of cannibalism seems to have arisen from three observations of
the old mariners. The Andamanese attacked and murdered without provocation
every stranger they could on his landing; they burnt his body (as they did
in fact that of every enemy); and they had weird all-night dances round
fires. Combine these three observations with the unprovoked murder of one
of themselves, and the fear aroused by such occurrences in a far land in
ignorant mariners' minds, century after century, and a persistent charge
of cannibalism is almost certain to be the result."

The real reason for the Andamanese taking and killing every stranger that
they could was that for centuries the Malays had used the islands as one
of their pirate bases, and had made a practice of capturing the
inhabitants to sell as slaves in the Peninsula and Siam.

P. 311. _Navigation_.--It is true that they do not quit their own coasts
in canoes, and I have always doubted the truth of the assertions that any
of them ever found their way to any Nicobar island.

Andamanese men go naked, but the only Andamanese women that I have ever
seen entirely naked in their own jungles are of the inland tribe of
Jarawas.

R.C. TEMPLE.

Nov. 29, 1919.



INDEX


Names of Persons in CAPITAL Letters.--Subject Names in thick
Letters.--Title of Books in _italics_.

Aas (The Alans).
Ab-i-Panja.
ABRAHAM.
ACHMED.
Acre.
ADAM of Bremen.
Aden.
Afghanistan.
Africa.
AGHRUKJI.
Agror.
AHMED.
AHMED SHIBAB EDDIN.
ALBUGA.
Ain-i-Akbari.
AI-YA-CH'IH.
Aksu.
A-KUO.
A-LA-HAN.
Alans.
A-LA-PU-TAN.
Alashan.
A-LA-WA-TING.
ALBIRUNI.
ALFARIC, P.
AL FAKHRI.
Aloes.
A-lo-sz'.
A-lu.
AMAR, E.
Amb.
Ambergris.
Amoy.
A-nan.
Andaman.
Angamanain.
An-hsi-hsiang.
An-si-tsio.
Antwerp.
Arrabia.
Arakan.
ARANZADI, Telesforo de.
Arbre sec, arbre seul, arbre sol.
ARGHÚN KHAN.
Arhat.
A-R-HUN.
Ariora.
Ärkãgün.
Arménie.
Arnawal.
Arsacie.
ARSLAN.
Aru.
ASEDIN SOLDAN.
Ashreth.
Asia Minor.
Asiot.
Asmar.
A-TA-HAI.
Atyugrapura.
AVICENNE.
AYMONIER.
Azoo, R.F.

Badakhshan.
Badghis.
Baghdad.
Bahabad.
Baharak.
Baikal.
Bajistan.
Bajkatta.
BAKHSH, Maula.
Balkh.
Baltistán.
Baluchi.
Baluchistan.
Balur.
Baluristan.
Bamian.
Barbary.
BARBOSA.
Bargu, Lake.
Barguchin.
Bargut.
Bark of Trees.
_Barlaam_.
Baroghil.
BARROS.
Bashgol.
Bastra.
Baudas.
BEAL.
BEAZLEY, C.R.
BEHA ED-DIN AYAZ SEYFIN.
Belucha.
Bend i-Turkestan.
BENT, Theo.
Bentam.
Benzoin.
Berbera.
Be Tumah.
Beyamini.
Bhamo.
BHUWANEKA BAHU I.
---- BAKU II.
Binshi Pass.
Bintang.
BLAGDEN, C.O.
Blows, Scale of.
BOLOD.
Bolor.
BOUSSAC, H.
BOWREY.
BRANDT, Otto St.
BRETSCHNEIDER, E.
BROWN, Dr. Robert.
BRUCE, C.D.
Buckram.
BUDDHA.
Bujnurd.
Buner.
Burch.
BÜRCK.
Burkhan.
Burma.
BUSHELL, S.W.

CABATON, Ant.
Cachar Modun.
CAIN, John.
Caiju.
Cail.
Caindu.
Cairo.
Cala Ataperistan.
Calamina.
Calicut.
Camadi.
Cambalu.
Cambodia.
Camel crane.
Camelot.
Camels.
Camphor.
Campichu.
Camul.
Canal, Grand.
Canton.
Cape of Good Hope.
Cape Sheep.
Caraonas.
Cardamom.
Caroline Islands.
CARPINI, Plano, John of.
Casem.
Cashmeer.
Caspienne.
Caswin.
_Cathay_.
CATHERINE of COURTENAY.
Caugigu.
Ceylon.
Chagan jang.
Chagan nor.
CHAGHATAÏ.
Chah Khushab.
Chah Kuru.
Cha-i-beluch.
Chakdara.
Chakmak, Lake.
Chamba, Champa.
CHANDE.
Changan.
Ch'ang Chau, Ch'angchou.
Ch'ang lu.
Chan tao.
Charchan.
CHARDIN.
Charklik.
CHARLES de VALOIS.
Chasma Sufid.
Chau Chi.
CHAU JU-KWA.
CHAVANNES, Ed.
Che Ch'an.
Cheeta.
Chehel Pai.
Chen Ch'ao.
Cherchen; _see_ Charchan.
Chichiklik Pass.
Chi Chou.
Chien-tao.
Chih-li.
Chingintalas.
CHINGIZ KHAN.
Ch'ing siang.
CHIN KIN.
Chinuchi.
CHI-PI T'IE-MU-R.
_Chi p'u_.
Chira.
Chitral.
Ch'ö-k'ü.
_Chou Shu_.
Christians.
Chuan sha.
_Chu fan chí_; see CHAU JU-KWA.
Ch'ui lan.
Chu lién.
Ch'ung K'ing.
Chung li.
CHUN YUEN.
Ciang lu.
Cloves.
Coats of Mail.
Coilum.
Cophene.
CORDIER, H.
Coromandel Coast.
COSQUIN, Em.
COTES, Everard.
Cotton.
Couvade.
Cowries.
Crawford.
ÇRI PARAMAÇVARA.
Cunichi.
Cycle.
Cypress of ZOROASTER.
Cyprus.

DAHLMANN, J.
Dambadenia.
Darbana.
Darband.
Dardic.
Darugachi.
Dates.
DEFRÉMERY.
Delhi.
DENNYS, N.B.
DENUCÉ, J.
DERENBOURG, H.
Deva-dasi.
DEVÉRIA, G.
Diet of the Gulf People.
Digargand.
Dilivar.
Dir.
Dirakht i sol.
Djambi.
Djur djan.
Dog-headed Barbarians.
Dogana.
Dolonor.
DOMINICK, St.
Dragon's blood.
DUDGEON, J.
Dúdhá.
Dufar.
Duhuk.
DULAURIER.
DUTREUIL DE RHINS.

EDWARD, King.
EDRISI.
Egypt.
Elephants' tusks.
ELIAS, Ney.
ELLIOTT, Sir Walter.
Endereh.
Eptals.
_Eracles_.
Erukalawandlu.
Escurial.
Esher.
ESSEN TEMUR.
Etzina.

Faeul la.
Fahanunch.
Fa li la.
Fa li lang.
Fandaraina.
Fang pu.
FANG TS'IEN-LI.
_Fan kuo chi_.
FAN WEN-HU.
Fat-tailed sheep.
FELLOWS.
FERGUSON, Donald.
FERGUSON, John C.
Ferlec.
FERRAND, Gabriel.
FERRIER.
Firuz Kuh.
FLEET, J.F.
Florence.
Fong Joen hien.
Foochow.
FORSYTH, Sir D.T.
Fou ning hien.
FRANCISQUE-MICHEL.
Frankincense.
FRASER.
FRIEDMANN, Ed.
Fuh lin.
FUJITA.
Fu Kien.

Gabar Castle.
Galcha.
GAUBIL.
GENGIS KHAN; see CHINGIZ KHAN.
GEORGE, Prince.
GERINI, Col.
GÉUKJU.
Gez, Defile.
GHIASUDDIN.
GILES, H.A.
Gilgit.
GILL, Capt.
Ginger.
Giraffes.
Glasgow.
Goblins.
God.
God Hashtaki.
God-i-shah-taghi.
Goëz, Benedict.
Goklán Turkomans.
Gold, coins; native; value of.
GONDOPHERNES.
Gozurat.
GRAY, Archdeacon.
Great Desert.
Great Wall.
GREGORY X.
GRENARD, F.
GRIERSON, Sir George.
GROENEVELDT, W.P.
Gurgán.
Gurun.
Guzerat.

Ha ch'a mu touen.
Hadramaut.
HAJI SUMUTRABHUMI.
Ha-la T'u.
HALLBERG, Ivar.
Hami.
Han chung.
Hang Chau.
HAN LIN-EUL.
Han mo.
HA PI CH'I.
HARLEZ, C. de.
Harmuz; see Hormuz.
Hasanábad.
Hata.
Hauz-i-Haji-Ramazan.
HAYAM WURUK.
Hazara.
HEDIN, Sven.
HEIKEL.
Hei Shui.
Hei tiao.
Herat.
HERODOTUS.
HETHUM, King.
HEYD, W.
Hia.
Hia lah.
HIEN FUNG.
Hien yang.
HIERSEMANN, Karl W.
Hindu Kush.
HIRTH, F.
_Hist. litt. de la France_.
HIUAN TSANG.
Hiu Heng.
Hiung Nu.
HOANG, P.
Ho Kien.
HOLM, Frits V.
Ho Nan.
Ho Ni.
Hormos; see Hormuz.
Hormuz.
Horses.
HO SE-HUI.
Ho sim.
HO TIEN-TSIO.
Ho ts'z mi.
_Hou Han shu_.
HOUTUM-SCHINDLER.
Hsen-wi.
Hsien nü miao.
Hsi hsia.
Hsin Chin Hsien.
HUBER, Ed.
Hu Chou.
HUET.
Hui jen.
_Hui kiang chi_.
HUKAJI.
HULAGU.
Humang.
Hu Nan.
Hung Fu.
HUNG TS'A-KIU.
Hunting Leopard.
HUNTINGTON, E.
Hunza.
Hu Peh.
HUSSOT.
Hu Tu.
Hu yang.

IBN AL BAYTAR.
IBN BÂBAWAIH.
IBN BATUTA.
IBN KUSTRAJIM.
Indigo.
Indo-Scythy.
INDRAVARMAN VI.
Indus.
Irrawaddy.
Ishkahm.
Islands, Male and Female.
Ismaelites.
IVANOV.
Ivory.

JACK, R. Logan.
JACKSON, A.W.W.
Jade.
Japan.
Japanese War.
Jatah.
JAYA SINHARVARMAN.
Jhelam.
JOANNO DOS SANCTOS.
JOHNSON.
JOSAPHAT.
Jou jan.
Ju hiang.

Kabul.
Kachins.
Kademgah.
Kafchi kué.
Kafir Valley.
Kafiristan.
Kafirs.
Kai.
Ka-i-lêh.
Kain.
K'ai p'ing fu.
Kal'ah i Atashparastan.
Kam chau; _see_ Kan chau.
Kam pei.
Kan Chau.
K'ANG Hi.
Kang pi.
KANG YU-CHI.
Kan pai.
Kan Su.
Kao ch'ang.
Kao ch'ê.
KAO HSIEN-CHIH.
Kao yu.
Kapisa.
Karajang.
Kara Khitai.
Kara Khodja.
Kara Khoto.
Karakorum.
Kara Kul.
Kara Shahr.
Karáwánás.
Kárnás.
Kasanna.
Kashan.
Kashgar.
K'a shi mih.
Kashmir.
Kätäk.
Kaungsi.
Kaung sin.
Kaveripattanam.
Kayal.
Keirabad.
Kenan.
Keriya.
Kerman.
Kerulen.
Keshikten.
Keshimur.
Kevir.
Khanfu.
KHANIKOFF.
Khakhan.
Khan Balig.
Khara Khoto; _see_ Kara Khoto.
Kheirabad.
Khitan.
Khorasan.
Khori.
Khoten; _see_ Khotan.
Khotan.
Khudafrin.
Khumdan.
Khurma.
Kiang si.
Kiao chi kwe.
Kia yu kwan.
Kieh sha.
Kieh shwang na.
Kien ch'ang.
Kien Kang.
K'IEN LUNG.
Kien tu.
K'ié t'ai.
KI HAN.
Kila Panja.
K'i lien.
K'i lien shan.
K'i lin.
KIN.
King Shan.
KINGSMILL, T.W.
King tchao fu.
Ki ning.
Kin Kargalai.
Kinsay.
Ki pe.
Ki pu.
KIRSTE, John.
Kisi.
_Kitab u'l-Bazyarah_.
_K'i-t'ah-t'eh Pu-ha_.
Kitan.
Kiu chen.
Kiung tu.
KLAPROTH.
KLOSS.
Koh Tralàch.
Koko Nor.
Ko-ku-lo.
_Ko-pu-che-ma_.
Korano.
Kosano.
Kou kuo.
K'ou wai.
KOZLOFF, Col.
KRETSCHMER, K.
_Kuangyu hsing shêng_.
_Kuang yü t'u_.
Kuba Sabz.
Kúblái.
Kubunán; _see_ Kuh-benan.
Kuche.
_Kudatku Bilik_.
Kuh-benan, Kuh Banan.
Ku li.
K'u lu ma.
K'u lun.
KUMAGUSU MINAKATA.
Kunar.
KUNICKE, Hugo.
Kúnkú.
K'un lun ts'öng ti.
Kurit.
Kurun.
Kwa Chau.
Kwang Chau.
Kwei Chau.
K'WEI T'ENG.

Lahawar.
Lahore.
Lambri.
La meng.
Landjun.
Langar Kisht.
LANGLOIS, C.V.
Langszi.
Lankaçoka.
Lankhabalus.
Lan wu li.
Lao.
LAUFER, B.
Lawáki.
LEARY, Mrs. George.
LE COQ.
_Lei pien_.
LEMKE, Hans.
LEO AFRICANUS.
Leopards.
LEVI, C.A.
LÉVI, Sylvain.
_Liang Shu_.
LIAO.
Li Chou.
Lienyün.
Ligor.
Ling pei.
_Ling-wai-tai-ta_.
Ling ya ssi kia.
Lin Ngan.
LI T'AN.
LITTON.
Livar.
Loan tcheou.
Lob Nor.
Locac.
Lo-ch'a.
Lochac.
Lo-han.
Lo hing man.
Lo lan.
Lo lo.
Lop; _see_ Lob Nor.
Lopou.
Lo t'ing-hien.
LOUIS, St.
Loulan.
LOUREIRO, J. de.
Lovek.
Lowarai.
LOWES, J.L.
Luang Prabang.
Lu kü River.
Lulan.
Lumghán.
Lut.

Maabar.
MACKINDER, H.J.
MADROLLE, C.
Maga.
Magadha.
Magi.
Mahratta.
Majapahit.
Malabar.
Malacca.
Ma-la-hi.
Malaiur.
Malaria.
Malaya.
Malayu.
Malayur.
Ma lo pa.
Maluir.
MAN, E.H.
Mána.
Mandal Pass.
MANGALAI.
MANG KU TAI.
MANGU.
MANSUR KHÁN.
Manuscripts of Marco Polo.
Man Waing.
Mao Shan.
Mare's Milk.
MARQUART, J.
Marriage.
Marriage of the Dead.
MAR SARGHIS.
MARSDEN, W.
_Masálak al Absár_.
MASEFIELD, John.
MASPERO, G.
MASPERO, H.
Mastuj.
MAS'UD.
MA TUAN-LIN.
MAURO, Fra.
MAYERS, W.F.
Mazar tapa.
MEDLYCOTT, A.E.
Mekrit.
Melibar.
Mescript.
Meshed.
MICHELANT, H.
Mien, Mien Kwé.
MINAKATA, KUMAGUSU.
MING.
_Ming Shi_.
MIRZA HAIDAR.
Mi t'ang tsiu.
Moghu.
Moghul.
MOHAMMED I. Dirhem Kub.
MONTE CORVINO, JOHN de.
MONG CH'ANG.
MONG CHI-SIANG.
MONGEZ.
Mongols.
MONTALTO DE JESUS, C.A.
MORLEY, Henry.
MORRISON, R.
MOSTAS'IM.
Mongol Imperial Family.
MOULE, A.C.
MOULE, G.E.
Mu bu pa.
MUHAMMAD.
Mu hu pa.
Muh Pang.
Muh pieh tzu.
Mukden.
Mu-la-i.
Mu lan p'i.
Mu-lei.
MÜLLER, F.W.K.
MÜLLER, Max.
Mu mién.
Murabit.
Murgab.
Muzart.
Muztagh-Ata.
Muzzaffarabad.
Myin Saing.
Myrobolans.
Myrrh.

Nac.
_Nan fang ts'ao mi chuang_.
Na-fo-po.
Naft.
Nafún.
Nagar.
_Nagarakretagama_.
Naiband, Naibend.
Negapatam.
Necuveran.
Nam.
Nakh.
Nam hkam.
Nam Ti.
Nan Chao.
Nan King.
Nan p'i.
Nan Shan.
_Nan Shi_,.
Nan Sung.
Nan tien.
NARASIHAPATI.
Narcondam.
Nasich.
NASR ED-DIN.
Nassit.
NAYAN.
Nga-çaung-khyam.
Nga Singu.
Ngan chen kue.
Ngan tung.
NGAO-LA-HAN.
NICHOLAS, Alan Prince.
Nicobar.
NIGUDAR.
Nilus.
Ning Yuan.
Nipon.
Nishapur.
Niu Wang.
Niya.
NOGODAR.
NONE.
Nuchên.
Nu-fa.
Nuksán Pass.
NUMUGAN.
Nuntuh.
Nuremberg.
Nutuk.

O'CONNELL, Col.
ODORIC.
OELJAITU.
OGDAI, OKKODAI.
OLDENBOURG, S. d'.
OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN.
OLIVIERI, Dante.
OLOPUN.
Ondanique.
Ongut.
Ormus; _see_ Hormuz.
Oros.
Ostriches.
OTTEWILL, H.A.
Ouigour; _see_ Uighúr.
Oxen of Tibet, Wild.
Oxus.

PACHATURUNZA.
Pagan.
_Pagan Yazawin_.
P'ai tzu.
Palembang.
Palladius.
Palor.
Pamier; _see_ Pamir.
Pamir.
PANDITA, PAKRAMA BAKU II.
Panjkora River.
Panjkora Valley.
Panjshir Valley.
Pan-shê.
Panyál.
Pao.
Paonano Pao.
Pao tch'e hien.
Paper Money.
Paris.
PARKER, E. II.
Paropamisus.
Pashai.
Pashai-Dir.
Pa tan.
Pa ta shan.
Pa tsz.
PAUTHIER.
Pearls.
PEGOLOTTI.
_Peh Shi_.
Pein.
PELLIOT.
Pentam.
_Pen ts'ao kang mu_.
Pepper.
PERI, N.
Persia.
Persian, knowledge of.
Peshawar.
PÉTIS DE LA CROIX.
PETIT, Joseph, II.
Petroleum.
Pharaoh's rat.
PHILIP the Fair, II.
PHILIPPS, W.R.
PHILLIPS, G.
PHILLOTT, Col. D.C.
PHILOSTRATE.
P'iao tien.
Pie-li-la.
P'i mo.
Pin Iron.
Pin t'ieh.
Pi p'a lo.
PIPINO, F.
Pir Moral.
Pisaca languages.
Pi ssi lo.
POH LO.
Poh lo.
POLO, Marco,
  Notes;
  Statue at Canton;
  MSS.
PO-LO.
P'öng hirds.
Po sze tao.
Po Yi.
POZDNEIEV, A.
PRAKAMA BAHU III.
PRAPAÑCA.
PRJEVALSKY.
Pudenum.
Puh hai.
PUH-LAN HI.
PUH-LO.
PUH-LO HI.
PUH-LO KADEI.
PULAD Chinsang.
Pulau Kundur.
Pulo Condor.
Pumpkin Island.
Punjab.
PURCHAS.
.
Qamul.
Qara Khodja; see Kara Khodja.
QUINTE-CURCE.

RADLOFF, W.
Ramjani.
Ramme, African.
RAMSTEDT.
RAMUSIO.
RASHID UD-DIN.
Rávar.
RAWLINSON, G.
RAYNAUD, G.
REID, Gilbert.
Reobarles.
Rezu.
Rhinoceros.
Rhio Strait.
Rhubarb.
Riau.
RICHTHOFEN.
Rizab.
ROBERT d'Artois.
ROCKHILL, W.W.
ROKN ED-DIN MAHMUD III. KALHATY.
Ross, E.D.
RUBRUCK, G. de.
RUGE, S.
Rukh.
RUOMEDAN AHOMET.
Russia.
RUSTICIANO.

Saba.
Sadfe.
Sad Ishtragh.
Sad Khandut.
Sado.
Sad Sipang.
Saffron.
Sagamoni Borcan.
SAGATU.
Saghlat.
Sago tree.
Sa-ha-la.
Saianfu.
SAID KHAN.
Saint Omer.
Sakya Muni Burkhan.
Salt.
Salwen.
Sam.
Samarcand.
Sandal Wood.
San fo ts'i.
Sangon.
San Ta.
Sappan.
Sapurgan.
Säracanco.
Sarai.
Sarhad.
Sarikol.
Sar-i-Sar-hadd.
Sar i Sher.
Sati.
Sa-to.
SCHEFER, Ch.
SCHLEGEL, G.
Scotra.
SCOTT, Sir G.
Sebsevar.
Sefid-ab.
SEÏF ED-DIN NUSRAT.
Selat Tebrau.
Selenga.
Sendi Foulat.
Sêng.
Seng-i-Kal-i-deh.
Ser-i-julge.
_Serindia_.
Sha Chou.
SHAH RUKH.
SHAMU HUST.
Shang Tu.
SHAN CHU TSUN CHE.
_Shan Haï King_.
Shan Tung.
Shan Si.
Shao Hing.
Sha t'ang.
SHAW, E.B.
Sheep.
Shehr.
SHEMIAKIN.
Shen Chou.
Shen shen.
Shen yü.
Shibirkhan.
SHIEN TCHU.
Shi Ho.
Shikamparast.
Shikari.
Shi-k'i-ni.
Shik-nih.
Shi lang.
SHI T'IEN-TSE.
Shu, Kingdom of.
Shu-mih fu shi.
SHU NGAN.
Shurab.
Siah posh.
SIANG WU TA EUL.
Si Chou.
Sien pi.
Si fan.
SÏHASURA.
Si Hia.
Si lan.
Si lan ch'i kuo.
Si li ju eul su la.
Silky Fowls.
SINCLAIR, William F.
Sindafu.
Si-ngan fu.
Singapore.
_Sing ch'a shêng lan_.
Singphos.
SINGTAUR.
Si ning.
Sinju.
Sinjumatu.
SIRI PARAMISURA.
Sita river.
_Si yang ch'ao kung tien lu_.
_Si yih kien wan luh_.
SLIEPTSOV, A.
Smyrna.
Soling river.
Somali Coast.
Sorcerers.
So Tu.
Sounds.
Spain.
STEIN, Sir Aurel.
Stewart, C.E.
Storax.
STUART.
Süan wei shi.
Su Chou.
Sugar.
Sui.
Sukchur.
Sultania.
Sumatra.
Sundar Fulat.
SUNG.
_Sung Shi_.
SUNG YUN.
Sun tree.
Suttee.
Swat.
Syghinan.
SYKES, Major P.M.
Syria.
Sze Chw'an.
SZE-MA TS'IEN.
Szi lang.

Tabas, Tabbas.
Tabriz; see Tauris.
T'a-ch'ar Hu-nan.
Tagaung.
Tagharma.
Ta Hsien.
Taichow.
T'ai hang Mountain.
Táilgan.
Tái lin.
_T'aï p'ing yu lan_.
T'aï Yuan fu.
Ta-la-kien.
Talash.
Talecan.
Ta-li.
Tamasak.
_Ta Ming yi fung che_.
Tanah.
Tanah Malaya.
T'ang.
T'ang-hsi.
T'ang Shu.
Tangut.
Tanjore.
Tanjore inscription.
TANNER, P. von.
_Tao yi chi lio_.
TAG KOANG.
Ta Ping.
Tárikh-i-Rashidi.
Tarim.
Tarsa.
Ta Shi.
Tash Kurghan.
Tashmalik.
Ta sz nung.
Tatar.
Ta Ts'in.
Ta tu.
Ta tu k'ou.
Ta T'ung.
Tauris.
Tch'ang.
Tch'eng Tu.
Tebbes.
Teir al djamal.
TEIXEIRA, Pedro.
Telugu.
TEMPLE, Sir R.C.
Tenasserim.
Tenduc.
Teng-i-Tebbes.
Tengri (Heaven).
Tengri kudu.
T'eng Yueh.
Termed.
Thardwehch.
THIBAUT de CHEPOY.
THOMAS, St.
THORDEMAN, B.
THORNHILL, Clarke.
Three Kings.
Thus.
Tiao men.
Tiao yü shan.
Tibet.
Tibetans.
T'ie leh.
Tien chu.
Tien ning temple.
T'ien pu ma.
T'ien Shan.
T'ien tö.
T'ien Tsin.
Tiju.
Tirandáz.
TOB TIMUR.
TOBA.
Tokhara.
Tokuk Dawan.
Tölös.
TOMASCHEK, W.
TOMLINSON, C.
Tonocain.
TONONI, G.
TORUNXA.
Tou iron.
Tou lo mién.
_T'oung Pao_.
T'ou-ore.
Tourfan; see Turfan.
T'ou shih.
T'ou t'ieh.
Tribut.
TROTTER, Col.
Ts'an chêng.
Ts'ang Chou.
_Ts'ao mu tse_.
Ts'eng yao lo.
Tsiang kiun.
TS'IEN WU-SU.
TSIN.
Ts'i nan.
TS'ING.
Tsing hai hien.
Ts'ing ki hien.
Ts'ing shui.
Ts'i Ning chau.
_Tsoh mung luh_.
Ts'öng pa.
Ts'uän Chou.
TSUBOI KUMAZO.
Tsui lan.
Tsu la.
Tsu la fa.
T'u fan.
Tu-ho-lo.
T'u kuh hun.
TU LI.
Tumat.
Tun.
T'ung kwan.
_Tung-si-yang-k'au_.
Tun huang.
Tunis.
Tunocain, Tunokain.
Tun-o-Tabbas.
Tun va Kain.
Tun t'ien.
Turfan.
Turshiz.
Tutia.
TU TSUNG.

Uighúr.
ULUG BEG.
Ulug Mazar.
Ulug Ziarat.
_Ulus Arbaa_.
Urasa.
Urga.
Uriangkut.
Uryangkit.
Ushi.
Uzun Tati.

VACCA, Giovanni.
VALENTYN.
Vardoj river.
Victoria, Lake.
VIJAYA BAKU IV.
Vijayanagar.
Vines.
VINSON.
VISCONTI, Tedaldo.
VISDELOU.
VISSIÈRE.
Vochan.
Vociam.
Vokhan.
Vughin.
Vuju.

Wakhan.
WALKENAER.
Wa lo sz'.
WANG CHU.
WANG KIEN.
WAN LI.
_Wan nien tsao_.
Wan sui shan.
Warai.
Weather Conjuring.
WEI.
Wei, river.
_Wei Shu_.
WHIBLEY, Ch.
WIESNER, J.
Wine.
Wok-k'an.
Wo tuan.
WRIGHT, T.
WU.
Wu chên.
Wu chiang.
WU HI.
Wu hwan.
WU KIAI.
WU KIËN-HWANG.
WU K'UNG.
WU LIN.
WYLIE, A.

Ya chou fu.
Yaci.
Yaman yar river.
Yang Chau.
Yangi Hisar.
Yang Kiang.
Yanju.
Yap Island.
Yarkand.
Yasin.
Ya tsui tan fan.
Ye-li-k'o-wen.
Yemen.
Yen Chan hien.
YEN KWANG-TA.
YEN TEMUR.
Yen t'o man.
YE TSE-K'I.
Yezd.
_Ying yai shêng lan_.
_Yin shan cheng yao_.
Yin tu.
YISUN TIMUR.
Yi tsi nai.
_Yi wu chi_.
Yotkan.
YOUNG, John.
YSEMAIN.
Y-SZ-MA-YIN.
YUAN.
_Yuan kien lei han_.
_Yuan shi_.
Yueh Chi.
_Yuen tien chang_.
Yu Ho.
YULE, Sir Henry.
Yung ch'ang.
Yung chia chong.
Yun Nan.
Yü shi ta fa.
Yu t'ien.

Zaitun.
Zakhama Pass.
Zanghibar.
Zanzibar.
Zardandan.
Zarew.
Zebak.
Zenagan.
Zimmé.
ZOROASTER.





*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Travels of Marco Polo — Volume 2" ***

Copyright 2023 LibraryBlog. All rights reserved.



Home