Title: The Practical Garden-Book - Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the - Commonest Things about the House and Garden
Author: Bailey, L. H. (Liberty Hyde), 1858-1954, Hunn, C. E.
Language: English
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*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Practical Garden-Book - Containing the Simplest Directions for the Growing of the - Commonest Things about the House and Garden" ***


  The Garden-Craft Series
  EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY


THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK



  THE
  PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK

  _CONTAINING THE SIMPLEST DIRECTIONS
  FOR THE GROWING OF THE COMMONEST
  THINGS ABOUT THE HOUSE AND GARDEN_

  BY

  C. E. HUNN

  AND

  L. H. BAILEY

  _THIRD EDITION_

  New York
  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
  LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
  1903
  _All rights reserved_


  COPYRIGHT, 1900
  BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

  ***

  Set up and electrotyped March, 1900
  Reprinted February, 1901, and June, 1903

  Mount Pleasant Press
  J. Horace McFarland Company
  Harrisburg, Pennsylvania



Like the love of music, books and pictures, the love of gardens comes
with culture and leisure and with the ripening of the home life. The
love of gardens, as of every other beautiful and refining thing, must
increase to the end of time. More and more must the sympathies enlarge.
There must be more points of contact with the world. Life ever becomes
richer. Gardening is more than the growing of plants: it is the
expression of desire.

As there must be many gardeners, so there must be many books. There must
be books for different persons and different ideals. The garden made by
one’s own hands is always the best garden, because it is a part of
oneself. A garden made by another may interest, but it is another
person’s individuality. A poor garden of one’s own is better than a good
garden in which one may not dig. Many a poor soul has more help in a
plant in the window than another has in a plantation made by a gardener.

I would emphasize the home garden, made by the members of the family. I
would preach the beauty of the common plants and the familiar places.
These things are never old. Many times I have noted how intently an
audience of plant-lovers will listen to the most commonplace details
respecting the cultivation of plants with which they have been always
familiar. There was nothing new in what they heard; but they liked to
have the old story told over again, and every detail called up a memory.

The same questions are asked every year, and they always will be
asked,--the questions about the simplest garden operations. Upon this
desire for commonplace advice the horticultural journals live. A journal
which publishes only things that are new would find little support. Some
of these common questions I have tried to answer in this little book. I
wish them answered in the simple and direct phrase of the gardener.
Therefore I asked my friend C. E. Hunn, gardener to the Horticultural
Department of Cornell University, who lives with plants, to write advice
for one who would make a garden; and this he did in a summer vacation.
These notes, edited and amplified, now make this book.

                                                    L. H. BAILEY.

  HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT,
  CORNELL UNIVERSITY.
  ITHACA, N. Y., February 22, 1900.



THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK

***


ABOBRA VIRIDIFLORA. A handsome tender climber with tuberous roots, that
may be taken up in the fall and stored in a cellar. The foliage is dark
and glossy, the flowers small and inconspicuous; but the small scarlet
fruits are very effective in contrast to the leaves, making it a
desirable screen plant. It is sold by seedsmen. Seeds sown as soon as
warm weather comes will give plants which bloom in the open (in a warm
soil and exposure), and which reach a height of 5-8 ft. It is sometimes
grown as a glasshouse plant. It is cucurbitaceous (allied to melons and
gourds).


ABRONIA. Californian trailing perennials, but treated as hardy annuals.
They thrive in any warm, open garden soil, and are very satisfactory for
the margins of beds or borders. The little flowers are borne in
clusters. _A. latifolia_ or _arenaria_ (yellow) and _A. umbellata_ or
_grandiflora_ (pink) are the leading kinds. Usually sown where they are
to bloom. Peel the husk off the seed before sowing.


[Illustration: Abutilon striatum]

ABUTILONS, or FLOWERING MAPLES as they are called by many, make fine
house or bedding plants. Common kinds may be grown from seed or from
cuttings of young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in
February or March in a temperature of not less than 60°. The seedlings
should be potted when from four to six leaves have grown, in a rich,
sandy soil. Frequent pottings should be made to insure a rapid growth,
making plants large enough to flower by fall. Or, the seedlings may be
planted out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up in
the fall before frost: these plants will bloom all winter. About
one-half of the newer growth should be cut off when they are taken up,
as they are very apt to spindle up when grown in the house. When grown
from cuttings, young wood should be used, which, after being well
rooted, may be treated in the same manner as the seedlings. The
varieties with variegated leaves have been improved until the foliage
effects are equal to the flowers of some varieties; and, these are a
great addition to the conservatory or window garden. The staple
spotted-leaved type is _A. Thompsoni_. A compact form, now much used for
bedding and other outdoor work, is _Savitzii_, which is a horticultural
variety, not a distinct species. The old-fashioned green-leaved _A.
striatum_, from which _A. Thompsoni_ has probably sprung, is one of the
best. _A. megapotamicum_ or _vexillarium_ is a trailing or drooping
red-and-yellow-flowered species, which is excellent for baskets. It
propagates readily from seed. Abutilons are most satisfactory for house
plants when they are not much more than a year old. They need no special
treatment.


ACONITUM. MONK’S HOOD. WOLF’S BANE. Hardy herbaceous perennials allied
to larkspurs. They are showy border plants, usually flowering the first
year from seed, if the seed is started early, and bearing panicles of
quaint hood-shaped, rich flowers. The colors have a wide range, but are
usually deep blue. The improved varieties are much superior in size and
markings. Aconitums are most effective when planted in a mixed border:
the flower stalks being held well up, show the blossoms to good
advantage. Seed may be sown every two years, as the plants in their
year-old and 2-year-old stage have the largest blossoms. Sow in gentle
heat in March, transplanting to border when the weather is settled.
Roots may be divided if desired, but best results are to be expected
from seedlings. _A. Napellus_ is the commonest one. The plants are very
poisonous if eaten. Bloom in early summer. 2-3 ft.


ACROCLINIUM. A low-growing everlasting annual flower, white, violet, or
rose in color. Seeds should preferably be started in a hotbed or window,
and planted out when danger of frost is past; the flowers should be
gathered when half expanded and hung in the shade to dry. Half-hardy.
Plant 1 foot apart. Grow 10-15 in. high. See _Everlastings_.


[Illustration: Adlumia cirrhosa]

ADLUMIA. MOUNTAIN FRINGE. ALLEGHENY VINE. One of the daintiest of
climbers, making a very rapid growth, and when once established seeding
itself and thriving for years, growing 10 or 15 feet in a season. Give
rich, rather moist soil. It is biennial, blooming the second year.
Flowers like those of the bleeding heart and other dicentras. It is
native.


ADONIS. A low-growing hardy annual or perennial of the easiest culture.
It makes a fine mass effect, as the flowers are a striking dark scarlet
or crimson color, and the plants are very free and continuous bloomers.
Sow early in the spring where wanted. The perennial yellow-flowered
sorts sometimes bloom the first year from seed. Adonises are very neat
in habit, and the foliage is fine and interesting. 10-15 in.


AGAPANTHUS. AFRICAN LILY. A tuberous-rooted, well known conservatory or
window plant. It lends itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory
a large part of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot,
covering it entirely in a well grown specimen. The flowers are borne in
a large cluster on stems growing from 2 to 3 ft. high, as many as two or
three hundred bright blue flowers often forming on a single plant. A
large, well grown plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the
early season. The one essential to free growth is an abundance of water
and an occasional application of manure water. Propagation is effected
by division of the offsets, which may be broken from the main plant in
early spring. After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water
until they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position
free from frost and moderately dry. The Agapanthus, being a heavy
feeder, should be grown in strong loam to which is added well rotted
manure and a little sand.


[Illustration: Ageratum]

AGERATUM. A half-hardy annual, used as a border plant, for ribbon
bedding for mass effect, or in mixed beds of geranium, coleuses and
other plants. The seeds germinate readily, but as the plant is only
half-hardy and is usually wanted in flower when planted out, it is usual
to sow the seed in boxes placed in hotbeds or windows in March,
transplanting the seedlings to small boxes or pots and growing the young
plants on until the 1st of May, when they may be planted out. Pieces of
young wood root very easily, and the gardener usually increases his
stock by cuttings. The dwarf varieties are the most desirable, and the
two colors, blue and white, may be planted together. 2-3 ft. Plants may
be taken up in the fall and set in the house; cut them back severely.


ALLEGHENY VINE. See _Adlumia_.


ALMOND is about as hardy as the peach, but it blooms so early in the
spring that it is little grown east of the Pacific slope. It is an
interesting ornamental tree, and its early bloom is a merit when the
fruit is not desired. The Almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in the
east are hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for
commerce. The Almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, but the flesh is
thin and hard and the pit is the “Almond” of commerce. Culture the same
as for peach.

Flowering Almond is a very early-flowering bush, excellent for
shrub-borders. It is usually grafted on plum stock, and one must take
care to keep down the plum sprouts which sometimes spring from the root.


ALOE. Succulent tropical plants, sometimes seen in window gardens. Of
easy culture. See that the pots have perfect drainage. Make a soil of
sandy loam, with one-third or one-fourth part of broken brick. Pot
firmly. Water whenever needed, but the soil and drainage should be such
that the earth does not remain soggy or become sour. Aloes thrive year
after year without repotting. Usually propagated by cuttings. _A.
variegata_ is the commonest species.


ALONSOA. Tender annual. Not very well known, but a bright plant for
second-row border or a low bedding plant. Planted against shrubbery or
other protection after danger of frost is over, it lightens up a dark
corner. 2-3 ft. Plant 10-15 in. apart, in a warm place protected from
wind.


ALSTRÖMERIA. The Alströmerias belong to the amaryllis family, being
tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy stems and terminating in a cluster
of from 10 to 50 small lily-shaped flowers of rich colors. Most of the
kinds should be given pot culture, as they are easily grown and are not
hardy in the open in the north. The culture is nearly that of the
amaryllis,--a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, potting the tubers
in early spring or late fall. Start the plants slowly, giving only water
enough to cause root growth; but after growth has become established, a
quantity of water may be given. After flowering they may be treated as
are amaryllis or agapanthus. The plants grow 1-2½ ft. high. The
flowers often have odd colors.


ALTHÆA. See _Hollyhock_.


[Illustration: Sweet Alyssum]

ALYSSUM, SWEET. A low-growing, hardy, white-flowered, very fragrant
annual which is much used for edgings, window boxes, and the like. It is
of the easiest culture in any soil, but thrives best in a garden loam of
moderate fertility. Seeds may be sown as early as the ground can be well
prepared in spring. The plant will begin to bloom when 2 or 3 inches
high, and continue to bloom, as it grows, until after the first hard
frosts. It makes a mat 1 to 2 ft. across. If immediate effects are not
desired, the plants should be thinned out or transplanted to stand half
a foot apart. It rarely stands more than a foot high. In the fall,
plants may be cut back and put into pots or boxes, and they will bloom
in the window. Better results in winter blooming are secured by starting
seeds in boxes in August, September or October. There are certain hardy
perennial yellow-flowered Alyssums which are useful for prominent
edgings and for rockwork.


[Illustration: Prince’s Feather]

AMARANTUS. Decorative annuals. One species (with erect spikes) is known
as PRINCE’S FEATHER, another (with variegated foliage) as JOSEPH’S COAT,
and still another (with drooping spikes) as LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. Probably
the finest of the list is _A. salicifolius_, often called Fountain
Plant. This has graceful willow-shaped leaves, banded and tipped with
carmine, bronze and orange. The tall kinds make fine screens for
unsightly objects. They may also be used against masses of green to add
color. The Amaranths are half-hardy or tender plants, and should be sown
in boxes in March or April, to be planted out after all danger of frost
is past. Seeds may also be sown where the plants are to stand. They were
once among the most popular of garden plants, but for a few years have
been neglected. Fine colors have recently been developed, and they are
again becoming favorites. As they are rather coarse and weedy plants, do
not use them with dainty flowers. Most kinds grow 2-3 ft. high and
spread 2-3 ft.


AMARYLLIS. Popular name of a variety of house or conservatory tender
bulbs, but properly applied only to the Belladonna Lily. Most of them
are hippeastrums, but the culture of all is similar. They are
satisfactory house plants. The one objection to their culture is the
habit of the flower-stalk starting into growth before the leaves start.
This is caused in most cases by stimulating root growth before the bulb
has had sufficient rest. The bulbs should be dormant for four or five
months in a dry place with a temperature of about 50°. When wanted to be
brought into flower, the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the
dirt shaken off and potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and
leaf-mold, to which should be added a little sand. If the loam is a
heavy one, place the pot in a warm situation; a spent hotbed is a good
place. Water as needed, and as the flowers develop liquid manure may be
given. If large clumps are well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they
may be top-dressed with new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth
increases liquid manure may be given twice a week until the flowers
open. After flowering, gradually withhold water until the leaves die.
The most popular species for window gardens is _A. Johnsoni_ (properly a
hippeastrum), with red flowers.


AMETHYST. See _Browallia_.


AMMOBIUM. A half-hardy perennial everlasting with white flowers. Thrives
best in sandy soil. Sow seeds where plants are to stand. Although
perennial, it blooms the first year from seed, and is usually treated as
an annual. 2-3 ft. high. Plant 12-18 in. apart.


AMMONIACAL CARBONATE OF COPPER. See under _Bordeaux Mixture_.


ANCHUSA. Hardy annuals and perennials, fit for heavy borders. The plants
grow to the height of 2 to 3 feet and bear purple or blue flowers, which
are showy either on the plant or in bouquets. Propagated from seed sown
in early spring, either where the plants are to stand or in boxes or
hotbeds. The common kind is annual. Blooms in summer.


ANEMONE. WIND FLOWER. A group of hardy perennials. The best known of
this genus is _A. Japonica alba_, or Honorine Jobert. This species
blooms from August to November, and is at that season the finest of
border plants. The pure white flowers, with lemon-colored stamens, are
held well up on stalks 2-3 ft. high. The flower stems are long and
excellent for cutting. This species may be propagated by division of the
plants or by seed. The former method should be put into practice in the
spring; the latter as soon as the seeds are ripe in the fall. Sow the
seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered situation in the border or under
glass. The seed should be covered lightly with soil containing a
quantity of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well enriched,
sheltered position in a border should be given. There are red-flowered
varieties.

[Illustration: Spray of Anemone Japonica]

The varieties of _A. coronaria_ are tuberous-rooted plants. The tubers
of these should be planted in the fall, late in September or early in
October, in a well enriched, sheltered border, setting the tubers 3 in.
deep and from 4-6 in. apart. The surface of the border should be mulched
with leaves or strawy manure through the severe winter weather,
uncovering the soil in March. The flowers will appear in April or May,
and in June or July the tubers should be taken up and placed in a dry
place in sand until the following fall. This section is not as well
known as it should be. The range of color is very wide. The flowers are
often 2 in. across, and are lasting. These tubers may be planted in pots
in the same manner as in the border, bringing them into the
conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, where they make
an excellent showing when in bloom.

The little wild Wind Flowers are easily colonized in a hardy border.


ANNUALS. The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those which give their
best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True annuals
are those plants which complete their entire life-cycle in one season.
Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue to bloom the second
and third years, but the bloom is so poor and sparse after the first
season that it does not pay to keep them.

Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are sown in the
open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly settled. But there are
some kinds, as Cosmos and Moonflowers, for which our season is commonly
too short to give good bloom. These kinds may be started early in the
house or in hotbeds; and similar treatment may be given any plants of
which it is desired to secure blooms before the normal time.

[Illustration: A box garden]

Prepare the ground thoroughly and deep. Annuals must make a quick
growth. See that the soil contains enough humus or vegetable mold to
make it rich and to enable it to hold moisture. If the ground is not
naturally rich, spade in well-rotted manure or mold from the woods. A
little commercial fertilizer may help in starting off the plants
quickly. Prepare the land as early in spring as it is in fit condition,
and prevent evaporation by keeping the surface loose by means of raking.

If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the lawn, make sure
that the grass roots do not run underneath them and rob them of food and
moisture. It is well to run a sharp spade deep into the ground about the
edges of the bed every two or three weeks for the purpose of cutting off
any grass roots which may have run into the bed. If beds are made in the
turf, see that they are 3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will
not undermine them. Against the shrub borders, this precaution may not
be necessary. In fact, it is desirable that the flowers fill all the
space between the overhanging branches and the sod.

Sow the seeds freely. Many will not germinate. Even if they do all
germinate, the combined strength of the rising plantlets will break the
crust on the hard soils; and in the thinning which follows, only strong
and promising plants are allowed to remain. Better effects are also
often secured when the colors are in masses, especially if the flowers
are thrown into the bays of heavy shrub borders.

[Illustration: Flowers against a border]

Plants continue to bloom for a longer period if they are not allowed to
produce seeds. The flowers should be picked, if possible, as soon as
they begin to fade.

In the selection of the kinds of annuals, one’s personal preference must
be the guide. Yet there are some groups which may be considered to be
standard or general-purpose plants. They are easily grown almost
anywhere, and are sure to give satisfaction. The remaining plants are
mostly such as have secondary value, or are adapted to particular
purposes or uses.

The groups which most strongly appeal to the writer as staple or
general-purpose types are the following: Petunias, phloxes, pinks or
dianthuses, larkspurs or delphiniums, calliopsis or coreopsis, pot
marigold or calendula, bachelor’s button or _Centaurea Cyanus_,
clarkias, zinnias, marigolds or tagetes, collinsias, gilias, California
poppies or eschscholtzias, verbenas, poppies, China asters, sweet peas,
nemophilas, portulacas, silenes, candytufts or iberis, alyssum, stocks
or matthiolas, morning-glories, nasturtiums or tropæolums.

Annual flowers possess a great advantage over perennials in the fact
that they appeal strongly to the desire for experiment. The seeds are
sown every year, and there is sufficient element of uncertainty in the
results to make the effort interesting; and new combinations can be
tried each year.

Do not cut the old stalks down in the fall. They will stand in the snow
all through the winter, and remind you of the bursting summer time and
the long-ripening fall; and the snow-birds will find them in the short
days of winter.

Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals for the north are
given in the following lists (under the common trade names):

_WHITE FLOWERS_

  Ageratum Mexicanum album.
  Alyssum, Common Sweet.
  Alyssum, Sweet, compacta.
  Centranthus macrosiphon albus.
  Convolvulus major.
  Dianthus, Double White Margaret.
  Iberis amara.
  Iberis coronaria, White Rocket.
  Ipomœa hederacea.
  Lavatera alba.
  Malope grandiflora alba.
  Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again.
  Matthiola, Dresden Perpetual.
  Matthiola, Giant Perfection.
  Matthiola, White Pearl.
  Mirabilis longiflora alba.
  Nigella.
  Papaver (Poppy), Flag of Truce.
  Papaver, Shirley.
  Papaver, The Mikado.
  Phlox, Dwarf Snowball.
  Phlox, Leopoldii.
  Zinnia.

_YELLOW FLOWERS_

  Cacalia lutea.
  Calendula officinalis, Common.
  Calendula officinalis, Meteor.
  Calendula sulphurea.
  Calendula suffruticosa.
  Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.
  Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.
  Calliopsis elegans picta.
  Cosmidium Burridgeanum.
  Erysimum Peroffskianum.
  Eschscholtzia Californica.
  Hibiscus Africanus.
  Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.
  Ipomœa coccinea lutea.
  Loasa tricolor.
  Tagetes, various kinds.
  Thunbergia alata Fryeri.
  Thunbergia alata aurantiaca.
  Tropæolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird.
  Tropæolum, Tall, Schulzi.
  Zinnia.

_BLUE FLOWERS_

  Ageratum Mexicanum.
  Ageratum Mexicanum, Dwarf.
  Browallia Czerniakowski.
  Browallia elata.
  Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.
  Centaurea Cyanus minor.
  China Asters of several varieties.
  Convolvulus minor.
  Convolvulus minor unicaulis.
  Gilia achilleæfolia.
  Gilia capitata.
  Iberis umbellata.
  Iberis umbellata lilacina.
  Kaulfussia amelloides.
  Kaulfussia atroviolacea.
  Lobelia Erinus.
  Lobelia Erinus, Elegant.
  Nigella.
  Phlox variabilis atropurpurea.
  Salvia farinacea.
  Specularia.
  Verbena, Black-blue.
  Verbena cœrulea.
  Verbena, Golden-leaved.
  Whitlavia gloxinoides.

_RED FLOWERS_

  Cacalia, Scarlet.
  Clarkia elegans rosea.
  Convolvulus tricolor roseus.
  Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret.
  Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.
  Dianthus Chinensis, Double.
  Gaillardia picta.
  Ipomœa coccinea.
  Ipomœa volubilis.
  Matthiola annuus (Stocks).
  Matthiola, Blood-red Ten Weeks.
  Matthiola grandiflora, Dwarf.
  Papaver (Poppy) cardinale.
  Papaver, Double.
  Papaver, Mephisto.
  Phaseolus multiflorus.
  Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf.
  Phlox, Dwarf Fireball.
  Phlox, Black Warrior.
  Salvia coccinea.
  Saponaria.
  Tropæolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb.
  Tropæolum, Dwarf.
  Verbena hybrida.
  Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance.
  Zinnia.

_GOOD FOR EDGINGS OF BEDS AND WALKS_

  Alyssum, Sweet.
  Brachycome.
  Collinsias.
  Dianthuses or Pinks.
  Gypsophila muralis.
  Iberis or Candytufts.
  Leptosiphons.
  Lobelia Erinus.
  Nigellas.
  Nemophilas.
  Portulacas or Rose Moss.
  Saponaria Calabrica.
  Specularia.

_KINDS WHICH CONTINUE TO BLOOM AFTER FROST_

  Abronia umbellata.
  Adonis æstivalis.
  Adonis autumnalis.
  Argemone grandiflora.
  Calendulas.
  Callirrhoë.
  Carduus Benedictus.
  Centaurea Cyanus.
  Centauridium.
  Centranthus macrosiphon.
  Cerinthe retorta.
  Cheiranthus Cheiri.
  Chrysanthemums.
  Convolvulus minor.
  Convolvulus tricolor.
  Dianthus of various kinds.
  Elscholtzia cristata.
  Erysimum Peroffskianum.
  Erysimum Arkansanum.
  Eschscholtzias, in several varieties.
  Gaillardia picta.
  Gilia Achilleæfolia.
  Gilia capitata.
  Gilia laciniata.
  Gilia tricolor.
  Iberis affinis.
  Lavatera alba.
  Matthiolas or Stocks.
  Œnothera rosea.
  Œnothera Lamarckiana.
  Œnothera Drummondii.
  Phlox Drummondii.
  Podolepis affinis.
  Podolepis chrysantha.
  Salvia coccinea.
  Salvia farinacea.
  Salvia Horminum.
  Verbenas.
  Vicia Gerardii.
  Virginian Stocks.
  Viscaria elegans.
  Viscaria oculata.
  Viscaria cœli-rosa.


ANTIRRHINUM. See _Snapdragon_.


APPLE, the “King of Fruits,” thrives over a wider range of territory and
under more varied conditions than any other tree fruit. This means that
it is easy to grow. In fact, it is so easy to grow that it usually is
neglected; and people wonder why the trees do not bear.

The selection of varieties of Apples for home use is, to a large extent,
a personal matter; and no one may say what to plant. A variety that is
successfully grown in one section may prove disappointing in another.
One should study the locality in which he wishes to plant and choose
those varieties which are the most successfully grown there,--choosing
from amongst the successful kinds those which he likes best and which
seem best to meet the purposes for which he is to grow them. When the
selection is made, the trees should be procured from a near-by
nurseryman, if possible, as one is then able to select his own trees,
receive them in the shortest time, and plant them before they have
become dry.

The land on which an orchard is to be planted should have been in
cultivation at least two years previous to setting the trees and be in a
fine physical condition. Dig the hole broad and deep enough to take in
all the roots left after pruning off the bruised ends caused by digging
up the tree, and trim back the branches at least two-thirds, making a
smooth cut. Set the trunk in the center of the hole, and sift the fine
dirt down through the roots, slightly lifting the tree once or twice in
order that the fine soil may settle under the roots, making congenial
soil for the new roots to run through. Fill in over the roots, gradually
firming the soil above with the feet. When the hole is full, firm the
soil around the trunk to prevent whipping by the wind, leaving the
surface level. If the trees are set in the fall a slight earthing up to
the trunk may be beneficial in certain soils, and if set in a dry spring
a mulch of straw or grass will benefit them. Two- or 3-year-old trees
(usually the latter) are the most desirable for planting in home
grounds. Commercial orchards are often planted exclusively with
2-year-olds.

[Illustration: Spray of Apples]

In orchard cultivation, Apple trees are usually planted 35 to 40 ft.
apart each way. In home grounds they may be placed somewhat closer than
this, especially if they are planted upon the boundaries, so that the
limbs may project freely in one direction.

It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates east of the
Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3½ to 4½ ft. long. The limbs
should be trimmed up to this point when the tree is set. From three to
five main branches may be left to form the framework of the top. These
should be shortened back one-fourth or one-half when the tree is set.
Subsequent pruning should keep the top of the tree open and maintain it
in more or less symmetrical form. See _Pruning_.

In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean culture,
especially for the first few years; but this is not always possible in
home yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward may be mulched each fall with
stable manure, and commercial fertilizer may be applied each fall or
spring. If fruit is wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should be
taken not to make ground too rich but to keep it in such condition that
the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong foliage,
but is not overgrowing. An Apple tree in full bearing is usually in good
condition if the twigs grow from 10 to 18 in. each season. All
leaf-eating insects may be kept off by spraying with Paris green. The
Appleworm or codlin-moth may be kept in check by spraying with Paris
green as soon as the blossoms fall, and again a week or ten days later.
The leaf blight or apple-scab fungus may be kept in check by spraying
with Bordeaux mixture just before the flowers open, and again after they
fall (see _Spraying_). A close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever
the bark appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and search
for the cause. A borer will usually be found underneath the bark. About
the base of the tree the most serious injury occurs from borers, since
the insect which enters there bores into the hard wood. His presence can
be determined by the chips which are cast from his burrows. The only
remedy is to dig out the larvæ. If they have got far into the wood, they
can be killed by running a flexible wire into the burrows.

Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years planted, and
at ten years should be bearing good crops. With good treatment, they
should continue to bear for thirty or more years. It is cheaper to buy
trees from the nursery than to attempt to raise them for oneself.

The dwarf Apples are secured by grafting any variety on the Paradise or
Doucin stocks, which are simply small-growing varieties of Apples.
Dwarfs are much used in the Old World. There is no reason why they
should not be used for home gardens in this country. They may be planted
8 to 10 ft. apart, and trained in various ways. The body or trunk should
not be more than 1 or 2 ft. long. The top should be headed-in each year
a third or a half of the annual growth. Dwarfs bear sooner than
standards. A dwarf in full bearing should produce from a peck to a
bushel of apples. Usually only the finer or dessert variety of Apples
should be grown on dwarf trees.

Many of the local varieties of Apples are excellent for home use. From
the following list of dessert varieties, one can select a good
assortment for the home garden:

_Summer._--Early Joe, Primate, Garden Royal, Summer Pearmain, Early
Harvest, Summer Rose, Sweet Bough, Summer Queen, Early Strawberry,
Williams Favorite.

_Fall._--Chenango, Dyer, Jefferis, Jersey Sweet, Maiden Blush,
Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Mother (late fall to winter), Twenty Ounce.

_Winter._--Newtown Pippin, Golden Russet, Bellflower, Belmont, King
(late fall S. of N. Y.), Grimes Golden, Melon, Hubbardston (Nonesuch),
Northern Spy, Jonathan, Fameuse or Snow, Lady, Rambo, Canada Red, York
Imperial, Pomme Gris, Esopus Spitzenburg, Swaar, Peck Pleasant, Rhode
Island Greening, Tallman Sweet, Sutton Beauty, Wagener, Seek-no-further.


APRICOT. This fruit, usually thought to be too tender for the winters in
the latitude of New York, has proved as hardy as the peach. Given the
right conditions as to soil and exposure, it will yield abundant crops,
ripening its fruits about three weeks in advance of early peaches. It
would seem that more attention should be given to its cultivation. In
western New York commercial orchards are now producing crops of as fine
fruit as that brought from California. The introduction of the Russian
varieties, a few years ago, added to the list several desirable kinds
that have proved hardier and a little later in blooming than the old
kinds. The fruits of the Russian varieties, while not as large as the
other varieties, fully equal many of them in flavor, and they are very
productive. The soil for Apricots should be rather dry; especially
should the subsoil be such that no water may stand around the roots. The
exposure should be to the north or west to retard the blooming period,
as the one great drawback to their successful fruiting is the early
blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers or small fruits.

The two serious difficulties in the growing of Apricots are the ravages
of the curculio (see _Plum_) and the danger to the flowers from the
spring frosts. It is usually almost impossible to secure fruits from one
or two isolated Apricot trees, because the curculios will take them all.
It is possible, also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination.
The Apricot usually thrives best on strong soil; but otherwise the
treatment which is given the peach suits the Apricot very well. The
Russian varieties bear more profusely and with less care than the
old-fashioned and larger kinds. Amongst the best kinds of Apricots are
Montgamet, Jackson, Royal, St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman and
Moorepark. In the east, Apricots are commonly worked on plums, but they
also thrive on the peach.


AQUARIUM. A pleasant adjunct to a living room or conservatory is a large
glass globe or glass box containing water, in which plants and animals
are living and growing. A solid glass tank or globe is better than a box
with glass sides, because it does not leak, but the box must be used if
one wants a large Aquarium. For most persons it is better to buy the
Aquarium box than to attempt to make it. Four things are important in
making and keeping an Aquarium (according to Miss Rogers, in Cornell
Nature-Study Leaflet No. 11):

“(1) The equilibrium between plant and animal life must be secured and
maintained. Animals do not thrive in water where no plants are growing.
Nature keeps plants and animals in the same pond, and we must follow her
lead. The plants have three valuable functions in the Aquarium. First,
they supply food for the herbivorous creatures. Second, they give off a
quantity of oxygen which is necessary to the life of the animals. Third,
they take up from the water the poisonous carbonic acid gas which passes
from the bodies of the animals. Just how the plants do this is another
story. (2) The Aquarium must be ventilated. Every little fish, snail and
insect wants air. A certain quantity of air is mixed with the water, and
the creatures must breathe that or come to the surface for their
supply. How does Mother Nature manage the ventilation of her aquaria,
the ponds and streams? The plants furnish part of the air, as we have
seen. The open pond, whose surface is ruffled by every passing breeze,
is constantly being provided with fresh air. A tadpole or a fish can no
more live in a long-necked bottle than a boy can live in a chimney. (3)
The temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° Fahr. Both nature and
experience teach us this. A shady corner is a better place for the
Aquarium than a sunny window on a warm day. (4) It is well to choose
such animals for the Aquarium as are adapted to life in still water.
Unless one has an arrangement of water pipes to supply a constant flow
of water through the Aquarium, it is best not to try to keep creatures
that we find in swift streams. Practical experience shows that there are
certain dangers to guard against. Perhaps the most serious results come
from overstocking. It is better to have too few plants or animals than
too many of either. A great deal of light, especially bright sunlight,
is not good for the Aquarium. A pond that is not shaded soon becomes
green with a thick growth of slime, or algæ. This does not look well in
an Aquarium, and is apt to take up so much of the plant-food that the
other plants are starved out. The plants in the school-room window will
shade the Aquarium nicely, just as the trees and shrubs on its banks
shade the pond. If we find this slime forming on the light side of our
miniature pond we put it in a darker place, shade it heavily so that the
light comes in from the top only, and put in a few more snails. These
will make quick work of the green slime, for they are fond of it, if we
are not.”

The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in the
Aquarium,--such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, duckmeats or
lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrowleafs or sagittaria, and the like;
also the parrot’s feather, to be bought of florists (a species of
myriophyllum). Of animals, there are fishes (particularly minnows),
water insects, tadpoles, clams, snails. If the proper balance is
maintained between plant and animal life, it will not be necessary to
change the water so frequently.


AQUATICS AND BOG PLANTS. Many water plants are easily grown, and make a
fine addition to the home garden. The sedges and other bog plants, the
cyperus or umbrella plant, the common wild water lily, and in large
grounds the nelumbium or Egyptian lotus, all may be grown with ease. For
restricted grounds any of these, with the exception of the nelumbium,
may be grown in tubs made by sawing an oaken barrel in two, filling each
half from one-third to one-half with soil composed of good loam, sand
and leaf-mold, setting the plants well into the soil and filling the
tubs with water. These tubs should be sunk to the rim in the borders or
lawn, both for a good appearance and to prevent too great evaporation.
By a little care in filling with water, these plants may be well grown
through the hottest weather. Most of the foreign water lilies are not
hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is covered in
winter.

Native Aquatics may be colonized in streams or ponds. If artificial
ponds are to be made, do not get them too deep. A foot or 15 inches is
sufficient depth of water to stand above the crowns of the plants; and
the greatest depth of water should not be more than 2½ ft. for all
kinds of water lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil
should be 1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Cow manure may be mixed with
rich loam. Roots of hardy water lilies may be planted as soon as the
pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to be taken
up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to plant out
geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they are just buried, and
weight them down with a stone or clod. In cold climates, protect the
pond of hardy Aquatics by throwing boards over the pond and covering
with hay, straw or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional
depth of water as a further protection.


AQUILEGIA. COLUMBINE. These hardy perennials are general favorites for
borders and rockwork. Blooming early in the season, they may be said to
head the procession of the perennials. The ease with which they may be
cultivated, their freedom of bloom, their varied colors and odd shape
entitle them to the front rank among hardy plants. They are propagated
by division of the plants in the spring or from seed sown in the fall.
Seedlings may be expected to bloom well the second year. They require a
moist, partially sheltered situation, with exposure to the sun. The
common wild Columbine (often called “honeysuckle”) is easily grown and
is very attractive. Clumps of Columbine should stand 12-18 in. apart.
2-3 ft. high.


ARAUCARIA, or NORFOLK ISLAND PINE, is now sold in pots by florists as a
window plant. The common species (_A. excelsa_) is most excellent for
this purpose, making a symmetrical evergreen subject. It keeps well in a
cool window, or on the veranda in the summer. Protect it from direct
sunlight, and give plenty of room. If the plant begins to fail, return
it to the florist for recuperation.


ARGEMONE. See _Prickly Poppy_.


ARISTOLOCHIA, or DUTCHMAN’S PIPE. A strong, woody twiner with very
large, heavy leaves, forming a dense screen and having peculiarly shaped
flowers. But one species is considered hardy north, _A. Sipho_. This
will grow without special treatment and prove a satisfactory ornamental
screen or porch plant. Reaches a height of 20 or 30 ft. Young plants
need some protection in cold winters.


ARTICHOKE. A tall, coarse perennial of the thistle tribe, producing
flower-heads which are edible. When once established, it will last in
bearing for a number of years. While this plant is not generally grown
in this country, its merit as a supplementary vegetable for salads or
cooking is great. It is usually grown from suckers from the root, but a
start can be made by sowing the seed. Sow in a border or seed box and
transplant to the garden in early summer; and the following year a crop
may be had. The parts of the plant used are the flower-heads and the
young suckers, the former boiled or eaten raw as a salad. The young
shoots may be tied together and blanched, using them like asparagus or
Swiss chard. The fleshy scales of the head and the soft “bottom” of the
head are the parts used. But few of these plants would be needed for a
family, as they produce a number of flower-heads to a plant and a
quantity of suckers. The plants should be set from 2 to 3 ft. apart in
the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart. This vegetable is not quite hardy
in the north, but a covering of leaves or barnyard litter to the depth
of a foot will protect them well. The plant, being a perennial, will
continue to yield for a number of years under good cultivation. These
plants make no mean decorative subjects, either massed or in a mixed
border, and from the rarity of their culture are always objects of
interest.


ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM, is a wholly different plant from the above,
although it is commonly known as “Artichoke” in this country. It is a
species of sunflower which produces potato-like tubers. These tubers may
be used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; and when
the plant becomes a weed--as it often does--it may be exterminated by
turning the hogs into it. Hardy.


ARUNDO, or REED, is one of the best of bold and ornamental grasses,
excellent for the center of a large formal bed, or for emphatic points
in a mixed border. It is perennial and hardy in the northern states, but
it is advisable to give it a mulch on the approach of winter. Thrives in
any rich soil, doing best where somewhat moist. 8-12 ft. The clumps
enlarge year by year.


ASPARAGUS. A hardy herbaceous perennial, much grown for the soft,
edible, early spring shoots. The culture of this, the finest of early
vegetables, has been simplified in the past few years, and at present
the knowledge required to successfully plant and grow a good supply need
not be that of a professional. The old method of excavating to the depth
of 3 ft. or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 in. of broken stone or bricks
for drainage, then filling to within 16 to 18 in. of the surface with
well rotted manure, with 6 in. of soil upon which to set the roots, has
given place to the simple practice of plowing or digging a trench from
14 to 16 in. deep, spreading well rotted manure in the bottom to the
depth of 3 or 4 in.; when well trodden down covering the manure with 3
or 4 in. of good garden soil, then setting the plants, with the roots
well spread out, covering carefully with soil to the level of the
garden, and firming the soil with the feet. This will leave the crowns
of the plants from 4 to 5 in. below the surface. In setting, 1-year-old
plants will prove more satisfactory than older ones, being less liable
to suffer from injury to the root system than those which have made a
larger growth. Two years after setting the crop may be cut, but not
sooner if a lasting bed is desired, as the effort to replace the stalks
has a tendency to weaken the plant unless the roots are well
established. The yearly treatment of an Asparagus bed consists of
cleaning off tops and weeds in the fall and adding a dressing of well
rotted manure to the depth of 3 or 4 in., this manure to be lightly
forked into the bed the following spring; or, the tops may be allowed to
stand for winter protection and the mulch left off. A top-dressing of
nitrate of soda, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial
as a spring stimulant, especially in the case of an old bed. Good
results will also follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate
at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per acre. The practice of sowing
salt on an Asparagus bed is almost universal. Still, beds that have
never received a pound of salt are found to be as productive as those
having received an annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing is
recommended. In stubborn, heavy soil the best method to pursue in making
a permanent bed would be to throw out all the dirt from the trench and
replace with good, fibrous loam. Two rows of Asparagus 25 ft. long and 3
ft. apart would supply a large family with an abundance throughout the
season, and if well taken care of will last a number of years. Conover’s
Colossal is the variety most generally grown, and is perhaps the most
satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a variety originating at the south, is also
very popular. A newer variety, called Donald White, originating near
Elmira, N. Y., is recommended by the trade.


ASPERULA. Hardy annuals and perennials. The low-growing Asperula, with
its blue or white flowers, is not as often used as it should be. The
profusion of small flowers and the long season entitle it to a place in
low borders. The flowers have a pleasing fragrance. Asperulas may be
used effectively on rockwork. The common white species, or Woodruff,
grows less than 1 foot. Grown readily from seeds, and blooms the first
year. All Asperulas thrive best in a rather moist soil.


ASTERS, CHINA. Half-hardy annuals, of easy culture. The China Aster has
been for years a great favorite in both old-fashioned and modern
gardens. With the improvements in shapes and colors, they are now the
rivals of the chrysanthemum. As early as 1731 single white and red
Asters were grown and described in England, and by 1845 they are
mentioned as being very numerous in New England. The Germans were,
perhaps, the first to improve the Asters, and the type most admired and
sought fifty years ago was the full-quilled varieties. Now, however, the
informal type replaces the stiff, formal quilled flowers of that period.
Compare the Comet Aster of to-day with the Asters of even twenty years
ago, and note the looseness of its broad rays, giving an artistic value
far beyond the tall, stiff, purple-blue or whites of that period.

[Illustration: China Aster]

The early Asters will bloom in August if the seed is sown in the open
early in the season. They are represented by the Queen of the Market and
Queen of Spring, either of which, if started in a hotbed or window, will
begin to bloom the last of July. The Queen of the Market is probably the
freest of growth, and with its long stems makes a very desirable variety
for cut-flowers. In fact, in the rich, mellow soil in which Asters
delight, this variety is likely to have its large flowers on stems so
long and slender that the plants will need stakes.

The Victoria Asters hold a well deserved place among the leading
varieties, and with high culture will generally lead in size and
profusion of bloom, the colors ranging from white to the darkest blue.
The plants are also well adapted to pot culture. The chrysanthemum-flowered
Asters, both tall and dwarf, are excellent, as are the Truffaut
Perfection and Peony-flowered. The Comet Asters are amongst the best.
The New Branching type is now in great favor.

The culture of China Asters is easy. For early bloom the seeds should be
sown in March in boxes of light soil and covered one-quarter of an inch
with soil, the soil pressed down or firmed over them and the boxes
placed in a hotbed or a sunny window and attention given to watering.
When the seedlings are one inch high they should be transplanted to
other boxes, setting the plants 3 inches apart or put into 2-inch pots.
These should be again placed in a frame and grown along until the ground
has become comparatively warm. The soil will need to be well enriched,
mellow, and if slightly moist under the surface the results will be all
that could be wished. Asters will grow fairly well on rather light soil,
even if not very rich, but the best results can only be obtained when
the highest culture is given. If the rust attacks the plants, spray
with ammoniacal carbonate of copper.


[Illustration: Spray of wild Aster]

ASTER, NATIVE. Wild Asters are one of the glories of the American
autumn. They grow almost everywhere in the north and east,--along
roadsides, in meadows and swales. Their colors range from pure white to
pink, and purple, and blue. From August until winter closes in, they are
conspicuous features of the landscape, vying with the goldenrods in form
and color, but surpassing them in color-range. Most of them are greatly
improved when transferred to the border. They become more attractive in
general habit, and the flowers are usually more profuse and sometimes
larger. They are of the easiest possible culture. They can be removed to
home grounds in the fall or spring, and, with little care until they are
established, will make most attractive displays of autumn color. The
species are numerous and much confused, and it is not necessary to make
a list of them here. Because of their free and careless habit, they are
better adapted to planting in borders than in the formal flower beds.

[Illustration: Wild Asters]


AUBRIETIA DELTOIDEA. A very handsome little trailing hardy perennial,
covered with attractive purple flowers in early spring. Should be
planted in masses for best effect. Propagated by cuttings or seeds,
usually the latter. Excellent for rockwork and permanent low edgings.


AURICULA. A half-hardy perennial of the Primrose tribe (_Primula
Auricula_), very popular in Europe, but little grown in this country on
account of the hot, dry summers. In this country usually propagated by
seed, as for Cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by
offsets. Seeds sown in February or March should give blooming plants
for the next February or March. Keep the plants cool and moist, and away
from the direct sun during the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in
frames. In the fall, they are potted into 3-inch or 4-inch pots, and
made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool conservatory
or greenhouse. In April, after blooming has ceased, repot the plants and
treat as the previous year. From the best plants, offsets may be taken
and treated the same as seedlings. As with most annual-blooming
perennials, best results are to be expected with year-old or 2-year-old
plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white and many shades of red
and blue.


AZALEAS are less grown in this country than in Europe, largely because
of our hot, dry summers and severe winters. There are two common types
or classes,--the hardy or Ghent Azaleas, and the Indian Azaleas.

Ghent Azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as far north as
southern New England. They require a sandy, peaty soil, and are treated
as other shrubs are. The large flower-buds are liable to injury from the
warm suns of late winter and early spring, and to avoid this injury the
plants are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In the interior
country, little attempt is made to flower Azaleas permanently in the
open, although they may be grown if carefully tended and well protected.
Both Ghent and Indian Azaleas are excellent pot-plants, for bloom in
late winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers from
Europe, and it is better to buy these plants than to attempt to
propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized pots, keep them cool and
backward for a time until they are established, then take them into a
conservatory temperature, in which carnations and roses thrive. They
should be potted in a soil made of half peat or well decayed mold and
half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure to provide
sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by syringing. After blooming,
the plants may be thinned by pruning out the straggling growths, and
repotted. Set them in a frame or in a semi-shaded place during summer,
and see that they make a good growth. The wood should be well ripened in
the fall. After cold weather sets in, keep the Indian or evergreen kinds
half-dormant by setting them in a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit,
bringing them in when wanted for bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may
be touched with frost without injury; and they may be stored in a cellar
until wanted.


BACHELOR’S BUTTON. _Centaurea Cyanus_ and also _Gomphrena_. Sometimes
applied to double-flowered Crowfoots.


[Illustration: Balloon Vine]

BALLOON VINE, or CARDIOSPERMUM. Annual tender tendril climber of very
rapid growth. Seed should not be planted until the soil becomes warm. A
very pretty effect can be had by allowing the vine to run over some
coarser vine, or into an evergreen tree. The balloon-like capsules show
to good advantage between the leaves. It is also useful for covering
piles of brush. Grows 8-12 ft. high. Give a warm, sunny place.


BALSAMS, or IMPATIENS. Tender annuals, producing both single and double
flowers of many colors. These well known favorites are usually to be
found in old-fashioned gardens. They are very likely to seed themselves,
coming up in unexpected places and flourishing in neglect. They do best,
however, in rich, sandy soil. If the seed is sown in boxes late in April
and the plants transplanted several times they will be much dwarfer and
the flowers much more double. A stately, though very formal and stiff,
effect may be had by planting a row of Balsams in the rear of a low
border, pinching off all the side shoots as they start and growing the
plant to a single stem. This will become covered with the large blooms,
giving it the appearance of a perfect column of flowers. Balsams are
injured by the slightest frost. Seeds germinate quickly. Plants should
stand 12-18 in. apart. They grow 18-30 in. high.


BARTONIA. Hardy annual, with golden yellow, brilliant flowers. The
tall-growing Bartonia (_B. aurea_) may be used in a mixed border to good
advantage. It is a bushy plant, reaching 2-3 ft. high. The dwarf kind
may be used as a border plant or in a rock garden, or as an edging. The
fragrance of both tall and dwarf is very pronounced in the evening. The
Bartonias are very easy to grow in a warm soil and sunny exposure. Their
numerous thread-like, long stamens are very interesting.


BASKET PLANTS. In order to have a good hanging basket, it is necessary
that some provision be made to prevent too rapid drying out of the
earth. It is customary, therefore, to line the pot or basket with moss.
Open wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often lined with moss and
used for the growing of plants. Prepare the earth by mixing some well
decayed leaf-mold with rich garden loam, thereby making an earth which
will retain moisture. Hang the basket in a light place, but still not in
a direct sunlight; and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be
exposed to drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often
advisable to sink it into a pail or tub of water. Various plants are
well adapted to hanging baskets. Among the drooping or vine-like kinds
are the strawberry geranium, Kenilworth ivy, maurandya, German ivy,
canary-bird flower, _Asparagus Sprengeri_, ivy geranium, trailing
fuchsia, wandering Jew, and othonna. Among the erect-growing plants
which produce flowers, _Lobelia Erinus_, sweet alyssum, petunias,
oxalis, and various geraniums are to be recommended. Among foliage
plants such things as coleus, dusty miller, begonia, and some geraniums
are adaptable.


[Illustration: Climax basket]

BASKETS. For the picking and handling of fruit in the home garden, the
common Climax basket, in various sizes, is the best receptacle. In
these baskets the products may be sold. When the baskets are sent to
market or to a friend, they should be neat and new looking; therefore
keep them in a dry, dark place, as in an attic or loft, to prevent them
from becoming warped and discolored.


BEAN. Under the general name of Bean, many kinds of plants are
cultivated. They are all tender, and the seeds, therefore, should not be
planted until the weather is thoroughly settled; and the soil should be
warm and loose. They are all annuals in northern countries, or treated
as such.

The Bean plants may be classified in various ways. In respect to
stature, they may be thrown into three general categories; viz., the
pole or climbing Beans, the bush Beans, and the strict-growing or
upright Beans (as the Broad or Windsor Bean). In respect to their uses,
Beans again may be divided into three categories; viz., those which are
used as string or snap Beans, the entire pod being eaten; those which
are used as shell Beans, the full-size but immature Beans being shelled
from the pod and cooked; dry Beans, or those which are eaten in their
dry or winter condition. The same variety of Bean may be used for all of
these three purposes at different stages of its development; but as a
matter of fact, there are varieties which are better for one purpose
than the other. Again, Beans may be classified in respect to their
species. Those species which are best known are as follows: (1) Common
Bean, or _Phaseolus vulgaris_, of which there are both tall and bush
forms. All the common snap and string Beans belong here, as also the
Speckled Cranberry types of pole Beans, and the common field Beans. (2)
The Lima Beans, or _Phaseolus lunatus_. The larger part of these are
pole Beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. (3) The
Scarlet Runner, _Phaseolus multiflorus_, of which the Scarlet Runner
and White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. The Scarlet Runner is
usually grown as an ornamental vine, and it is perennial in warm
countries, but the Beans are edible as shelled Beans. The White Dutch
Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long, or Asparagus
Bean, _Dolichos sesquipedalis_, which produces long and weak vines and
very long, slender pods. The green pods are eaten, and also the shelled
Beans. The French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type which is
commonly known in this country. This type of Bean is popular in the
Orient. (5) The Broad Beans, of which the Windsor is the common type.
These are much grown in the Old World for stock feed, and they are
sometimes used for human food. They grow to one strict, central, stiff
stalk, to a height of 2-4 or 5 ft., and they are very unlike other kinds
of Beans in appearance. In this country, they are very little grown on
account of our hot and dry summers. In Canada they are somewhat grown,
and are sometimes used in the making of ensilage.

The culture of the Bean, while of the easiest, often proves a failure as
far as the first crop is concerned, because of planting the seed before
the ground has become warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay quicker
than Beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to become warm
and free from excessive moisture will be more than made up by the
rapidity of growth when finally they are planted. Beans will grow in
most any soil, but the best results may be obtained by having the soil
well enriched and in good physical condition. From the 5th to the 10th
of May in the latitude of central New York, it will be safe to plant
Beans for an early crop. The Beans may be dropped 2 inches deep in
shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 inches apart. Cover to the surface of
the soil, and if the ground be dry, firm it with the foot or the back of
the hoe. For the bush varieties, allow 2 ft. between the drill-rows, but
for the dwarf Limas 2½ ft. is better. Pole Limas are usually planted
in hills 2-3 ft. apart in the rows. Dwarf Limas may be sown thinly in
drills.

A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded and the
wax-podded Beans are used almost exclusively as snap Beans, to be eaten
with the pod while tender. The various strains of the Black Wax are the
most popular string Beans. The pole or running Beans are used either
green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are well known for
their superior flavor either as shelled or dry Beans. The old-fashioned
Cranberry or Horticultural Lima type (a pole form of _Phaseolus
vulgaris_) is probably the best shell Bean, but the trouble of poling
makes it unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable for small
gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be planted much closer, the
bother of procuring poles and twine is avoided, and the garden will have
a more sightly appearance. Both the dwarf Limas and pole Limas require a
longer season in which to mature than the bush varieties, and only one
planting is usually made. But the bush varieties may be planted at
intervals of two weeks from the first planting until the 10th of August.
Each planting may be made on ground previously occupied by some
early-maturing crop. Thus, the first to third plantings may be on ground
from which has been harvested a crop of spinach, early radish or
lettuce; after that, on ground where early peas have been grown; and the
later sowings where beets or early potatoes have grown. String Beans for
canning are usually taken from the last crop. One quart of seed will
plant 100 ft. of drill; or 1 quart of Limas will plant 100 hills.

Limas are the richest of Beans, but they often fail to mature in the
northern states. The land should not be very rich in nitrogen (or stable
manure), else the plants will run too much to vine and be too late.
Select a fertile sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, use some
soluble commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them the best
of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the droughts of midsummer
come. Good trellises for Beans are made by wool twine stretched between
two horizontal wires, one of which is drawn a foot above the ground and
the other 6 or 7 ft. high.

Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, but they are
sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, do not plant the same
ground to Beans again for a year or two.


BEDDING. This term is used to designate the massing of plants in the
open ground for the purpose of making a bold display of color. This
color may be obtained with flowers or with strong effects of foliage.
Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that is, the bed
is filled anew each year. However, the term may be used to designate a
permanent plantation of plants which are heavily massed so as to give
one continuous or emphatic display of form or color. Some of the best
permanent bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental
grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like.

Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially is this true of
spring Bedding, in which the plants used are tulips, hyacinths, crocuses
or other early-flowering bulbous plants. In this case, the ground is
usually occupied later in the season by other plants. These later plants
are usually annuals, the seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as
soon as the season is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started
in boxes and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the
weather is fit. Many of the low-growing and compact, continuous-flowering
annuals are excellent for summer Bedding effects. Some of the best
plants for this purpose are mentioned in the following list:

  Adonis æstivalis.
  Adonis autumnalis.
  Ageratum Mexicanum.
  Ageratum Mexicanum, dwarf.
  Bartonia aurea.
  Cacalia.
  Calendula officinalis, in several forms.
  Calendula pluvialis.
  Calendula Pongei.
  Calendula sulphurea, fl. pl.
  Calendula suffruticosa.
  Calliopsis bicolor marmorata.
  Calliopsis cardaminæfolia.
  Calliopsis elegans picta.
  Callirrhoë involucrata.
  Callirrhoë pedata nana.
  Callirrhoë pedata.
  Centaurea Americana.
  Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact.
  Centaurea Cyanus minor.
  Centaurea suaveolens.
  Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum.
  Chrysanthemum carinatum.
  Chrysanthemum coronarium.
  Chrysanthemum tricolor.
  Convolvulus minor.
  Convolvulus tricolor.
  Cosmidium Burridgeanum.
  Delphinium, single.
  Delphinium, double.
  Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret.
  Dianthus, Dwarf Perpetual.
  Dianthus Caryophyllus semperflorens.
  Dianthus Chinensis, double.
  Dianthus dentosus hybridus.
  Dianthus Heddewigii.
  Dianthus imperialis.
  Dianthus laciniatus, Salmon Queen.
  Dianthus plumarius.
  Dianthus superbus, dwarf fl. pl.
  Dianthus, Picotee.
  Elscholtzia cristata.
  Eschscholtzia Californica.
  Eschscholtzia crocea.
  Eschscholtzia, Mandarin.
  Eschscholtzia tenuifolia.
  Gaillardia picta.
  Gaillardia picta Lorenziana.
  Gilia achilleæfolia.
  Gilia capitata.
  Gilia laciniata.
  Gilia linifolia.
  Gilia nivalis.
  Gilia tricolor.
  Godetia Whitneyi.
  Godetia grandiflora maculata.
  Godetia rubicunda splendens.
  Hibiscus Africanus.
  Hibiscus, Golden Bowl.
  Iberis affinis.
  Iberis amara.
  Iberis coronaria.
  Iberis umbellata.
  Impatiens or Balsam.
  Lavatera alba.
  Lavatera trimestris.
  Linum grandiflorum.
  Madia elegans.
  Malope grandiflora.
  Matricaria eximia plena.
  Matthiola or Stock, in many forms.
  Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved.
  Matthiola bicornis.
  Nigella or Love-in-a-Mist.
  Œnothera Drummondii.
  Œnothera Lamarckiana.
  Œnothera rosea.
  Œnothera tetraptera.
  Papaver or Poppy, of many kinds.
  Papaver cardinale.
  Papaver glaucum.
  Papaver umbrosum.
  Petunia, Ring of Emerald.
  Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties.
  Portulaca.
  Salvia farinacea.
  Salvia Horminum.
  Salvia splendens.
  Schizanthus papilionaceus.
  Schizanthus pinnatus.
  Silene Armeria.
  Silene pendula.
  Tagetes or Marigold, in many forms.
  Tagetes erecta.
  Tagetes patula.
  Tagetes signata.
  Tropæolum, Dwarf.
  Verbena auriculæflora.
  Verbena Italica striata.
  Verbena hybrida.
  Verbena cœrulea.
  Verbena, Golden-leaved.
  Viscaria cœli-rosa.
  Viscaria elegans picta.
  Viscaria oculata.
  Zinnia, Dwarf.
  Zinnia elegans alba.
  Zinnia, Tom Thumb.
  Zinnia Haageana.
  Zinnia coccinea plena.

Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants which are carried over
from the preceding year, or better, which are propagated for that
particular purpose in February and March. Such plants as geranium,
coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, ageratum and heliotrope may be used for
these beds. It is a common practice to use geranium plants which are in
bloom during the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such
plants are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater part
of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by taking
cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young, fresh,
vigorous subjects.

Very bold and subtropical effects can be made by planting in the open
such things as palms, bananas, crotons, araucarias, caladiums and
cannas. Plants like bananas and palms, which are kept normally in pots,
would better be left in the pots and plunged to the rims rather than
turned out directly into the soil. In order to attain quick and
continuous effects, it is advisable to set the plants rather close. As
such plants are likely to be injured by strong winds, it is well to have
subtropical beds in a somewhat protected place.

Another type of bed is that which attempts to make patterns or designs,
or carpet-bedding. There are comparatively few plants which are adapted
to this purpose, for the plants must be such as will stand shearing and
which have very strong and constant colors of foliage. The most popular
bedding plants are coleus (particularly the yellow Golden Bedder)
achyranthes, alternanthera, _Centaurea gymnocarpa_, and such succulent
plants as the house leeks. Some of the annual flowers may also be used
for strong color effects, as _Lobelia Erinus_ and sweet alyssum.
Ordinarily the making of carpet-beds should be left to professional
gardeners, since it requires much skill and care to make and keep the
beds in perfect condition; and a ragged or imperfect carpet-bed is worse
than no bed at all. Carpet-beds are really curiosities, and they have no
more legitimate place in the general pictorial landscape design area
than painted stones or sheared evergreens. Therefore, they should be
placed by themselves at one side, where they do not interfere with the
general design of the place. In public parks they make a very useful
attraction when set off by themselves, the same as zoölogical gardens or
other attractions do.


BEEFSTEAK GERANIUM is _Begonia_.


BEETS. Being one of the hardiest of spring vegetables, the seed may be
sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. A light, sandy
soil is the best on which to grow Beets to perfection, but any well
tilled garden soil will raise satisfactory crops. On heavy soil the
turnip Beet gives the best results, as the growth is nearly all at or
above the surface. The long varieties, having tapering roots running
deep into the soil, are apt to be misshapen unless the physical
condition of the soil is such that the roots meet with little
obstruction. A succession of sowings should be made, at intervals of
from two to three weeks, until late summer, as the Beets are much more
desirable in their young stage than when they have become old and woody.
The Mangel-Wurzel and the Sugar Beet are usually grown as a field crop,
and will not enter into the calculations of the home garden.

[Illustration: Early Beets]

In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of Beets, the
seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a hotbed in February or
March, transplanting the small plants to the open ground at the time the
first sowing of seed is made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties
grow at the surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and as
the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may be pulled,
leaving room for the later ones to develop, thus growing a quantity in a
small area and having a long season of small Beets from one sowing. For
winter use the late July sown seed will give the best roots, growing
through the cool months of the fall to a medium size and remaining firm
without being tough or stringy. These may be dug up after light frosts
and before any severe cold weather, and stored in barrels or boxes in
the cellar, using enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the roots and
cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These roots, thus packed in a cool
cellar, will be fit to use through the entire winter months. When it can
be had, florists’ or sphagnum moss is an excellent medium in which to
pack roots for winter.

The early round or turnip varieties are best for early and summer use.
The Long Blood Beets may be used for storing, but these require a longer
season of growth.


BEGONIAS. Tender bedding and house plants. Next to the geranium,
Begonias are probably the most popular for house culture of the entire
plant list. The ease of culture, profusion of bloom or richness of
foliage, together with their adaptability to shade, make them very
desirable.

Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted class,
which contains the winter-flowering varieties; the tuberous-rooted,
those which bloom through the summer, the tuber resting through the
winter; and the Rex forms, or Beefsteak Geraniums, having large
ornamental leaves.

[Illustration: Fibrous-rooted Begonia]

The fibrous-rooted kinds may be propagated by seed or cuttings, the
latter being the usual method. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root
easily, making a rapid growth, the plants flowering in a few months.

The tuberous-rooted varieties are propagated by division of the tuber or
from seed, the former being rarely done except to increase the stock of
some extra fine variety. The seeds, like those of all Begonias, are very
small, and should be sown with great care. Simply sprinkle them on the
surface of the soil, which should be a mixture of leaf-mold and sand,
with the addition of a small amount of fibrous loam. Watering should be
done by setting the pot or box in which the seeds are sown in water,
allowing the moisture to ascend through the soil. When the soil has
become completely saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering
it with glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings appear.
Never allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings should be
transplanted, as soon as they can be handled, into boxes or pots
containing the same mixture of soil, setting each plant down to the
seed-leaf. They will need three or four transplantings before they reach
the blooming stage, and at each one after the first, the amount of
fibrous loam may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third
each of loam, sand and leaf-mold. The addition of a little well rotted
manure may be made at the last transplanting. These tuberous-rooted
Begonias make superior bedding plants if given a shady situation and
deep soil; but for the amateur they are perhaps better grown as
pot-plants, for one is able to give them better conditions by that
method. The flowers are both double and single, ranging in color from
pure white and yellow to pink and red. After flowering the plants will
die down and the tubers, after drying off, may be placed in a dry, warm
place until spring.

[Illustration: Rex Begonia]

The Rex type, having no branches, is propagated from the leaves. The
large mature leaves are used. The leaf may be cut into sections having
at the base a union of two ribs. These pieces of leaves may be inserted
in the sand as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be used, cutting
through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on the
propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short time young
plants having roots of their own will form. These may be potted when
large enough to handle, and will soon make good sized plants. Rex
Begonias usually grow little during winter. Be sure that the pots are
well drained, so that the soil does not become sour. New plants--those a
year or so old--are usually most satisfactory. Keep them away from
direct sunlight.

An insidious disease of Begonia leaves has recently made its appearance.
The best treatment yet known is to propagate fresh plants, throwing away
the old stock and the dirt in which it is grown.


BELLIS PERENNIS. See _Daisy_.


[Illustration: Ancient Briton Blackberry]

BLACKBERRIES. The one essential to the successful growing of
Blackberries is a moist soil,--not one in which water will stand, but
one rich enough in humus to hold sufficient moisture to carry the crop
through the growing season. It is usually found best to plant in the
fall, earthing up slightly around the plants. The distance between the
plants should be regulated by the variety. The smaller-growing kinds (as
Early Harvest and Wilson) may be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank-growing
varieties (as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation throughout the
season will help in a material degree to hold the moisture necessary to
perfect a good crop. The soil should be cultivated very shallow,
however, so as not to disturb the roots, as the breaking of the roots
starts a large number of suckers that have to be cut out and destroyed.

[Illustration: Shears for cutting out old canes]

Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, bear but one crop on the
cane. That is, canes which spring up this year bear next year. From 3 to
6 canes are sufficient to be left in each hill. The superfluous ones are
thinned out soon after they start from the ground. The old canes should
be cut out soon after fruiting and burned. The new shoots should be
pinched back at the height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are to support
themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may be allowed to grow
throughout the season and be cut back when tied to the wires in winter
or early spring. Tools for the cutting out of the old canes are well
represented in the pictures. Shears are used for shortening-in the
canes.

[Illustration: Shears for heading-in bushes]

Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold climates,--the tops
being bent over and held to the ground by earth or sods thrown on their
tips.

[Illustration: Knife hook for cutting out old canes]

Snyder is the most popular commercial variety; but Agawam, Ancient
Briton, Taylor, and others are better in quality. A new patch should be
planted every five or six years.


BLUE BOTTLE. See _Centaurea Cyanus_.


BORDEAUX MIXTURE is a fungicide, used to combat mildews, leaf-diseases,
blights, etc. It is sprayed on the plants with a spray pump or syringe,
or it may be applied with a whisk broom. Apply enough of it so that the
foliage looks blue. It is made as follows: Copper sulfate, 6 pounds;
quicklime, 4 pounds; water, 40 to 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper
sulfate by putting it into a bag of coarse cloth and hanging this in a
vessel holding at least four gallons, so that it is just covered by the
water. Use an earthen or wooden vessel. Slake the lime in an equal
amount of water. Then mix the two and add enough water to make 40
gallons. It is then ready for immediate use, but will keep for some
time. If the mixture is to be used on peach foliage, it is advisable to
add an extra pound of lime to the above formula. When applied to such
plants as carnations or cabbages, it will adhere better if a pound of
hard soap is dissolved in hot water and added to the mixture. For rots,
molds, mildews, and all fungous diseases.

Whilst Bordeaux Mixture is the best general fungicide, it discolors the
plants until it washes off. On ornamental plants, therefore, a colorless
fungicide may be preferable. In such cases, use the ammoniacal carbonate
of copper solution, as follows: Copper carbonate, 1 ounce; ammonia, 1
volume 26° Baumé, ⅞ volumes water (enough to dissolve the copper);
water, 9 gallons. The copper carbonate is best dissolved in large
bottles, where it will keep indefinitely, and it should be diluted with
water as required. For the same purposes as Bordeaux Mixture.


BORDER. The word border is used to designate the heavy or continuous
planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the walks and drives,
or against the buildings, in distinction from planting on the lawn or in
the interior spaces. A border receives different designations, depending
upon the kinds of plants which are grown therein; that is, it may be a
shrub border, a flower border, a hardy border for native and other
hardy plants, a vine border, and the like. As a rule, the most effective
planting is that which is thrown into masses, for one plant reinforces
the other, and the flowers have a good setting or background. Very
striking displays of foliage and flowers and plant forms can be made
when massed together. As a rule, plants are more easily grown when
planted in a border, since the whole area can be kept cultivated with
ease; and if a plant becomes weak or dies, its place is readily filled
by the neighboring plants spreading into it. Planting in masses is also
essential to the best arrangement of the yard, since the basis of any
landscape is a more or less continuous greensward (see _Lawn_). The
house occupies the central part of the area, and the sides are heavily
massed or planted so as to make a framework for the whole place. The
border may be mixed,--that is, composed of a great variety of
plants,--or it may be made up of one continuous thing. In long and very
striking borders, it is often best to have the background--that is, the
back row--of one general type of plant in order to give continuity and
strength to the whole group. In front of this a variety of plants may be
set, if one desire.

[Illustration: Planting by the steps]

The land should be rich. The whole ground should be plowed or spaded and
the plants set irregularly in the space; or the back row may be set in a
line. If the border is composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse
cultivator may be run in and out between the plants for the first two or
three years, since the shrubs will be set from 2 to 4 ft. apart.
Ordinarily, however, the cultivating is done by hand tools. After the
plants are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig
up as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks
off the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and give the
border a top-dressing each fall of well rotted manure. If the ground is
not very rich, a sprinkling of ashes or some commercial fertilizer may
be given from time to time. The border should be planted so thick as to
allow the plants to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect.
Most shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may go
4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous perennials, like
bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the like, should go from 12
to 18 inches. On the front edge of the border is a very excellent place
for annual and tender flowering plants. Here, for example, one may make
a fringe of asters, geraniums, coleus, or anything else which he may
choose (see _Flower Beds_).

The border is an excellent place in which to colonize native or other
interesting plants. A person comes across an attractive plant on his
tramp and wishes it were in his garden. Whatever the time of year, he
may break off the top close to the ground, take up the roots and plant
them in the border. If a little attention is given to the plant for the
first two or three weeks, as watering or mulching or shading, it should
become established and give satisfactory bloom the following year.
Two-thirds of the herbs which one would take up in this way, even in
midsummer, should grow. Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of
the place the autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If
these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left there to
decay, and not be raked off in the spring. The general outline of the
border facing the lawn should be more or less wavy or irregular,
particularly if it is on the boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or
drive, the margins may follow the general directions of the walk or
drive.

There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy border.
Choose (1) those which you like best, (2) those which are adapted to the
climate and soil, (3) those which are in place or in keeping with that
part of the grounds. See _Herbs_, _Shrubs_, _Trees_.


BORECOLE is _Kale_.


BORERS. There is no sovereign remedy for borers except to dig them out.
Do not rely upon washes or other applications. If trees are examined two
or three times a year, it is not a laborious undertaking to dig them
out, as they will not be deep in the wood. If they do get deep in the
wood, thrust a wire into the burrow. By the chips cast from the holes,
or by the dead bark, the presence of borers may be detected. Apple and
peach trees are particularly liable to attack. The flat-headed
apple-tree borer works just underneath the bark on any part of the trunk
or large branches. The round-headed apple-tree borer eats into the wood
at the crown.


BOXES of many sizes can be utilized in which to grow plants. Excellent
effects of bulbs and annuals may be had in old soap boxes. The boxes may
be placed in the best situations for the growth of the plants, and they
can receive better attention than the large flower bed. Vines planted
about the edge will hide the sides,--such vines as Kenilworth ivy,
moneywort, maurandya, trailing fuchsia, and the like.


BRACHYCOME. See _Swan River Daisy_.


BROCCOLI. This is almost identical with the Cauliflower, except that it
usually requires a longer season and matures in the fall. It is grown
more generally in Europe than in this country. The special merit of
Broccoli is its adaptability for late summer planting and its rapid
growth in the late fall. It is said that a large proportion of Broccoli
is used in the manufacture of pickles. The culture is the same as for
Cauliflower,--deep, moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the
destruction of the cabbage worm.

The young plants may be grown in a coldframe or in a well protected
border, sowing the seed about the 15th of May, transplanting into rows
in July. In sections in which early fall frosts are not to be feared,
the plants may be set two weeks later, say August 1, as all vegetables
of the cabbage family make the best growth through the cool months of
September and October. The plants should be set 18 in. apart in the
rows, the rows being from 2½ ft. to 3 ft. apart.


BROWALLIA ELATA is a very fine tender annual, giving a border or mixed
bed a dash of amethyst blue not often found in flowers. It is a
strong-growing plant with a profusion of bloom, and no doubt one of the
choicest plants of its color in cultivation. There are other species
with white flowers that serve as contrast, and may be grown with this.
All of the kinds may be taken up and potted in the fall, cutting the
plant well back, and a profusion of bloom may be obtained through the
winter months if attention is given to pinching off the seed pods. In
the garden, let the plants stand 12 in. apart. The plants grow 1-2 ft.
high.


BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This is a vegetable that should be more generally
known, as it is one of the choicest of the cabbage family, and may be
had at its best after the season for cauliflower has passed. It is the
better for being touched by the fall frosts. The parts used are the
buttons or sprouts (miniature cabbage heads) that grow thickly along the
stem. These should be cut off rather than broken. The very small hard
“sprouts” or buttons are the best. The culture is essentially the same
as for late cabbage or broccoli. One ounce will sow 100 ft. of drill, or
make upward of 2,000 plants. Set plants in field 2-3 ft. apart. They
require the entire season in which to grow.


BUDDING. See _Grafting_.


BULBS. The outdoor culture of bulbs is extremely simple. They care for
themselves throughout a greater part of the year, many of them flowering
when no other plants are able to grow and bloom out of doors.

While all the so-called Holland bulbs will thrive in any kind of soil,
they will all do better by being planted in a deep, sandy soil well
enriched with well rotted manure. But do not let the manure come into
direct contact with the bulb. Even heavy clay soil may be fitted for the
growing of bulbs by the addition of sharp sand, either worked into the
soil or placed directly under the bulb when planted. To make a bulb bed,
choose, if possible, a sandy soil and throw out the top soil to the
depth of 6 in. Put into the bottom of the bed about 2 in. of well rotted
manure and spade it into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil,
level it off nicely, set the bulbs firmly on this bed and then cover
them with the balance of the soil; in this way one will have the bulbs
from 3 to 4 in. below the surface. In the fall months the top of the
ground is cooler than at the depth of 5 or 6 in. and the top of the bulb
will not want to grow, while the bottom, which is always in a hurry,
will send out roots, to push out the leaves and flowers the next spring.
When the weather is cold enough to freeze a hard crust on the soil, the
bed should have its winter overcoat. This may be straw, hay, cornstalks
or leaves spread over the bed to the depth of 6 in. if the material is
coarse; but if leaves are used, 3 in. will be enough, because the leaves
lay close together and may smother out the frost that is in the ground
and let the bulbs start. What we want is to keep them asleep until
spring, because if they start too early the hard freezes of March and
early April will spoil their beauty if the leaves or flowers are near or
above the surface. Early in April, in New York, the covering may be
removed gradually, and should all be off the beds before the leaves show
above the ground.

If there is no sandy place for the beds, make them as directed, leaving
the stones in the bottom of the bed for drainage. Then, when ready to
set the bulb, place a large handful of sand where the bulb is to go and
set the bulb on it. This will keep the water from standing around the
bulb. Very fine results may be had on heavy soil by this method.

As to kinds of bulbs, select hyacinths, tulips or narcissus or
daffodils, with snowdrops or crocuses of various colors around the edge.
For the culture of these and other bulbs, see the various articles
throughout the book.

_The growing of flowering bulbs through the winter_ adds to the list of
house plants a charming variety. The labor, time and skill required is
much less than that of growing many of the larger plants more commonly
used for winter decorations. The larger number of winter bulbs may be
left out of doors until within four to six weeks of the time when they
are wanted in flower. Hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, and crocus can be
made to flower in the winter without difficulty. Secure the bulbs so as
to be able to pot them by the middle or last of October, or if earlier
all the better. The soil should be rich, sandy loam, if possible; if
not, the best one can get, to which add about one-fourth the bulk of
sand and mix thoroughly. If ordinary flower pots are to be used, put in
the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for
drainage, then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on
the dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill
around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing above the
dirt. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle a small handful
of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, the same as is done in
the beds outdoors. If one does not have pots he may use boxes. Starch
boxes are a good size to use, as they are not heavy to handle; and
excellent flowers are sometimes obtained from bulbs planted in old
tomato cans. If boxes or cans are used, care must be taken to have holes
in the bottoms to let the water run out. A large size hyacinth bulb
will do well in a 5-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or
four narcissuses or eight to twelve crocuses.

After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, they
should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or cellar, or on
the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged or buried up to
the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is done to force the roots to
grow while the top stands still; as only the bulbs with good roots will
give good flowers. When the weather gets so cold that a crust is frozen
on the soil, the pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the
weather gets colder more straw must be used. In from six to eight weeks
after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough to grow the
plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a cool room for a week or
so, after which, if they have started into growth, they may be taken
into a warmer room where they can have plenty of light. They will grow
very rapidly now and will want lots of water, and after the flowers
begin to show, the pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time.
When just coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of
the time to help bring out the color of the flowers.


BUSHES. See _Shrubs_.


CABBAGE. For an early crop, the plants must be started either in
February or early March, or the previous September and wintered over in
coldframes. This latter method was once a common practice by gardeners
near large cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace the many
hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice in many
localities, and now most of the early Cabbages in the north are grown
from seed sown in January, February or March. The plants are hardened
off in March and early April and planted out as early as possible. The
private grower, or one with a small garden, may often procure his early
plants from the market-gardener much cheaper than he can grow them, as
usually only a limited number of early Cabbage plants are wanted; but
for the midseason and main crop, the seed may be sown in May or June,
setting the plants in July.

[Illustration: Early Cabbage]

For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to three or four.
For an intermediate crop the list is more extended, and the late
varieties are very numerous. The early list is headed by the Jersey
Wakefield, a variety which heads very quickly, and, although not one of
the solid kinds, is generally grown. The Early York and Winnigstadt are
good varieties to follow it. The latter especially is solid and of very
good quality. For the midseason, the Succession and All Season are of
the best, and for the winter supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball and Flat
Dutch types are the leaders. One of the best of the Cabbages for table
use is seldom seen in the garden--the Savoy Cabbage. It is a type with
netted leaves, making a large, low-growing head, the center of which is
very solid and of excellent flavor, especially late in the fall, when
the heads have had a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be grown in
every private garden.

The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good border will do. The
seed is sown preferably in rows, thus allowing thinning of the plants
and the pulling of any weeds that germinate. The young plants will well
repay attention to watering and thinning. The rows should be 3 or 4 in.
apart. When the plants are large enough to transplant, they may be
planted where early vegetables have been grown. Set the plants from 18
to 24 in. apart in the row, the rows being 3 ft. apart for the
medium-growing kinds. One ounce of seed will furnish about two thousand
plants. All Cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one that holds
moisture well.

The best remedy for the Cabbage worm is to kill the first brood on the
very young plants with Paris green. After the plants begin to head,
pyrethrum or salt water may be used. On a small area, hand-picking may
be recommended.

The maggot is the most serious Cabbage pest. After studying the seventy
odd remedies proposed, Slingerland concludes that 6 are efficient and
practicable: growing the young plants in closely covered frames; tarred
paper cards placed snugly about the base of the plants to keep the fly
away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; hand-picking of the
maggots; treating the plants with emulsion of carbolic acid; treating
them with carbon bisulfide. The insecticidal materials are injected or
poured into the soil about the base of the plant.

Respecting these two insecticides, Slingerland remarks: “Always use the
crude carbolic acid, as it is much cheaper than the purified and is
nearly, if not quite, as effective. It will probably be safer if used as
an emulsion than if simply diluted with water. We would advise that it
be made by the follow formula: 1 pound of hard soap or 1 quart of soft
soap dissolved in 1 gallon of boiling water, into which 1 pint of crude
carbolic acid is then poured and the whole mass agitated into an
emulsion, which will remain in this condition for a long time. In
treating the plants, take one part of this standard emulsion and dilute
it with 30 equal parts of water; it probably can be used stronger
without injury to the plants. If the emulsion is cold and semi-solid,
use several parts of warm water at first. Begin the treatment early, a
day or two after the plants are up, or in the case of Cabbages and
Cauliflowers the next day after they are set in the field, and repeat it
once each week or 10 days until about May 20 in our state. While we have
little faith in the preventive effects of the early treatments, we do
believe that the emulsion will then kill many of the eggs and recently
hatched maggots. If it could be applied with some force through a
syringe or force pump, it might not be necessary to go to the trouble of
first removing some of the earth from about the plants. It must be
remembered that its success will depend on the eggs or maggots being hit
with it. None of the Cabbages in our experiment were injured in the
least by an application containing nearly twice as much of the acid, and
there is but little danger of its injuring the tenderest foliage of
radishes, turnips or onions; if any injury manifests itself on these
crops, dilute the emulsion with 40 or 50 or more parts of water, instead
of 30. A knapsack or wheelbarrow sprayer would prove a very useful
instrument in applying the emulsion on a large scale.”

The carbon bisulfide is best injected into the soil by means of a
long-nosed syringe. Slingerland (Cornell Bulletin 78) illustrates a
specially made syringe or injector for this purpose: “Thus Cabbage
plants can be treated once, and once is usually sufficient, at the rate
of about 10 plants for 1 cent for the liquid, using about 1 teaspoonful
to each plant. As the injector will last for years, and several
neighbors might join in the purchase and use of one instrument, its cost
would practically not influence this estimate of the cost of killing the
maggots. We believe it is the cheapest, most effective, and most
practicable method yet devised for fighting this pest on crops of
Cabbages and cauliflowers; on crops of radishes, turnips, or onions it
will probably be too expensive except where choice or new varieties are
attacked. The carbolic acid emulsion will prove the most practicable on
these last crops.”

The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly thickened and
distorted, is difficult to manage if Cabbages or allied plants are grown
continuously on land in which diseased plants have been raised. Changing
the location of the Cabbage or Cauliflower patch is the best procedure.
If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, etc., are
grown on the land, the disease will be starved out in two or three
years.


CACALIA. TASSEL FLOWER. LADIES’ PAINT BRUSH. A quaint old annual, in two
colors, scarlet and orange. It is easily grown, and makes a fine
second-row plant for a border, contrasting well with Browallia or
Ageratum. Sow where the plants are to stand. Let plants stand 10-12
inches apart. Grow 1½-2 ft. high.


CACTUS. This class of plants is often seen in small collections of house
plants, to which they add interest, being altogether different from
other plants. All Cacti are easy to grow, requiring but little care and
enduring the heat and dryness of a living room much better than most
other plants. Their requirements are ample drainage and a sandy soil.
Cactus growers usually make a soil by mixing pulverized plaster or lime
refuse with garden loam, using about two-thirds of the loam. The very
fine parts, or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil is
likely to cement. They may be rested at any season by simply setting
them away in a dry place for two or three months, and bringing them into
heat and light when they are wanted. As new growth advances they should
have water occasionally, and when in bloom they should be watered
freely. Withhold water gradually after blooming until they are to be
rested.

Some of the most common species in cultivation are the Phyllocactus
species, often called the Night-blooming Cereus. These are not the true
Night-blooming Cereuses, which have angular or cylindrical stems,
covered with bristles, while this has flat, leaf-like branches; the
flowers of these, however, are very much like the Cereus, opening at
evening and closing before morning, and as the Phyllocacti may be grown
with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger plants, they are to
be recommended. See _Cereus_.

The Epiphyllum, or Lobster Cactus, is one of the best of the family,
easy of culture. It bears bright-colored blossoms at the end of each
joint. When in flower, which will be through some of the winter months,
this requires a richer soil than the other Cacti. Opuntias, or prickly
pears, are often grown as border plants through the summer. In fact, all
the family may be planted out, and if a number of varieties are set in a
bed together they make a striking addition to the garden. Be very
careful not to bruise the plants. It is better to plunge them in the
pots than to turn them out of the pots.


[Illustration: Caladium or Colocasia]

CALADIUM. Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial plants which are used for
conservatory decorations, and also for subtropical and bold effects in
the lawn. The plants which are commonly known under this name are really
Colocasias. The plants should be rested during the winter, being kept in
a warm cellar or under a greenhouse bench, where they are not liable to
frost or dampness. The roots are usually kept covered with earth during
the winter, but they are kept dry. Early in the spring the roots are put
into boxes or pots and are started into growth, so that by the time
settled weather comes they will be 1 or 2 feet high and ready to set
directly into soil. When set out of doors, they should be given a place
which is protected from strong winds, and one which does not receive the
full glare of direct sunlight. The soil should be rich and deep, and the
plants should have an abundance of water. Caladiums are most excellent
plants for striking effects, especially against a house, high shrubbery
or other background. If they are planted by themselves, they should be
in clumps rather than scattered as single specimens, as the effect is
better. See that they get a good start before they are planted in the
open ground.


CALCEOLARIA. Small greenhouse herbs which are sometimes used in the
window-garden. They are not very satisfactory plants for window
treatment, however, since they suffer from dry atmosphere and from
sudden changes of temperature. In the window-garden they should be
protected from strong, direct sunlight. They are grown from seeds. If
the seeds are sown in early summer and the young plants are transplanted
as they need, flowering specimens may be had for the late fall and early
winter. In the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing them
to direct sunlight; but they should be given a place which has an
abundance of screened or tempered light. A new crop of plants should be
raised each year. There is a race of shrubby Calceolarias, but it is
little known in this country. One or two species are annuals which are
adaptable to cultivation in the open garden, and their little,
ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. However, they are of secondary
importance as annual garden flowers.


CALENDULA. These are the well known POT MARIGOLDS, and add a bright spot
to any garden. Annual. Especially are they fine in the cool days of the
fall, when many of the annual flowers have gone to seed. The places of
short-lived plants may be filled by sowing seed of Calendulas in May,
scattering them through the border and allowing the plants to grow where
they come up. Easy of growth and hardy. 1-2 ft. high. Should stand 8-12
in. apart. Colors, yellow and orange.


[Illustration: California Poppy]

CALIFORNIA POPPY (_Eschscholtzia Californica_). Low perennial,
poppy-like plant, grown as a hardy annual. It is certainly one of the
best low-growing annuals, blooming through a long season and being at
its best through the cool days of fall, after touched by frost. Most of
the varieties have flowers of fine shades of orange or yellow, making a
bright spot in the border at all times. They are like the pot marigolds,
in that once planted they seed themselves. They are never out of place,
and should be left to bloom wherever they may be. Flowers open only in
sunshine. As cut-flowers they are excellent, a large bowl of them
glowing like a golden ball, especially if they are emphasized by a few
blue larkspurs or bachelor’s buttons.

Propagated by seed, which would best be sown as soon as ripe, thus
giving the plant an early start, and having bloom through the season.
They make attractive mats of foliage. 12-18 in. high. Let the plants
stand 10-20 in. apart.


CALLA (properly _Richardia_). EGYPTIAN LILY. All things considered, this
is one of the most satisfactory of winter house plants, lending itself
to various conditions. The requirements of the Calla are rich soil and
an abundance of water, with the roots confined in as small a space as
possible. If a too large pot is used the growth of foliage will be very
rank, at the expense of the flowers, but by using a smaller sized pot
and applying liquid manure the flowers will be produced freely. A 6-inch
pot will be large enough for all but an exceptionally large bulb. If
desired, a number of bulbs may be grown together in a larger pot. The
soil should be very rich but fibrous--at least one-third well rotted
manure will be none too much, mixed with equal parts of fibrous loam and
sharp sand. The tubers should be planted firmly and the pots set in a
cool place to make roots. After the roots have partially filled the pot,
the plant may be brought into heat and given a sunny position and an
abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of the leaves will
free them from dust. No other treatment will be required until the
flowers appear, when liquid manure may be given. The plant will thrive
all the better at this time if the pot is placed in a saucer of water.
In fact, the Calla will grow finely in an aquarium. The Calla may be
grown through the entire year, but it will prove more satisfactory, both
in leaf and flower, if rested through part of the summer. This may be
done by laying the pots on their sides in a dry, shady place under
shrubbery, or if in the open slightly covered with straw or other litter
to keep the roots from becoming extremely dry. In September or October
they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the old soil, and repotted, as
already mentioned. The offsets may be taken off and set in small pots
and given a year’s growth, resting them the second year and having them
in flower that winter.

The spotted Calla has variegated foliage and is a fine plant for mixed
collections. This blooms in the spring, which will lengthen the season
of Calla bloom. The treatment of this is similar to that of the common
Calla.


CALLIOPSIS is a garden name for _Coreopsis_.


CALLIRRHOË. _C. pedata_ is a hardy annual which has large, graceful
blossoms of violet or red. Is it a very free-blooming plant. Should be
started in a frame and planted out where wanted. 2-3 ft. high and grows
bushy. Plants should stand 1½-2 ft. apart.


CAMELLIA. Years ago Camellias were very popular, but they have been
crowded out by the informal flowers of recent times. Their time will
come again. They are half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter
and spring. During the blooming season keep them cool--say not over 50°
at night and a little higher by day. When blooming is done they begin to
grow, then give them more heat and plenty of water. See that they are
well ripened by winter. Always screen them from direct sunlight. Do not
try to force them in early winter, after the growth has ceased. Their
summer quarters may be in a protected place in the open air. Propagated
by cuttings in winter, which should give blooming plants in two years.
Use a porous soil for Camellias, with considerable leaf-mold.


CAMPANULA. BELL FLOWER. But one of the Campanulas commonly listed by
seedsmen is an annual,--_C. macrostyla_, a clean-leaved plant, growing 2
feet high, spreading over the ground, and bearing a profusion of large,
violet, bell-shaped flowers. The Canterbury Bell is the best known. It
is biennial, but if started early and transplanted will bloom the first
season. The perennial Campanulas are most excellent for borders. _C.
Carpatica_ is particularly good for edgings.


CANARY BIRD FLOWER. See _Nasturtium_.


[Illustration: Candytuft]

CANDYTUFT. Well known sweet-scented hardy annuals, in red, purple, and
white; easy of culture and fine for cutting. One of the best of edging
plants for the front row. The plants grow from 6 in. to 1 ft. tall. Sow
seeds where the plants are to grow, letting plants stand 6-12 in. apart.
They do not last the entire season, and successive sowings may well be
made. There are also perennial kinds.


CANNA is now the favorite bedding plant. The improvements made in the
past ten years, in size and markings of the flowers, have created a
liking for the plant. The tropical effect of a large bed of Cannas,
either mixed or of one color, is not surpassed by any other plant used
for bedding purposes.

[Illustration: Canna]

The Canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom the first year by
sowing in February or March, in boxes or pots placed in hotbeds or
warmhouse, first soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time.
Attention to transplanting as needed and removal to the ground only when
it is well warmed are the necessary requirements. The majority of
Cannas, however, are grown from pieces of the roots (rhizomes), each
piece having a bud. The roots may be divided at any time in the winter,
and if early flowers and foliage are wanted the pieces may be planted in
a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, started into growth and planted
out where wanted as soon as the ground has warmed and all danger of
frost is over. A hardening of the plants, by leaving the sash off the
hotbeds, or setting the plants in shallow boxes and placing the boxes
in a sheltered position through May, not forgetting a liberal supply of
water, will fit the plants to take kindly to the final planting out.
After frost has injured the tops, the roots may be dug, choosing, if
possible, a dry day. The soil is shaken off and the roots stored in a
warm, dry place through the winter. If the cellar is too dry the roots
are liable to shrivel, in which case it would be best to cover them with
soil or sand, filling in around the roots to exclude the drying air.

Cannas grow 3 to 7 ft. high. For dense mass effects, plant 12-18 in.
apart. For individual plants, or for best bloom, give more room. Fine
clumps may be had by planting out the entire old root, not dividing it.
Cannas want a rich, warm soil and a sunny place. They are very easy to
grow.


CANTERBURY BELL is a _Campanula_.


CARBONATE OF COPPER. See _Bordeaux Mixture_.


CARDIOSPERMUM. See _Balloon Vine_.


CARNATIONS are of two types, the outdoor or garden varieties, and the
indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, the Carnation is a hardy perennial,
but the garden kinds, or Marguerites, are usually treated as annuals.
The forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being grown each
year from cuttings.

Marguerite Carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, and with a slight
protection will bloom freely the second year. They make attractive house
plants if potted in the fall. The seeds of these Carnations should be
sown in boxes in March and the young plants set out as early as
possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them branch
freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks.

[Illustration: Carnation]

The winter-flowering Carnations have become prime favorites with all
flower lovers, and a collection of winter house plants seems incomplete
without them. Carnations grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers
that form around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering
stem, or the main shoots before they show flower buds. The cuttings from
the base make the best plants in most cases. These cuttings may be taken
from a plant at any time through the fall or winter, rooted in sand and
potted up, to be held in pots until the planting out time in the spring,
usually in April, or any time when the ground is ready to handle. Care
should be taken to pinch out the tops of young plants while growing in
the pot, and later while in the ground, causing them to grow stocky and
send out new growths along the stem. The young plants should be grown
cool, a temperature of 45° suiting them well. Attention should be given
to spraying the cuttings each day while in the house to keep down the
red spider, which is very partial to the Carnation. In the summer, the
plants are grown in the field, and not in pots. The soil in which they
are to be planted should be moderately rich and loose. Clean cultivation
should be given throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the tops.
The plants are taken up in September and potted firmly, and well
watered; then set in a cool, partially shaded situation until root
growth has started, spraying the foliage often, and watering the plant
only as it shows need of water.

[Illustration: Carnation cutting]

The usual living-room conditions as to moisture and heat are not such as
the Carnation demands, and care must be taken to overcome the dryness by
spraying the foliage and setting the plant in a position not exposed to
the direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial houses, it is not
often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off most or all of the
side buds, in order to add to the size of the leading flowers. After
all is said, it is probably advisable in most cases to purchase the
plants when in bloom from a florist, and after blooming either throw
them away or store them for planting in the spring, when they will bloom
throughout the summer.


CARPET BEDDING. See _Bedding_.


[Illustration: Early Carrots]

CARROT, while essentially a farm crop in this country, is nevertheless a
most acceptable garden vegetable. It is hardy and easily grown. The
extra-early varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or seed may be sown as
soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. The stump-rooted, or
half-long varieties, are sown for the general garden crop. Well
enriched, mellow loam, deeply dug or plowed, is best suited to the
requirements of Carrots. The seed for the main crop may be sown as late
as July 1. Sow thickly, thinning to 3-4 in. in the row. The rows, if in
a garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 in. apart. If the cultivation is
done by a horse, the rows should be from 2 to 3 ft. apart. One ounce
will sow 100 feet of drill.


[Illustration: Castor Bean]

CASTOR OIL PLANT. In the entire list of quick-growing plants there is
none that excels this for rapidity of growth, grace of foliage and rich
effect. Used either as a specimen plant, with cannas, caladiums, or for
a tropical bed, or as a screen, it gives the most satisfactory results.
Seeds sown early in the house, and the plants grown in the full light,
make fine, stocky plants to set out about the middle of May. With rich
soil and plenty of water, they will grow without a check until frost.
Height, 5-12 ft. For screens, plant 3-4 ft. apart. There are varieties
with differing shades of foliage.


CAULIFLOWER. The general culture of Cauliflower is much like that of
cabbage, except that the Cauliflower, being more tender, should be more
thoroughly hardened off before setting out. Still, it is essential that
the plants be set out as early as possible, as the warm weather of June
causes them to make imperfect heads unless the soil is filled with
moisture. No garden crop will as well repay the cost and time of
thorough irrigation, either by running the water between the rows or
applying it directly to the plants. When it is impossible to furnish
water, it would be a good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other
substance. This mulch, if put on just after a heavy rain, will hold the
moisture for a long time. When the heads begin to form the outside
leaves may be brought together and tied above the head, excluding the
direct sunshine and keeping the head white and tender. No vegetable will
respond more quickly to good culture and well manured soil than the
Cauliflower, and none will prove such an utter failure when neglected.
It is imperative that care be taken to destroy all the cabbage worms
before the leaves are tied in, as after that it will be impossible to
see or reach them. Cauliflower prospers best in moist soil and a cool
climate. From 1,000 to 1,500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed.
Good Cauliflower seed is very expensive.

[Illustration: Cauliflower]

For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, as for late
cabbage.

Erfurt, Snowball and Paris are popular early varieties. Nonpareil and
Algiers are good late kinds.


CELERIAC, or TURNIP-ROOTED CELERY. This tuber has the celery flavor in a
pronounced degree, and is used for flavoring soups and for celery salad.
It may be served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or boiled. The culture
is the same as given for celery, except that no earthing or blanching is
required. About an equal number of plants are obtained from the same
weight of seed as from celery seed. Celeriac is extensively used abroad,
but, unfortunately, is little grown in America.


CELERY has become one of the favorite relish and salad vegetables, and
is now very generally grown. The self-blanching varieties have
simplified the culture so that the amateur, as well as the expert, may
have a supply through at least six months of the year. The so-called new
culture, which consists of setting the plants close together and causing
them to shade each other, can be recommended for the garden when a
supply of well rotted manure is to be had, and when any amount of water
is available. This method is as follows: Fork or spade into the soil a
large quantity of manure to the depth of 10-12 in., pulverize the soil
until the ground for the depth of 4-6 in. is in very fine condition.
Then set the plants in rows 10 in. apart and the plants but 5 or 6 in.
apart in the rows. It will be seen that plants set as close as this will
soon fill the soil with a mass of roots and must have large amounts of
plant-food, as well as a large quantity of water; and the making of such
a bed can be recommended only to those who can supply these needs.

[Illustration: Celery]

The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a shallow trench,
setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing in the soil as the plants
grow. The distance apart of the rows and plants will depend on the
varieties. For the dwarf varieties, such as White Plume, Golden
Self-blanching and others of that type, the rows may be as close as 3
ft. and the plants 6 in. in the rows. For the large-growing varieties,
as Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal and, in fact, most of the late varieties,
the rows may be from 4½ to 5 ft. apart and the plants 7 or 8 in. in
the row.

The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or early in March
in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a hotbed or sunny window, or
sown directly in the soil of a hotbed. Cover the seeds thinly and press
the soil firmly over them. When the seedling plants are about one inch
high they should be transplanted to other boxes or hotbeds, setting the
plants 1 in. apart in rows 3 in. apart. At this transplanting, as with
the following ones, the tall leaves should be cut or pinched off,
leaving only the upright growth, as with the utmost care it is almost
impossible to prevent the outside leafstalks from wilting down and
dying. The roots of the plants should also be trimmed back at each
transplanting in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants should
be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, not to allow the
heart of the plant to be covered up. The varieties usually grown for an
early crop are the so-called self-blanching varieties. They may be made
fit for the table with much less labor than the late crop, the shade
required to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a few short
rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be made by
driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking lath on, leaving
spaces of an inch or more for the light to enter; or each head may be
wrapped in paper, or a tile drain pipe may be set over the plant. In
fact, any material that will exclude the light will render the stalks
white and brittle.

The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April or early May
in a seed bed prepared by forking fine, well rotted manure into a fine
soil, sowing the seed thinly in rows 8 or 10 in. apart, covering the
seed lightly and firming over the seed with the feet, hoe or back of a
spade. This seed bed should be kept moist at all times until the seed
germinates, either by close attention to watering or by a lath screen.
The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on the soil, and the bed wet
through the cloth, is often recommended, and if the cloth is always wet
and taken off the bed as soon as the seed sprouts it can be used. After
the young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 in. they must be
thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not touch each other,
and transplanting those thinned--if wanted--to other ground prepared in
the same manner as the seed bed. All these plants may be sheared or cut
back to induce stockiness.

If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall crop is usually set
will likely be land from which a crop of some early vegetable has been
taken. This land should be again well enriched with fine, well rotted
manure, to which may be added a liberal amount of wood ashes. If the
manure or ashes are not easily obtained, a small amount may be used by
plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 in. deep, scattering the manure
and ashes in the bottom of the trench and filling it up almost level
with the surface. The plants should be set about the middle of July,
preferably just before a rain. The plant bed should have a thorough
soaking shortly before the plants are lifted, and each plant be trimmed,
both top and root, before setting. The plants should be set from 5 to 6
in. apart in the rows and the earth well firmed around each one.

The after-cultivation consists in thorough tillage until the time of
“handling” or earthing up the plants. This process of handling is
accomplished by drawing up the earth with one hand while holding the
plant with the other, packing the soil well around the stalks. This
process may be continued until only the leaves are to be seen. For the
private grower, it is much easier to blanch the Celery with boards or
paper, or if the Celery is not wanted until winter, the plants may be
dug up, packed closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, and
placed in a dark, cool cellar, where the stalks will blanch themselves.
In this manner Celery may be stored in boxes in the house cellar. Put
earth in the bottom of a deep box, and plant the Celery in it. An ounce
of seed will furnish about three thousand plants.


CENTAUREA. Showy annuals and perennials. _C. Cyanus_ is the CORN FLOWER
or BACHELOR BUTTON, familiar to every flower lover, and always seen in
old-fashioned gardens. This is a fine plant for borders or mixed beds,
and also gives good flowers for bouquets. A bunch of the Corn Flower,
with a sprinkling of yellow marigolds or California poppy, makes a rich
effect. These Centaureas are easy of culture, seeding themselves after
once being planted, and coming up year after year in great profusion.
There are blue, white and rose varieties. Annuals. 2-3 ft. Hardy.

The silver-leaved Centaureas are used only for foliage effects. They are
excellent for ribbon beds or border lines. The seed of these should be
started in a hotbed or box in March, the young plants being set out
where wanted when the ground becomes warm. These species are perennials,
and are sometimes grown from cuttings. _C. candidissima_ and _C.
gymnocarpa_ are among the best white-leaved bedders.


CENTRANTHUS. Low-growing hardy annuals in two colors, red and white.
They make very effective covering for low rockwork, and are also
suitable for vases or lawn baskets. Sow where the plants are to stand,
or start indoors if early bloom is wanted. 1 ft. Thin to 10-12 in.
apart.


CENTURY PLANT, or AGAVE. These are fine ornamental plants for the
window-garden or conservatory, requiring but little care and growing
slowly, thus needing repotting only at long intervals. When the plants
have outgrown their usefulness as house plants, they are still valuable
as porch decorations, for plunging in rockwork or about rustic nooks.
The striped-leaved variety is the most desirable, but the common type,
with its blue-gray leaves, is highly ornamental.

There are a number of dwarf-growing species of Agave that are not so
common, although they may be grown with ease. Such plants add novelty to
a collection, and may be used through the summer as noted above or
plunged with cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in
loam and sand in equal parts, adding a little leaf-mold in the case of
the small varieties. The more common species are propagated by suckers
from around the base of the established plants. A few kinds having no
suckers must be grown from seed. As to watering, they demand no special
care. Agaves will not stand frost.


CEREUS. Under the name of NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUSES, several species of
Cacti are cultivated. The name is sometimes applied to species of
Phyllocactus, the flowers of which, in white and shades of red,
sometimes open at nightfall. Phyllocactuses are easy to grow. See
_Cactus_. The true Night-blooming Cereuses, however, are species of the
genus Cereus. The commonest one is _C. nycticalus_, but _C.
grandiflorus_, _C. triangularis_ and others are occasionally seen. These
true Night-blooming Cereuses all have long rod-like stems, which are
cylindrical or angular. These stems often reach a height of 10 to 30
ft., and they need support. They should be trained along a pillar or
tied to a stake. They are uninteresting leafless things during a large
part of the year; but in midsummer, after they are three or more years
old, they throw out their great tubular flowers, which open at nightfall
and wither and die when the light strikes them next morning. They are
very easily grown, either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the
conservatory. The only special care they need is good drainage at the
roots, so that the soil will not become soggy.


CHERRY. Of Cherries there are two common types, the sweet Cherries and
the sour Cherries. The sweet Cherries are larger and taller-growing
trees. They comprise the varieties known as the Hearts, Bigarreaus and
Dukes. The sour Cherries include the various kinds of Morellos and pie
Cherries, and these usually ripen after the sweet Cherries. The sour
Cherries make low, round-headed trees. The fruits are extensively used
for canning. Cherry trees should be planted when 2 and 3 years old. Too
rich soil tends to make growth at the expense of fruit, particularly in
the sweet Cherries. For the sweet types, a strong, gravelly loam is
best. Sour Cherries thrive well on clay loams.

Trees of the sour Cherry should be planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well
prepared under-drained soil. The trees may be slightly trimmed back each
year, keeping the head low and bushy.

[Illustration: Sweet Cherry]

The sweet Cherries have proved disappointing in many instances from the
rotting of the fruit. This may never be entirely avoided, but good
cultivation, soil not too rich in nitrogen, attention to spraying, and
picking the fruit when dry, will lessen the loss very much. In years of
severe rotting, the fruit should be picked before it becomes fully ripe,
placed in a cool, airy room and allowed to color. It will be nearly as
well flavored as if left on the tree; and, as the fungus usually attacks
only the ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may be saved. Set
the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart.

[Illustration: Black Tartarian Cherry]

Leaf-blight is readily controlled by timely spraying with Bordeaux
mixture. The curculio or fruit worm is best controlled by jarring, as
for plums (which see).

Of sweet Cherries, Windsor is the most popular variety. Other good kinds
are Napoleon, Governor Wood, Dikeman, Black Tartarian. Of sour Cherries,
Ostheim and Early Richmond are very early and productive, but better
kinds are Montmorency and English Morello.


CHERVIL. The curled Chervil is a good addition to the list of garnishing
vegetables, and adds flavor to dishes when it is used to season. Sow
seeds and cultivate the same as parsley.

The tuberous Chervil resembles a short carrot or parsnip. It is much
esteemed in France and Germany. The tubers have somewhat the flavor of a
sweet potato, perhaps a little sweeter. They are perfectly hardy, and,
like the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be sown in
September or October, as it does not keep well; or as soon as the ground
is fit to work in the spring, it being slow to germinate after the
weather becomes hot and dry. One packet of seed will give all the plants
necessary.


CHESTNUTS. Of Chestnuts there are three types in cultivation: the
European, the Japanese, and the American. The American, or native
Chestnuts, of which there are several improved varieties, are the
hardiest and most reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are
also the smallest. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the
winter in central New York. The European varieties are somewhat hardier,
and some of the varieties will thrive in the northern states. Chestnuts
are very easily grown. They usually bear better when two or more trees
are planted near each other. There are few really good Chestnut orchards
in North America, but Chestnut planting is now considerably agitated.
Sprouts in old Chestnut clearings are often allowed to remain, and
sometimes they are grafted to the improved varieties. The young trees
may be grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft-graft method;
but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and the operation should be
very carefully done. Even with the best workmanship, a considerable
percentage of the grafts are likely to fail or to break off after two or
three years. The most popular single variety of Chestnut is the Paragon,
which bears large and excellent nuts when the tree is very young. When
the home ground is large enough, two or three of these trees should be
planted near the borders.


CHICORY. The Magdeburg Chicory is the variety usually spoken of, it
being the one most extensively grown. The roots of this, after being
ground and roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant of
coffee.

The Witloof, a form of Chicory, is used as a salad, or boiled and served
in the same manner as Cauliflower. The plants should be thinned to 6 in.
In the latter part of summer they should be banked up like celery, and
the leaves used after becoming white and tender. This and the common
wild Chicory are often dug in the fall, the leaves cut off, the roots
packed in sand in a cellar and watered until a new growth of leaves
starts. These leaves grow rapidly and are very tender, making a fine
salad vegetable. One packet of seed of the Witloof will furnish plants
enough for a large family.


[Illustration: Chrysanthemum]

CHRYSANTHEMUMS are both annual and perennial. The annual Chrysanthemums
must not be confounded with the well known fall-flowering kinds, as they
will prove a disappointment if one expects large flowers of all colors
and shapes. The annuals are mostly coarse-growing plants, with an
abundance of bloom and a rank smell. The flowers are single in most
cases, and not very lasting. They are useful for massing and also for
cut-flowers. They are among the easiest of hardy annuals to grow. The
stoniest part of the garden will usually suit them. 1-2 ft. Colors white
and shades of yellow, the flowers daisy-like.

Amongst perennial kinds, _Chrysanthemum frutescens_ is the well known
Paris Daisy or Marguerite, one of the most popular of the genus. This
makes a very fine pot-plant for the window-garden, blooming throughout
the winter and spring months. It is usually propagated by cuttings,
which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming plants for the next
winter. Gradually transfer to larger pots or boxes, until the plants
finally stand in 6-inch or 8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. There is
a fine yellow-flowered variety.

[Illustration: Chrysanthemums in a box]

In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the florists’
Chrysanthemum is one of the most wonderful of plants. It is a late
autumn flower, and it needs little artificial heat to bring it to
perfection. The great blooms of the exhibitions are produced by growing
only one flower to a plant and by feeding the plant heavily. It is
hardly possible for the amateur to grow such specimen flowers as the
professional florist or gardener does; neither is it necessary. A
well-grown plant with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more
satisfactory as a window plant than a long, stiff stem with only one
immense flower at the apex. Their culture is simple, much more so than
that of many of the plants commonly grown for house decoration. Although
their season of bloom is short, the satisfaction of having a fall
display of flowers before the geraniums, begonias and other house plants
have recovered from their removal from out of doors, repays all efforts.

[Illustration: Cutting of Chrysanthemum]

Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in the border in May, well
tended through the summer and lifted before frost in September, will
bloom in October or November. The ground in which they are planted
should be moderately rich and moist. The plants may be tied to stakes.
When the buds show, all but the center one of each cluster on the
leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small lateral branches.
A thrifty bushy plant thus treated will usually have flowers large
enough to show the character of the variety, also enough flowers to make
a fine display. As to the receptacle into which to put them when lifted
from the border, it need not be a flower pot. A pail or soap box, with
holes bored for drainage, will suit the plant just as well, and by
covering the box with cloth or paper the difference will not be noticed.
If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought of the
florists and treated in the manner described. Buy them in midsummer or
earlier.

[Illustration: Vase of small Chrysanthemums]

It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant two seasons. After
the plant has bloomed, the top may be cut down, and the box set in a
cellar and kept moderately dry. In February or March, bring the plant to
the sitting-room window and let the shoots start from the root. These
shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants for the fall bloom.

[Illustration: Hardy Chrysanthemum]

There is a hardy race of Chrysanthemums, very excellent for the border.
Mulch in winter. The best bloom is usually given the first and second
years.


CINERARIA. A tender greenhouse plant. It may be grown as a house plant,
although the conditions necessary to the best results are hard to obtain
outside of a greenhouse. The conditions for their growing are a cool
temperature, frequent repotting and guarding against the attacks of the
greenfly. Perhaps the last is the most difficult, and with one having no
facilities for fumigating, it will be almost impossible to prevent the
difficulty. A living room usually has too dry air for Cinerarias. The
seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or September to
have plants in bloom in January or February. Sow the seed on the surface
of fine soil and water very lightly to settle the seeds into the soil. A
piece of glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the pot or box in
which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are up. Always keep
the soil damp, but not wet. When the seedlings are large enough to
repot, they should be potted singly in 2- or 3-inch pots. Before the
plants have become pot-bound, they should again be repotted into larger
pots, until they are in at least a 6-inch pot in which to bloom. In all
this time, they should be grown cool and, if not possible to fumigate
them with tobacco smoke, the pots should stand on tobacco stems, which
should be moist at all times. The general practice, in order to have
bushy plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower buds show,
causing the lateral branches to start, which they are slow to do if the
central stem is allowed to grow. Plants bloom but once.


CIVES. These belong to the onion family, and are propagated by division
of the root. They may be planted in a permanent place in the border,
and, being hardy, will remain for years. The leaves are the parts used,
as the roots are very rank in flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently,
as they readily grow again.


CLARKIA. The Clarkias are among the popular hardy edging and vase
annuals, bearing rose, white or bordered flowers in great profusion. The
double-flowering varieties are the most showy, but the single ones will
prove very satisfactory. The seeds may be sown where the plants are
wanted, or started in frames for earlier flowers. 6-18 in. high. Thin to
6-12 in. apart. Plant in a warm soil and sunny place.


CLEMATIS. One of the best of woody climbing vines. The common _C.
Flammula_, _Virginiana_, _paniculata_ and others are used frequently to
cover division walls or fences, growing year after year without any care
and producing quantities of flowers. _C. paniculata_ is now planted very
extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely cover the vine
and have a pleasant fragrance. One of the best of all fall-flowering
vines, and hardy North. Clings well to a chicken-wire trellis.

The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps the best known,
is very popular for pillar or porch climbers. The flowers of this
section are large and showy, running from pure white, through blue, to
scarlet. Of this class, the most serviceable purple is Jackmani; white,
Henryi; blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. André.

The Flammula class may be propagated by division of the roots. The
large-flowered kinds are propagated by layers or root-grafting on _C.
Flammula_ and others.

[Illustration: Clematis paniculata]

A deep, mellow, rich soil, naturally moist, will suit the requirements
of Clematis. In dry times apply water freely, particularly for the
large-flowered kinds. Also provide trellis or other support as soon as
they begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the wood of the season:
therefore prune in winter or early spring, in order to secure strong new
flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut back to the
ground each year; and other kinds may be similarly treated unless they
are wanted for permanent bowers.

The Clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode or eel-worm.
It is seldom troublesome in ground which thoroughly freezes.


CLIMBERS. Treated under _Vines_.


COBÆA. This is most commonly seen in the greenhouse, although it is one
of the best of tender climbers for porches. Seed sown in February or
March, and grown in gentle heat, will make suitable plants for setting
out by June. It may also be grown from cuttings of the young wood, taken
in February and rooted in brisk heat. The flowers of _C. scandens_ are
shaped very much like those of the Campanulas, but are larger. They open
a greenish white and deepen to a dark purple in the course of a few
days. The vines in full bloom have a gradation of colors as the flowers
are in different stages of development. The variegated form of _C.
scandens_ should be propagated by cuttings to hold the variegation.
Grows 10-15 ft. Tender. Climbs by means of tendrils.


COCKSCOMB. _Celosia cristata_ is the well known Cockscomb, having combs
or heads of scarlet, crimson, rose and yellow. The combs are often
saved for winter bouquets by cutting them off before thoroughly ripe and
drying them. The feathered section comprises tall-growing plants with
plumes of various colors which, with the colored leaves of some
varieties, make a striking feature in a border. The Celosias, being
tender, should be started in a hotbed or frame, potted off when out of
the seed-leaf, and planted out in well enriched soil after danger of
frost is past, 1½-2½ ft. high.


COLDFRAME. A Coldframe is a simple, low structure, covered with glass or
oiled paper or cloth, in which plants are grown without artificial heat.
It differs from the hotbed in the fact that it has no bottom heat. The
atmosphere in the Coldframe is warmer than that outside, because it is
protected from the winds and because there is more or less of the sun’s
heat stored up in the earth. For the details of construction of the
Coldframe, see _Hotbed_.

A Coldframe is ordinarily used for later work than the hotbed: that is,
seeds may be sown in a Coldframe from two to three and sometimes four
weeks in advance of their sowing in the open; whereas in a hotbed the
seeds may be started from one to three months earlier than they may be
out of doors. Coldframes are sometimes used for the wintering over of
hardy plants which are started in the fall. For example, cabbage seed
may be sown in September in a Coldframe and the young plants may be
protected therein during the winter. If they are properly grown and
hardened off, they will not be injured by the winter, even though they
freeze. Lettuce and sometimes cauliflowers are carried over in the same
way. Coldframes are also used to receive plants which have outgrown the
hotbed and must be transplanted. Plants which need hardening off may
also be transplanted from the hotbed into the Coldframe. The Coldframe
in these cases is an intermediate stage between the hotbed and the open
field.


COLEUS. A well known foliage plant for pot culture or bedding. It was
used very extensively at one time in ornamental bedding and ribbon
borders, but owing to its being tender has lost in favor, and its place
is largely taken by other plants. Cuttings root very readily. It may
also be grown from seed, although the types have not become fixed, and a
large number of differently marked plants may be had from the same
packet. This would not be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a
uniform effect is wished. Sow the seed in gentle heat in March. Make new
plants from cuttings each year, and throw the old ones away.


COLLARDS. This is a name given to a kind of kale, used when young as
greens; also to young cabbages used in the same way. The seed of any
early cabbage may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches apart, from early
spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 or 8 inches high and
boiled as are other greens. The kale Collards is grown in the South,
where cabbages fail to head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet,
furnishing a large quantity of leaves.


COLLINSIA. A hardy annual that should be sown in the fall, where wanted,
if early flowers are desired. The flowers of all the varieties are
showy, either in masses or planted in a border. Give them a position
near the front, as the plants rarely exceed 18 inches in height.


COLUMBINE. See _Aquilegia_.


COMPOST. See _Manure_.


CONVOLVULUS. See _Morning-Glory_.


COREOPSIS, or CALLIOPSIS. Very showy hardy annuals, growing from 1 to 3
feet high, and covered throughout the season with a profusion of bloom.
The colors range from lemon-yellow to dark velvety brown. Excellent for
cutting, and very effective in mixed borders. They thrive in any garden
soil if they have full sunlight. Sow where they are to grow, letting the
plants stand 6-12 in. apart for mass effects.


CORN SALAD. This is one of the earliest spring salad vegetables, coming
into condition to use with spinach, and needing the same culture. Sown
in the fall, and covered with straw or hay when cold weather sets in, it
will start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in March or
April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, and plants will be fit
to use in six or eight weeks. One packet of seed will suffice for a
small family.


CORN, SWEET, is not so generally used as it should be. Usually when
planted at all, only one planting of one kind is made. The ears come to
edible maturity almost simultaneously, and a short season of Sweet Corn
is the result. The first planting should be made from May 1 to 10,
planting early, intermediate and late varieties at the same time, then
at intervals of two weeks until the middle of July, when the late
varieties should be planted, thus having a succession from the first
crop until October. The soil for Corn should be rich in plant-food, and
the coarser manure left from the preparation of the ground for small
crops may be used to good advantage. Corn for the garden is better
planted in drills, the drills 3 feet apart, dropping the seed from 10 to
12 inches apart in the drills. One quart of seed will plant 200 hills.

For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota and Early Cory
are favorites. For later crop, Crosby, Hickox, Shoe Peg and Stowell
Evergreen are now popular.


COSMOS. The Cosmos grown in a locality free from early fall frosts is
certainly a beautiful thing, but there are probably few flowers that
have caused so much disappointment to the flower lover in the North. The
seed germinates very freely. The plants grow with great vigor, and if
the season permits, an abundance of bloom may be had in September. An
early-flowering strain of dwarf Cosmos has been offered by the trade for
several years; and each year there seems to be an improvement in the
size and colors, so the time may shortly come when this will equal the
late-flowering varieties, making the culture of Cosmos more
satisfactory. Cosmos flowers are borne on long stems, and the colors are
in white and fine shades of red. The foliage is also fine. Seed should
be sown in gentle heat, in the greenhouse, hotbed or window in early
April, and the young plants transplanted when 2 inches high, setting the
plants well down in the soil and giving at least 3 inches between the
plants, as they are very likely to spindle up, with weak stems, if
crowded. When danger of frost is over, set them out in a warm, well
sheltered position, 3 feet apart. After the plants start into growth,
pinch out the top to induce a bushy growth. If situated where the wind
can whip them, they should have a stake driven close to the stem, and be
tied to it for support. Flowers of Cosmos are on the order of single
Dahlias.


CRANBERRY. The growing of Cranberries in artificial bogs is an American
industry. The common large Cranberry of markets is also a peculiarly
American fruit, since it is unknown in other countries except as the
fruit is shipped there. Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may be
flooded. The whole area is kept under water during the winter time,
largely to prevent the plants from winter injury by the heaving and
freezing and thawing of the bogs. Flooding is also employed at intervals
for the purpose of drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and
protecting against frost and fires. Every good Cranberry bog should have
facilities for flooding. The ordinary practice is to choose a bog which
has a creek running through it, or through which some creek or ditch may
be diverted. At the lower side of the bog flood gates are provided, so
that when the gates are shut the water backs up and floods the area. It
is best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water will be
of approximately equal depth over the whole area. At the shallowest
places the water should stand about a foot above the plants. The water
is usually let on the bog early in December and kept on until April or
early May. No flooding is done during the rest of the year unless there
is some particular occasion therefor.

All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the bog before the
vines are set. This is done either by digging it off and removing it
bodily, or by drowning it out by means of a year’s flooding. The former
method is generally considered to be the better. After the turfy growth
is removed, the bog is smoothed and covered 2 or 3 in. deep with clean
sand. The vines are now set, the lower ends of them being shoved through
the sand into the richer earth. In order to prevent a too rapid and
tangled growth of vine, it is customary to resand the bog every three or
four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. When sanding is
not practicable, the vines may be mown off when they become too
luxuriant.

The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of the vines.
These cuttings may be from 5 to 10 in. long. They are inserted into the
ground in a hole made by a crowbar or stick. They are usually planted at
distances of 12 to 18 in. each way, and the vines are allowed to cover
the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good crop should be
secured, if the weeds and wild growth are kept down. A crop ranges
between 50 to 100 barrels per acre.


CRESS. The Upland Cress, or the true PEPPER GRASS, may be grown on any
garden soil. Sow early in the spring. It makes a rapid growth and can be
cut from four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be made, as it
runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one usually grown, as
the leaves may be used for garnishing as well as for salads. One packet
of seed will be sufficient for each sowing. Any good soil will do. Sow
thickly in drills 12-18 in. apart. In summer it runs to seed quickly,
so that it is usually grown in spring and fall.

The Water Cress is more exacting in its culture, and can only be
successfully grown in moist places, such as edges of shallow,
slow-running creeks, open drains, or beds excavated near such streams. A
few plants for private use may be grown in a frame, provided a retentive
soil is used and attention given to watering the bed often. Water Cress
may be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. If one is
fond of Water Cress, it is well to colonize it in some clean creek or
pool. It will take care of itself year by year. Seeds may also be used
for propagating it.


CROCUS. A hardy bulb, easily grown and giving good satisfaction either
in the border or scattered through the lawn. They are also forced for
winter (see _Bulbs_). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be
used in quantity. A border of them along the edges of walks, little
clumps of them in the lawn, or masses in a bed, give the first touch of
color as the spring opens. They may be forced with ease planted in pots
or shallow boxes, put away in a cool place and brought into the house at
any time through the winter. A low temperature will bring them into
bloom in perfection in about four weeks from the time they are brought
in. They can be had in the window-garden in this way.

A sandy soil suits the Crocus admirably. Plant in the fall, in the open,
setting them 3 to 4 inches deep. When they show signs of failing, take
up the bulbs and reset them. They tend to rise out of the ground,
because the new bulb or corm forms on the top of the old one. If best
results are desired, it is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying
new bulbs. Crocus beds may be filled later in the season with
quick-growing annuals.


CROTON. Under this name many varieties and so-called species of Codiæum
are grown for conservatory decoration, and latterly for foliage bedding
in the open. The colors and shapes of the leaves are very various and
attractive. The Crotons make good window-garden subjects, although they
are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. They are propagated
readily by cuttings of half-ripened wood any time during winter or
spring. The plants should be given an abundance of light in order to
bring out their fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them
from the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. If the
red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may be syringed with
tobacco water. Plants which are propagated indoors during the winter may
be massed in beds out of doors during the summer, where they make very
striking effects. Give them rich, deep soil, and be sure that they are
syringed frequently enough on the under side of the leaves to keep down
the red spider. If the plants have been gradually subjected to strong
light before they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full
sunlight and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the fall
they may be taken up, cut back and used for window-garden or
conservatory subjects. Crotons are shrubs or small trees, and they may
be transferred into large pots or tubs and grown on into large tree-like
specimens.


CUCUMBER. For early use, the Cucumber is usually started in a hotbed or
coldframe by sowing the seed on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square,
turned grass side down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed into
each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. The soil
should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed over the frame. The
roots will run through the sod. When the plants are large enough to set
out, a flat trowel or a shingle may be slipped under the sod and the
plants moved to the hill without check. In place of sod, old quart berry
boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots may force their way
through the cracks in the baskets. The baskets also decay rapidly.
Flower pots may be used. These plants from the frames may be set out
when danger of frost is over, usually by the 10th of May, and should
make a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized fruits in two months. The
hills should be made rich by forking in a quantity of well rotted
manure, and given a slight elevation above the garden--not high enough
to allow the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised so that water
will not stand around the roots. One ounce of seed will plant fifty
hills. The hills may be 4-5 ft. apart each way.

[Illustration: Cucumbers]

The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. For very early
or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and other picklings are good.

The striped beetle is an inveterate pest on Cucumbers and squashes.
Following is the latest advice (Hall and Sirrine, New York State
Experiment Station): “Poisons can be used with success against these
beetles for only a short time in the spring, when they begin to feed;
and again, in the fall, against beetles of the new brood. This fall
poisoning will succeed only where there is not an abundance of wild fall
flowers; for the beetles will desert any poisoned crop for the
unpoisoned flowers and will feed upon the flowers to a considerable
extent, anyhow, if they are to be found. Green arsenite, dry, gave best
results. It was found a waste of the poisons to apply them in Bordeaux
mixture, as the mixture so repelled the insects that they would not eat
the sprayed vines to secure the poison. These poisons, applied in water,
are liable to burn or stunt the plants. It is necessary, then, if we
wish to poison the beetles, to use a trap crop to attract the insects
and to apply the poison to this crop instead of to the plants we design
to protect. On small areas it may be advisable to shut in the small
plants of the growing crop by the well known cloth-topped boxes; by the
tent-like cloth covers spread over arched hoops or wires; by boxes made
from a rectangular piece of cloth and two short 6-inch boards with
cleats attached to insert in the soil and hold the boards upright; or
even 6-inch wire plate-covers. Covers, however, are too expensive on
large areas, and they have the disadvantage of frequently making the
plants weak, so that winds will snap them off or twist and ruin them
when the covers have to be removed. If covers are used alone, their
removal leaves the unprotected vines not only for feeding places but for
breeding places for the beetles.

“Bordeaux mixture, if thoroughly and frequently applied, makes as
efficient a protection as the covers, is much cheaper, and at the same
time protects the plants from diseases. This mixture (1-to-11 formula)
should be sprayed upon the Cucumbers when they are just well up, again
when they show the third leaf, and the third time just before the plants
commence to form runners. The early application can probably best be
made with a knapsack sprayer, and later ones by any good pump sprayer.
The three applications should not cost over $2 per acre. The Bordeaux
mixture is a much better repellant, according to station tests, than
kerosene, turpentine, tobacco dust, cow manure, burdock infusion, slug
shot, bug death, or any other known compound. Indeed, all materials of
this class, supposed to drive away the beetles by their distasteful
odor, proved failures when used alone. Air-slaked lime, dusted over the
vines, will make them unpalatable to the beetles, but the lime is liable
to stunt the plants. It may be used, with care, by those whose crop is
not large enough to warrant purchase of a spraying outfit.

“All of these appliances or applications, covers, Bordeaux mixture or
lime, merely protect the young plants until they are strong enough to
stand the injury from the beetles; they do not kill the insects. To do
this, trap crops are needed. As the squash is the beetle’s favorite food
plant, this vegetable should be planted--in single rows along the
margins of small patches, in several rows around large fields--about
four days before the Cucumbers or melon seeds are sown. When these trap
plants are up and the beetles appear about them, dust about half the
plants with green arsenite, reserving the other half for use if rain or
heavy dew makes the poison soluble and kills the vines first treated.
The beetles, attracted by their favorite tidbit, will feed upon the
squash vines and be poisoned by the arsenite. When the Cucumbers or
melons are up, unless they are protected by covers, spray with Bordeaux,
and poison more of the squash vines. When the beetles commence to pair,
the squashes may be cultivated up, leaving only a few vines for the
beetles to feed upon at flowering time, as the insects prefer the squash
flowers and will not molest the others. Beans may be used with some
success as a fall catch crop, where wild flowers are not too plentiful.
They should be planted on the Cucumber or melon fields; and when the
beetles leave the old vines to feed upon the fresh bean plants, they
should be treated to liberal doses of poison as well.”

The mildew on the vines can be prevented by Bordeaux mixture spray.


[Illustration: Currants]

CURRANTS. The Currant, being one of the hardiest and most productive of
fruits, is often neglected, the patch allowed to become foul with grass,
never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating the leaves until, in the
course of time, the plants weaken and die. Along the fence is no place
to plant Currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; plant out in the open,
at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere with cultivation. No
fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the Currant.
Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will
certainly be followed by well paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants
may be set 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers
below the surface of the ground. If the season is dry, a mulch of straw
or leaves will assist the plants to establish themselves.

The red and white Currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older wood. A
succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to take the place
of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow older. The
partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the Currant well, and if
the ground is in good condition no bad results will follow to the
orchard, provided the Currants are removed before the trees need the
entire feeding space.

A Currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, if
properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak
canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the
root each year. For home use, White Imperial and Moore’s Ruby are
excellent. Prince of Wales is a heavy bearer and excellent for cooking.
Wilder, Victoria, Cherry and White Grape are meritorious varieties.

To combat the Currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to kill
the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower
leaves--usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if
it appear, spray with white hellebore. For borers, cut out and burn the
affected canes.


CUTTINGS. Cuttings are parts of plants which are inserted in soil or
water with the intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They
are of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to the age
of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz., those made from perfectly
hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter twigs of trees and bushes),
and those made from more or less immature or growing wood. They may be
classified again in respect to the part of the plants from which they
are taken, as root Cuttings, tuber Cuttings (as the ordinary “seed”
planted for potatoes), stem Cuttings and leaf Cuttings.

[Illustration: The planting of dormant wood Cuttings]

Dormant wood Cuttings are used for grapes, currants, gooseberries,
willows, poplars and many other kinds of soft-wooded trees and shrubs.
Cuttings are ordinarily taken in fall or winter, but cut into the proper
lengths and then buried in sand or moss where they do not freeze, in
order that the lower end may heal over or callus. In the spring these
Cuttings are set in the ground, preferably in a rather sandy and well
drained place. Usually, hardwood Cuttings are made with two to four
joints or buds, and when they are planted, only the upper bud projects
above the ground. They may be planted erect, as the picture shows, or
somewhat slanting. In order that the Cutting may reach down to moist
earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 inches long;
and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 inches. If the wood is
short-jointed, there may be several buds on a Cutting of this length;
and, in order to prevent too many shoots from arising from these buds,
the lowermost buds are often cut out. Roots will start as readily if the
lower buds are removed, since the buds grow into shoots and not into
roots. Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, and the like may be
set in rows which are far enough apart to admit of easy tillage either
with horse or hand tools, and the Cuttings may be placed from 3 to 8
inches apart in the row. After the Cuttings have grown for one season,
the plants are usually transplanted and given more room for the second
year’s growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent
plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the first
year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually preferable.

[Illustration: Root Cutting, which has given rise to a shoot]

Root Cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a few other
things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the size of a lead pencil
to one’s little finger, and are cut in lengths from 3 to 5 inches long.
The Cuttings are stored the same as stem Cuttings and allowed to
callus. In the spring they are planted in a horizontal or nearly
horizontal position in moist, sandy soil, being entirely covered to a
depth of 1 or 2 inches.

Softwood or greenwood Cuttings are always rooted under cover; that is,
in a greenhouse, coldframe or dwelling house. They are usually made of
wood which is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When the
wood is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too immature, in
the majority of plants, for the making of good Cuttings. One to two
joints is the proper length of a greenwood Cutting. If of two joints,
the lower leaf should be cut off and the upper leaves cut in two, so
that they do not present their entire surface to the air and thereby
evaporate the plant juices too rapidly. If the Cutting is of only one
joint, the lower end is usually cut just above a joint. In either case,
the Cuttings are usually inserted in sand or well washed gravel, nearly
or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly moist throughout its
depth, but avoid any soil which holds so much moisture that it becomes
muddy and sour. These Cuttings should be shaded until they begin to emit
their roots. Coleus, geraniums, fuchsias, and nearly all the common
greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these Cuttings or slips.

Leaf Cuttings are often used, for the fancy-leaved begonias, gloxinias,
and a few other plants. The young plant usually arises most readily from
the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, therefore, is inserted into the
ground much as a green Cutting is. Begonia leaves, however, will throw
out young plants from the main veins when these veins or ribs are cut.
Therefore, well-grown and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on
the sand and the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with
pebbles or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact
with the soil beneath. The begonia leaf may be treated in various other
ways and still give good results. See _Begonia_.

In the growing of all greenwood Cuttings, it is well to remember that
they should have a gentle bottom heat; the soil should be such that it
will hold moisture and yet not remain wet; the air about the tops should
not become close and stagnant, else the plants will damp off; and the
tops should be shaded for a time.

[Illustration: Cuttings inserted in a double pot]

An excellent method of starting Cuttings in the living room is to make a
double pot, as shown in the picture. Inside a 6-inch pot, set a 4-inch
pot. Fill the bottom, _a_, with gravel or bits of brick, for drainage.
Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill the spaces between, _c_, with
earth, and in this set the Cuttings. Water may be poured into the inner
pot, _b_, to supply the moisture.


CUTWORMS. Probably the remedy for Cutworms most often practiced in
gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully carried
out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out from
around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels of
Cutworms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When from some
cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, discussed
next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recommended which can be
relied upon to check Cutworm depredations.

By far the best methods yet devised for killing Cutworms in any
situation are the poisoned baits; hand-picking is usually unnecessary
where they are thoroughly used. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have
been thoroughly tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and
nearly all have reported them very effective; lamb’s quarters (pigweed),
pepper-grass and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to
Cutworms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but
they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the
field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from
wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet apart
between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted and
killed enough Cutworms often to save a large proportion of the crop; if
the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will keep fresher much
longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thoroughly the baiting is
done, the more Cutworms one can destroy. However, it may sometimes
happen that a sufficient quantity of such green succulent plants cannot
be obtained early enough in the season in some localities. In this case,
and we are not sure but in all cases, the poisoned bran mash can be used
to the best advantage. It is easily made and applied at any time, is not
expensive, and thus far the results show that it is a very attractive
and effective bait. A tablespoonful can be quickly dropped around the
base of each cabbage or tomato plant, small amounts can be easily
scattered along the rows of onions, turnips, etc., or a little dropped
on a hill of corn, cucumbers, etc. It was used on sweet potato hills in
New Jersey last year, and “served as a complete protection, the Cutworms
preferring the bran.” It is well to apply it on the evening of the day
the plants are set out.

The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days before
any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the ground has
been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little to eat for
several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to appease
their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will result. The
baits should always be applied at this time wherever Cutworms are
expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of a crop after
the pests have made their presence known by cutting off some of the
plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely.--_M. V. Slingerland._

[Illustration: Protection from cutworms]

Cutworms may be kept away from plants by making a collar of stiff paper
or tin about the base, as in the picture; but this is not practicable on
a large scale.


CYCLAMEN. A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen in the
window-garden. Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or
September in soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf-mold.
If sown in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May
they should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and
by July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which
should be either a 5- or 6-inch one. They should be brought into the
house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. A
temperature of 55° suits them while in flower. After flowering, they
will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or
the bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have
the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time
should more than half the tuber be under the soil.

Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be obtained from the
seedsmen at moderate prices; and unless one has facilities for growing
the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best
satisfaction. The soil best suited to the Cyclamen is one containing two
parts leaf-mold, 1 part each of sand and loam.


DAFFODILS are a kind of Narcissus. They are hardy, and require the
treatment recommended for Crocus. They may be naturalized in the grass,
but they usually do not persist long on account of our hot, dry summers.
Daffodils have been much improved of late. Plant in the fall, 4-6 in.
deep. Excellent old garden plants.


DAHLIA. The Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal
flowers, has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always
held a place in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of
the cactus and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the
improvement of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late
summer flowers, coming in just in advance of the Chrysanthemum.

[Illustration: Dahlia]

The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts should
be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the roots. If
cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots early
either in a hotbed or house. When the growth has reached 4 or 5 inches,
they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. Care should be taken
to cut just below the joint, as a cutting made between two joints will
not form tubers. The most rapid method of propagation of named varieties
is to grow from cuttings in this way. In growing the plants from roots,
the best plan is to place the whole root in gentle heat, covering
slightly. When the young growth has started, the roots may be taken up,
divided, and planted out 3 to 4 feet apart. This plan will ensure a
plant from each piece of root, whereas if the roots are divided while
dormant, there is danger of not having a bud at the end of each piece,
in which case no growth will start.

[Illustration: Dahlia]

The Dahlia flourishes best in a deep, rich, moist soil, although very
good results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture
are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the plants are to be grown
without stakes, the center of each plant should be pinched out after
making two or three joints. By doing this the lateral branches will
start near the ground and be stiff enough to withstand the winds. In
most home gardens the plants are allowed to reach their full height, and
are tied to stakes if necessary. Dahlias are very susceptible to frost.
The tall kinds reach a height of 5-8 feet.

After the first frost, lift the roots, let them dry in the sun, shake
off the dirt, trim off tops and broken parts, and store them in a
cellar as you would potatoes. Cannas may be stored in the same place.


DAISY. The perennial English Daisy, or _Bellis perennis_, is a prime
favorite as an edging plant. The cheerful little flowers show early in
the spring, and with a little care bloom continuously through a long
season. They should be given well enriched, moist soil, and be mulched
through hot weather. The usual method of propagation is by division of
the crowns, made in cool weather. They may also be grown from seed, but
the chances are that many inferior flowers will be produced. Set the
plants 3 or 4 inches apart. Height 3 to 5 inches. The colors are white,
pink and red. Hardy if mulched in winter, but best results are obtained
if plants are renewed frequently.

Many other plants are called Daisy, particularly the wild Asters, the
Ox-eye Daisy or Whiteweed, and the Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum
frutescens_).


DAMPING OFF is the rotting off of cuttings or young plants near the
surface of the soil. It is the work of fungi; but these fungi are
injurious because they find conditions congenial to their rapid growth.
Prevention is worth more than cure. See that the soil is wet clear
through, not wet on top and dry beneath. Keep it as dry as possible on
the surface. Avoid soggy soils. On peaty soils, sprinkle sand or coal
ashes to keep the top dry. Give the plants free circulation of air. Give
them abundance of room. If Damping Off threatens, transplant.


DANDELION. This common weed would hardly be recognized if seen under
cultivation in the vegetable garden. The plants attain a large size and
the leaves are much more tender. The seed may be selected from the best
field-growing plants, but it is better to buy the French seed of the
seedsmen.

Sow in spring in well manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 foot
apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, and some
of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the leaves may be
improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards or earth. One
trade packet of seed will supply a large number of plants. The whole
plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is taken.


DATURA. BRUGMANSIA. Large-growing annuals with large, trumpet-shaped
flowers. The coloring of some of the flowers is very attractive, but the
odor of the plant is unpleasant. Plants should be set 4 feet apart. They
grow 3-4 feet high, bear large leaves, and therefore make good low
screens. Frost kills them. Sow seed where plants are to grow; or,
better, start them in the house three or four weeks before the weather
is fit for planting outside. Some of the Daturas are weeds. The great
spiny seed pods are interesting.


DELPHINIUM. See _Larkspur_.


DEWBERRY. The Dewberry may be called an early trailing blackberry. The
culture of this, as of the blackberry, is very simple; but, unlike the
latter, some support should be given to the canes, as they are very
slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large-meshed fence-wire
answers admirably; or (and this is the better general method) they may
be tied to stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, combined with
their earliness, makes them desirable; but they are usually deficient in
flavor. The Lucretia is the leading variety in cultivation.

[Illustration: Lucretia Dewberry]

Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the spring tie all the canes
from each plant to a stake. After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn
them (as for blackberries). In the meantime, the young canes (for next
year’s fruiting) are growing. These may be tied up as they grow, to be
out of the way of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two weeks
earlier than blackberries.


DIANTHUS, or PINK. Under this head are included Chinese Pinks, Sweet
William, Picotee, Carnation (which see), and the perennial or Grass
Pinks. All of them are general favorites.

The Chinese Pinks (_Dianthus Chinensis_, or _Heddewigii_) are now very
popular. They are biennials, but flower the first year from seed, and
are treated as hardy annuals. They have a wide range of color and
markings. Some of them are as double as a rose, and are edged, splashed
or lined with other colors. The single ones are very brilliant and are
profuse bloomers. Sow seeds where plants are to stand, or if early bloom
is desired, start in the house. Set the plants 6-10 in. apart. They grow
8-15 in. high. They bloom until after frost. Of easiest culture in any
good soil, and should be even more popular. The petals are often quite
deeply and oddly cut.

The Sweet William is an old-fashioned perennial, having flowers of many
combinations of color, growing for several years when once planted, but
being the better for renewal every two years. Raising new stock from
seeds is usually better than dividing old plants. Of late years, the
Sweet William has been much improved.

The perennial garden or Grass Pinks are low-growing, with highly
perfumed flowers. They are very useful for permanent edgings, although
the grass is likely to run them out unless a clean strip is kept on
either side. Divide the old plants when the edging begins to fail; or
raise new plants from seed. Seedlings usually do not bloom much the
first year. Usually perfectly hardy.


[Illustration: Dibbers]

DIBBERS are hand tools used for making holes in which to set plants or
to drop seeds. They are better than a hoe or a spade for most
transplanting. For small plants, as cabbages and tomatoes, a cylindrical
Dibber is generally used. (See the lower one in the cut.) It can be made
from an old spade handle or any hardwood stick. When broad holes are
wanted, the triangular iron Dibber (sold by dealers) is excellent. It is
particularly useful in hard soils.


DICENTRA includes the Bleeding Heart; also the native little Dutchman’s
Breeches and Squirrel Corn, and a few other species. All are hardy
perennials of the easiest culture, blooming in spring. In common with
all perennial herbs, they are benefited by a winter mulch of leaves or
litter. Propagated by dividing the clumps.


DICTAMNUS. FRAXINELLA or GAS PLANT. An old border plant (perennial herb)
with white or pale red flowers. The leaves of the plant emit a strong
odor when rubbed, likened to that of the lemon verbena. It has been
advertised as the Gas Plant from the fact that the plant exudes an oily
matter that may be ignited, especially in warm, dry weather. Propagated
by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. The plant blooms the
third year, and improves with age. Set plants 3 feet apart. Height 2 to
3 feet.


DILL. An annual aromatic herb that will seed itself if seeds are left to
ripen, and an abundance of plants may always be had. The culture is of
the easiest. The seeds are often used to flavor pickles.


DISEASES. Diseases of plants may be caused by some physiological
disturbance to the plant system, or by the incursions of some parasitic
organism, as insects or fungi. The work of insects, however, is
ordinarily not classed with plant Diseases (see _Insects_). Of Diseases
which are caused by plant parasites or by physiological disturbances,
there are two general groups:

(1) Parasitic fungous Diseases, such as the apple-scab, black-rot and
mildew of the grape, leaf-blight of the plum and pear, black-knot, and
the like. These Diseases are characterized by definite spots,
discolorations or excrescences, which are more or less scattered over
the surface of the leaf, fruit or branch. As a rule, the leaves and
fruits which are attacked have a tendency to drop from the tree. The
general treatment for these Diseases is to spray with some fungicidal
mixture, like the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal carbonate of
copper. The treatment is useful in proportion as it is applied early and
thoroughly. After the fungus once gets into the tissues of the
host-plant, it is difficult, if not impossible, to kill it. If, however,
the fungicide is upon the plant before the fungus is, the parasite may
not be able to obtain a foothold. Even after it does obtain a foothold,
it is probable, however, that the spray will check its spread by
preventing the development of its external parts.

(2) The physiological and bacterial Diseases, or those which are termed
constitutional troubles. In these cases there are rarely any definite
spots, as in the attacks of parasitic fungi, but the entire leaf, or
even the entire plant, or a large part of it, shows a general weakening
and Disease, as if there were some cutting off of the accustomed source
of nourishment. Such Diseases are very likely to be seen in a general
yellowing and death of the leaf, in the dying of the leaf along the main
veins and around the edges, showing that the difficulty is one which
affects the entire leaf, and not any particular part of it. In general,
there is a tendency for the foliage in plants so attacked to wither up
and hang on the tree for a time. The peach-yellows and pear blight are
Diseases of this kind. There are no specific treatments for troubles of
this sort. They must be approached by what physicians call
prophylaxis--that is, by methods of sanitation and prevention. The
diseased plants or parts are cut away and burned. All those conditions
which seem to favor the development of the Disease are removed.
Varieties which are particularly susceptible are discarded. Careful
management in matters of this sort is often much more important than any
attempt at specific treatment.


DOLICHOS. Mentioned under _Hyacinth Bean_.


DRACÆNAS of the conservatories (properly mostly CORDYLINES) are
sometimes used as house plants. Protect from direct sunlight, keep an
even and fairly high temperature, water freely when they are growing.
When the plants begin to fail, return them to the florist for
recuperation, where they may have equable conditions. They are handsome
long-leaved foliage plants, excellent for jardinieres.


DRAINAGE serves two purposes: first, to carry superfluous water from the
land; second, to lower the water-table or hard-pan, and to make the soil
loose and friable above. Nearly all hard clay lands are much benefited
by draining, even though they are not too wet. The region of free or
standing water is lowered and air is admitted into the soil, rendering
it fine and mellow. For carrying off mere surface water, surface or open
ditches are sufficient; but if the soil is to be ameliorated, the drain
must be beneath the surface. The best underdrains are those which use
hollow or cylindrical tiles, but very good results may be had by making
drains from stones. In regions where there are many flat stones, a very
good conduit may be laid with them, but they are likely to get out of
order. If there is considerable fall to the ditch, the bottom may be
filled for the space of 10 inches or a foot with common stones rolled
in, and the water will find its way between them. If the stones are even
deeper than this, the results will be better; and such ditches also
provide place for disposing of superfluous stones.

The deeper the ditch the further it will draw on either side. It should
always be deep enough to be protected from freezing, particularly if
tiles are used. Three feet should be the least depth, and 3½ feet is
a good average depth. Drains as deep as this need not be placed oftener
than 2 to 3 rods apart, unless, in garden conditions, it is desired to
very thoroughly ameliorate a heavy clay soil, in which case they may be
placed every 20 feet. The better the fall the quicker the drain will act
and the more permanent it will be, as it will tend to clean itself and
not fill up with silt. It is important that the outlet be entirely free,
and it should be protected with stones or mason work. The roots of some
trees, particularly of willows and elms, are attracted by tile drains,
and often fill up the pipes. When the drain goes near such trees,
therefore, it is well to cement the joints. In general practice,
however, the joints should not be cemented, because a large part of the
drainage water enters at those places. In laying the tiles, it is well
to cover the joints with inverted sod, tarred paper, wisps of straw,
stones or other material. This prevents the fresh earth from falling in
between the joints, and by the time the material is decayed the earth
will have become so thoroughly set that no further trouble will result.
Although under-drains take off superfluous water, nevertheless an
under-drained soil will hold more moisture than one which is not
drained, particularly in the case of clay lands with high subsoils. This
is because fine, mallow soils are able to hold more moisture than very
loose and open or very dense and compact ones. A well constructed
underdrain should last indefinitely.


DUTCHMAN’S PIPE. See _Aristolochia_.


ECHEVERIA. Tender succulents largely used for carpet bedding and rock
gardens. _Echeveria secunda_ is sometimes called OLD-HEN-AND-CHICKENS,
from the little plants that grow out from the stem of the parent plant
and show around the edges of the rosette top; but the hardy
Hen-and-Chickens of old gardens is a different but closely allied plant
(_Sempervivum tectorum_). All the species are of easy culture and thrive
on sandy soil. They should not be planted out until all danger of frost
is over and the ground thoroughly warm. Propagated by the offsets.
Height 3 inches. The name Echeveria is now given up by botanists for
_Cotyledon_.


EGG-PLANT. GUINEA SQUASH. Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm
hotbed, the growing of Egg-plants in the North should be left to the
professional gardener, as the young plants are very tender, and should
be grown without a check. The seed should be sown in the hotbed or
greenhouse about April 10, keeping a temperature of from 65° to 70°.
When the seedlings have made three rough leaves, they may be pricked out
into shallow boxes, or, still better, into 3-inch pots. The pots or
boxes should be plunged to the rim in soil in a hotbed or coldframe so
situated that protection may be given on chilly nights. The 10th of June
is early enough to plant them out in central New York. The soil in which
they are to grow cannot well be made too rich, as they have only a short
season in which to develop their fruits. The plants are usually set 3
feet apart each way. A dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a
large family, as each plant should yield from two to six large fruits.
The fruits are fit to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size
of a large egg to their largest development. One ounce of seed will
furnish 600 to 800 plants.

[Illustration: New York Purple Egg-plant]

The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black Pekin is
good. For early, or for a short-season climate, the Early Dwarf Purple
is excellent.


ENDIVE. As a fall salad vegetable, this should be better known, it being
far superior to lettuce at that time and as easily grown. For fall use,
the seed may be sown from June to August, and as the plants become fit
to eat about the same time from sowing as lettuce does, a succession may
be had until cold weather. The plants will need protection from the
severe fall frosts, and this may be given by carefully lifting the
plants and transplanting to a frame, where sash or cloth may be used to
cover them in freezing weather. The leaves, which constitute practically
the whole plant, are blanched before being used, either by tying
together with some soft material or by standing boards on each side of
the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over the center of the
row. The rows should be 1½ or 2 feet apart, the plants 1 foot apart
in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 150 feet of drill.


ESCHSCHOLTZIA. See _California Poppy_.


EUTOCA. Hardy early-flowering annuals having pink or blue flowers, good
for masses. Sow seed early where wanted. Height 1 foot. Eutocas are
properly classed with Phacelias.


EVERGREENS. Evergreens are plants which hold their foliage in winter.
Ordinarily, however, in this country the word Evergreen is understood to
mean coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs,
cedars, junipers, arborvitæ, retinosporas, and the like. These trees
have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have very
distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of them are of the
easiest culture. It is a common notion that, since spruces and other
conifers grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is
an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other trees, and if
they tend to grow too tall the leader may be cut out without fear. A new
leader will arise, but in the meantime the upward growth of the tree
will be somewhat checked, and the effect will be to make the tree dense.
The tips of the branches may also be headed in with the same effect. The
beauty of an Evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should
not be sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as
suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others from
growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some age, 4 or 5 inches
may be taken off the ends of the main branches every year or two with
good results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters’
long-handled pruning shears.

There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for the
transplanting of Evergreens, which means that there is more than one
season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily unsafe to transplant
them in the fall in northern climates or bleak situations, since the
evaporation from the foliage during the winter is likely to injure the
plant. The best results are usually secured when they are transplanted
just as new growth is beginning, rather late in the spring. Some people
also plant them in August, and the roots secure a hold of the soil
before winter. In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the
roots be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and covered
with burlaps or other material. The holes should be ready to receive
them. If the trees are large, or if it has been necessary to trim in the
roots, the top should be cut when the tree is set. Large Evergreens
(those 10 feet and more high) are usually best transplanted late in
winter, at a time when a large ball of earth may be moved with them. A
trench is dug around the tree, it being deepened a little day by day so
that the frost can work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the
ball is thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted onto a stone-boat and moved to
its new position.

For low hedges or screens, one of the most serviceable Evergreens is the
arborvitæ in its various forms. Red cedars are also useful. Perhaps the
handsomest of all of them for such purposes is the ordinary hemlock
spruce; but it is usually difficult to move. Transplanted trees from
nurseries are usually safest. If the trees are taken from the wild, they
should be selected from open and sunny places. For neat and compact
effects near porches and along walks, the dwarf retinosporas are very
useful. Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very
close to the house. They are better at some distance removed, where they
serve as a background to other planting. If they are wanted for
individual specimens, they should be given plenty of room, so that the
limbs will not be crowded and the tree become misshapen. Whatever else
is done to the spruces and firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed
up, at least not until the tree has become so old that the lowest
branches die. Some species hold their branches much longer than others.
The oriental spruce (_Picea orientalis_) is one of the best in this
respect. The occasional slight heading-in, which we have mentioned, will
tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be marked enough to
alter the form of the tree.


EVERLASTINGS are flowers which retain their shape and usually their
color when they are dried. Most of them are members of the composite
family. In order to have them hold shape and color, cut them with very
long stems just before they are fully expanded, and hang them in an airy
place away from the sun. They are all annuals, or grown as such, and are
of very easy culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand. Good
kinds are Ammobium, Gomphrena or Bachelor’s Buttons, Rhodanthe,
Helichrysum, Xeranthemum, and Acroclinium. Certain wild composites may
be similarly used, particularly Anaphalis and species of Gnaphalium.
Some of the grasses make excellent additions to dry bouquets (see
_Grass_). With these dry bouquets, various seed pods look well.


FENZLIA. Little hardy annuals, having a profusion of bloom through the
entire summer. The flowers are a delicate pink, with yellow throat
surrounded by dark spots. A charming edging plant or window box subject.
Sow the seed in boxes or where plants are wanted, and thin to the
distance of 10 inches. Height 3 to 4 inches. Now classed with Gilia.


FERNS. Probably the one Fern grown most extensively as a house plant is
the small-leaved Maidenhair Fern (or _Adiantum gracillimum_). This and
other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient
moisture can be given. They make fine specimens, as well as serving the
purpose of greenery for cut-flowers. Other species often grown for house
plants are _A. cuneatum_ and _A. Capillus-Veneris_. All these do well in
a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage material.
They may be divided if an increase is wanted.

Other Ferns for house culture include _Nephrolepis exaltata_. This is no
doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting-room.
The new variety of _N. exaltata_, called the Boston Fern (see figure),
is a decided addition to this family, having a drooping habit, covering
the pot and making a fine stand or bracket plant.

[Illustration: Boston Fern]

Several species of Pteris, particularly _P. serrulata_, are valuable
house Ferns, but require a warmer situation than those mentioned above.
They will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner.

Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the
successful growing of Ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the
drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there
is little danger of over-watering; but water-logged soil is always to be
avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the direct
sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in a close glass
box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept equable.

The native Ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they make an
attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture in a
hardy border. The Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns are the best subjects. Give
all outdoor Ferns a place which is protected from winds, otherwise they
will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from the hot sun, or give them
the shady side of the building. See that the soil is uniformly moist,
and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with leaf-mold in the fall.


FERTILIZERS. Soil is productive when it has good physical texture,
plant-food, and a sufficient supply of moisture. Even though it has an
abundance of plant-food, if its texture is not good, it will not raise a
good crop. Soil has good texture when it is open, mellow, friable,
rather than loose and leachy, or hard and cloddy. Commercial Fertilizers
add plant-food, but usually they have only a small influence in
correcting faulty texture. Therefore, before concentrated Fertilizers
are applied to land, it should be gotten into good physical condition by
judicious tillage and by the incorporation of vegetable mold or humus.
The leading source of humus in most gardens is stable manure. See
_Manure_.

The plant-food in commercial Fertilizers is largely in a soluble or
quickly available condition. Therefore, a little Fertilizer applied late
in the fall or early in the spring will tend to start the plants off
quickly in the spring and to cause them to become established before the
trying weather of summer. For garden purposes, it is usually advisable
to buy one of the so-called complete Fertilizers; that is, one which
contains nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. If a luxuriant growth of
stalk and foliage is wanted rather than flowers or fruit, an application
of nitrogen alone is usually advisable. The most readily available
nitrogen in commercial form is that which is afforded by nitrate of soda
and sulfate of ammonia. In garden practice this may be applied at the
rate of 300 to 400 pounds an acre, although this quantity is more than
is profitable to use in most general field or agricultural conditions.
If it is desired to have stout, stocky plants, with early and profuse
bloom, it is ordinarily advisable to use somewhat sparingly of nitrogen
and to use a little more heavily of potash and phosphoric acid. This is
especially true of the leguminous plants, which have the power of
appropriating atmospheric nitrogen, and among such plants are sweet
peas. Heavy fertilizing of sweet pea land with strong stable manure
tends to make the vines grow too tall and to bear comparatively few
flowers. For dressing of lawns, a Fertilizer which is comparatively rich
in nitrogen is usually to be advised.

An important value of commercial Fertilizers is to use them to start off
the plants quickly in the spring. The food is available and acts at
once. When used for this purpose, the Fertilizer may be applied in the
hill; but when it is desired for the enriching of the land and for the
support of the crop throughout the season, it should be applied to the
entire surface. Always avoid putting the Fertilizer on the crown of the
plant, or directly in contact with it. It is usually better to work the
Fertilizer in lightly. For most garden operations, it is better to apply
in spring.


FEVERFEW. See _Pyrethrum_.


FIG. The Fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but on
the Pacific coast it has gained more or less prominence as an orchard
fruit. The trees are usually planted at distances of about 18 to 25 feet
apart. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior
varieties grow out of doors without protection as far north as Virginia.
Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the roots
will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few Figs
in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground in
Michigan. In all frosty countries, however, the Fig should be laid down
during the winter time. The following notes from Professor Massey, of
North Carolina, indicate how this may be done:

“The light hoar-frosts that have occurred here affected vegetation only
on low grounds, and today (November 5) our gardens on high ground show
no signs of frost. Lima beans and tomato vines are as green as in summer
time, and this morning we gathered ripe Figs from our trees in the
garden--the latest I have ever known Figs to ripen. As the early crop of
Figs ripens in July (if it escapes the winter frosts, for the fruit is
now set on the trees), and the late crop begins in August and continues
to ripen in succession till frost, it is easy to see what a desirable
fruit the Fig is. In this section it is easy to have a great abundance
of Figs, and it is possible almost anywhere in the United States to have
both early and late crops in abundance by taking a little trouble to
protect the trees in winter. Years ago the writer grew Figs in abundance
in a very cold locality in northern Maryland, and never failed to get a
good crop. Where the winter temperature seldom drops lower than 18° or
20° above zero, Figs will need no special protection if sheltered from
cold winds. In colder climates they should be branched from the ground,
and, after the leaves have fallen, be bent to the ground in four bundles
and covered with earth, making a sharp mound over the center and sloping
off like a four-pointed star or cross, as shown in the cuts, taken from
Bulletin 74 of North Carolina Experiment Station.”

[Illustration: Branches of Fig tree pegged down]

[Illustration: Fig branches covered with earth]


FLOWER BEDS. Two classes of subjects are to be considered in the
discussion of Flower Beds: those concerned with the location of the bed;
those concerned with the actual making of the bed itself. Most persons
do not consider the former subject. If one wants a flower garden in
which there is to be a collection of plants grown for the plants’ sake,
the garden should be placed at the rear or one side, and may be laid out
in regular fashion like a vegetable garden. If the flowers are to be a
part of the home picture,--that is, a part of the place itself,--then
they may be freely distributed amongst the border planting, or as
edgings along groups of shrubbery. It is rarely, if ever, allowable to
place formal beds in the lawn in home grounds. The place for
carpet-bedding is usually in parks or other public areas, in sections
which are set aside and devoted to that particular purpose, the same as
another section may be devoted to a zoölogical garden, play-ground or to
other specific use. Flowers which are grown in the middle of the lawn
have little relation to other planting, and they have no background to
show them off to good advantage. It is also difficult to grow them in
small beds in the grass, since they are exposed to sun and wind, and the
grass roots absorb the food and moisture. In the formal bed, every
effort must be made to keep it prim, otherwise it becomes displeasing;
whereas, if the flowers are planted more or less promiscuously in large,
irregular borders, or along the edge of shrubbery, the failure of one or
even of a dozen plants is not a serious matter. The growing of plants in
formal designs requires so much care and attention that a large part of
the fun of plant-growing is lost. Such plant-growing should ordinarily
be left to those who make a business of it.

In making a Flower Bed, see that the ground is well drained; that the
subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable condition, and
that it is rich. Each fall it may have a mulch of rotted manure or of
leaf-mold, which may be spaded under deeply in the spring; or the land
may be spaded and left rough in the fall, which is a good practice when
the soil has much clay. Make the Flower Beds as broad as possible, so
that the roots of the grass running in from either side will not meet
beneath the flowers and rob them of food and moisture. It is well to add
a little commercial fertilizer each fall or spring.


FLOWERING MAPLE. See _Abutilon_.


FORGET-ME-NOT. This old favorite grows so easily, looks so cheerful, and
with a little care will bloom so long, that it should have a place in
every collection of flowering plants. It is perennial, but the best
results may be had by dividing the roots as often as every other year;
or seedlings may be taken up from around the old plants. They require a
moist soil, with shade a part of the day. They will thrive exceedingly
if grown in a frame like pansies. Easily grown from seeds, usually
blooming the first fall. Excellent for low edgings. Height 6 inches.


FOUR-O’CLOCK. MIRABILIS. Tender annual, a plant of old-fashioned
gardens, and always interesting. Grows 2 to 3 feet high. Drop seeds
where the plants are to stand, thinning them to 12 to 18 inches apart.
The colors are white and pink. There are variegated-leaved forms; also
dwarfs. Excellent for the back row in a bed of annuals.


[Illustration: Foxglove]

FOXGLOVE, or DIGITALIS. Foxgloves make most effective border plants,
either as a background or planted among other things. The tall
flower-spikes are covered during the blooming period with funnel-shaped
drooping flowers in various colors and with fine markings. Some of the
newer varieties have flowers that rival the Gloxinias in shadings and
markings. The plants are perfectly hardy, growing in one situation for a
number of years; but, as with many other perennials, they are all the
better for being divided at intervals. They may be grown readily from
seed. Sow in boxes under glass or in the border where wanted. They bloom
the second year. A rich, deep soil and partial shade suit their
requirements. Period of bloom, July and August. Height 2 to 4 feet.


FRAME. See _Hotbed_ and _Coldframe_.


FREESIA. One of the best and most easily handled winter-flowering bulbs.
The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers are produced on slender
stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight in a
cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time when
picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not produce a
growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature bulb will
prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted together in a pot,
box or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or later if wanted
at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks from planting,
under ordinary care. No special treatment is required; keep the plants
cool and moist through the growing season. The soil should contain a
little sand mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained.
After flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down,
after which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant
in fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. The bulbs
increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown from seed, which
should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants the second or
third year. Height 12 or 15 inches. Easy to bloom in the window. The
white form (_Freesia refracta alba_) is the best. See _Bulbs_.


FRITILLARIA, or FRITILLARY. Bulbous plants, the commoner species hardy.
Only the Crown Imperial is well known in this country. This is an
old-fashioned plant, which takes care of itself when once planted. The
other hardy Fritillarias are treated like tulips.


FROST. The light frosts of late spring and of early fall may be
prevented by any means which will keep the air in motion, or which will
fill the air with moisture or cloud-like vapor, so that there is less
radiation from the ground. When frost is expected, it is well to water
the plants and the ground thoroughly. This will ordinarily protect them
from two or three degrees of still frost. The water should be applied
just at nightfall. On larger areas, it is often practicable to make a
smudge. In order to be effective, the smudge must be rather dense and
lie over the whole area, and it should be kept up until the danger from
frost is past. Material which burns very slowly and with much smoke is
preferable. Moist manure or straw or other litter is useful. Materials
which are dry enough to blaze are of little use. Ordinarily, frost comes
towards morning. It is well to have the piles of rubbish ready at
nightfall and have them lighted toward the latter part of the night,
when the frost is expected. The smudge should be kept up until sunrise.
It is well to have these piles of smudge material on all sides of the
area; or if the area is on a slope, it may be sufficient to have them on
the upper side, for there is usually a movement of air down the hillside
and the area will thereby be covered with the smudge. For a thorough
protection, it is best to have many small piles rather than a few large
ones. If the piles are placed every ten feet around the areas, better
results are to be expected. There are especially prepared tar-like
materials for use in smudging plantations, but they are little used in
this country, although some of them are excellent.


[Illustration: Fuchsia]

FUCHSIA. Well-known window or greenhouse shrub. It is readily grown from
cuttings. Soft, green wood should be used for cuttings, and it will root
in about three weeks, when the cuttings should be potted. Take care not
to have them pot-bound while in growth, but do not over-pot when bloom
is wanted. Given warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in
three months or less. In well protected, partially shady places they may
be planted out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. Plants may be
kept on from year to year; and if the branches are well cut back after
blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But it is usually best to make
new plants each year from cuttings, since young plants usually bloom
most profusely and demand less care. Fuchsias are amongst the best of
window subjects.


FUMIGATION is mentioned under _Insects_.


FUNGI. Flowerless, leafless plants, living mostly on food (either living
or dead) which has been prepared by other plants or by animals, Molds,
mushrooms and puff-balls are familiar examples. Some of the parasitic
kinds cause great damage to the plants or animals on which they live.
Examples of these injurious parasitic kinds are apple-scab fungus,
potato mildew, grape mildew, corn smut fungus, and the like. Most of
these are combated by spraying with materials containing copper or
sulfur.


FUNKIA, or DAY LILY. Hardy perennial herbs, growing in dense clumps and
bearing attractive foliage. They are of the easiest culture. _F.
subcordata_, the white-flowered species, is commonest. Of blue-flowered
forms there are several, of which _F. ovata_ (or _F. cærulca_) is
perhaps the best. Funkias are excellent for borders, or as a formal
edging to long walks or drives. There are variegated forms. Funkias grow
12 to 24 inches high, and the flower clusters stand still higher.
Propagated by dividing the roots. Day Lily is a name applied also to
species of Hemerocallis, which are yellow-flowered lilies.


GAILLARDIAS are plants that should have a place in every garden, either
as border plants or for cutting. The flowers are very showy and lasting
in bouquets, as well as on the plants. The double form has perfect balls
of color. Gaillardias are both annual and perennial. The perennials
usually have flowers much larger than the annuals; and they bloom the
first year if seed is started early. These are also propagated by seed
or cuttings. If from seed, it should be sown under glass in February or
March, setting out the young plants where wanted when danger of frost is
over. The cuttings may be made of the new growth in the fall and
wintered over in the house. Set 2 feet apart. Height 2 feet, blooming
from July until hard frosts. The perennials are usually orange.

[Illustration: Gaillardia picta]

The annual kind (_Gaillardia picta_ of florists) is probably the best
kind for the home garden. It is of the easiest culture. Hardy. Two feet.
Sow seeds where plants are to bloom. The colors of the flowers are in
rich shades of yellow and red.


GALANTHUS. See _Snowdrop_.


GARLIC. An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which are used for flavoring.
Little known in this country except amongst those of foreign birth. It
is multiplied the same as multiplier onions--the bulb is broken apart
and each bulbule or “clove” makes a new compound bulb in a few weeks.
Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the South in the fall. Plant 2 to 3
inches apart in the row.


GAS PLANT is _Dictamnus_.


GERANIUM. What are generally known as Geraniums are, strictly speaking,
Pelargoniums, which see. The true Geraniums are mostly hardy plants, and
therefore should not be confounded with the tender Pelargoniums.
Geraniums are worthy a place in a border. They are hardy perennials, and
may be transplanted early in the spring, setting them 2 feet apart.
Height 10 to 12 inches.

The common wild Cranesbill (_Geranium maculatum_) improves under
cultivation, and is an attractive plant when it stands in front of
taller foliage.


GILIA. Low-growing hardy annuals, good for front borders or rockwork,
growing from seed very quickly and continuing in flower a long season.
They will do well in light soil. Sow seed in the fall or early spring
where plants are wanted. _Gilia tricolor_, blue, white and yellow, is
the best, but there are excellent white and red sorts.


GLADIOLUS. A popular summer-flowering bulbous plant, thriving best in
moist, sandy loam, that has had an application of well rotted manure the
previous year. No manure should be used the year of planting, as it has
a tendency to rot the bulbs. Plantings may be made from the time the
ground is in condition to work in the spring until late in June. In
planting, the bulbs should be set 3 inches deep and 8 to 10 inches
apart, unless they are to be grown in groups, when they may be planted
five or six in the space of 1 foot. Stakes should be furnished each
plant to support the flower-spike. When in groups, one stake may be
used, setting it in the middle of the circle.

Gladioli are increased by bulblets formed around the old bulbs (or
corms), or they may be grown from seed. The bulblets should be planted
in drills in April or May, and will grow to flowering size in one or two
years. In the same way, seed sown early in drills, grown through the
summer, the little bulbs taken up and stored through the winter and
again planted out, will often make bulbs large enough to flower the
second year.

Care should be taken to lift all bulbs before freezing weather, as most
varieties are tender. They should be harvested with the tops on, and
laid away in a cool, dry place to ripen. The tops are then cut off and
the bulbs stored in a dry place (fit for potatoes, but drier) until
wanted the following spring. See _Bulbs_.


GLAUCIUM, or HORNED POPPY. The kind most cultivated (_G. luteum_) has
bright yellow flowers in July and September. The flowers, contrasting
with the deep cut glaucous leaves, make a fine effect in the mixed or
ribbon border. Seed may be sown in the open ground where wanted. Thin to
12 inches apart. Height 12 to 20 inches. Perennial; but treated as a
hardy annual.


GLOXINIA. Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted perennials, sometimes seen
in window gardens, but really not adapted to them. Gloxinias must have a
uniform moist and warm atmosphere and protection from the sun. They will
not stand abuse or varying conditions. Propagated often by
leaf-cuttings, which should give flowering plants in one year. From the
leaf, inserted half its length in the soil (or sometimes only the
petiole inserted) a tuber arises. This tuber, after resting until
midwinter or later, is planted and flowering plants soon arise.
Gloxinias also grow readily from seeds, which may be germinated in a
temperature of about 70°. Flowering plants may be had in a year if seeds
are sown in late winter or early spring. This is the usual method. Soil
should be porous and rich.


GODETIA. Very free-blooming annuals in fine colors, harmonizing well
with the California poppy. Many of the varieties are beautifully
blotched with contrasting colors. They are very satisfactory plants for
solid beds or border lines, blooming from June to October. Seed may be
sown in heat, and seedlings planted in open ground at a distance of 18
inches apart when danger of frost is over. A rather poor soil will cause
them to bloom better than one very rich, as they are inclined to make a
rank growth. Height 1 to 2 feet.


GOLDEN FEATHER. See _Pyrethrum_.


GOLDENROD (_Solidago_ of many species). The Goldenrod of the wayside is
so familiar that the thought of bringing it into the garden is
distasteful to many persons. But if given a suitable place in a well
enriched border, no plant has greater possibilities. A large clump
against a hedge of green, or massed behind a well grown plant of the
blue-flowering wild asters, makes a striking contrast. They bloom late
in the season, and the rich yellow and golden colors and the graceful
forms are always pleasing.

[Illustration: Goldenrod]

Goldenrods will grow more vigorously and the blooms be larger if the
roots are divided every third or fourth year. There are several species
catalogued by nurserymen, and some of the stock is superior to the wild
type, either having a larger truss of flowers or blooming later.
Goldenrods range in height from 2 to 6 feet. All are easily propagated
by division. Transplant in the fall, if convenient, although spring
planting may be equally successful.


GOMPHRENA. BACHELOR’S BUTTON. GLOBE AMARANTH. A useful everlasting for
winter bouquets. Seed may be sown in heat in March, the plants
transplanted once before setting out to cause them to grow stocky and
branching; or seed may be sown in a warm place where the plants are to
grow. The flowers, to retain their colors, should be cut before fully
expanded and dried in a dark, airy place. See _Everlastings_. Set the
plants 18 inches apart. Height 12 inches. The heads resemble clover
heads. The term Bachelor’s Button is also given to the cornflower
(_Centaurea Cyanus_).


GOOSEBERRY. Since the advent of the practice of spraying with fungicides
to prevent mildew, the culture of the Gooseberry has increased. There is
now no reason why, with a little care, good crops of many of the best
English varieties may not be grown. The price for good fruits of
Gooseberry is usually remunerative, as the market is rarely overstocked
by the sudden ripening of the crop, since the fruits ripen through a
long season. A large part of the crop is picked green for culinary
purposes. The leading market variety is Downing, a native sort, which is
little subject to mildew. Several of the English varieties have proved
of value, having larger fruits than the natives. Whitesmith, Chautauqua,
Triumph and Industry are among the best.

[Illustration: Gooseberries]

The propagation of the Gooseberry is similar to that of the currant,
although the practice of earthing up a whole plant, causing every branch
thus covered to throw out roots, is common with the European varieties.
The rooted branches are cut off the following spring and planted in
nursery rows or sometimes directly in the field. In order to succeed
with this method, the plant should have been cut back to the ground so
that all the shoots are yearling.

Pruning is essentially the same as for the currant (which see); and the
treatment of the currant worm is the same as for that fruit.

Gooseberries should be set (either in fall or spring) 3 to 4 feet
apart; rows 5 to 7 feet apart. Select a rich, rather moist soil. The
tops need no winter protection. If mildew and worms are to be kept in
check, spraying must be begun with the very first sign of trouble and be
thoroughly done.


GOURDS are valuable as rapid-growing screen vines, the curious fruits of
many varieties adding much to their attractiveness. Cultivation the same
as for melons or squashes. Height 10 to 15 feet. Provide a chicken-wire
trellis; or let them run on a brush pile.


GRAFTING. Grafting is the operation of inserting a piece of a plant into
another plant with the intention that it shall grow. It differs from the
making of cuttings in the fact that the severed part grows in another
plant rather than in the soil. There are two general kinds of
Grafting--one of which inserts a piece of branch in the stock (Grafting
proper), and one which inserts only a bud with little or no wood
attached (budding). In both cases the success of the operation depends
upon the growing together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) and
that of the stock. The cambium is the new and growing tissue which lies
underneath the bark and on the outside of the growing wood. Therefore,
the line of demarcation between the bark and the wood should coincide
when the cion and stock are joined. The plant upon which the severed
piece is set is called the stock. The part which is removed and set into
the stock is called a cion if it is a piece of a branch, or a bud if it
is only a single bud with a bit of tissue attached. The greater part of
Grafting and budding is done when the cion or bud is nearly or quite
dormant. That is, Grafting is usually done late in winter and early in
spring, and budding may be done then, or late in summer, when the buds
have nearly or quite matured.

The prime object of Grafting is to perpetuate a kind of plant which will
not reproduce itself from seed or of which seed is very difficult to
obtain. Cions or buds are therefore taken from this plant and set into
whatever kind of plant is obtainable and on which they will grow. Thus,
if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he does not for that
purpose sow seeds thereof, but takes cions or buds from the tree and
grafts them into some other apple tree. The stocks are usually obtained
from seeds. In the case of the apple, young plants are raised from seeds
which are obtained mostly from cider factories, without reference to the
variety from which they came. When the seedlings have grown to a certain
age, they are budded or grafted; and thereafter they bear fruit like
that of the tree from which the cions were taken.

[Illustration: The bud severed from its twig]

[Illustration: The bud tied]

[Illustration: The bud inserted]

There are many ways in which the union between cion and stock is made.
Budding may be first discussed. It consists in inserting a bud
underneath the bark of the stock, and the commonest practice is that
which is shown in the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed in
July, August and early September, when the bark is still loose or will
peel. Twigs are cut from the tree which it is desired to propagate, and
the buds are cut off with a sharp knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark
(with possibly a little wood) being left with them (see illustration).
The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the stock, and it is held in
place by tying with some soft strand. In two or three weeks the bud will
have “stuck” (that is, it will have grown fast to the stock), and the
strand is cut to prevent its strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud
does not grow until the following spring, at which time the entire stock
or branch in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud;
and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Budding is the
commonest Grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds of peaches may be sown
in spring, and the plants which result will be ready for budding that
same August. The following spring, or a year from the planting of the
seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which is inserted near
the ground), and in the fall of that year the tree is ready for sale;
that is, the top is one season old and the root is two seasons old, but
in the trade it is known as a 1-year-old tree. In apples and pears the
stock is usually two years old before it is budded, and the tree is not
sold until the top has grown two or three years. Budding may be
performed also in the spring, in which case the bud will grow the same
season. Budding is always done in young branches, preferably in those
not more than one year old.

[Illustration: Whip-graft]

Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually bearing
more than one bud. If Grafting is done on small stocks, it is customary
to employ the whip-graft, which is illustrated in the margin. Both stock
and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made in each, so that
one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely with a string, and
then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed carefully. In larger limbs
or stocks, the common method is to employ the cleft-graft. This consists
in cutting off the stock, splitting it and inserting a wedge-shaped cion
in one or both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of
the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are then
securely covered with wax. Grafting is usually performed early in the
spring, just before the buds swell. The cions should have been cut
before this time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored
in sand in the cellar or in the ice house, or they may be buried in the
field. The object is to keep them fresh and dormant until they are
wanted.

[Illustration: Cleft-graft]

[Illustration: Cleft-grafting a Cactus]

If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, apple or pear tree to
some other variety, it is usually done by means of the cleft-graft. If
the tree is very young, budding or whip-grafting may be employed. On an
old top the cions should begin to bear when three to four years old. All
the main limbs should be grafted. It is important to keep down the
suckers or water-sprouts from around the grafts, and part of the
remaining top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely
changed over (which will result in two to four years).

A good wax for covering the exposed parts is made as follows: Resin, 4
parts by weight; beeswax, 2 parts; tallow, 1 part. In making the wax,
the materials are first broken up and melted together. When thoroughly
melted the liquid is poured into a pail or tub of cold water. It soon
becomes hard enough to handle, and it is then pulled and worked over
until it becomes tough or “gets a grain,” at which stage it becomes the
color of very light-colored manilla paper. When wax is applied by hand,
the hands must be well greased. Hard cake tallow is the best material
for this purpose. In top-grafting large trees, it is well to carry a
supply of tallow when waxing, by smearing the backs of the hands before
entering the tree.


GRAPE. One of the surest of fruit crops is the Grape, a crop each year
being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of setting
the vines. The Grape does well on any soil that is under good
cultivation and well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better
under these circumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should
be to the sun; and the place should admit of cultivation on all sides.
One- or 2-year-old vines should be planted, either in the fall or early
spring. At planting the vine is cut back to 3 or 4 eyes, and the roots
are well shortened in. The hole in which the plant is to be set should
be large enough to allow a full spreading of the roots. Fine soil should
be worked around the roots and firmed with the feet. If the season
should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be spread around the vine.
If all the buds start, the strongest one or two may be allowed to grow.

The canes arising from these buds should be staked and allowed to grow
through the season; or in large plantations the first-year canes may be
allowed to lie on the ground. The second year one cane should be cut
back to the same number of eyes as the first year. After growth begins
in the spring, two of the strongest buds should be allowed to remain.
These two canes now arising may be grown to a single stake through the
second summer, or they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These
are the canes which form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From
them start the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear
the fruits.

[Illustration: Grape]

In order to understand the pruning of Grapes, the operator must fully
grasp this principle: _Fruit is borne on wood of the present season,
which arises from wood of the previous season._ To illustrate: A growing
shoot, or cane of 1899, makes buds. In 1900 a shoot arises from each
bud; and near the base of this shoot the Grapes are borne (1 to 4
clusters on each). While every bud on the 1899 shoot may produce shoots
or canes in 1900, only the strongest of these new canes will bear fruit.
The skilled Grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane (as he prunes
it in winter) which buds will give rise to the Grape-producing wood the
following season. The larger and stronger buds usually give best
results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, or if it is very
weak and slender, he does not expect good results from any of its buds.
A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man’s little finger is the
ideal size.

Another principle to be mastered is this: _A vine should bear only a
limited number of clusters_,--say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters
near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long,
leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. If
the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds must be left
at the pruning (which is done from December to late February).

The essential operation of pruning a Grape vine, therefore, is each year
to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to cut off
entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season’s
growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which
remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane back
to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left,--all
radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the vine
does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered the
trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each
year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are each
year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In order to
obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or two from
near the head of the vine, and the 2-year or 3-year-old wood is cut
away.

The training of Grapes is a different matter. A dozen different systems
of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the same style
of pruning,--for training is only the disposition or arrangement of the
parts.

On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each root
over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut back to
short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides of this trunk.

Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows which are 8 to 10 feet
apart. A trellis made of 2 or 3 wires is the best support. Slat
trellises catch too much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating manures.
In very cold climates, the vines may be taken off the trellis in early
winter and laid on the ground and lightly covered with earth. Along the
boundaries of home lots, where Grapes are often planted, little is to be
expected in the way of fruit because the ground is not well tilled. For
mildew and rot, spray with Bordeaux mixture. See _Spraying_.

Concord is the most cosmopolitan variety, but its quality is not the
best. For the home garden, a good selection may be made from the
following list: Winchell or Green Mountain, Campbell Early, Worden,
Concord, Niagara, Moore Diamond, Vergennes, Agawam, Salem, Wilder, Iona,
Brighton, Delaware.


GRAPERY. The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern
America. Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat.
Fruit for home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold Grapery
(without artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a
building or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is
desired, an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There
is no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A
compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping
cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 feet
deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well drained soils, but
it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches of the
border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the house is
prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted about 4 feet
apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a crevice in the
wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all may go outside
if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong cane is trained
to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, and is cut
back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. Do not be
in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, as
recommended for arbors on page 120. The vines are usually laid on the
ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with cloth.

As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis
and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After
the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further
growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two joints
beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, the
foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except during
the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should be thinned
from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. Water the
inside border frequently all through the summer, and the outside
occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. The best
preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and sprinkle
sulfur on the ground.

Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially heated)
Grapery until late December: in a coldhouse it must be picked before
frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom and
withhold water, so as to thoroughly ripen the wood. Along in November
the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with mats and laid
down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other varieties for a
cold Grapery; Bowood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria and Chasselas Musque
may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines will live and bear almost
indefinitely.--_S. W. Fletcher._


GRASSES of various kinds are grown for ornament, the most popular types
being the hardy perennials, which make attractive clumps in the lawn or
border. The best of the permanent kinds in the North are the various
sorts of Eulalia (properly Miscanthus). When once established they
remain for years, making large and bold clumps. The striped kind, or
zebra grass, is particularly good. These grasses thrive in any good
soil. They grow from 4 to 7 feet high. The great reed, or _Arundo
Donax_, is a bold subject and perfectly hardy. In a rich and rather
moist soil, it grows 10 to 12 feet high when well established. Pampas
Grass is most excellent in the Middle States and South. Some of the big
native grasses and sedges make attractive lawn clumps.

Grasses are also grown for dry or everlasting bouquets. For this
purpose, small-growing delicate annual species are mostly used. Good
types are species of agrostis, briza, bromus, eragrostis, and
pennisetum. Seeds of these and of others are sold by seedsmen. With
ordinary treatment, they thrive in any garden soil.

For notes on sod-making, see _Lawn_.


GREENHOUSE. In America the word Greenhouse has come to be applied to all
kinds of glass-houses in which plants are grown. Originally the word was
applied to those houses in which plants are merely preserved or kept
green during the winter. Other types of glass-houses are the
conservatory, in which plants are displayed; stove or hothouse, in which
plants are grown in a high temperature; the propagating pit, in which
the multiplication of plants is carried forward; and the houses which
have various temperatures, as cold, cool and intermediate. The
principles which underlie the construction and management of
glass-houses are too extensive to be discussed here. The reader should
refer to special books on the topic. For the general subject, Taft’s
“Greenhouse Construction” and “Greenhouse Management” are excellent. For
particular applications to floriculture, Hunt’s “How to Grow
Cut-flowers” is a standard work. For applications to the forcing of
vegetable crops, Bailey’s “Forcing-Book” may perhaps be consulted.

The smaller the glass-house the more difficult it is to manage, because
it is likely to be more variable in temperature, moisture and other
conditions. This is particularly true if the house is a small lean-to
against the south side of a dwelling house, for it becomes very hot at
midday and comparatively cold at night. In order to moderate the heat in
these little houses, it is ordinarily advisable to use ground glass for
the roof or to whitewash it. The house conservatory may be heated by a
coal stove, but the best results are rarely to be attained in this case.
A stove is likely to leak gas, and the temperature is more or less
uneven. The best results are to be attained when the conservatory is
heated by steam or hot water, piped in the modern fashion with wrought
iron pipes, which go together with threads. If the conservatory is
heated from the heater which supplies the dwelling house, it should have
an extra amount of pipe; otherwise it will be necessary to keep the
dwelling house too hot for comfort in order to maintain the conservatory
at its proper temperature. It is always best, when practicable, to heat
the conservatory with a separate apparatus. There are various small hot
water and steam heaters, the size of coal stoves, which are excellent
for the purpose. For a small conservatory, hot water is usually
preferable to steam, since it is less likely to fluctuate. For large
establishments, however, the steam is usually the better. For further
discussions of related subjects, see _Hotbed_, _Window Garden_,
_Potting_ and _Watering_.


GREVILLEA. A very graceful greenhouse plant, suitable for house culture.
The plants grow freely from seed, and until they become too large are as
decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really trees, and are valuable in
greenhouses and rooms only in their young state. They withstand much
abuse. They are now very popular as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in
spring will give handsome plants by the next winter.


GYPSOPHILA. BABY’S BREATH. _Gypsophila muralis_ is one of the dainty
little plants called Baby’s Breath. It is a low-growing annual forming
compact mounds of green, thickly covered with little pink flowers. It is
one of the most attractive border plants in cultivation. It is also a
charming pot-plant. _G. paniculata_ is a hardy perennial having panicles
of bluish white flowers. This is very graceful, and the flowers are fine
for cutting and for use with sweet pea bouquets or with other choice
flowers. The panicles are so lasting that they may be used in winter
bouquets. The annuals may be planted 1 foot apart; the perennials 3
feet. Both are readily grown from seed, and bloom the first year.


HARDY. A relative term, used to denote a plant which endures the climate
(particularly the winter climate) of a given place. Half-hardy plants
are those which withstand some frost or uncongenial conditions, but will
not endure the severity of the climate. Tender plants are those which
are injured by light frosts.


HEDGES. Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, and
for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most Hedges do not thrive
so well here as there; labor is high-priced, and the trimming is
therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are so large that much
fencing is required; timber and wire are cheaper than live Hedges.
However, they are used with good effects about the home grounds. In
order to secure a good Hedge, it is necessary to have a thoroughly
well-prepared, deep soil, to set the plants close, and to shear them at
least twice every year. For evergreen Hedges the most serviceable plant
in general is the arborvitæ. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to
2½ feet apart. For choice Hedges about the grounds, particularly
outside the northern states, some of the retinosporas are very useful.
One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants for Hedges is the
common hemlock, which stands shearing well and makes a very soft and
pleasing mass. The plants may be set from 1 to 3 feet apart. Other
plants which hold their leaves and are good for Hedges are the common
box and the privets. Box Hedges are the best for very low borders about
walks and flower beds. The dwarf variety can be kept down to a height of
6 inches to a foot for any number of years. The larger-growing varieties
make excellent Hedges 3, 4 and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or prim
holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so-called
Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and stands better
along the seashore. In the southern states, nothing is better than
_Citrus trifoliata_.

For Hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species are the
buckthorn, the European thorn apple or cratægus, osage orange, and
various kinds of roses.

Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, although they
should not be trimmed very closely until they reach the desired or
permanent height. Thereafter they should be sheared into the desired
form in spring or fall. If the plants are allowed to grow for a year or
two without trimming, they lose their lower leaves and become open and
straggly. Osage orange and some other plants are plashed--that is, the
plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and they are
wired together in such a way that they make an impenetrable barrier just
above the surface of the ground.


HELIANTHUS. See _Sunflower_.


HELICHRYSUM. These are perhaps the most popular of the Everlastings
(which see), having large flowers of several colors. They grow readily
from seed, blooming from July to October. Height 10 inches to 2 feet.
Should be planted or thinned to stand 18 inches apart.


HELIOTROPE. A universal favorite house or border plant, growing readily
from cuttings or seeds, and producing quantities of fragrant violet,
purple or white flowers. One of the best methods of cultivation is to
set a strong plant in the border and peg the new growths to the ground,
where they will root and form a perfect mat, flowering profusely during
the fall months until frost. They will endure the temperature of a
living room well if the room is not too dry. Red spider is a natural
enemy of the Heliotrope, and when once it obtains a foothold is a very
difficult pest to manage, but frequent syringing with water will keep it
in check. A light, rich soil and an abundance of heat are their
requirements. Height 1 to 3 feet. Propagated by cuttings or layers.


HELLEBORE (White Hellebore) is often used for the killing of
currant-worms and other insects (see _Currant_). It is not so poisonous
as the arsenites, and therefore is to be preferred when it is necessary
to apply a poison to nearly ripe fruit. It is usually applied in a
spray with water, at the rate of ⅓ ounce to the gallon. It is harmless
to foliage.


HELLEBORUS, or CHRISTMAS ROSE, may be had in flower at the holidays if
grown in a frame and protected. The usual time for it to flower in the
open border is in March or early April. It will continue to bloom for
many years if grown in a shady place. Roots may be divided as an
increase is wanted. It may also be grown from seeds; and seedlings may
be expected to bloom a year from the spring in which they are sown.
Height 6 to 10 inches.


HEMEROCALLIS, or YELLOW DAY LILY. The advice given under Funkia will
apply to this.


HERBS are plants which die to the ground in winter. They may be annual,
biennial, or perennial. For a list of annual Herbs suitable for the
flower garden, see the articles on _Annuals_ and _Bedding_. A border or
free mass of perennial Herbs is one of the charms of any place. It is
informal, easy of care, and self-sustaining. The large part of the mass
should be composed of common and hardy things--wild or from gardens--and
incidental features may be made of the choicer and rarer exotics. In
most cases, plants look better when judiciously mixed than when planted
one kind in a bed. See _Border_.


HIBISCUS. Annuals and perennials, some of them shrubs, with showy,
hollyhock-like flowers. The annual Hibiscuses are very satisfactory.
They grow quickly and flower freely. The flowers are usually white or
yellow, of large size, and appear from July on. The herbaceous perennial
kinds are amongst the best of hardy border plants, blooming in late
summer and fall. The commonest of these is _Hibiscus Moscheutos_. Give
rich, moist soil.

The greenhouse species are old favorites. They may be used in outdoor
bedding through the summer, lifted in the fall and cut back. Keep rather
dry and dormant during winter. Propagated by cuttings.


HIPPEASTRUM. Consult _Amaryllis_.


[Illustration: Common hoe]

[Illustration: Scarifier]

HOES should be of several patterns if the most efficient work is to be
done in the garden. The ordinary Hoe is adapted only to the rougher and
coarser Hoe-work, such as digging and fitting the ground. For much of
the subsequent tillage, some of the narrow-blade and pointed Hoes are
excellent. For cutting off weeds, the push Hoe or scarifier is
excellent.


[Illustration: Hollyhocks]

HOLLYHOCK. These old garden favorites have been neglected of late years,
primarily because the Hollyhock rust has been so prevalent, destroying
the plants or making the unsightly. The double varieties seem to suffer
the most; and for that reason, and from the fact that the less formal
type is in favor, the single varieties are now the most generally grown.
Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or
August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They will
bloom the same year in which they are transplanted--the year following
the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, as the old
crowns are apt to rot or die after the first flowering. For rust, spray
early with Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of copper.


HOP, ORNAMENTAL. _Humulus Japonicus_, or the annual HOP, is one of the
best rapid-growing screen vines in cultivation. It makes a dense canopy
of attractive foliage. The leaves are finely cut, and in one variety
variegated with white. This variegated variety is a fine vine for a
porch or front screen, always attracting attention to its markings. This
Hop is propagated by seed sown in boxes in March. When once established,
it will seed itself and start as soon as the soil becomes warm. Set
plants 4 to 8 feet apart. Height 8 to 20 feet.


HORSERADISH. As a kitchen garden vegetable, this is usually planted in
some out-of-the-way spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed,
the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further use.
This method results in having nothing but tough, stringy roots, very
unlike the product of a properly planted and well cared for bed. The
best roots are those planted in the spring at the time of setting early
cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the weather will permit. It
becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The roots for planting are small
pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, obtained when trimming the roots dug in
the fall. These pieces may be packed in sand and stored until wanted the
following spring. In planting, the roots should be set with the upper
end 3 inches below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or
sharp-pointed stick in making the holes. The crop may be planted between
rows of early-sown beets, lettuce or other crop, and given full
possession of the ground when these crops are harvested. Where the
ground is inclined to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the
roots may be set in a slanting position. In fact, many gardeners
practice this method of planting, thinking that the roots make a better
growth and are more uniform in size.


HOTBED. A Hotbed is a frame or box which has artificial heat and a
transparent covering and in which plants are grown. It differs from a
coldframe (which see) in the fact that it has artificial bottom heat.
This bottom heat is usually supplied by fermenting organic matter,
chiefly horse manure, but hot air, hot water or steam conveyed in pipes,
may be employed. It is covered with sash of which the normal or standard
size is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long. These sashes are laid crosswise the
box or frame. The standard size of frame is 6 feet wide and 12 feet
long. A “frame,” therefore, accommodates four sashes. However, the frame
may be of any length desired. This frame is ordinarily made of boards,
and the back of it is 3 or 4 inches higher than the front, so that the
sashes slope to the sun. It is customary to have a space of 6 to 10
inches between the earth and the sash on the lower or front side. The
manure which is used to heat the bed may be placed on top of the ground
and the frame set on the pile, or it may be placed in a pit. If the land
is warm and well drained, it is ordinarily better to have a pit from 1
to 2 feet deep and to set the frame over it. This is especially the case
if it is desired to have a permanent Hotbed yard. The place in which the
frames are set should be protected from the cold and prevailing winds by
a rising slope, a high board fence, a building, hedge, or other
obstruction. If the frame yard is near the main buildings, it will be
much more accessible in rainy or snowy times, and the plants are likely
to have better care. Water should also be handy.

[Illustration: Section of a Hotbed]

The time of starting a Hotbed will depend upon the kinds of plants to be
grown, the amount of time which one wishes to gain, and something, also,
on the quality of the manure. The hardier the plant the earlier it can
be started. In the latitude of New York, from the first to the middle of
March is the usual time for starting a Hotbed. In this bed are sown
seeds of early flowers and such vegetables as cabbage, cauliflower,
tomato, etc. In the raising of any plants in the Hotbed, it is very
essential that they do not become “drawn” or “leggy.” In order to
prevent this, they must be given plenty of room, thorough ventilation on
all pleasant days, and not too great heat. It is well to transplant them
once or twice before they are finally set in the field, especially if
they are started, in New York, as early as the first or middle of March.
When they are transplanted, they can be set in another Hotbed or in a
coldframe; but it is important that the succeeding frames in which they
are set should not be very much colder than the one in which they grew,
else they may become stunted. It is well, however, to transplant them
into a gradually cooler and freer atmosphere in order to harden them
off, so that they may go into the open ground without danger. On every
pleasant day, raise the sash at the upper end 1 or 2 inches, or if the
sun shines brightly and the wind does not blow, give even more air; and
eventually strip off the sashes entirely. It is very important that the
plants are not kept too close and grown too soft. It is usually
advisable to sow cabbage, lettuce and other hardy plants in different
frames from tomatoes and other tender things, in order that the proper
requirements may be given to each. At night the Hotbeds (at least early
in the season) will need more protection than the glass sash. It was
formerly the custom to use thick rye-straw mats to cover Hotbeds, but it
is now a common practice to use the straw matting which can be bought of
carpet dealers. This is rolled out on the sashes at night in one or two
thicknesses; and if the weather is sharp, board shutters, the size of
the sash, may be laid on top. As the manure heat begins to fail give
more and more air, so that the plants may be able to shift for
themselves when the bottom heat is finally exhausted.

Fresh horse manure is the material which is commonly used for the
heating of Hotbeds. If it can be secured from livery stables, so that it
is all of nearly or quite the same age, better results may be expected.
Manure from highly fed horses usually heats better than that from horses
which receive little grain, or in which there is very much litter. Put
the manure in a pile, preferably under cover, and as soon as it shows
signs of heating, fork it over in order to mix the entire mass and to
cause it to heat evenly. When it is steaming throughout the whole mass,
it may be put in the bed. Assuming that the Hotbed has a pit beneath it,
it is well to put in 2 or 3 inches of coarse litter in order to keep the
manure off the cold ground. The manure is then put in and tramped down,
in layers of 4 to 6 inches each. If the manure is of the right
consistency, it will pack without becoming dense and soggy; that is, it
will spring a little beneath the feet. If it has too much litter, it
will fluff up under the feet and not pack well. From 18 to 24 or even 30
inches of manure is placed in the pit. On top, an inch of dry straw or
light leaf-mold may be placed to serve as a distributor of the heat to
the earth above. From 3 to 4 inches of rich, light earth is placed upon
this, in which to sow the seed. The manure will ordinarily heat
violently for a few days. Place a soil thermometer in it, and as soon as
the temperature begins to fall below 90° the seeds of tomatoes and
egg-plants may be sown; and when it begins to fall below 80°, the seeds
of cabbages, lettuce and cauliflower may be sown. If the frame is not
placed over a pit and the manure is put on top of the ground, it will be
necessary to allow the body of manure to project 1 or 2 feet in all
directions in order to prevent the edges of the bed from freezing.

In starting plants in a Hotbed, one must not expect to gain as much time
in the crop as he gains in the starting of the seeds: that is, if he
starts the seeds two months ahead of the normal season, he will not gain
two months in the ripening of the crop. Ordinarily, he cannot expect to
gain much more than one-half the time, particularly if the plants are
transplanted to the field from the Hotbed.

Some plants may be grown to maturity in the Hotbed, particularly lettuce
and radishes. After Hotbeds have been emptied of their plants, the
sashes may be stored away, and the frames, with their spent manure, used
for the growing of an early summer crop of melons or cucumbers.


HOUSE PLANTS. See _Window-Garden_.


[Illustration: Hyacinth bean]

HYACINTH BEAN (_Dolichos Lablab_). A very rapid-growing twiner, bearing
fragrant flowers of purple or white. It is a fine screen plant. Plant
seeds when the ground is warm where the plants are to grow; or they may
be started early in pots. Height 10 feet.


HYACINTHS are most popular winter- or spring-flowering bulbs. Hyacinths
are hardy, but they are often used as window or greenhouse plants. They
are easy to grow and very satisfactory. For winter flowering the bulbs
should be procured early in the fall, potted in October in soil composed
of loam, leaf-mold and sand. If ordinary flower pots are used, put in
the bottom a few pieces of broken pots, charcoal or small stones for
drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, so that when the bulb is planted
the top will be on a level with the rim of the pot. Fill in around the
bulb with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing. These pots of
bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or on the shady side of a
building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some cool material (as
cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough to freeze a crust on
the ground, the pots should have a protection of straw or leaves to keep
the bulbs from severe freezing. In from six to eight weeks the bulbs
should have made roots enough to grow the plant, and the pots may be
placed in a cool room for a short time. When the plants have started
into growth, they may be placed in a warmer situation. Watering should
be carefully attended to from this time, and when the plant is in bloom
the pot may be set in a saucer or other shallow dish containing water.
After flowering, the bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water
until the leaves die. They may then be planted out in the border, where
they will bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove
satisfactory for forcing again. The open ground culture of Hyacinths is
the same as for tulips, which see. See _Bulbs_.

_Water Culture of Hyacinths._--The Hyacinth is the most popular of the
Dutch bulbs for growing in vases. The Narcissus may be grown in water,
and do just as well, but it is not as pretty in glasses as the Hyacinth.
Glasses for Hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and
in various shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a
cup-like mouth to receive the bulb. They are filled with water, so that
it will just reach the base of the bulb when it has been placed in
position in the cup above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are
preferable to those of clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the
glasses, or bowls as above mentioned, have been arranged, they are set
away in a cool, dark place to form roots like potted bulbs. Results are
usually secured earlier in water than in soil. To keep the water sweet,
a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the glass. As the water
evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs over, and thereby
renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots by taking out the
bulb.


HYDRANGEA. One of the commonest lawn shrubs is _Hydrangea paniculata_.
The commonest fault in growing it is scattering the plants over the
lawn, where they suffer in the competition with grass roots, and do not
show off to advantage. It is far better to mass them in front of taller
things. The Hydrangea blooms on wood of the season; therefore it should
be pruned after bloom--in winter or early spring (see _Pruning_). Cut
back heavily, in order to secure the strong new shoots upon which the
flowers are borne.


HYSSOP. See _Sweet Herbs_.


ICE PLANT, or MESEMBRYANTHEMUM. Fine little plants for rockwork or
edging. The majority of the species are greenhouse and window plants,
but a few can be recommended for outdoor planting. A very sunny
location, with gravelly soil, will give the best results, either in the
open or in the house. Easily propagated by pieces of the plant laid on
moist sand in a somewhat sunny place. The common Ice Plant of
window-gardens is readily grown from seeds or slips. It is prized for
its glandular-glistening thick foliage (whence the common name). The
little flowers, which open in sunshine, are also interesting.


IMPATIENS SULTANI is a generally known conservatory plant, making a
charming pot subject for warm greenhouse or a room. It is readily
propagated from seed or cuttings, seed being preferable. Flowers bright
pink-red. Of easy culture in a fairly moist atmosphere. Height about 18
inches.


INSECTS. For horticultural purposes, Insects might be grouped into three
general classes: borers, or those which live inside the plant tissue;
chewing Insects which live on the outside of the plant; and the sucking
Insects.

As a general statement, it may be said that the digging out of borers is
the only complete remedy. Sometimes an application of something to the
body of the tree may keep them out, but it is always uncertain; and it
usually involves more work than to dig them out. All trees which are
subject to borers (especially apples, peaches and pears) should be
examined at least twice every year. See _Borers_.

[Illustration: Moth of one of the borers]

[Illustration: A beetle borer]

The general run of chewing or biting Insects may be killed by the
arsenical poisons. Such Insects are the common types of worms and
beetles which feed on foliage. The leading poison which is now used for
this purpose is Paris green (which see). Hellebore and pyrethrum are
useful when it is not advisable to use arsenical poisons.

The sucking Insects include all the kinds of plant lice, the squash bug
and all the scale Insects. These are dispatched by some material which
kills by external application, especially material which has kerosene or
petroleum in it. The common material heretofore used for this purpose is
kerosene and soap emulsion; but it is now believed that the emulsion of
kerosene and water is fully as efficient, and since machines have been
perfected for automatically mixing it, it is a much more practicable
remedy. See _Kerosene Emulsion_.

[Illustration: Weevil--a chewing insect]

In the fighting of all Insects, success depends upon taking them in
time. If something is known of the life history of the Insect, very much
will be gained, for the operator may be on hand as soon as the Insect is
expected to appear.

_Insects on House Plants._--The most troublesome or common Insects with
which the amateur is likely to meet in the window-garden or conservatory
are the red spider, mite, mealy bug, aphis, and scale.

The red spider is a very minute Insect with a reddish body. Its presence
may be suspected whenever plants are growing in a warm and dry place.
Usually it first appears on the under side of leaves, but it multiplies
rapidly, and will soon not be so choice of position. It sucks the juices
of the leaves, and they soon indicate the injury by a dull appearance,
and also, in many cases, by small whitish or paler areas on the upper
surfaces. The mite is of similar habits and size, but is of a pale
color, with black on its back. It appears under the same conditions as
the red spider. These pests are small, but are very serious if allowed
to multiply unchecked. They should be looked after as soon as their
presence is detected.

The remedy is to arrange for keeping the air about the plants more
moist, and giving drenchings of the foliage with clear or soapy water.
The latter is most effective. The soap used may be simply the common
washing soap, or that sold at drug stores known as whale-oil soap. In
fighting them, care must be used not to keep the soil soaked with water,
or it will check the plants in vigor and only add to the strength of the
enemy. Even florists sometimes get into just such a predicament.
Flagging and extreme variations in dryness and humidity of the air,
checking the vigor of plants, favor the appearance and presence of the
red spider quite as much as extreme and continued dryness of the air.

The aphids or plant lice are readily discernable when they appear on
plants, as they are sure to do under nearly all conditions. They are
small, have elongated, succulent bodies, move about slowly and
awkwardly, on rather long, hairlike legs, and are most commonly of a
pale green color, though often brown or reddish, and sometimes of other
shades. Fumigation of the plants in a closed box with burning tobacco
stems will kill them. Latterly florists evaporate a liquid extract of
tobacco (which is sold by dealers in florists’ supplies) by dropping a
hot iron into a pan of it. A tea made by soaking tobacco stems in water
for a few hours, and applied with a syringe, is effective, and a safe
remedy in inexperienced hands. A tablespoonful of tobacco sheep-dip, or
extract of tobacco, to a couple of gallons of water, also makes an
effective syringing or dipping solution. As mentioned above, we should
use care, especially in the winter time, when the soil often dries out
slowly, to avoid soaking it when already wet or sufficiently moist.

[Illustration: One of the kind which sucks its food]

Mealy bug has a small, flat, tortoise-shaped body, from about
one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch long. The Insects collect in
masses in the axils of the leaves. They are covered with a white mealy
or cottony substance, and are readily recognized, although persons
unfamiliar with their appearance have sometimes mistaken them for bits
of down or cotton lodged upon the foliage or in the axils of the leaves.
The young are small, and likely to escape observation unless one looks
closely. They are flat, of a creamy or pinkish tint, and lie close to
the surface of the leaves, especially on the under surface. Coleus and
bouvardias are among the plants upon which mealy bugs are most often
found. Owing to the oily nature of their covering, it is difficult to
wet their bodies with any ordinary liquid that may be applied for the
purpose of destroying them. Fir-tree oil is one of the most effective
remedies for them. This liquid is rather expensive, but for a small
collection a gallon can will last for a long time. It is also effective
against other Insects. For mealy bugs, two tablespoonfuls of the oil to
one pint of water will make an effective dipping or spraying solution.
Soft or rain-water should be used, and tin, wooden, or earthenware
vessels. Galvanized iron vessels are to be avoided. Apply forcibly with
a syringe or atomizer, preferably in the evening. If effective, the
mealy bug will turn buff-color. For other Insects, except for the scale,
mentioned below, the solution will not need to be more than half or a
fourth so strong. Where there are only a few mealy bugs, the plant may
be gone over with a soft brush and the Insects crushed.

[Illustration: The codlin-moth]

Scales are most commonly of a brown or whitish color, flat or
tortoise-shaped, and easily seen. They adhere closely by the under
surface of their bodies to the stems, branches, and foliage of woody
plants. The mature Insect is stationary, and its body at length becomes
a shell containing hundreds of eggs. These hatch, and the young emerge
from the shell, crawl about and settle, to develop into the familiar
form. A strong solution of fir-tree oil, like that used for mealy bugs,
is a good remedy. A strong solution of whale-oil soap, made by adding an
ounce or more of the soap to three gallons of water, even more if
necessary, is also useful in combating them. After dipping or syringing
the plants they may be allowed to stand over night, when they should be
rinsed off with clear water. Applications may need repeating every three
or four days until the Insects are gotten rid of. It is difficult, for a
time, to tell when they are dead. If killed, the bodies will fall off
easily, and in the case of the soft-shelled species shrivel up somewhat
after a time. Kerosene and water emulsion (see _Kerosene_) will kill
them.


INSECTICIDE. A substance which will kill insects. Insecticides are of
two general classes--those that kill by contact (see _Kerosene_), and
those that poison the insect (see _Paris Green_ and _Hellebore_).


IRIS. Many handsome perennials, of which the Blue Flag is familiar to
every old-fashioned garden. Most Irises thrive best in a rather moist
soil, and some of them may be colonized in the water in margins of
ponds. Gardeners usually divide them into two sections--the
tuberous-rooted or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division--the
fibrous-rooted--is sometimes made. The common and most serviceable
species belong to the tuberous-rooted section. Here belongs the
beautiful and varied Japanese Iris, _Iris lævigata_ (or _I. Kæmpferi_),
which is among the most deserving of all hardy perennials. Most of these
Irises need no special care. They are propagated by division of the
rootstocks. Plant the pieces 1 foot apart if a mass effect is desired.
When the plants begin to fail, dig them up, divide the roots, discard
the old parts and grow a new stock, as before. _I. Susiana_, of this
section, is one of the oddest of Irises, but it is not quite hardy in
the North. Of the bulbous section, most species are not hardy in the
North. The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every two or three
years. The Persian and Spanish Irises belong here. The bulbs give rise
to but a single stem.


KALE. A low-growing, spreading plant belonging to the cabbage family and
extensively used for winter and spring greens. The same culture as given
to late cabbage is suitable. At the approach of severe freezing weather
a slight protection is given in the North. The leaves remain green
through the winter and may be gathered from under the snow at a time
when material for greens is scarce. Some of the Kales are very
ornamental because of their blue and purple curled foliage. The Scotch
Curled is the most popular variety. Kales are extensively grown at
Norfolk, Va., and southward, and shipped north in winter. Let the plants
stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage plants are sometimes used as
Kale. See _Collards_. Borecole is a kind of Kale. Sea Kale is a wholly
different vegetable (which see).


KEROSENE is fatal to insects. It is likely to injure plants if applied
full strength, although if applied in full sunlight (so that evaporation
takes place rapidly) it may do no harm. It is safest to apply it in
dilution. Of late, there are pumps which mix or emulsify Kerosene and
water in definite proportions, and this mixture (in the proportion of
⅕ or ¼ Kerosene) is fatal to insects and usually harmless to plants.
The standard Kerosene emulsion is with soap, but the perfection of
mechanical devices for emulsifying it with water is probably destined to
supplant the soap emulsion.

_Kerosene Emulsion._--Hard soap, ½ pound; boiling soft water, 1
gallon; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the
Kerosene, and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 10 to 25
times before applying. Use strong emulsion, diluted four times in
winter, for all scale insects. For insects which suck, as plant-lice,
mealy bugs, red spider, thrips, bark-lice or scale. Cabbage-worms,
currant-worms, and all insects which have soft bodies can also be
successfully treated.


KOHLRABI. This vegetable looks like a leafy turnip growing above ground.
If used when small (2 to 3 inches in diam.), and not allowed to become
hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It should be more generally
grown. The culture is very simple. A succession of sowings should be
made from early spring until the middle of summer, in drills 18 inches
to 2 feet apart, thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in the rows.
It matures as quickly as turnips. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of
drill.


[Illustration: Lantana]

LANTANA is a popular greenhouse pot-plant, and is occasionally seen in
window-gardens, being grown for the profusion of its orange-red,
heliotrope-shaped flowers. In the South, and sometimes in the North, it
is planted out for the summer. It is very easy to grow, and also to
propagate by means of cuttings. Although the flowers of the common
species are ill-scented, the profusion of bloom makes it desirable.


LARKSPUR. DELPHINIUM. The Larkspurs are among the very best hardy
plants, being free-flowering and having a good habit. They should be in
every mixed border, particularly the perennial kinds. The tall
flower-spikes, showing above the cut foliage, give the plant a striking
effect. The flowers are in shades of blue in most varieties. The plants
are propagated by division of root or from seed. The latter method will
give good results, although the resulting plants are not likely to be
the same variety as the seed plant.

As winter approaches, a covering of coarse litter should be thrown over
the crowns of the perennial kinds. The plants will come into bloom in
late June and continue for a long season. Plants should be set 3 to 5
feet apart if in rows, but they are seen to better advantage when mixed
with other border plants. Height of plants from 3 to 5 feet.

The annual Larkspur may be grown from seed sown in heat and transplanted
to the ground in May; or seed may be sown where the plants are wanted
and the seedlings thinned to 1 foot. These seedlings will bloom in June,
and continue through the summer. Plants grow from 8 to 18 inches high.


LATHYRUS. See _Pea, Everlasting_; also, _Sweet Pea_.


LAWNS. In order to have a good Lawn, two things are essential: first, a
pleasing surface or contour; second, a dense, firm sod.

Inasmuch as the Lawn is, or should be, a permanent thing, it is
necessary that the greatest care be exercised to grade the land and to
thoroughly prepare it before any seeds are sown. About a new building
the filling should be allowed to settle, so that the finished surface
will slope gradually away from the foundations and the steps. If the
land is very hard clay, or if the place is rather low, it is always well
to lay tile under-drains at frequent intervals. Everything should be
done to cause the land to be deep and loose, so that the grass roots
will run far into the soil and not be pressed for lack of moisture in a
dry time. If the land has not had applications of manure in recent
years, it is well to plow in, or to spade in, a liberal quantity of
well-rotted litter from the barnyard. Work this into the soil as deeply
as possible. If the hardpan is rather high, it is well to subsoil the
area or to trench it (that is, to spade it up two or three spades deep).
If the land is apparently not fertile in plant-food, it is well to add a
dressing of some commercial fertilizer to the surface when the grass
seed is sown. This will start the grass quickly and allow it to get a
foothold before the severe weather of midsummer comes.

[Illustration: It is fun to make a garden]

[Illustration: A garden corner]

The kind of grass seed to sow will depend upon the region and also upon
the personal tastes of the owner. The one standard Lawn grass is June
grass or blue grass (_Poa pratensis_). The seeds of this grass are sold
in the hulls, and therefore the bushel weighs only fourteen pounds. Not
less than two and one-half to three bushels should be sown to the acre.
In the southern states, June grass will not hold, and Bermuda grass is
used, being sown about as thick as recommended for the June grass. There
are various prepared Lawn grass mixtures which are excellent, but the
June grass alone will give a very excellent Lawn in a short time.
Whether one shall sow white clover in his Lawn depends mostly upon his
personal taste. If he likes the white clover, it is well to put in a
quart or two of seed to the acre, sowing it separately from the June
grass in order to get an even distribution. Some persons like to see the
white clover in certain parts of the Lawn. It thrives very well where
the land is rather moist. In parts of the East, Rhode Island bent grass
is used for lawns.

[Illustration: A nursery]

The grass seed should be sown in the cool of the year. It may be sown in
September and thereby become established before winter; or it may be
sown very early in the spring. In newly made Lawns, it is a good plan to
grade the area thoroughly in the fall, allowing it to settle in the
winter; and then, if the surface remains even, to sow the grass seed on
one of the latest snows in spring. By sowing it on the snow, one can see
that it is distributed evenly; and when the snow melts, the seed is
carried into the land and does not need covering. It is well to sow
three or four quarts per acre of timothy seed, for the timothy
germinates very quickly, and makes a green area the first season, but is
killed out as soon as the June grass gains a foothold. Timothy will not
stand the continued cutting, whereas the June grass will. The timothy,
therefore, serves as a temporary covering to the land, indicating where
the borders are, and thereby outlining the area for the Lawn mower to
cut. The timothy seed should be sown separately from the June grass in
order to insure even distribution. On hard lands it is well to sow two
or three quarts per acre of crimson clover seed. The long roots of this
plant tend to improve the physical condition of the soil; and when they
decay, they leave nitrogen in the soil for the grass to use. Since
crimson clover is an annual plant, it will not do any permanent mischief
in the Lawn.

[Illustration: A lawn, with planting on the sides]

The first season the weeds will probably come up thickly, especially if
the land is rich. These weeds should not be pulled, for whenever one is
pulled out of the ground, many grass plants are rooted up and the
surface is made uneven. The only way in which to keep down weeds is to
mow them frequently with a Lawn mower. They will not appear in any great
numbers the second year, unless there should be some perennial weeds,
like dandelion or dock; and these may be pulled out the first fall or
the following spring.

It is rare that one secures a perfectly good and uniform sod from one
sowing of seed; especially is this true if the soil varies in different
parts of the area. If the surface contour is satisfactory, it is unwise
to dig up the areas on which the seed has not caught. It is best to rake
them over with a steel rake in fall or spring, sowing on a little
commercial fertilizer rather rich in nitrogen, and sow more seed. Nearly
every Lawn will need patching in this way from year to year. If the Lawn
is attended to in fall and spring by sowing grass seed, the weeds will
rarely do serious mischief. When weeds are troublesome on the Lawn, it
means that there is not sufficient grass, and every effort should be
made to get more grass. Therefore, when the perennial weeds are pulled
out, sow more grass seed.

[Illustration: A picturesque rill on the lawn]

When narrow-leaved plantain bothers, it is an indication that the land
is too poor and dry for grass. In such cases, the land usually lacks
humus or vegetable matter; and in various severe incursions of the
plantain, it may be necessary to spade up the weedy areas and to work
rotted manure into the soil. Usually, however, the plantain can be
killed out by enriching the soil and sowing more grass seed. The common
practice of sprinkling Lawns is nearly always pernicious, since the
water is not supplied in sufficient amount to wet down very far, and the
grass tends to make surface roots. When the watering is omitted the
plants suffer. The more a Lawn is sprinkled, the more the grass depends
upon the sprinkling. If it is necessary to water the Lawn, the water
should be allowed to run directly from the hose until the surface area
is completely soaked. It is best to do this at nightfall. When the water
is applied by means of a sprinkler, a large part of it evaporates and
does no good to the ground. The fundamental treatment of the Lawn is to
have the land so deep and porous that the grass roots strike deep into
the soil and do not need the surface water. A Lawn which is well made
will need watering only in unusually dry times.

Mow the Lawn frequently when it is growing rapidly,--in spring and early
summer. In the fall mow less frequently, and let it go into the winter
with a long coat of grass. If the Lawn is mown as often as is needed, it
will not be necessary to rake off the trimmings. In fall, top-dress the
Lawn with commercial fertilizer at the rate of 500 pounds to the acre.
If the Lawn has not been raked clean of all the trimmings and decayed
refuse which covers the surface of the ground, it is not necessary to
dress it with stable manure; for manure is unsightly, unsavory, and
often brings in weeds. Many persons make the mistake of raking the Lawn
clean in late fall.

Closely associated with the making of the Lawn is the general
arrangement of the planting. It is the common fault to scatter the
planting. Much better effects are secured by massing or grouping the
planting. See _Borders_ and _Flower Beds_. Particularly along the
boundaries and about the foundations of buildings, the shrubbery and
other plants may be massed to excellent effect. In large places there
should be more or less mass planting along the walks and drives. In the
curves and retreats of these plantings one will find many pleasant
corners; and here the children may have their play-houses and their
pets. A little brook winding across a corner or along one side of a Lawn
may make a pleasant picture if it is allowed to take on a half-wild
character.


[Illustration: A layer]

LAYERS are parts (usually stems) of plants laid down on the earth while
still attached to the parent, with the expectation that they will take
root and can then be separated as independent plants. All vine-like
plants can be propagated readily by means of Layers; so can most
soft-wooded plants, as willows, maples, currants, etc. It is usual to
put down the branches in the fall. In a year they should be ready to be
severed from the parent. They may also be made in spring, before growth
starts. See that the layered part rests in moist earth. Usually roots
arise more freely if the shoot is cracked or notched at the buried
point. The Layer may be held down by a forked stick (“pegged down”), or
by a stone or clod. See that the shoot does not throw up suckers behind
the layered part.

[Illustration: Several layers from one vine]


LEEK. This belongs to the onion family, and is used mostly as flavoring
for soups. Well grown Leeks have a very agreeable and not very strong
onion flavor. Leek is of the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a
second crop, to follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The
seed should be sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and the
seedlings planted out in the garden in July, in rows 2 feet apart, the
plants being 6 inches apart in the rows. The plants should be set deep
if the neck or lower part of the leaves is to be used in a blanched
condition. The soil may be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to
further the blanching. Being very hardy, the plants may be dug in late
fall, and stored in the same manner as celery, in trenches or in a cool
root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 feet of drill.


LETTUCE is probably the most extensively grown salad vegetable. It is
now in demand, and is procurable, every month in the year. The winter
and early spring crops are grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a
supply from the garden may be had from April to November, by the use of
a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, relying on a
succession of sowings for the intermediate supply. Seed for the first
crop may be sown in a coldframe in March, growing the crop thick and
having many plants which are small and tender; or, by thinning out to
the distance of 3 inches and allowing the plants to make a larger
growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the open ground for the next
crop. Sowings should be made in the garden from April to October, at
short intervals. A moist location should be selected for the July and
August sowings. The early and late sowings should be of some
loose-growing variety, as they are in edible condition sooner than the
cabbage or heading varieties.

[Illustration: Plant of heading lettuce]

The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing kinds for
salads. To be grown to perfection, they should have very rich soil,
frequent cultivation and an occasional stimulant, such as liquid manure
or nitrate of soda. The Cos Lettuce is an upright-growing type much
esteemed in Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the full grown
plants are tied together, thus blanching the center, making it a
desirable salad or garnishing variety. It thrives best in summer. One
ounce of seed will grow 3,000 plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In the
garden, plants may stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows may be
as close together as the system of tillage will allow.


LILY. Bulbous plants of many kinds. It has been said of this family of
plants that it has no “poor relations,” each of them being perfect in
itself. Many of the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, although
easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the Lilies may be grown with
comparative ease. A light, rich, well-drained soil, mellow to the depth
of at least 1 foot, a handful of sand under each bulb if the soil is
inclined to be stiff, and planting so that the crown of the bulb will be
at least 4 inches below the surface, are the general requirements. One
exception to the depth of planting is _Lilium auratum_, or Golden-Banded
Lily. This should be planted deeper--at least 8 inches below the
surface--as the new bulbs form over the old one and soon bring the bulbs
to the surface if they are not planted deep.

While Lilies may have partial shade, they should never be planted near
or under trees. The shade or protection of tall-growing, herbaceous
plants is sufficient. In fact, the best results, both as to growth and
effect, may be had by planting amongst low shrubbery or border plants.
Most kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number of
years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or moved to other
quarters, they should not be allowed to become dry. The small bulbs, or
offsets, may be planted in the border, and if protected will grow to
flowering size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for division it
is best to do so soon after the tops die after blooming. At least this
should be done early in the fall, not later than October, giving the
plants a chance to become established before freezing weather. A mulch
of coarse litter or evergreen boughs should be placed over the bulbs
after the ground has become frozen, to be gradually removed as the
spring advances.

[Illustration: Easter Lily]

As pot-plants some Lilies are very satisfactory, especially those that
may be forced into bloom through the winter. The best kinds for this
purpose are _L. Harrisii_ (Easter Lily), _L. longiflorum_, and _L.
candidum_. Others may be forced with success, but these are the ones
most generally used. The winter culture of these for forcing is the
same as for Hyacinths (in pots), which see. The article on _Bulbs_ gives
directions for both outdoor and indoor growing which are directly
applicable to Lilies.


LILY, CHINESE SACRED. See _Narcissus_.


LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. A perfectly hardy little plant, bearing racemes of
small white bell-shaped flowers in early spring. For ordinary
cultivation, sods or mats of roots may be dug from any place in which
the plant is colonized. Usually it thrives best in partial shade; and
the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side of a building, or
other shady place, in which grass will not grow. The plants will take
care of themselves year after year.

For forcing indoors, imported roots or “pips” are used, as the plants
are grown for this particular purpose in parts of Europe. These roots
may be planted in pots, and treated as recommended for winter-flowering
bulbs, under _Bulbs_. Florists force them in greater heat, however,
often giving them a bottom heat of 80° or 90°; but skill and experience
are required in order to attain uniformly good results in this case.


LINE. A garden Line is one of the most convenient things connected with
garden operations. It is always wanted when long rows of seed are to be
sown, and it is also necessary in laying out walks or drives. A very
simple, yet handy, holder for a line is shown on the margin. The pin is
driven in the soil at the starting point, and the line is unwound as the
operator walks towards the end of the row. A line should be 100 feet
long for common garden operations.

[Illustration: A garden Line]


LOBELIA. Some of these are well-known garden plants, being used very
freely as edging for ribbon beds or basket plants. They require a loose,
rich soil, and some stimulant when in full flower. The flowers continue
through a long season. They propagate freely from seed. _Lobelia
Erinus_, in blue, 6 inches high, is one of the most popular of all
annual edging plants. In Europe various perennial Lobelias are popular,
but they are seldom seen in American gardens.


LONDON PURPLE. Discussed under _Paris Green_.


LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. See _Amarantus_.


MANURE adds plant-food to the soil, and it also improves the texture or
physical condition of the soil. This latter effect is often its greatest
value. If one wants mere plant-food alone, he may often do better to add
it in some more concentrated form. See _Fertilizers_. Manure, when
thoroughly incorporated with the soil, makes the ground congenial for
the plant. It is important, in garden operations, that the Manure be
rotted or composted, or “short” or “fine,” as the gardeners say. It then
incorporates readily with the soil and quickly gives up its fertility.
Manure is composted by letting it decay in piles. The compost pile
should be flat on top, so that it will catch the rains, and 3 to 5 feet
high.

The most desirable Manure for the garden and for house plants is
probably old cow Manure. It does not burn or lose its strength. It may
be kept for a number of years if piled under shelter, becoming more
available each year. It mixes well with soil and leaf-mold. When once
rotted, this manure is very lasting and easily assimilated by plants.
Horse Manure is very likely to become overheated, and to lose its value;
and it is too loose and dry for many purposes. Pig Manure, unless well
composted with soil or refuse, is usually too heavy and rich. Sheep
Manure is at its best when used in a liquid form, although it is most
excellent to mix with soil to loosen it.

All garden refuse, such as vines, leaves, decaying vegetables, will make
Manure if composted with soil; and if the wash water is thrown on the
compost pile much fertility will be added. Wood ashes from stoves, the
chip dirt from the woodshed--in fact, almost any substance that will
decay--will furnish plant-food, and should be added to the compost pile.
This pile should be turned often, to mix the material.

When practicable, it is best to apply Manure in the fall, as it then has
time to become incorporated with the soil before spring. Beds which are
to be used for flowers next year may be dressed with Manure in the fall
and deeply spaded, leaving the surface rough and loose. It is well to be
careful that the Manure does not contain weed seeds.


MARIGOLD. The Marigolds of the old-fashioned gardens are still among the
best of plants for fall color. They are hardy annuals of the easiest
culture, and are always certain of giving strong and excellent results.
They have been much improved of late years. The old-fashioned African
Marigolds grow 2 to 3 feet high, and they are useful for scattering in
mixed borders or making large masses or displays of color in the remoter
parts of the place. The French or dwarf Marigolds grow about 1 foot high
and are more tufty in their habit. They are better adapted for edgings
than for mass effects in the main parts of the grounds. All Marigolds
may be sown where the plants are to stand, since the flowers are usually
not wanted until late summer or early fall, at which time they usually
give their best bloom. If they are wanted earlier, however, the seeds
may be started in the house or hotbed. Tall varieties may be allowed to
stand from 10 to 18 inches apart and the dwarfs at somewhat less
distances.


MATTHIOLA will be found under _Stocks_.


MIGNONETTE. Probably no flower is more generally grown for its fragrance
than this. The Mignonette needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade
part of the day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks
before the seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed
by a second sowing in early July, the season may be extended until
severe frosts. There are few flowers that will prove as disappointing if
the treatment it needs is omitted. Height 1 to 2 feet. Treated as a
half-hardy annual. It can be sown in pots late in summer and had in the
house in winter.


MOON-FLOWERS are species of Morning-Glories that open their flowers at
night. A well-grown plant trained over a porch trellis, or allowed to
grow at random over a low tree or shrub, is a striking object when in
full flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the southern states
the Moon-Flower is a perennial, but even when well protected does not
survive the winters in the North. Cuttings may be made before danger of
frost and wintered in the house, or the plants may be grown from seed
sown in January or February. Cuttings usually give best results in the
northern states, as the seasons are not long enough for seed plants to
give good bloom. Seeds should be scalded or filed just before sowing.
The true Moon-Flower is _Ipomœa Bona-Nox_, white-flowered; but there
are other kinds. This grows 20 to 30 feet where the seasons are long
enough.


[Illustration: Morning-Glories]

MORNING-GLORY is perhaps the most popular of all twining herbs, because
of the ease with which it may be grown, the quickness with which it
covers the object, and the quantities of bright, cheerful flowers it
bears. Many of the kinds--in fact all that are generally known--may be
readily grown from seed, flowering early in the summer. Tender annuals.
Give rich soil and plenty of water. The beautiful cypress vine belongs
to this group. It requires the same treatment as the Morning-Glory, but
the seeds should be scalded just previous to sowing.

Dwarf Morning-Glories (_Convolvulus tricolor_). They come into flower
much sooner than the tall climbing varieties, and are covered with
flowers through a long season. They may be used with fine effect in
vases or large hanging baskets. Give a full sunny exposure. May thrive
on soil that is not very rich. They grow 1 foot high. Half-hardy
annuals.


MULBERRY. Both for fruit and ornament the Mulberry should be more
generally planted. Even if the fruit is not to the taste, the tree is
naturally open-centered and round-headed, and is an interesting subject;
some of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are in great
demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the strawberry beds
and cherry trees are free from robins and other fruit-eating birds. For
this reason alone they are a valuable tree for the fruit-grower. Trees
may be purchased cheaper than one can propagate them.

If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet apart. About the
borders of a place they can go closer. The Russian varieties are often
planted for windbreaks, for they are very hardy and thrive under the
greatest neglect; and for this purpose they may be planted 8 to 20 feet
apart. The Russians make excellent screens. They stand clipping well.
New American, Trowbridge and Thorburn are leading kinds of fruit-bearing
Mulberries for the North. The true Downing is not hardy in the northern
states; but New American is often sold under this name. Mulberries
thrive in any good soil, and need no special treatment.


MULCH is used both in protecting plants from the severe freezing of
winter and the severe drought of summer. The same material may be used
in either case, although it is now considered best to make an earth
Mulch to prevent evaporation and retain the moisture through the dry
season. This earth Mulch is made by breaking the crust of the soil and
leaving it in fine particles. This may be done with a horse cultivator,
a hoe or a rake. In fact, any tool which leaves the top of the soil
loose will be instrumental in preventing evaporation of soil water. See
_Tillage_. The Mulching of the ground around blackberries, currants,
gooseberries, or raspberries with straw or hay is often practiced to
keep the fruits clean; and the winter Mulch of strawberry beds is used
between the rows for the same purpose, as well as to retain moisture and
to afford winter protection. Winter Mulch usually consists of leaves,
straw, hay, rough manure, boughs of evergreens, or any coarse material
that will protect the plants from severe freezing and the heaving caused
by alternate freezing and thawing. This winter Mulch should be removed
as spring advances, unless it is of such a character as to be worked
into the soil to add fertility or to loosen heavy lands. Near the
seacoast salt hay is considered to be an ideal Mulch. The winter Mulch
must not contain too strong or heavy manures, or plants may be injured
by the leaching. For flower borders and shrubbery, muck or peat makes a
good winter Mulch. Ordinarily the Mulch may be placed on to the depth of
4 to 6 inches, and if it is of loose material it may be still deeper. If
dry and loose, mice may nest in it and girdle the trees or bushes. Even
perfectly hardy plants are benefited by a winter Mulch, because it
improves the soil. Autumn leaves, as they drift into shrubberies, make
an ideal Mulch; it is not always necessary to remove these leaves. See
_Lawn_.


MUSHROOM. There is no science of Mushroom growing. Certain conditions
have been found to give success, but it is not known why. These
conditions may be imitated ever so closely and complete failure result.
There are many “systems” advised, each system the result of somebody’s
success; but one cannot be sure of success by following any one of them.
Good results are frequently attained when all rules are broken. The
following paragraphs are from “Farmers’ Bulletin,” No. 53 (by William
Falconer), of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 1897):

Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September till April or
May--that is, the work of preparing the manure begins in September and
ends in February, and the packing of the crop begins in October or
November and ends in May. Under extraordinary conditions the season may
begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may continue all summer.

Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, and also indoors
where there is a dry bottom in which to set the beds, where a uniform
and moderate temperature can be maintained, and where the beds can be
protected from wet overhead, and from winds, drought, and direct
sunshine. Among the most desirable places in which to grow Mushrooms are
barns, cellars, closed tunnels, sheds, pits, greenhouses, and regular
Mushroom houses. Total darkness is not imperative, for Mushrooms grow
well in open light if shaded from sunshine. The temperature and moisture
are more apt to be equable in dark places than in open, light ones, and
it is largely for this reason that Mushroom houses are kept dark.

[Illustration: Mushroom]

The best fertilizer for Mushrooms, so far as the writer’s experience
goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot of this material (short
and strawy) that has been well trampled and wetted in the stable. Throw
it into a heap, wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. When
it begins to steam turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thoroughly
and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it stand till
it again gets quite warm, then turn, shake, trample as before, and add
water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat this turning, moistening and
trampling as often as it is needful to keep the manure from “burning.”
If it gets intensely hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw
it together. After being turned in this way several times, and the heat
in it is not apt to rise above 130° F., it should be ready to make up in
the beds. By adding to the manure at the second or third turning
one-fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of loam, the tendency to intense
heating is lessened and its usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers
prefer short manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while
others like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer’s
experience, however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters little
which is used.

Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, they are
faced with 10-inch-wide hemlock boards, and are only the depth of this
board. In such beds put a layer of fresh, moist, hot manure, and trample
it down firm until it constitutes half the depth of the bed; then fill
up with the prepared manure, which should be rather cool (100° to 115°
F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds can be made up
entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are usually 9 inches deep;
that is, the shelf is bottomed with 1-inch boards and faced with
10-inch-wide boards. This allows about 8 inches for manure, and 1 inch
rising to 2 inches of loam on top. In filling the shelf beds the bottom
half may be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot manure, packed down solid,
and the top half of rather cool prepared manure, or it may be made up of
all prepared manure. As the shelf beds can not be trodden and can not be
beaten very firm with the back of the fork, a brick is used in addition
to the fork.

The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has fallen below 100°
F. The writer considers 90° F. about the best temperature for spawning.
If the beds have been covered with hay, straw, litter or mats, these
should be removed. Break each brick into twelve or fifteen pieces. The
rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 6 inches from the
edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches apart in the row. Commencing
with the first row, lift up each piece, raise 2 to 3 inches of the
manure with the hand, and into this hole place the piece, covering over
tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is spawned pack the surface
all over. It is well to cover the beds again with straw, hay or mats, to
keep the surface equally moist. The flake spawn is planted in the same
way as the brick spawn, only not quite so deep.

At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be removed and the
beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 inches thick, so that the
Mushrooms can come up in and through it. This gives them a firm hold,
and to a large extent improves their quality and texture. Any fair loam
will do. That from an ordinary field, wayside or garden is generally
used, and it answers admirably. There exists an idea that garden soil
surfeited with old manure is unfit for Mushroom beds because it is apt
to produce spurious fungi. This, however, is not the case. In fact, it
is the earth most commonly used. For molding the beds the loam should be
rather fine, free and mellow, so that it can be easily and evenly spread
and compacted firmly into the manure.

If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55° to 60° F. can be
maintained, and the house or cellar containing the Mushroom beds is kept
close and free from drafts, the beds may be left uncovered, and should
be watered if they become dry. But no matter where the beds are
situated, it is well to lay some loose hay or straw or some old matting
or carpet over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, should be
removed just as soon as the young Mushrooms begin to appear above
ground. If the atmosphere is dry, the pathways and walls should be
sprinkled with water. The mulching should also be sprinkled, but not
enough to cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if the bed
should get dry, do not hesitate to water it.


MUSKMELON. The natural soil for melons is a light, sandy loam, well
enriched with rotted manure, although good crops may be grown on soil
naturally heavy if the hills are prepared as they should be. When only
heavy soil is available, the dirt where the seeds are to be planted
should be thoroughly pulverized and mixed with fine, well rotted manure.
A sprinkling of leaf-mold or chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this
hill from ten to fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five
vines when danger of insects is over. The season may be advanced and the
damage from insects lessened by starting the plants in hotbeds. This may
be done by using fresh sod, cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them
grass-side down in the hotbed, sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece,
and covering with 2 inches of light soil. When all danger of frost is
over, and the ground has become warm, these sods may be carefully lifted
and set in the prepared hills. The plants usually grow without check,
and fruit from two to four weeks ahead of those from seed planted
directly in the hill. Old quart berry boxes are excellent to plant seeds
in, as, when they are set in the ground, they very quickly decay,
causing no restriction to the roots. Netted Gem, Hackensack, Emerald
Gem, Montreal, Osage, and the Nutmeg Melon are popular varieties. One
ounce of seed will plant about fifty hills.

[Illustration: Muskmelon]

For insects, see _Cucumber_.


MUSK PLANT is an old-fashioned house plant of easy culture. Raise a new
stock from seeds as soon as the plants begin to fail.


NARCISSUS. Hardy bulbous plants, including the daffodils, jonquils, and
other forms. The ease with which these plants may be grown, the beauty
and fragrance of the flowers, as well as their lasting qualities when
cut, would seem to make their culture in this country more popular than
it is. Good bulbs planted in September or October are sure to bloom in
April or May. The bulbs may remain in the ground for a number of years,
although the best results will be had by digging them up every three
years, and resetting in a different location. Select a moist, loamy
soil, slightly protected from the sun. No manure should come directly in
contact with the bulb, but if needed to hold moisture the manure may be
spaded down to the depth of twelve inches.

[Illustration: Narcissus]

Narcissus may be forced into flower through the winter, as described
under _Bulbs_. The most popular for winter bloom is the “Chinese Sacred
Lily.” This grows in water without any soil whatever. Secure a bowl or
glass dish, about three times the size of the bulb; put some pretty
stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up around it with stones
so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown; tuck two or three
small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep the water sweet, then
fill up the dish with water and add a little every few days, as it
evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In about six weeks the
fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with perfume.


[Illustration: Nasturtium]

NASTURTIUMS (_Tropæolums_) are both dwarf and climbing. The Dwarf
Nasturtiums make one of the most showy second-row plants for the border.
The colors of the flowers have a wide range and the plants bloom
profusely. It is not, however, the plant in flower that is the greatest
consideration, but the flowers themselves as cut-flowers. No flower
makes a finer display in vase or bowl than these rich colors, all
harmonizing well and lighting up a room as very few of the common easily
grown flowers do. The same may be said of the tall-growing Nasturtiums,
although the flowers of these form part of their effectiveness as screen
vines. Few climbers make a more rapid growth, and none are better
adapted to hide unsightly objects in our yards or gardens.

[Illustration: Dwarf Nasturtium]

For a long season of flowers and a large growth of vine the seed should
be sown late in March or early in April, in boxes or pots, the plants
carried along until the first of May, and planted out where wanted. The
dwarf varieties bloom more freely and the flowers are of better color in
rather poor soils, while for rapid growth of vine a well enriched border
would be the best. The dwarf varieties may be planted 2 or 3 feet apart,
and the tall ones as wanted to make a screen. The tall kinds grow 5 to 8
feet. All Nasturtiums are tender.


NICOTIANA. Tender annuals (or grown as annuals). They are fine plants
for borders or pots, the tall-growing varieties making a very fine show
when in flower, having pure white flowers with long, tubular necks, the
season of bloom being from July to October. The seeds are very fine, and
should be sown on the surface of the soil, in boxes or pots. When
planted out they should be set from 2 to 5 feet apart, according to
kind. Some of the giant Nicotianas are excellent subjects for temporary
screens; so is tobacco, which is also a Nicotiana.

[Illustration: Nicotiana affinis]

_Nicotiana affinis_ is one of the best of all garden flowers. Its long
white flowers are fragrant at evening. They close in the hot sun. It is
a half-hardy annual of easiest culture. Height 2 to 3 feet.


ŒNOTHERA. EVENING PRIMROSE. A very interesting group of plants,
opening their flowers at evening. Many of them are fragrant and attract
night insects, especially the large moths, seldom seen until dusk. The
opening of the flowers of the large-flowering varieties is a source of
pleasure and surprise, as one flower follows another in opening, and in
a large plant the late opening flowers seem to burst all at one time.
The perennial species may be propagated by division or seed, the
annuals by seed. Set the tall kinds 2 to 3 feet apart. Height 1 to 3
feet. All of easy culture.


[Illustration: Okra or Gumbo]

OKRA. From the green pods of this vegetable is made the well-known Gumbo
soup of the South, where the plant is more extensively grown than in the
North. The pods are also used in their green state for stews, and are
dried and used in winter, when they are nutritious, and form no little
part of the diet in certain sections of the country. The seeds are very
sensitive to cold and moisture, and should not be sown until the ground
has become warm--the last week in May or the first of June being early
enough in New York. The seed should be sown in a drill 1 inch deep, the
plants thinned to stand 12 inches in the row. Give the same culture as
for corn. One ounce will sow 40 feet of drill. Dwarf varieties are best
for the North. Green Density and Velvet are leading varieties.


OLEANDER. While there are many named varieties of the Oleander, but two
are often seen in general cultivation. These are the common red and
white varieties. Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of easy
management and well adapted to home culture, growing in pots or tubs for
several years without special care. Well-grown specimens are very
effective as porch or lawn plants, or may be used to good advantage in
mixed beds of tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim in
the soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They should be
rested in any out-of-the-way place through the winter. When brought out
in the spring, they should be given sun and air in order to make a
sturdy growth. Propagation is effected by using well-ripened wood for
cuttings, placed in a close frame; or the slips may be rooted in a
bottle or can of water, care being taken to supply water as evaporation
takes place. After being rooted, they may be potted, using soil with a
large proportion of sand. Well established plants may be repotted in
good loam and well rotted manure.


ONIONS are grown from seeds (“black seed”) for the main crop. They are
also grown from sets (which are very small Onions, arrested in their
development), from “tops” (which are bulblets produced in the place of
flowers), and from multipliers or potato onions, which are compound
bulbs.

[Illustration: Early Onions]

The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, and the late or
fall crop is grown from seed sown in April or early May. The sets may be
saved from the crop harvested the previous fall, saving no bulbs
measuring over ¾ of an inch in diameter, or, better, they may be
purchased from the seedsman. These sets should be planted as early as
possible in the spring, preferably on land that has been manured and
trenched in the fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets being 2 or
3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into the ground and cover
with soil, firming them with the feet or a roller. In cultivating, the
soil should be thrown towards the tops, as the white stems are usually
sought as an indication of mildness. The crop will be in condition to
use in from three to four weeks, and may be made to last until small
seed Onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers may also be used for the
early crop.

In growing Onions from seed, it is only necessary to say that the seed
should be in the ground very early in order that the bulbs make their
growth before the extreme hot weather of August, when, for want of
moisture and because of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small.
Early in April, in New York, if the ground is in condition, the seed
should be sown thickly in drills from 12 to 16 inches apart, and the
ground above the seeds well firmed. Good cultivation and constant
weeding is the price of a good crop of Onions. In cultivating and
hoeing, the soil should be kept away from the rows, not covering the
growing bulbs, but allowing them to spread over the surface of the
ground. When the crop is ready to be harvested, the bulbs may be pulled
or cultivated up, left to dry in double rows for several days, the tops
and roots taken off, and the bulbs stored in a dry place. Later in the
season they may be allowed to freeze, covering with chaff or straw to
hold them frozen, and kept until early spring; but this method is
usually unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable climate.
Onion seed should always be fresh when sown--preferably of the last
year’s crop. One ounce of Onion seed will sow 100 feet of drill.

One of the recent methods of obtaining extra large bulbs from seed is to
sow the seed in a hotbed in February or early March, and transplant to
the open ground in April.

The Danvers, Prizetaker, Globe and Wethersfield are favorite varieties,
with the addition of White Queen or Barletta for pickling.


OXALIS. A number of hardy species of this are excellent plants for
rockwork and edging. The greenhouse species are very showy, growing
without extra care, and blooming freely through the late winter and
spring months; these are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division of
the root. _O. violacea_ is one of the commonest of house-plants. Give a
sunny window, for the flowers open only in sun or very bright light. The
bulbous kinds are treated as recommended for _Bulbs_, except that the
bulbs must not freeze.


PALMS. No more graceful plant for room decoration can be found than a
well-grown specimen of some species of Palms. Most Palms are well
adapted for this purpose when small, and as the growth is usually very
slow, a plant may be used for many years. Again, the plants thrive
better in partial shade. They may be grown in a sitting or drawing-room
more satisfactorily than most house-plants. One of the frequent causes
of failure in the culture of the Palm is the over-potting and subsequent
over-watering. A Palm should not be repotted until the mass of roots
fills the soil; then a pot only a size larger should be used. Use ample
drainage in the bottom to carry off excess of water. Although the plants
need a moist soil, water standing at their roots proves injurious. A
soil composed of well rotted sod, leaf-mold and a little sand will meet
their requirements. Among the best Palms for house culture are Arecas,
_Cocos Weddelliana_, Latania, Kentia, Chamærops and Phœnix. Cycas may
also be regarded as a Palm.

[Illustration: Palms]

The date Palm may be grown from seed of the common commercial date. Seed
of the other varieties may be purchased from leading seedsmen, but, as
the seed germinates only under favorable conditions, and the Palm is a
very slow-growing plant while young, the best plan is to purchase the
plants from a dealer when wanted. When the plants become weak or
diseased, take them to a florist for treatment and recuperation.

[Illustration: A table Palm]


PANDANUS, or SCREW PINE. The _Pandanus utilis_ and _P. Veitchii_ are
exceedingly ornamental, and are well adapted to house culture. The
singular habit of growth, bright, glossy leaves, and the ability to
withstand the dust and shade of a dwelling room, make them a desirable
addition to the house collection. They are propagated by the offsets or
young plants that grow around the base of the trunk; or they may be
increased by seed. If by the former method, the offsets should be cut
off and set in sand, at a temperature of 65° or 70°. The cuttings root
slowly and the plants for a time make a very slow growth. The general
cultural treatment is that of palms, which see.


[Illustration: Pansies]

PANSY is without doubt the most popular spring flower in cultivation.
The strains of seed are many, each containing great possibilities. The
culture is simple and the results are sure. Seed sown in August or
September, in boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to reset
in November and bloom the following March; or they may be left until
March in open seed-beds before setting out. Also, if they are sown very
thinly in the frames they may remain undisturbed through the winter,
blooming very early the following spring. The frame should be protected
by mats, boards or other covering through the severe cold, and as the
sun gains strength, care should be taken to keep them from heaving by
alternate thawing and freezing. Seed sown in boxes in January or
February will make fine blooming plants by April, taking the place of
those blooming earlier.

The requisites for satisfactory Pansy culture are rich, moist, cool
soil, protection from the noonday sun, and attention to keeping them
from going to seed. As the ground becomes warm a mulch of leaf-mold or
other light material should be spread over the bed to retain moisture
and exclude heat. Spring and fall give the best bloom.


PARIS GREEN is the leading arsenical insecticide. It is usually applied
in a water spray, at the rate of 1 pound of the poison to 150 to 200
gallons of water. Add ½ pound of lime to prevent injury to foliage.
Potatoes will usually stand a stronger mixture; peaches and some other
plants do not need one so strong. Make the Paris Green into a paste with
water before adding it to the 200 gallons, that it may mix better. Paris
Green may be added to Bordeaux mixture with excellent results, counting
the Bordeaux as if it were so much water; in this case it will not be
necessary to add lime to the Paris Green. The Paris Green is used only
for chewing insects, as worms and beetles. London purple is used in the
same way.


[Illustration: Parsley grown in a box]

PARSLEY. The curled Parsley is used almost exclusively as a garnish for
meats and salads, although the flavor in soups is fine. The seed is slow
to germinate, and often the second or third sowing is made, thinking the
first is a failure; but usually after what would seem a long time the
young plants will be seen. When sown in the open ground, it should be
thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in the row, the rows being 10 to 12
inches apart. A few plants in a border will give a supply for a large
family, and with a little protection will live over winter. Roots may be
lifted in the fall, put into boxes or old cans, and grown in a sunny
window for winter use.


PARSNIPS are one of the vegetables that are the better for the winter’s
freeze, although they are of good quality if taken up after the fall
frosts and packed in soil, sand or moss in the cellar. The seed, which
must be not over one year old, should be sown as early as possible in
well prepared soil, firmed with the feet or roller. As the seed
germinates rather slowly the ground often becomes crusted or baked over
the seeds, in which case it should be broken and fined with a garden
rake. This operation often means the success of the crop. Radish or
cabbage seeds may be sown with the Parsnip seed to mark the row and
break the crust. One ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of drill. Thin to 6
inches apart in the row.


PEA. Who does not long for the time when early Peas are fit to use? And
how many know the great difference in quality between the smooth and the
wrinkled Peas? The first are a little the earliest to be planted and to
become fit for use, and on that account should be planted in a small
way. For the kitchen-garden the dwarf and half-dwarf varieties are the
best, as the tall kinds will need brush or wire to support them, causing
considerable trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. The
tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the rows must
be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, which are planted only 6
to 8 inches apart, will give as large a yield on the same area. Always
plant double rows of the tall varieties: that is, two rows from 4 to 6
inches apart, with the brush or wire between, the double rows being from
3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. The dwarf varieties should be
planted four rows in a block, each row being only 6 or 8 inches apart.
The Peas on the two center rows may be picked from the outside. Leave a
space of 2 feet and plant the same. At the time of the first planting
only the smooth varieties should be sown, but by the middle of April in
New York the ground will be warm and dry enough for the wrinkled sorts.
A succession should be sown that will come to maturity one after the
other, extending the season six or eight weeks. If a further supply is
wanted the early quick-maturing varieties may be sown in August, usually
giving a fair crop of Peas in September and early October. In the hot
weather of midsummer they often do not thrive so well. One quart of seed
will plant about 100 feet of drill.


PEA, EVERLASTING (_Lathyrus latifolius_). These Peas do not have the
colors or fragrance of the Sweet Pea, but are fine for planting against
rocks, stumps, or fences. They bloom through a long season, and, being
perfectly hardy, will live for years. Height 2 to 6 feet. Raised from
seeds or from cuttings, usually the former. Keep the seed pods picked
off to lengthen period of bloom.


PEA, SWEET. See _Sweet Pea_.


PEACH. Given the proper exposure, Peaches may be fruited in many
sections where now it is thought impossible to have a crop. It is
usually the practice of the amateur to set Peach trees in the shelter of
some building, exposed on the south or east to the sun, and “in a
pocket” as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the close
vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit buds of Peaches will stand
very cold weather when perfectly dormant, often as low as 12° or 18°
below zero in New York; but if the buds once become swollen,
comparatively light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the
trees be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be
obtained, sheltered, if at all, on the south and east, from the warming
influence of the sun, the buds will remain dormant until the ground
becomes warm, and the chances of a failure will be lessened. This advice
applies mostly to interior sections. A well drained, sandy loam or
gravelly soil suits the Peach better than a heavy soil; but if the
heavier soil is well drained, good crops may be obtained.

[Illustration: Peaches]

Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied with three
or four crops from each tree. They bear young, usually a partial crop
the third year. If a crop may be had every other year until the trees
are eight or ten years old, they will have well repaid the effort of
cultivation. But they often bear twice this long. Young trees may be set
every four or five years to replace older ones, thus having trees at a
bearing age at all times on a small place. Trees should be set 14 to 18
feet apart each way. A good selection of varieties for home use would be
Early York, Alexander, Halo Early, Mountain Rose, Early Crawford,
Wheatland, Stump, Elberta, Stevens, Oldmixon, Late Crawford and Smock.

Peach trees are always bought when they are one year old, that is, one
year from the bud. For example, the bud is set in the fall of 1898. It
remains dormant until the spring of 1899, when it pushes into vigorous
growth; and in the fall of 1899 the tree is ready for sale. Peach trees
which are more than a year old are scarcely worth the buying. It is a
common practice, when setting Peach trees, to prune them back to a whip,
leaving a stub bearing not more than one bud where each branch is cut
off.

The three great enemies of the Peach are the borer, the yellows and the
curculio.

The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring and fall. Trees
which are attacked by the borer have an exudation of gum about the
crown. If the borers are dug out twice a year they will not get
sufficient start to make the operation very laborious. It is the only
sure way.

The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of which is not
definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit ripening prematurely,
with distinct red spots which extend through the flesh, and later by the
throwing out of fine, branching, twiggy tufts along the main branches.
The only treatment is to pull out the trees and burn them. Other trees
may be set in the same places.

For a discussion of curculio, see the remarks under _Plum_.


PEAR. No fruit plantation should be considered complete without trees of
various kinds of Pears, ripening fruits from early in August till
winter. The late varieties are generally good keepers, and extend the
season into February, thus supplying fruit for six or seven months.

As the Pear grows to perfection on quince, the dwarf tree is peculiarly
adapted to planting on small home grounds, and is often used as a
boundary plant, or to serve the purpose of a screen. These dwarf trees
should be set deep--4 to 6 inches below the union--to prevent the stock
from growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 to 16 feet,
while the standard or tall-growing Pears should be set 18 to 25 feet
apart. Trees are planted when two or three years old.

[Illustration: Bartlett Pears]

The Pear thrives on clay soil, if well underdrained, and for this reason
may succeed in places where other fruits might fail. A good, steady
growth should be maintained, but the use of nitrogenous manures should
be avoided, as they tend to make a rank growth and invite attacks of
Pear blight, which is the worst enemy of the Pear. For summer fruits:
Osband’s Summer, Bartlett, Clapp and Manning Elizabeth are among the
best. For autumn: Duchess, Flemish Beauty, Bosc, Louise Bonne, Seckel
and Sheldon. For winter fruit: Anjou, Clairgeau, Lawrence and Winter
Nelis are excellent. Kieffer is an excellent commercial fruit, but it is
too poor to be given space in the home ground except as an ornamental
tree.

Of the Pear blight, Duggar writes as follows:

“REMEDIES. (_a_) _The knife and the saw._--With a disease working as
this does, it is very evident that there is no chance either for cure or
prevention by means of spraying. The heroic treatment of the knife and
saw must be adopted and vigorously pursued, as has been claimed from the
beginning. The blackened leaves alone must not serve as signs of the
diseased area, but one must examine carefully the branches and remove
them 6 inches or more below the lowest discolorations. Often before
cutting, pruners slice the bark downward to see where the injury ends.
This should not be done; it is better to be sure that you are below the
infected area, and run no such risk of infecting anew the tissues below.
The cut surfaces of larger limbs and branches should be painted for
protection against wound rots.

“(_b_) _When to cut._--Cutting out diseased portions should be done
whenever the disease is evident. This may check the injuries
temporarily; but it has been shown that much can be done in the autumn
to prevent the establishment of the disease the following spring. It has
long been known that the disease may pass the winter in the branches by
a slow growth in the neighborhood of late infections. Thorough work of
eradication should especially be performed after the season of growth.
Then cut out every diseased branch and burn, so that in the spring when
the succulent growth begins again, there will be few places in which
insects may come in contact with the bacterial exudations.

“(_c_) _Conditions favoring the disease._--The knife is our only hope of
extermination; but there are undoubtedly conditions which favor the
disease. In a succulent, rapidly growing tree the bacteria find more
favorable conditions for their development than in one which grows
slowly, yet with sufficient vigor. For this reason, too much nitrogenous
manure is dangerous; and, for the same reason, a succulent growth
induced by severe pruning should be avoided.”


[Illustration: Pelargonium, or Geranium]

PELARGONIUMS. Here belong the plants known as Geraniums--the most
satisfactory of house-plants, and extensively used as bedding plants. No
plants will give better returns in leaf and flower; and these features,
added to the ease of propagation, make them general favorites. Cuttings
of partially ripened wood root very easily, grow to blooming size in a
short time, and, either planted out or grown in a pot, make fine
decorations. The common or “Fish” Geraniums are much more satisfactory
when not more than a year old. Take cuttings from the old plants at
least once a year. In four or five months the young plants begin to
bloom. Plants may be taken up from the garden and potted, but they
rarely give as much satisfaction as young, vigorous subjects. Repot
frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch pots; then let them bloom.

The show Pelargoniums are those commonly known as Lady Washington
Geraniums. These have but one period of bloom, usually in April, but
they make up in size and coloring. This section is more difficult to
manage as a house plant than the common Geranium, needing more direct
light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. Still, all the
trouble taken to grow them will be well repaid by the handsome blossoms.
Take cuttings in late spring, after flowering, and blooming plants may
be had the following year. Good results are sometimes secured by keeping
these plants two or three years. Cut back after each blooming season.

For house culture the Geraniums need a rich, fibrous loam, with the
addition of a little sand; good drainage is also an essential.


PEONY. The herbaceous Peony has long had a place in the garden, and is
now in general use as an early flowering plant. It is perfectly hardy,
and free from the many diseases and insects that attack so many fine
plants. The single and semi-double varieties are very fine, the flowers
becoming large as the plant becomes well established. The herbaceous
section is readily increased by division. The tree Peonies are increased
by grafting. They grow in some cases to the height of 3 or more feet,
and are covered with large, very double flowers of rich colors. Height 2
to 3 feet.


PEPPERS are tender while young, although they will endure a heavy frost
in the fall. Their culture is that recommended for eggplants. A small
seedsman’s packet of seed will be sufficient for a large number of
plants, say two hundred. The large Bell Peppers are the mildest, and are
used for making “stuffed Peppers” and other dishes. The small, hot
Peppers are used for seasoning and sauces.

[Illustration: Bell Pepper]


PETUNIA. The improvement made in the size and markings of the Petunia
has been marked of late. Now almost every shade of color may be found,
aside from yellow. A bed of Petunias makes a mass of color equaled by
few other flowers. They also make very fine single plants for pots,
baskets or window-boxes, blooming freely through the winter, and
emitting a delicate fragrance. The single varieties grow freely from
seed, but if plants of one special color are wanted cuttings should be
made. These cuttings root easily and bloom early. Cuttings will have to
be made of the double varieties to increase their number. For common
Petunias, sow seeds where plants are to grow, in a warm, sunny place;
or, for earlier bloom, seeds may be started in the house. Thin to 8 to
12 inches apart. The season of bloom is cut short only by frost or other
causes.

[Illustration: Petunia]


PHLOX. Both the perennial and the annual Phloxes are most valuable.
Excepting the petunia, no plant will give the profusion of bloom with as
little care as the annual Phlox (_Phlox Drummondii_). Masses of one
color or of contrasting colors make very effective ribbon borders or
edging beds. The perennial species are very showy, having almost as wide
a range of color as the annuals. They grow to the height of 3 feet. They
are most effective in the back row of a border. The perennials have been
much improved of late. They are hardy.

The annual Phlox is propagated by seed sown early in the spring in the
border, or in March in boxes and transplanted. The perennial Phlox is
increased by division of the roots, the flowers being larger and more
highly colored by dividing at least every three years. The annual Phlox
blooms early, and continues until late in the fall. The perennial blooms
from July to frost.


PINK. See _Dianthus_ and _Carnation_.


PLUM. Of Plums there are three general or common types: first, the
common Domestica or European Plum, which gives rise to all the older
varieties, like Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the Egg
Plums, the Damsons, and the like; second, the Japanese Plums, which
have become popular within the last ten years, and which are adapted to
a wider range of country than the Domesticas; third, the native Plums of
several species or types, which are adapted to the plains, the middle
and southern states, where the Domestica Plums do not thrive, and some
kinds to the cold North.

Wherever the Domestica and Japanese Plums can be grown, the native Plums
are not destined to become popular; but many of the natives are much
hardier than others, and are therefore adapted to regions in which the
Domestica and Japanese are not safe. Others of them are well adapted to
the middle and southern states. The Domestica and Japanese Plums are
considerably hardier than peaches, but not so hardy as the apple. The
northern limit of their general cultivation is the southern peninsula of
Michigan, central and southern Ontario, central New York and central New
England.

Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do better, as a rule,
on those which are rather heavy and have a considerable content of clay.
In fact, many of the varieties will thrive on clay as hard as that upon
which pears will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive well upon
light, and even almost sandy soils.

The trees are set when they are two and three years from the bud. It is
preferable to have Plum trees on stocks of the same species, but it is
not always possible to secure them at the nurseries. In the South, Plums
are worked mostly on peach roots, and these make excellent trees where
the climate is not too severe, and especially upon the lighter lands on
which they are planted in the South. In the North the larger part of the
Plum stocks are grown on the Myrobalan Plum roots. This Myrobalan is an
Old World species of Plum, of smaller growth than the Domestica. This
stock, therefore, tends to dwarf the tree, and it is also likely to
throw up sprouts from the roots. Plum trees are set from 12 to 18 feet
apart. Many growers like to set them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the
rows from 16 to 20 feet apart.

Plums are pruned much the same as apples and pears. That is, the top is
thinned out from year to year, and all superfluous branches and broken
or diseased wood are removed. If the soil is very strong and the trees
are close together, it may be well to head them in a little each year,
especially those varieties which grow very strong and robust.

The varieties of Plums are very numerous. Of the Domestica or European
type, some of the best are Bradshaw, Imperial Gage, Jefferson, Reine
Claude, Coe Golden Drop, Quackenbos, Fellemburg, German Prune, Copper.
The Lombard is the most cosmopolitan variety, and is always sure to give
a crop, but the quality is not so good as that of the others mentioned.
For culinary purposes, some of the Damsons, which are very small-fruited
varieties, are excellent. Of Japanese Plums, the best so far tested for
the North are Red June, Abundance, Burbank, Chabot and Satsuma. For a
very early cherry-like Plum for home use, the Berger is excellent. Of
the native Plums, the most cosmopolitan variety is Wild Goose. Excellent
varieties are Weaver, Quaker, Forest Garden, Wayland, and others.

[Illustration: Plums]

There are four leading difficulties in the growing of Plums--leaf
blight, fruit rot, black knot, and curculio.

The leaf blight usually comes on about midsummer, the leaves becoming
spotted and dropping off. The remedy for this trouble is to spray
thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, beginning soon after the fruits have
set, and before the trouble begins to show.

The fruit rot may be prevented by the same means--that is, by spraying
with Bordeaux mixture. It is usually best to begin just after the fruits
are well set. A very important consideration in the checking of this
disease is to thin the fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. If
one fruit touches another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite
of the spraying. Some varieties, like Lombard and Abundance, are
susceptible to this injury.

The black knot is best kept in check by cutting out the knots whenever
they can be seen, and burning them. As soon as the leaves drop, the
orchard should be gone over and all knots taken out. Orchards which are
thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the leaf blight and
fruit-rot fungus are less liable to attacks of black knot.

The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the worms in the
fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the Plum and other stone fruits. The
mature beetle lays the eggs in the fruits when they are very small,
usually beginning its work about as soon as the flowers fall. These eggs
soon hatch, and the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those fruits
which are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the tree, but
those which are attacked when they are half or more grown may adhere to
the tree, but are wormy and gummy at the picking time. The mature
beetles are sluggish in the mornings, and are easily jarred from the
trees. Taking advantage of this fact, the fruit-grower may jar them into
sheets; or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, which is
wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and under the
apex of which is a tin can into which the insects roll. There is a slit
or opening in one side of the hopper, which allows the tree to stand
nearly in the middle of the canvas. The operator then gives the tree two
or three sharp jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of the
hopper are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll down
into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is kerosene oil, or it
may be emptied from time to time. Just how long this machine is to be
run in the orchard will depend entirely upon circumstances. It is
advisable to use the catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the
purpose of finding out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects
are caught upon each tree, there is indication that there are enough of
the pests to make serious trouble. If after a few days the insects seem
to have disappeared, it will not be necessary to continue the hunt. In
some years, especially in those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be
necessary to run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five
weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it oftener than
two or three times a week during that season; and sometimes the season
may be shortened by one-half. The insects fall most readily when the
weather is cool, and it, therefore, is best to get through the whole
orchard, if possible, before noon. Upon cloudy days, however, the
insects may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to 300 to 400
full-bearing trees in six hours if the ground has been well rolled or
firmed, as it should be before the bugging operation begins. But whether
the operation is troublesome or not, it is the price of Plums, and the
grower must not expect to succeed long without it. The same treatment is
essential to the saving of peaches and rarely, also, of sour cherries.


POPPY. These showy annuals and perennials should be more generally
grown. Nothing will lighten up a corner better than the hardy oriental
Poppy, or the solid crimson or scarlet annual Poppies. All of the
varieties grow readily from seed, which, in most cases, should be sown
where the plants are to bloom. The seeds of the oriental and the Iceland
Poppy may be sown in pots, the plants wintered over in a frame and
carefully planted out the second spring. The Poppy is very impatient of
root disturbance, however, and the safest method is to sow the seed
where wanted.


PORTULACA, or ROSE MOSS. Brilliant little tender annuals, low-growing
and sun-loving. They usually seed themselves, and once established will
continue for years. Many of the varieties will produce a good percentage
of flowers as double as roses and of many colors. Seed should be sown
where wanted. They bloom freely in light, sandy soil in the full blaze
of the sun.


POTATO. The common practice of growing Potatoes in ridges or elevated
hills is wrong, unless the soil is so wet that this practice is
necessary to insure proper drainage; but in this case the land is not
adapted to the growing of Potatoes. If the land is elevated into ridges
or hills, there is a great loss of moisture by means of evaporation.
During the last cultivating the Potatoes may be hilled up slightly in
order to cover the tubers; but the hills should not be made in the
beginning. Land for Potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and
ought to have a liberal supply of potash, either naturally or supplied
in the drill, by means of an application of sulfate of potash. See that
the land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots can penetrate
deeper. Plant the Potatoes 3 or 4 inches below the natural surface of
the ground. It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. A
continuous drill may be made by means of dropping one piece every 6
inches, but it is usually thought best to drop two pieces about every 12
to 18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good cultivation.
If horse cultivation is used, the drills should be at least 3 feet
apart.

[Illustration: Potatoes]

Small Potatoes are considered not to be so good as large ones for
planting. One reason is because too many sprouts arise from each one,
and these sprouts are apt to crowd each other. The same is true of the
tip end or seed end of the tuber. Even when it is cut off, the eyes are
so numerous that one secures many weak shoots rather than two or three
strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the Potatoes to two or three
eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible with each piece. From seven to
eight bushels of Potatoes are required to plant an acre.

For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes sprouted in
the cellar. When the sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high the tubers are
carefully planted. It is essential that the sprouts are not broken in
the handling. In this practice, also, the tubers are first cut into
large pieces, so that they will not dry out too much.

The staple remedy for the Potato bug is Paris green, 1 pound of poison
to 150 to 200 gallons of water, with a little lime (see _Paris Green_).
For the blight, spray with Bordeaux mixture, and spray thoroughly.
Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the flea beetle to a large extent.


POTATO, SWEET. See _Sweet Potato_.


POTTING. The operation of potting a plant, while in itself simple, is
very often associated with success or failure in the growth of the
plant. The first and most common reason of failure is using too large a
pot; the second, imperfect drainage; and the third, the poor physical
condition of the soil.

[Illustration: Too deep]

[Illustration: Plant too high]

A small-rooted cutting or a feeble plant should have a pot only large
enough to hold soil sufficient to surround the roots to the extent of 1
or 2 inches. More soil would hold too much moisture, thus excluding the
air. As the plants grow and the ball of dirt becomes well covered with
white roots, and before these roots become dark in color, the plant
should be repotted, using a pot one size larger and usually a little
richer soil. This operation should continue until the plant has made the
desired growth. If it is desired to grow a geranium, fuchsia, begonia,
or plants of a similar character, large enough for a window plant--say
to the height or breadth of two feet,--a 6-inch pot will be large
enough, provided the soil is rich enough to continue the growth of the
plant while in flower. It often happens that pots of the various sizes
are not to hand; and in case the pot is too large, it should have the
drainage increased until it will take up as much room in the bottom as
the pot is too large. Bear in mind that the soil should not hold free
water. After the plant has filled the pot with roots it will often be
necessary to supply more food as the soil becomes exhausted. This may be
done by digging out the top soil down to the young, white roots,
replacing with new soil in which a little rotted manure, a pinch of
bone-meal or other plant-food, has been added. Liquid manure may be
used. This liquid manure is made from well rotted cow-, horse-, or
sheep-manure thrown into a tub or barrel, covered with water, and
allowed to stand until the strength of the manure is soaked out. This
liquid should be diluted before using with clear water until it has the
color of weak coffee. If used with judgment, nothing will cause a better
growth or a greater quantity of flowers.

[Illustration: Too full]

[Illustration: Careless]

The drainage may consist of any coarse material, such as old broken
pots, small stones, pieces of charcoal, and the like, over which should
be placed small broken sod or a little moss to keep the dirt from
washing through and eventually stopping up the crevices through which
the excess water should flow.

[Illustration: Good!]

A safe rule to follow in first potting the majority of house-plants, is
to use one-third turf-loam, one-third leaf-mold or decayed leaves, and
one-third sand, thoroughly mixed. Reduce the amount of leaf-mold and
sand at successive pottings, adding a little well rotted manure, until,
when the plants have been potted in 6-inch pots, at least four-fifths of
the soil is turfy loam. Press the soil firmly in the pot and around the
plant. Never fill the pot level full of soil, else the plant cannot be
watered.


PRICKLY POPPIES, or ARGEMONES, are hardy annuals, with large, bluish
striking foliage and yellow flowers. They are easily grown in a warm
soil and sunny exposure. Sow the seeds where the plants are to stand.
Thin to 12 to 18 inches apart. They grow 2 feet high.


PRIMULAS, or PRIMROSES, are of various kinds. One of them is the
Auricula (which see). Others are hardy border plants. The true or
English cowslip is one of these; also the plants commonly known as
Polyanthus. Hardy Primulas grow 6 to 10 inches high, sending up trusses
of yellow and red flowers in early spring. Propagated by division, or by
seed sown a year before the plants are wanted. Give them rich, moist
soil.

The Primula of the winter-garden is mostly the _P. Sinensis_ (Chinese
Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a Christmas plant. With
the exception of the full double varieties, it is usually grown from
seed. The seed sown in March or April will make large flowering plants
by November or December, if the young plants are shifted to larger pots
as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat surface of the soil,
composed of equal parts loam, leaf-mold and sand. The seed should be
pressed down lightly and the soil watered carefully to prevent the seed
from being washed into the soil. Very fine sphagnum moss may be sifted
over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, where the soil will
remain wet until the seeds germinate. When the plants are large enough
they should be potted separately or pricked out into shallow boxes.
Frequent pottings or transplantings should be given until September,
when they should be in the pots in which they are to bloom. The two
essentials to successful growth through the hot summer are shade and
moisture. Height 6 to 8 inches. Bloom in winter and spring.

At present the “baby Primrose” (_Primula Forbesi_) is popular. It is
treated in essentially the same way as the Sinensis. All Primulas are
impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating conditions.


PRINCE’S FEATHER. See _Amarantus_.


PRUNES are varieties of plums with firm, meaty flesh, and which readily
make dried fruit. Some of the Prunes are commercially grown in the East,
but they are sold in the green state as other plums are; and they are
adapted to all the uses of other plums. Prunes are cultivated like other
plums.


PRUNING. There are two general types of inquiry connected with the
question of Pruning: First, that which has to do with the healing of the
wounds; and second, that which has to do with the shaping of the top and
the general welfare of the tree.

[Illustration: Improper way to make the wound]

[Illustration: Proper way]

[Illustration: Before]

[Illustration: After]

When a limb is cut off, it heals by being covered with callus tissue,
which grows out from the cambium zone between the bark and wood and
rolls over the face of the wound. The hard wood itself never heals;
that is, the cells do not have the power of making new cells; therefore
the old wood is simply covered up, or hermetically sealed as a cap is
put on a fruit jar. It is evident, therefore, that no kind of dressing
will hasten the healing of this wound. The merit of a dressing is to
keep the wound sound and healthy until the callus naturally covers it
over. All things considered, the best dressing is probably thick
linseed-oil paint.

So far as the wound is concerned, the best time for Pruning is
ordinarily in the spring, when the vital activities are beginning; but
the season also influences fruit-bearing and wood-making, and these
questions should be considered. Those wounds heal best which are on
strong main limbs, where there is a full flow of nutritious sap. The
limb should be cut off so that the wound is parallel with the trunk upon
which it sits, and close to it. That is to say, the longer the stub, the
less rapid in general is the healing of the wound. It is the custom to
cut the limb just outside the bulge at its base; but, in most cases, it
is better to cut through this bulge, and to have the wound close to the
main trunk.

[Illustration: Before pruning]

[Illustration: After pruning]

Heavy Pruning of the top tends to the production of wood; therefore the
severe Pruning of orchard trees, following three or four years of
neglect, sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, and makes them more
vigorous. Such treatment generally tends away from fruit-bearing. This
heavy Pruning is usually necessary in neglected orchards, however, to
bring trees back into shape and to revitalize them; but the best
Pruning-treatment of an orchard is to Prune it a little every year. It
should be so Pruned that the tops of the trees will be open, that no two
limbs will interfere with each other, and so that the fruit itself will
not be so abundant as to overload the tree. Pruning is a means of
thinning. In general, it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter
or early in spring. It is ordinarily better, however, to leave peaches
and other tender fruits until after the buds have swollen, or even after
the flowers have fallen, in order that one may determine how much they
have been injured by the winter. Grapevines should be Pruned in winter
or not later (in New York) than the first of March. If Pruned later than
this, they may bleed. The above remarks will apply to other trees as
well as to fruits.

[Illustration: Sickle saw]

[Illustration: Combined saw and knife. Goes on a long handle]

[Illustration: Curved Pruning saw]

[Illustration: Common double edge saw]

It should be borne in mind that Pruning has two objects: one is to
merely trim the tree or to make it assume some designed shape; the other
is to make the tree more vigorous or more fruitful, or to make some
other change in its character. These ideals are well illustrated in the
Pruning of ornamental shrubs. If one wants to have the shrubs sheared
into some particular shape, the shearing may be done at almost any time
of the year; in fact, it is better to do it two or three times each year
in order to keep the trees trim and neat. If, however, the desire is to
secure more flowers, the case is a very different one. Some shrubs and
trees bear their flowers on the wood of the preceding year. Such, for
example, are the early flowering shrubs like lilacs and the snowballs.
The flower buds are made the fall before. In this case, Pruning the
shrub in winter cuts off the flower buds. The ideal time for Pruning
them, therefore, is just after the flowers have passed. The flower buds
will form later in the season for the production of the flowers the
following spring. Other shrubs, however (particularly those which
blossom late in the season), bear on wood of the current year’s growth.
That is, the clematis blossoms in late summer and fall on wood which
grew that same season. The greater the quantity of strong wood which
grows in any season, therefore, the greater the quantity of bloom in
that season. With such shrubs, it is well to Prune in winter or early
spring, and to Prune rather heavily. The abundance of new shoots which
arise may be expected to bear flowers later on in the same season.

Following are some shrubs which, for best results in flower-bearing, may
be Pruned when dormant (in winter): camellia, Jackmani type of clematis,
cornus, hibiscus (shrubby), hydrangea, many loniceras or honeysuckles,
philadelphus or mock-orange, some spireas.

Shrubs which may be Pruned when in leaf (just after blooming): lilac,
deutzia, weigelas, exochorda, spring-flowering loniceras, tree peony,
flowering almond, some spireas and viburnums, wistaria.

The marginal illustrations show how apple, pear and plum trees may be
Pruned when received from the nursery. Cut back the roots to fresh,
unbroken wood.

[Illustration: Waters’ tree Pruner--for limbs out of reach]

[Illustration: Pruning shears]

[Illustration: An excellent Pruning saw. The blade is on a swivel]

Various kinds of useful tree Pruners are shown in the margins. See also
_Scraping_.


PUMPKIN. See _Squash_.


PYRETHRUM. The little, low-growing yellow-foliaged Feverfew, called
Golden Feather, is used extensively for edging and design beds.
Propagated by cuttings, as are geraniums.

The tall-growing species are very fine border plants, being easy to grow
and having showy flowers, in colors ranging from white through lilac to
crimson. Their flowers appear in June and last a month, when, if the
plants are cut down, they will flower again in the fall. The Persian
insect powder is made from the dried flower heads of some of these
species. Propagated by seed or division. Hardy and fine.


RADISHES should be grown quickly in order to have them at their best.
They become tough and woody if grown slowly or allowed to stay in the
ground too long. A light soil, well enriched, will grow most of the
early varieties to table size in from three to five weeks. To have a
supply through the early months, sowings should be made every two weeks.
For summer, the large white or gray varieties are best. The winter
varieties may be sown in September, harvested before severe frosts, and
stored in sand in a cool cellar. When they are to be used, if thrown
into cold water for a short time they will regain their crispness. Sow
Radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. Thin as needed.

[Illustration: Spring Radishes]


RASPBERRY. Both the red and black Raspberries are essentials of a good
garden. A few plants of each will produce a supply of berries for a
family through six or eight weeks, provided both early and late
varieties are planted. A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture
without being wet, and a thorough preparation of the ground, are the
conditions necessary to success. The black-cap Raspberries should be set
3 to 4 feet apart, the rows 6 or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet
apart, the rows 5 feet apart. Spring setting is usually preferable.

As with blackberries and dewberries, Raspberries bear on last year’s
canes, and these canes bear but once. Therefore cut out the old canes
after fruiting, or before the following spring, thus destroying such
insects and fungi as may have lodged on them. New canes should have
grown in the meantime, 3 to 6 to a hill.

The first year after the plants are set the canes should be pinched back
when they reach the height of from 30 to 36 inches. If a very vigorous
growth has been made the first season two canes may be left for
fruiting, but in the case of weak growth, only one cane should be
allowed to fruit. In case of low-growing varieties--those that have been
pinched back short--a mulch of straw or grass around the plants at
fruiting time will help to hold the moisture, and also serve to keep the
fruits clean in case of heavy rains. A Raspberry plantation will last
three to five years. The black varieties are propagated by layers, the
tip of a cane being laid in the soil in midsummer; by fall the tip will
have taken root and may be separated. The red varieties are propagated
by suckers from the roots. In nurseries both blacks and reds are often
propagated by means of root-cuttings.

[Illustration: Black Raspberries]

For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and burn it. Short
rotations--fruiting the plants only two or three years--and burning the
old canes and trimmings, will do much to keep Raspberry plantations
healthy. Spraying will have some effect in combating anthracnose.
Raspberries may be bent over to the ground so that the snow will protect
them, in severe climates.

Varieties are always changing in favor. Good black-caps are Gregg, Ohio,
and Kansas. Good red and purple sorts are Shaffer, Cuthbert, Loudon, and
others.


RHODODENDRONS are broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which require a fibrous
or peaty soil and protection from bleak winds and hot suns in winter. It
is well to plant them amongst trees for protection. In the North, mulch
heavily with leaves in the fall. See that the soil is made fibrous with
leaf-mold or other material. Rhododendrons bloom from winter buds:
therefore prune just after flowering, if at all.


RHUBARB, or PIE PLANT. This is usually propagated by division of the
fleshy roots, small pieces of which will grow if separated from the old,
established roots and planted in rich, mellow soil. Poor soil should be
made rich by spading out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with
well rotted manure to within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top
soil and setting the roots with the crowns 4 inches below the surface,
firming them with the feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until
the second year, but the first, as well as the succeeding falls, some
coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to be forked or spaded
in lightly when spring opens.

In growing seedling Rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe in
March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the plants
will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches apart. Give the plants good
cultivation, and the following spring they may be set in a permanent
place. At this time the plants should be set in well prepared ground, at
a distance each way of from 4 to 5 feet, and treated as those set with
pieces of roots.

If given good care and well manured, the plants will live for years and
yield abundantly. Two dozen good roots will supply a large family.


RICINUS. See _Castor Oil Plant_.


ROSES. It seems to be the first desire of the home maker, when he
considers the planting of his grounds, to set out Roses. As a matter of
fact, it should be one of the last things to do. Roses are essentially
flower garden subjects, rather than lawn subjects. That is to say, the
flowers are their chief beauty. They have very little to commend them in
the way of foliage or habit, and they are inveterately attacked by
insects and sometimes by fungi. In order to get the best results with
Roses, they should be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be
tilled and pruned and well taken care of; and they should be grown as
specimen plants, as other flower garden plants are. The ordinary garden
Roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery.

[Illustration: Wild Roses]

If it is desired to have Roses in mixed borders, then the single and
informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is _Rosa rugosa_.
This has not only attractive flowers through the greater part of the
season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking habit.
The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual and
strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add
character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by
insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. The
fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well through
the winter. Some of the wild Roses are also very excellent for mixing
into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage characteristics are
rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips.

Probably the most extensively grown class of Roses is the Remontant or
Hybrid Perpetual. These, while not constant bloomers, are so easy of
culture and give such good returns for the care and labor, that their
popularity grows each year. The list of good varieties is very
extensive, and while a few, such as General Jacqueminot, Paul Neyron,
Marshall P. Wilder, Victor Verdier, Anne de Diesbach, and Ulrich
Brunner, are seen in most collections, one cannot go far wrong in
planting any of the list. Two of the Hybrid Chinese Roses may go with
the Remontants, having the same season of bloom and being about as
hardy. These are Magna Charta and Mme. Plantier.

The next group in point of hardiness, and superior to the foregoing in
continuity of bloom, are the Hybrid Noisettes, such as Coquette des
Alpes, Coquette des Blanches, and Elise Boelle. The blooms of these are
white, often tinted with pink, very double and fragrant.

The Hybrid Tea section, containing Duchess of Albany, La France, Meteor
and Wootton, is very fine. These are not hardy in the North, but if
protected by a frame, or if grown in pots, wintered in a pit, no class
of Roses will give more general satisfaction.

The Bourbon section contains three of the best bedding Roses,--Apolline,
Hermosa, and Souvenir de la Malmaison. These will bloom continually
through the fall months until severe frost, and with a little protection
will prove hardy.

The Bengal Roses, of which Agrippina is a leading variety, bloom through
a long season, but are not hardy, and should be protected in a pit. They
also make very fine pot-plants.

The Moss Roses are well known, and are desirable in a general
collection.

The little Polyantha Roses, with Cecile Brunner and Clothilde Soupert as
two of the best, are always attractive, either when planted out or grown
in pots.

The climbing Roses, which bloom later in the season than the Remontants,
are very useful as pillar and screen plants. The old Queen of the
Prairies and Baltimore Belle are still in favor. A newer and better
variety is the Crimson Rambler.

The Tea Roses have proved more disappointing to the amateur than any
other. No one can resist the temptation to try to have a few of these
highly perfumed, richly colored Roses, but unless one has a
conservatory or an especially favored location in the house, the results
do not pay for the trouble. A few blooms may be had outdoors with plants
set in the spring, but on the approach of winter they must be taken up
and protected by more secure means than is taken with other Roses. If
potted and grown in the house, they are the first plants to become
infested with red spider; or if grown cool enough to escape that pest,
they will be subject to an attack of mildew. Still, the results are well
worth striving for, and a few persons will find the proper conditions;
but the Tea Rose is essentially a florist’s flower.

[Illustration: Hybrid Tea Rose]

All Roses are heavy feeders and require rich, moist soil. A clay soil,
if well enriched and having perfect drainage, is ideal. Pruning should
be carefully done, preferably in the spring. All weak growth should be
cut out and the balance well cut back. The flowers of all Roses, except
the Yellow Persian and the Harrison’s Yellow, being borne on the new
wood, the bushes should be cut back half or more of their growth.

In the majority of cases, Roses on their own roots will prove more
satisfactory than budded stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or
shoots from below the surface of the soil will be of the same kind,
whereas with budded Roses there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti
or Dog Rose) starting into growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing
the bud, taking possession, and finally killing out the weaker growth.
Still, if the plants are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of
the stock from starting, there is no question that finer Roses may be
grown than from plants on their own roots.

The summer insects that trouble the Rose are best treated by a forceful
spray of clear water. This should be done early in the day and again at
evening. Those having city water or good spray pumps will find this an
easy method of keeping Rose pests in check. Those without these
facilities may use whale oil soap, fir-tree oil, good soap suds, or
Persian insect powder.


ROSES IN WINTER. Although the growing of Roses under glass is a business
which would better be left to florists, as already said, the following
advice may be useful to those who have conservatories:

When growing forcing Roses for winter flowers, florists usually provide
raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom of the bed
or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drainage; the cracks
are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench is then covered
with four or five inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made from
rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about one
part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. The
plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 18
inches apart, and are grown there all summer.

During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58° to 60° at night,
and from 5° to 10° warmer during the day. The heating pipes are often
run under the benches, not because the Rose likes bottom heat, but to
economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in case of their
becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in watering, in guarding
the temperature and in ventilation. Draughts result in checks to the
growth and in mildewed foliage.

Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the
appearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green
plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by
syringing with tobacco-tea or fumigation with tobacco stems.

An effectual and preferable method now employed for destroying the aphis
is to fumigate with the vapor arising from a pan containing a gallon of
water and a pint of strong extract of tobacco. To generate the vapor, a
piece of red-hot iron is dropped into the pan. From one to three or four
pans are required to a house, according to its size. For the red
spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either clear or
soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and given, at
all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less likely
to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, powdery
appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less distortion of
the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. The flowers of
sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough merely to slightly
whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted on from the hand in a
broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, which is a better and
less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed of sulfur and linseed oil
may be applied to a portion of one of the steam or hot-water heating
pipes. The fumes arising from this are not agreeable to breathe, but
fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may be sprinkled here and there
on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. Under no circumstances,
however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. The vapor of burning sulfur
is death to plants.

[Illustration: A Hybrid Perpetual Rose]

_Propagation._--The writer has known women who could root Roses with the
greatest ease. They would simply break off a branch of the Rose, insert
it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell-jar, and in a few weeks they
would have a strong plant. Again they would resort to layering; in which
case a branch, notched half way through on the lower side, was bent to
the ground and pegged down so that the notched portion was covered with
a few inches of soil. The layered spot was watered from time to time.
After three or four weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the
branch or buds began to grow, when it was known that the layer had
formed roots.

Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp sand
to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half inch
of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, and
single-joint Rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were
inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a hot
month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting;
moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, without
a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep the
water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese-box. In
about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as nicely rooted
cuttings as could have been grown in the greenhouse.

[Illustration: Vase of Roses]

The “saucer system,” in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand
contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times to
the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give
the cuttings the “full sun” and to keep the sand saturated with water.

Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after
rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they
have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them too
long in the sand weakens the cutting.


SAGE is a perennial, but best results are secured by resowing every two
or three years. Give a warm, rich soil. Hardy.


SALPIGLOSSIS. Very fine half-hardy annuals. The flowers, which are borne
in profusion, are of many colors, and rival in markings most other
annuals. The flowers are short-lived if left on the plant, but will hold
well if cut and placed in water. Seed should be sown in heat in
February or March, the seedlings grown along until May, when they may be
planted out. It is usually best to pinch out the centers of the plants
at this time to cause them to branch.


SALSIFY, or VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify is one of the best of winter and
early spring vegetables, and should be grown in every garden. It may be
cooked in several different ways. The seed should be sown as early in
the spring as possible. Handle the same as parsnips in every way. The
roots, like parsnips, are the better for the winter freeze, but part of
the crop should be dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a
cellar for winter use.

[Illustration: Salsify]


SALVIA. The SCARLET SALVIA (or SAGE) is a well known tender perennial,
blooming late in the fall and making a fine effect in beds or borders.
It is easily transplanted, and large plants removed to the house
continue in bloom for some time. The blue and white species are both
desirable summer flowering plants, and the low-growing Silver Leaf Sage
is well adapted for edging. Propagated from seed, cuttings, or by
division. Height 2 to 3 feet.

[Illustration: Salvia coccinea]


SAN JOSÉ SCALE has now become a wide-spread pest. It has been introduced
into the eastern states from the Pacific slope. It is a minute scale
insect the size of a small pinhead, shield-shaped, with a raised center.
There are various native and comparatively harmless scales which look
very much like it, and an expert is usually needed to distinguish them.
The San José Scale can usually be distinguished, however, by its very
serious results. In favorable seasons it spreads with enormous rapidity,
covering the branches of many kinds of plants, sapping their juices, and
either killing or reducing them to such a low state of vitality as to
render them useless; or they are killed by the winter. The indications
are that the scale will never be so serious in the moist, cool climates
of the northeastern states as it is in the hotter and drier climates of
the West. It has been found by careful experiments that it can be killed
by a spray of kerosene and water (see _Kerosene_) in a proportion of one
part of kerosene to four or five of water. This material is applied with
a mechanical pump mixer, and the application should be made on a sunny
day so that evaporation soon takes place. Spraying with kerosene in
cloudy weather is very likely to result in injury to the plants. Some
experimenters have found crude petroleum to be a specific for the San
José Scale.

It is not to be expected that the San José Scale can be exterminated any
more than the tent caterpillar or apple scab can. It follows, therefore,
that we should spray for the San José Scale as we do for other pests. It
is such a serious pest, however, that the state or province should take
measures to hold it in check. Some system of inspection should be
inaugurated, and it is probably best that nursery stock be fumigated
with hydrocyanic gas before it is sold. This gas is exceedingly
poisonous, however, and should never be handled by the inexperienced.
Whenever it is used, it should be under the control of experts. Plants
or plantations which are badly infested with the scale would better be
destroyed.


SCABIOSA. MOURNING BRIDE. A useful annual, producing a profusion of
bloom through the greater part of the summer if not allowed to go to
seed. The flowers range in color from white to rich purple, are borne on
long stems, and are very lasting. The seed may be sown where the plants
are wanted, or to hasten the season of bloom may be sown in boxes in
February and grown along to be planted out in April.


SCARLET RUNNER. One of the pole or running beans (_Phaseolus
multiflorus_). It is a great favorite with people from the Old World,
especially English and Germans. This bean is used either as an
ornamental vine for porches or trellises, or as a screen to hide
unsightly objects. The red flowers are very showy, either on the plant
or in bouquets. The green pods are excellent as string beans, and the
dried beans are of superior quality. Seed should not be sown until the
ground has become thoroughly warm; or the plants may be started in the
house.


SCRAPING of trees is rarely to be advised, except in fruit plantations.
The old and hanging bark on apple and pear trees may be taken off in
order to destroy the hiding places of insects and the breeding places of
fungi, and also to make the plantation look more neat and kempt. Only
the loose outer bark should be removed, however. Trees should not be
scraped to the quick. If there is moss on trees, it can be destroyed
readily by a spray of Bordeaux mixture.

A large part of the beauty of an ornamental tree lies in its
characteristic bark, and it is very rare that such trees should be
scraped.


SCREENS. See _Windbreak_.


SCREW PINE. See _Pandanus_.


SEA-KALE shoots are very highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. The
seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants transplanted
to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given high cultivation
through the season, being covered with litter on the approach of winter.
The young stalks are blanched early the following spring by covering
with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand or other clean
material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and Siberian are among
the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as asparagus is. Highly
prized by those who know it.

Sea-Kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches
long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant is perennial,
and the early shoots may be bleached year after year.


SEED SOWING. The general rule in sowing seeds is to cover them twice or
three times their thickness. This rule will apply to the majority of
seeds, but in many plants of a naturally short season of bloom or
growth, an instance of which is the sweet pea, it may be advisable to
sow the seed deeper, that the roots may have sufficient moisture and be
in a cool temperature through the hot summer months. Also, in sowing
very minute seed, as tobacco, petunia, begonia, and others of like size,
care should be taken to have them only under the surface of the
soil,--simply pressed down with a smooth surface or allowed to settle
into the soil with the soaking in of the water. The soil for all seeds
should be loose and porous, in order to allow the excessive moisture to
escape and the warmth to penetrate, but should be firmed directly over
the seeds to induce an upward flow of moisture. One of the most common
mistakes in sowing seed is in sowing all kinds at the same time without
regard to the season, thus causing a failure with some, while others
grow freely. All tender seed should be sown only when the ground has
become thoroughly warm, while seeds of the so-called hardy plants may be
sown as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work. A few kinds of
seed are the better for soaking, especially such as for some reason have
been delayed in sowing. Sweet pea seed is benefited by soaking if not
put into the ground until the soil is warm. Seed of canna, moonflower
and others with hard shells may be scraped until the outer shell is
pierced or is very thin.

It is generally better to buy garden seeds than to grow them, for those
who make a business of seed-growing become expert in the cultivation and
selection of the plants.


SEEDS of most plants should be kept dry and also rather cool. It is
always better to rely upon fresh seeds. Test them in boxes in the house,
if possible, before planting them in the open. If beans, peas, corn or
other Seeds become buggy, pour a little bisulfide of carbon (very
inflammable) into them. The material will not injure the Seeds even if
poured on them. It soon evaporates. A teaspoonful will kill the insects
in four quarts of Seeds, if the receptacle is tight.

Most tree Seeds should be kept moist until planted. They are usually
buried or kept in sand.


SENSITIVE PLANT (_Mimosa_). This curious plant is often grown for the
amusement it affords by its habit of closing its leaves and dropping the
leaf-stalk whenever the plant is touched. Seed should be sown in heat
early in the season, and the plants grown in pots or a protected border.
The seed is sold by all seedsmen. The plant grows readily in a
temperature suited to beans. It will not stand frost. The young plants
are usually the most sensitive.


SHADE TREES. The best Shade Trees are usually those which are native to
the particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil and
other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like, are nearly
always reliable. In regions in which there are serious insect enemies or
fungous diseases, the trees which are most likely to be attacked may be
omitted. For instance, in parts of the East the elm leaf beetle is a
very serious pest; and it is a good plan in such places to plant other
trees than elms. Amongst the best exotic trees for shade in the northern
parts of the country are the Norway maple, European lindens, horse
chestnut, and the European species of elm. Trees for shade should
ordinarily be given sufficient room that they may develop into full size
and symmetrical heads. The trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15
feet apart for temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they
should be thinned.


SHELTER-BELTS. See _Windbreak_.


SHRUBBERY. Shrubs have two kinds of values or uses: first, they are
useful for their own sakes or as individual specimens; and second, for
use in the making of foliage masses or groups. Ordinarily they are used
only for the former purpose in home grounds; but their greatest use is,
nevertheless, in heavy masses about the borders of the place or in the
angles of the building. That is to say, they should contribute to the
general design of the place or to its pictorial effect. If they are
planted in Shrubberies or masses, the flowers are still as interesting
and as showy as they are when the bushes are planted alone. In fact, the
flowers usually show to better advantage, since they have a heavy
background of foliage. In the Shrubbery mass the bushes are more easily
cared for than when they are scattered as single specimens over the
lawn. The single specimen which is irregular, or ragged, or untidy, is
an undesirable object; but such a specimen may contribute an
indispensable part to the border mass. In the border they do not need
the attention to pruning that they do in the lawn. The main part of the
Shrubbery mass should be made of the stronger, larger growing and
coarser Shrubs; and the more delicate ones, or those with highly colored
leaves or showy flowers, may be placed near the inner edge of the
plantation. Shrubs which are valued chiefly for their flowers or showy
foliage, as, for example, the _Hydrangea paniculata_, may be planted
just in front of a bold Shrubbery mass, so that they will have a
background to show off their beauties. Further directions for the
lay-out of the grounds will be found under the articles _Lawns_ and
_Borders_.

It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which the
Shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should be tilled
between the Shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and rakes. If the
place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers may be scattered about
the edges of the mass. The larger Shrubs, like lilacs and syringas, may
be set about 4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about, 2
feet apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a
few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens may be
removed. Throw the Shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, and
make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating and broken. It
is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with light manure,
leaf-mold or other material. Even though the Shrubs are perfectly hardy,
this mulch greatly improves the land and promotes growth. After the
Shrub borders have become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of
fall will be caught therein and will be held as a mulch. It is often
advisable not to remove these leaves, but to allow them to remain year
after year, where they make a fine covering of leaf-mold. When the
Shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one-half or more; but
after they are established they are not to be pruned, but allowed to
take their own way, and after a few years the outermost ones will droop
and meet the greensward.

Good Shrubs are numerous. Some of the best are those to be found in
woods and along roadsides. They are hardy. Of Shrubs which are generally
adaptable for the North, the following are excellent:

  Barberries.
  Box.
  Burning Bush, or Euonymus.
  Bush Honeysuckles.
  Bush Willows.
  Caryopteris, blooming in August and September.
  Cotoneasters.
  Desmodiums, or Lespedezas, blooming in fall.
  Dwarf Sumac. _Rhus copallina._
  Elders. Native species are excellent.
  Exochorda, with profuse white bloom in spring.
  Flowering Almond.
  Flowering Crabs.
  Flowering Currants.
  Forsythias, or Golden Bells.
  Fringe Tree, or Chionanthus.
  Hawthorns.
  Hydrangeas.
  Indian Currant. _Symphoricarpos vulgaris._
  Japanese Quince.
  Kerria, or Corchorus.
  Lilacs.
  Mock Orange, or Philadelphus.
  New Jersey Tea, or Ceanothus.
  Osiers, or Dogwoods.
  Privet.
  Rose Acacia.
  Roses (see _Roses_).
  Smoke Tree.
  Snowballs. The Japanese is preferable.
  Snowberry. _Symphoricarpos racemosus._
  Spireas of many kinds.
  Viburnums of many kinds.
  Weigelas.
  White Alder. _Clethra alnifolia._
  Witch Hazel. Blooms on the eve of winter.
  Xanthoceras sorbifolia.


SILENE, or CATCHFLY. Some of the Silenes are hardy annuals of very easy
culture. Sow seeds where the plants are to stand; or, if early results
are desired, seeds may be started in boxes. The plants thrive in any
garden soil, even if it is not very rich. Colors red, or sometimes
running to white. One foot. Let plants stand 6 to 10 inches apart.


SMILAX of the florists is closely allied to asparagus. While it cannot
be recommended for house culture, the ease with which it may be grown
and the uses to which the festoons of leaves may be put, entitle it to a
place in the conservatory or greenhouse. Seed sown in pots or boxes in
January or February, the plants shifted as needed until planted on the
bench in August, will grow fine strings of green by the holidays. The
plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as possible
overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to climb
on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, which is
very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the vines
grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and be enriched
with well-rotted manure. After the first strings are cut, a second
growth fully as good as the first may be had by cleaning up the plants
and top-dressing the soil with rotted manure. Slightly shading the house
through August will add to the color of the leaves. The odor from a vine
of Smilax thickly covered with the small flowers is very agreeable.


SNAPDRAGON, or ANTIRRHINUM. An old garden favorite, flowering freely
through a long season. The dwarf strain is well adapted for bedding or
borders. Any light soil, well enriched with rotted manure, will grow
Snapdragons to perfection. Distinct varieties should be propagated by
cuttings, as they do not come true from seed. Sow seed early in the
spring.

Although bloom may be obtained the first year, late sown plants
sometimes persist over winter and bloom early in the spring. Snapdragons
make good window plants.


SNOWDROP (_Galanthus_). This is one of the earliest flowers of spring,
always welcome. It should be planted in the edge of the border. The
bulbs may be planted in October in any good border soil and left
undisturbed for years; or they may be potted at that time, and after
forming roots be gently forced into bloom in winter.


SNOWFLAKE (_Leucoium_). Culture same as for _Snowdrop_.


SODDING. In general, the best way to secure a lawn is by the sowing of
seed (see _Lawn_), since it is the least expensive way. For small areas,
and along the sides of walks and drives, sods may be used. The results
are quicker. Unless the sod is of the right kind, however, and very
carefully laid, the results are not so good as with seed.

[Illustration: Sod-cutter, for trimming sod edgings]

The sod which is best adapted to the Sodding of lawns is that which
comes from an old, closely grazed pasture. Sod from a sheep pasture is
supposed to be best. Such sod has been so closely grazed that it has
made a very dense mat of roots, and all the weeds have been destroyed.
The droppings of the animals also make the ground rich. The sod should
be cut in very thin strips. It should not be more than an inch and
one-half or two inches in thickness. If it is thicker than that, it is
heavy and bulky to handle, and is not so easily laid. Ordinarily, the
sod is cut in strips ten inches or a foot wide. A board is laid on the
sod and the strip is cut along either side of it with a sod cutter or a
sharp spade. Two men then roll up the sod. One stands on the strip of
sod with his face toward the man who, with the spade, cuts it loose
beneath. As it is cut loose, the man on the strip rolls the sod so that
the upper surface is on the inside of the roll. Strips longer than ten
or twelve feet make rolls which are too heavy to handle with ease.

[Illustration: Cutting sod]

The soil upon which the sod is to be placed should be very loose, so
that the sod, can be pounded down firmly. Some heavy pounder should be
used, as a block of wood. It is usually impossible to pound down sod
with the back of a spade sufficiently firm unless the soil is very
loose. The sod should be pounded until the top is about level with the
surrounding soil. This insures contact with the soil beneath, so that
there are no air spaces and no likelihood of drying out. Sod pounded
down as firmly as this should grow very readily. If a sod edging is
laid along walks and drives, it should be pounded down an inch or more
lower than the surrounding loose land which is seeded, because the loose
land will finally settle; otherwise the sod border is likely to be
higher than adjacent land after a year or two.

If there are uneven places on the sodded area, these depressions can be
filled in with very loose, fine soil; and the grass will grow through
it. In dry weather, a sodded area may be mulched with a half inch of
fine loam to protect it.


SOILS. Soils are of many kinds. The classification of soils depends upon
one’s point of view. Gardeners ordinarily call a good, friable,
dark-colored, rich Soil a garden loam. No Soil is so good that it cannot
be improved. It is improved in two general ways: by tilling (see
_Tillage_), and by the application of various substances.

In considering the improvement of lands by the application of foreign
substances, two distinct things are to be considered: the improvement of
the physical texture, or tilth, of the Soil; the increasing of its
plant-food. These are coördinate objects. In some cases one may be of
prime importance, and in another case the other may be more necessary.
Lands which have a fair store of available plant-food may be
unproductive. Such lands may be very greatly benefited by stable manure,
even though that manure may have lost a large part of fertility by being
baptized under the eaves of the barn. If plant-food alone is needed,
then some concentrated or commercial fertilizer may be the best thing to
apply. In most cases the main or chief amelioration of the land is to be
wrought by tillage, stable manures, mulches, green crops, and the like;
if special results are desired, commercial fertilizers may be added more
or less liberally, as the case demands (see _Manures_, _Fertilizers_).

The top-dressing of Soils is often very beneficial because it tends to
prevent the escape of moisture, and often improves the physical texture.
If the material contains plant-food, the land will also be directly
enriched. The trimmings from lawns may be a distinct protection to
lands if allowed to remain (see _Lawns_); and the leaves which blow into
clumps of shrubbery may often be allowed to remain with good results.
However, if the leaves become too thick year after year, they tend to
induce a surface rooting of the shrubs. This, however, may be no
disadvantage unless the mulch were finally to be removed. One of the
very best top-dressings for borders and shrubbery is spent tan bark,
since it does not pile up on the ground, but tends to work into it.
Well-rotted sawdust often has the same effect. These materials are much
used by gardeners, when they can be had, since they can be raked into
the soil in the spring, and need not be removed.


SOLIDAGO. See _Goldenrod_.


[Illustration: Spade]

[Illustration: Shovel]

SPADES and SHOVELS must be a part of every garden equipment. The common
and most useful forms are shown in the cuts, but long-handled tools are
more useful for the loading of earth, the making of ditches, the
spreading of mulches, and the like. It pays to buy the steel tools, with
strongly strapped handles.


SPEARMINT is prized by many people as a seasoning, particularly for the
Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. It is a perennial and perfectly hardy,
and will live in the open garden year after year. If a supply of the
fresh herbage is wanted in winter, remove sods of it to the house six
weeks before wanted. Place the sods in boxes, and treat as for house
plants. The plants should have been frosted and become perfectly dormant
before removal.


SPINACH. Probably the most extensively grown early spring vegetable,
being in great demand as greens. The earliest crop that finds its way to
market is gathered from seed sown in September or October, often
protected by frames or other means through the severe winter, and cut
soon after growth starts in early spring. Even as far north as New York
Spinach may stand over winter without protection. Spinach is forced by
placing sash over the frames in February and March, protecting the young
leaves from severe freezing by mats or straw thrown over the frames.
Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season
seed of the New Zealand Summer Spinach may be sown, and this will grow
through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. The
seed of this kind being very hard, should be scalded and allowed to soak
a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills about
three feet apart, sowing four to six seeds in each hill. The spring and
winter Spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 14 inches apart, one ounce
being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. Remember that common Spinach is
a cool-weather (fall and spring) crop.


SPRAYING. Of late years Spraying has come to be one of the most
important of all horticultural operations. Most kinds of injurious fungi
and insects can be combated by a water spray in which various poisons or
injurious substances are contained. There are two general classes of
Spraying material: first, fungicides, or those which are used for the
control of fungi or plant diseases; second, insecticides, or those which
are used for the control of insect enemies.

The fungicides usually contain copper or sulfur, or both. The most
popular and generally useful fungicide is the Bordeaux mixture (which
see). It should be borne in mind that most injurious fungi work on the
interior of the leaf or stem, and only the spore-bearing parts come to
the surface. It is therefore very important that Spraying with
fungicides be done very early in order to prevent the fungus from
getting a hold. It is much better to Spray once very thoroughly than to
Spray a half dozen times carelessly. It is important that the entire
surface of the foliage or stems be covered with the material in order to
prevent the access of the fungi.

Of insecticides, there are two general types: those which kill by
external contact and are applied to plant lice, scale insects, and all
other insects which suck their food; and the poisonous compounds which
are used for the chewing insects, as all the tribes of worms and
beetles. Of the former class, the most important material is kerosene in
various forms (which see). Of the latter kind is Paris green (which
see). For insects, Spray just as soon as the attack is evident. Paris
green and Bordeaux mixture may be used together.

The best pump for Spraying is the one which throws the stream the
greatest distance with the least amount of liquid, and the best nozzle
is that which distributes the material most finely and evenly. For
Spraying plants close at hand, the Vermorel nozzle is now the most
popular. If it is desired to reach the tops of large trees, some other
nozzle should be used, as the McGowen, Boss, or other types. Every
outfit should have two or three kinds of nozzles for different kinds of
work. Get a pump with much power.

Spray thoroughly. The general rule is to spray the entire plant until
the material begins to drip, at which time it may be supposed that the
plant is covered completely. When and how often one should Spray, and
what material he should use, will depend entirely upon the difficulty
which he is endeavoring to combat. Most fruit trees should be Sprayed
before they bloom and again just afterwards. Sometimes they will need
Spraying again.


SPREKELIA. Culture of _Amaryllis_.


SQUASH. The time of planting, method of preparing the hills and after
culture are the same as for cucumbers and melons (which see), except
that for the Early Bush varieties the hills should be 4 or 5 feet apart,
and for the later running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. From eight
to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to four plants
after danger from bugs is over. Of the early Squashes, one ounce of seed
will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce will plant but
eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of the Hubbard type
are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and Scallop Squashes are
popular. In growing winter Squashes in a northern climate, it is
essential that the plants start off quickly and vigorously: a little
chemical fertilizer will help. Pumpkins are grown the same as Squashes.

[Illustration: Hubbard Squash]

[Illustration: Scallop or Patty-pan Summer Squash]


SQUILLS (_Scilla_). BLUE BELL. WILD HYACINTH. Well-known bulbous plants,
most of them hardy. They plant well with snowdrops and crocus, flowering
at the same time, but continuing longer in bloom. The colors are red,
pink, blue or white. The blue varieties have very fine shades of color.
Should be planted in October and remain undisturbed.


STOCKS. The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton Stocks, are found in
nearly all old-fashioned gardens. Most gardens are thought to be
incomplete without Stocks, and the use of the biennial flowering species
as house plants is increasing. The Ten-weeks Stock is usually grown from
seed sown in hotbed or boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted
several times previous to being planted out in early May. At each
transplanting the soil should be made a little richer. The double
flowers will be more numerous when the soil is rich.

The biennial species should be sown the season previous to that in which
flowers are wanted, the plants wintered over in a cool house, and grown
on the following spring. They may be planted out through the summer and
lifted into pots in August or September for winter flowering. These may
be increased by cuttings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of
seed is a surer method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved,
it would be the best one to pursue. Height 10 to 15 inches.


STORING. The principles which are involved in the Storing of perishable
products, as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different
commodities. All the root crops, and most fruits, need to be kept in a
cool, moist and uniform temperature if they are to be preserved a great
length of time. Squashes, sweet potatoes, and some other things, need to
be kept in an intermediate and what might be called a high temperature;
and the atmosphere should be drier than for most other products. The low
temperature has the effect of arresting decomposition and the work of
fungi and bacteria. The moist atmosphere has the effect of preventing
too great evaporation and the consequent shriveling. In the Storing of
any commodity, it is very important to see that the product is in proper
condition for keeping. Discard all specimens which are bruised or which
are likely to decay. Much of the decay of fruits and vegetables in
Storage is not the fault of the Storage, but is really the work of
diseases with which the materials are infested before they are put into
Storage. For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the
rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time.

Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a temperature
somewhat near the freezing point. It should not raise above 40° Fahr.
for best results. Apples can even be kept at one or two degrees below
the freezing point if the temperature is kept uniform. Cellars in which
there are heaters are likely to be too dry and the temperature too
high. In such cases it is well to keep fresh vegetables and fruits in
tight receptacles, and pack the roots in sand or moss in order to
prevent shriveling. In these places, apples usually keep better if
headed up in barrels than if kept on racks or shelves. In moist and cool
cellars, however, it is preferable for the home supply to place them on
shelves, not piling them more than five or six inches deep, for then
they can be sorted over as occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure
that the specimens are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples
are allowed to lie in the sun for a few days without being packed, they
will ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them.

[Illustration: A good out-door cellar]

Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, and water
should be drained away from them. They are Stored in many ways in the
field, but success depends so much upon the season, particular variety,
ripeness, and the freedom from injuries by fungi and insects, that
uniform results are rarely secured by any method. The best results are
to be expected when they can be kept in a house which is built for the
purpose, in which the temperature can be kept uniform and the air fairly
moist. When Stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw
alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief is likely to
result. Sometimes they are easily Stored by being piled into a conical
heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, and the straw
covered with boards. It does not matter if they are frosted, provided
they do not thaw out frequently. Sometimes cabbages are laid head down
in a shallow furrow plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown
straw, the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is only
in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results are to be
expected from such methods.

In the Storing of all things, especially those which have soft and green
matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide for the heating of the
produce. If the things are buried out of doors, it is important to put
on a very light cover at first so that the heat may escape. Cover them
gradually as the cold weather comes on. This is important with all
vegetables that are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets and the like. If
covered deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made
out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy land.

When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter from pits, it
is well to make compartment pits, each compartment holding a wagon load
or whatever quantity will be likely to be wanted at each time. These
pits are sunk in well-drained land, and between each of the two pits is
left a wall of earth about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in
cold weather without interfering with the others.

An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there is a
heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it need not be
inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier if the cellar is not
used for storage. House cellars used for storage should have a
ventilating shaft.


[Illustration: Strawberries]

STRAWBERRY. The saying that Strawberries will grow on almost any soil is
misleading, although true. Some varieties of Strawberries will grow on
certain soils better than other varieties. What these varieties are can
only be determined by an actual test, but it is a safe rule to select
such varieties as prove good in many localities. As to the methods of
culture, so much depends on the size of the plot, the purpose for which
the fruit is wanted, and the amount of care one is willing to give, that
no set rule can be given for a garden in which but few plants are grown
and extra care can be given. Large fruits and a number of them may be
had by growing to the single plant, keeping off all runners and relying
on numerous fruit-crowns on one plant for the crop of berries. Or
Strawberries may be grown by the narrow matted-row system, in which the
runners, before rooting, should be turned along the rows at a distance
of from 4 to 6 inches from the parent plant. These runners should be the
first ones made by the plant and should not be allowed to root
themselves, but “set in.” This is not a difficult operation; and if the
runners are separated from the parent plant as soon as they become well
established, the drain on that plant is not great. All other runners
should be cut off as they start. The row should be about 12 inches wide
at fruiting time. Each plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full
sunlight, and a firm hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps
as good a method, either in a private garden or field culture, as could
be practiced. With a little care in hoeing, weeding and cutting off
runners, the beds seem to produce as large crops the second year as the
first.

[Illustration: Well planted Strawberry]

The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches
apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the
results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain
plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, or
outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are
moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots dried
out by the wind and sun.

[Illustration: Pot-grown Strawberry]

Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries.
Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be
avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a
soft texture.

Except in the case of a skillful grower in a favored locality, the fall
setting of plants is not to be recommended. The preparation of the soil
and care of the plants more than overbalance the partial crop obtained
the following spring.

In the single-plant or hill system the plants should be set 12 inches
apart, in rows 3 feet apart. In the narrow matted row system the plants
should be set 18 inches apart, in rows 3½ feet apart. The first method
requires about 14,000 plants per acre, the second about 8,000 plants.

The winter treatment of a Strawberry bed should consist in covering the
plants, when the ground is frozen, in November or December, with straw
or hay. Salt marsh hay, if obtainable, is the best, as no weed seeds are
introduced. Cover the soil and the plants to the depth of 3 to 6 inches.
As soon as growth begins in spring, rake the mulch off, allowing it to
lie between the rows; or, if the soil is hard or weedy, it may be taken
off the patch entirely, the ground tilled, and then replaced for the
purpose of holding moisture and keeping the berries clean.

Usually, Strawberries may be fruited twice or three times; but on rich
soil, with extra good care, the first crop may be very heavy, and the
patch may be plowed up thereafter. Some varieties do not produce pollen,
and not more than two rows of these should be planted without a row of a
pollen-bearing kind.

The rust and mildew may be held in check by Bordeaux mixture. It is
usually sufficient to spray after the blooming season (or at any time
the first year the plants are set), in order to secure healthy foliage
for the next year.


SUNFLOWER (_Helianthus_). People who know only the coarse annual
Sunflower are not aware of the beauty which it is possible to secure
with the herbaceous perennials belonging to that family. No border
should be without a few of the hardy species. Their blooming period
extends from early in August until heavy frost. The color runs from
light lemon to the richest orange, and the range of growth from 3 to 10
feet, thus enabling one to scatter them through the border without any
formal arrangement. They are of the easiest culture. Plants may be dug
in the wild or bought of nurserymen. The domesticated double _Helianthus
multiflorus_ is always valuable.

[Illustration: Double Sunflower]

[Illustration: Orgyalis Sunflower]

[Illustration: Wild Sunflower Plant]

Of the annual Sunflowers, there are some which are not generally
cultivated that should receive more attention. The silver-leaved species
from Texas (_H. argophyllus_), and the small, light lemon-yellow
variety, are two of the best.

[Illustration: Wild Sunflower]


SWAINSONA. This makes a very desirable house plant, blooming through the
late winter and early spring months. The blossoms, which resemble those
of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The foliage is finely cut,
resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the beauty of the plant, the
whole effect being exceedingly graceful. It may be grown from seed or
cuttings. Propagate a new stock each year. The flowers are large and
pure white. The plant has been called the “Winter Sweet Pea,” but the
flowers are not fragrant.


SWAN RIVER DAISY (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) is a charming little border
plant, growing to the height of 12 to 15 inches, and bearing quantities
of blue or white flowers. The flowers last a long time when cut, and
give a vase of flowers a light, graceful effect. The seed should be sown
in boxes, hotbed, or windows; or, in warm garden soil, the seed may be
sown where the plants are to stand. Only half hardy, and should not be
planted out until settled weather. Annual.


SWEET CORN. See _Corn_.


SWEET HERBS. The Herb garden should find a place on all amateurs’
grounds. Herbs may readily be made profitable by disposing of the
surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter will often buy
all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, as the general supply of
medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, and goes into the hands of the
wholesaler and is often old when received by the local dealer. The
seedsmen’s catalogues mention upwards of forty different Herbs,
medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are perennial, and will
grow for many years if well taken care of. However, it is better to
resow every three or four years. The annual kinds are raised from seeds
each year. Beds 4 feet square of each of the Herbs will supply an
ordinary family.


SWEET PEA. No annual receives greater attention these days than the
Sweet Pea. Sweet Pea exhibitions are held in several sections of the
country, the press gives considerable space to the discussion of
varieties, and the public generally is interested in the growing or
buying of the flower. On any occasion the Sweet Pea is in place. A
bouquet of shaded colors, with a few sprays of galium or the perennial
gypsophila, makes one of the choicest of table decorations. Deep, mellow
soil, early planting and heavy mulching suit them admirably. Sow the
seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, making a drill
5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 inches of soil. When the
plants have made 2 or 3 inches growth above the soil, fill the drill
nearly full, leaving a slight depression in which water may be caught.
After the soil is thoroughly soaked with water, a good mulch will hold
the moisture. To have the ground ready in early spring, it is a good
plan to trench the soil in the fall. The top of the soil then dries out
very quickly in the spring and is left in good physical condition.
Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that
often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods will
lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, do not
let the plants stand less than 8-12 inches apart.

[Illustration: Sweet Pea]

A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May and June,
and a fair fall crop obtained if care is taken to water and mulch; but
the best results will be secured with the very early planting. In the
middle and southern states, the seed may be planted in fall,
particularly in lighter soils. It is easy to get soils too rich in
nitrogen for Sweet Peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the
expense of flowers. If the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the
soil, and do not water frequently.


SWEET POTATOES are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, not by
planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The method of
obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of Sweet
Potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the whole
tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way),
covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well firmed soil. The sash
should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep
the Potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts
should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The
sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the
lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5
inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them out. The
ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 6
inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil so as
to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. On
this ridge the plants are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves,
and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4
feet apart. The after cultivation consists in stirring the soil between
the ridges; and as the vines begin to run they should be lifted
frequently to prevent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines
have been touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to
dry a few days, and stored in a dry, warm place. To keep Sweet Potatoes,
store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry sand, and keep them in a dry
room. See that all bruised or chilled potatoes are thrown out.


SYRINGING plants with water has two general offices: to clean the plants
of pests or of dirt; to check evaporation or transpiration from the
plant itself.

Gardeners look upon water as a good insecticide. That is, if it can be
thrown upon the plants somewhat forcibly by means of a syringe or pump,
or by the hydrant hose, it will wash off the insects and drown many of
them. The water should be applied in a fine and somewhat forcible spray.
Care should be taken that the plant is not torn or bruised. The red
spider is one of the most serious pests on house plants, and, in a dry
season, on plants about the lawn. It thrives in a dry atmosphere. It
usually lives on the under sides of the leaves. Syringing the plants
frequently will destroy the pests. The thrips and slugs on rose bushes
can nearly always be kept in check if one can spray or syringe his
plants frequently. See _Spraying_.

Syringing to check transpiration from the foliage is very useful with
plants which are recently transplanted. For instance, when carnations
are taken from the field and placed in the house, it is well to syringe
them occasionally until they have become established. The same is true
with cuttings.

In Syringing plants, it is well to take care that the ground does not
become too wet; otherwise the plant may suffer at its root. In the
house, plants should rarely be syringed except when the weather is
bright, so that they may soon dry off. The plant should not go into the
night with wet foliage. Out of doors in hot weather, it is best to
syringe toward nightfall. The foliage will ordinarily not suffer in such
cases. With plants in the house, it is necessary to keep the leaves dry
most of the time in order that fungi may not breed. This is true of
carnations, which are very liable to attacks of the rust.

Plants are sometimes syringed or sprayed to protect them from frost. See
_Frost_.


TERRACES may be desirable for two reasons: to hold a very steep slope;
to afford an architectural base for a building.

It is rarely necessary to make a distinct Terrace in the lawn. Even if
the lawn is very steep, it may be better to make a gradual slope than to
cut the place in two with a Terrace. A Terrace makes a place look
smaller. It is always difficult to make and to keep in repair. The
surface is not readily cut with a lawn mower. Unless the sod is very
dense, the upper corner tends to wash off with the rains and the foot
tends to fill in. Nature does not have straight banks unless they are
rock. The illustration in the margin shows how it is possible to treat a
sloping lawn. In the distance is a distinct, sharp-angled Terrace; but
in the foreground this Terrace has been carried out into the lawn, so
that the slope is an agreeable one.

[Illustration: A slope is better than a terrace]

If it is necessary to Terrace a yard in order to hold it, the Terrace
would better be at one side rather than in the middle. In that case, one
is able to secure a good breadth of lawn. If the Terrace is at the
outer side next the street, a perpendicular, mason-work, retaining wall
may be constructed. If it is on the inner side of the lawn, it may be
placed close to the building and be made to appear as a part of the
architecture: it may be made the base of the building. If this is done,
there should be a balustrade around the edge of the Terrace to give it
architectural feeling. The descent from the Terrace to the lawn may be
made by means of steps, so as to add to the architectural aspect of the
place. Terraces are most in place about buildings which have many strong
horizontal lines; they do not lend themselves so well to buildings in
the Gothic style. The general tendency is to make too many Terraces. The
cases are relatively few in which they may not be dispensed with.


THINNING of fruit has four general uses: to cause the remaining fruit to
grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops; to save the
vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects and diseases by
destroying the injured fruit.

The Thinning of fruit is nearly always done soon after the fruit is
thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the fruits are
likely to persist. Peaches are usually Thinned when they are the size of
one’s thumb. If Thinned before this time, they are so small that it is
difficult to pick them off; and it is not so easy to see the work of the
curculio and thereby to select the injured fruits. Similar remarks will
apply to other fruits. The general tendency is, even with those who Thin
their fruits, not to Thin enough. It is usually safer to take off what
would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. The remaining
specimens are better. Varieties which tend to overbear profit very
greatly by Thinning. This is notably the case with many Japanese plums,
which, if not Thinned, are very inferior.

Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. If one knows where the
fruit buds are, cutting them off will have the effect of removing the
fruit. In the case of tender fruits, like peaches, however, it may not
be advisable to Thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the fruit
may be still further Thinned by the remaining days of winter, by late
spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. However, the proper
pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in part, a Thinning of the fruit.
The peach is borne on the wood of the previous season’s growth. The best
fruits are to be expected on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is
the practice of peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood
from the inside of the tree. This has the effect of Thinning out the
inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended on the
remainder. Apples are rarely Thinned; but in many cases, Thinning can be
done with profit. On all home grounds, fruits should be Thinned whenever
the trees are very full. In general, the best time to thin the fruit, as
already said, is when the fruits have become large enough to be seen and
handled. The discarded fruits should be burned if they contain insects
or fungi.


THUNBERGIA. Tender climbers, making very pretty low screens. They are at
their best when grown along the ground where the moisture keeps them
free from the attacks of red spider. Some of the kinds are very fine
vase or basket plants. All may be grown easily from seed. Annuals, 4 to
6 feet. Flowers white and yellow.

[Illustration: Thunbergia alata]


TILLAGE. By Tillage is meant the stirring of the soil. Tillage is the
fundamental operation in agricultural practice. Most farmers till for
three reasons: to get the seed into the land; to keep the weeds down;
and to get the crop out of the land. The real reason for Tillage,
however, is to ameliorate the land; that is, Tillage makes the soil
mellow and fine, and an agreeable place in which plants may grow. It
enables the soil to hold moisture, to present the greatest feeding
surface to roots, to allow the circulation of air, and intensifies many
chemical activities. Tilling the soil is the first means of making it
productive. If one understands the many forces that are set at work, the
Tilling of the soil becomes one of the most interesting and exciting of
all agricultural operations.

[Illustration: For hand Tilling]

The exact method of Tilling the soil in any particular case must be
determined by many circumstances. Light soils are handled differently
from heavy soils; and much depends also upon the season of the year in
which the Tillage is done. In all ordinary soils, the effort should be
made to work them deep, so that there is a deep reservoir for the
storage of moisture and a large area in which roots can work. Subsequent
Tillage throughout the growing season is performed very largely for the
purpose of keeping the top of the soil loose and fine so that the
moisture from beneath cannot pass off into the atmosphere. This loose
layer of soil, extending two or three inches from the surface, may
itself be very dry; but it breaks up the capillary connection between
the lower soil and the air, and thereby prevents evaporation. This
surface layer of loose, mellow soil is often spoken of as the
earth-mulch. It answers much the same purpose as a mulch of straw or
leaves in interposing a material between the moist soil and the air
through which the moisture cannot rise. If this mulch is repaired as
often as it should be, weeds cannot grow; but the object of the Tilling
is more to make and maintain the mulch than to destroy weeds. The
surface should be Tilled shallow in the growing season as often as it
tends to become compact or encrusted. This will be after every rain, and
usually as often as once in ten days when there is no rain. The tools to
be used for this surface Tillage are those which will comminute or fine
the soil most completely without compacting it or leaving it in ridges
or in furrows. In garden work, a fine rake is the ideal thing; whereas
in field work, some of the wire-tooth weeders or smoothing harrows are
excellent. In fields which are hard and lumpy, however, it will be
necessary to use heavier and rougher tools.

[Illustration: Steel rake]

In order to break down hard clay soils, one must exercise great care not
to work them when they are wet; and also not to work them very much when
they are dry. There is a time, shortly after a rain, when clay lumps
will break to pieces with a very slight blow. At this time it is well to
go over them with a harrow or a rake. After the next rain, they can be
gone over again, and before the end of the season the soil should be in
fine condition. An excellent way of breaking down clay land is to plow
or spade it in the fall and allow it to weather in the winter. In such
cases the land should not be raked or harrowed, but allowed to lie rough
and loose. Very hard clay lands sometimes run together or cement if
handled in this way, but this will not occur if the land has stubble or
sod or a dressing of manure, for the fibrous matter will then prevent it
from puddling. Lime sown on clay land at the rate of twenty to forty
bushels to the acre also has a distinct effect in pulverizing it. This
may be sown in fall, or preferably in spring when the land is plowed.

One of the most important ways of ameliorating land is to work vegetable
matter into it so as to give it humus. Soils which are loose, black and
friable contain much of this vegetable mold. In many cases the chief
value of stable manure is to add this humus to the soil. Many soils need
humus more than they need plant-food, and hence stable manure gives
better results in those cases than commercial fertilizers. The farmer
secures the humus by plowing under stubble and sod, and occasional green
crops.


TOMATO. The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in
a greenhouse, hotbed or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch of
seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can
use. When the plants have reached the height of two or three inches they
should be transplanted into 3-inch flower pots, old berry boxes or other
receptacles, and allowed to grow slow and stocky until time to set them
out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). They should be set in rows
four or five feet apart, the plants being the same distance in the rows.
Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and to
hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent
support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at
home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford an
excellent support. A very showy method is that of a frame made like an
inverted V, which allows the fruits to hang free; with a little
attention to trimming, the light reaches the fruits and ripens them
perfectly. This support is made by leaning together two lath frames. The
late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the sun; or
they will ripen if placed in a drawer.

[Illustration: Tomato]

One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred
plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off
quickly. The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground
and the rampant suckers are cut out.


TOOLS of many kinds, and well chosen, are one of the joys of a garden.
There is great satisfaction in a well-made, clean tool which does its
work well. Keep the tools bright. They should be under cover, and in
place, when not in use. A cupboard may be built by the rear porch, or in
the barn or carriage house. See that the cupboard is in a dry place.
Various Tools have been mentioned in the preceding pages, and other
useful kinds are shown in the article on _Weeds_.


TRANSPLANTING. This operation the gardener calls in one instance
“pricking out.” This means taking young seedling plants from the seed
box as soon as they are large enough to be handled--usually when the
first “rough” leaves have developed--and replanting them in other boxes
or pots, either singly or at a greater distance apart than they were
when in the seed boxes. The term is used in the operation of setting out
plants from the hotbed, frame or house to the garden; also in removing
shrubs or trees. Transplant on a cloudy day, and just before a rain, if
possible.


TRIMMING is a term which is ordinarily confounded with pruning (which
see). The word “Trimming,” however, should be restricted to the shaping
of the trees and not to the thinning of the tree or to pruning for wood,
fruit or other special object. Trimming is only one of the means of
pruning. Trimming is mostly used in the case of hedges. It is also used
to keep evergreens in shape. Many ornamental plants are also Trimmed
into various forms, although it is a question if such Trimming is
usually wise. Fruit trees should be pruned, as a rule, rather than
Trimmed: that is, they usually should be allowed to take their natural
form, the pruner taking out the superfluous wood and keeping them within
manageable bounds.


TROPÆOLUM. See _Nasturtium_.


TUBEROSE. The Tuberose requires more heat to grow to perfection than it
is usually possible to give here in the North. If planted in the border
they will not start into growth until the ground has become thoroughly
warm--usually after the middle of June,--making the season before frost
too short for their perfect growth and flower. However, if started in
loose soil or moss in a warm room or on benches of a greenhouse, the
roots will soon start from the tuber and make a fine growth. If planted
out in June with a good ball of roots they are likely to bloom before
frost. If any danger of frost is feared they may be lifted into pots or
boxes and taken into the house, when they will bloom without a check. As
with other bulbs, a sandy soil will suit.


TUBEROUS BEGONIA. A large bed of these covered with crimson, pink,
white, or yellow flowers, ranging from 2 to 4 and even 6 inches in
diameter, some double, some single, is a striking sight. Yet such a
sight is not uncommon about the large eastern cities where the Tuberous
Begonia is now used somewhat for bedding.

Our interior summers are more trying, and so far, few in the west have
succeeded so well with the Tuberous Begonia as a bedding plant. It makes
a fine summer-blooming pot-plant, however, for the greenhouse or window,
and with due attention to its requirements, it may be used as a bedding
plant. It properly falls under greenhouse plants in its requirements.

[Illustration: Double Tuberous Begonia]

C. L. Allen, writing of its culture in his work on “Bulbs and
Tuberous-Rooted Plants,” says: “The principal point learned in regard to
its culture is, that it must be treated as a plant and not as a bulb.
The enthusiastic florist, seeing the many good qualities of the plant,
has led amateurs to believe it could be treated as a bulb, and planted
out in the same manner as the gladiolus or tigridia and kept dormant
during the winter in the same manner. This is a great mistake, as the
tubers will not endure as long a period of rest and cannot be exposed to
the air for a long time without seriously injuring their vitality. The
tubers must be kept in dry earth or sand, until they show signs of
growth, which will be not later than the first of March; then they may
be started into rapid growth. After the eyes are fully developed the
tubers may be divided: each eye will make a plant. Then they are treated
in all respects like greenhouse plants, and grown on until the proper
season for their planting out. This is not before the first of June, as
Begonias are quite sensitive to cold nights, but not at all to heat. At
that time the plants should be fully 6 inches in height and
proportionately strong. Such plants will make a grand display the entire
season, rather delighting in great heat.”

[Illustration: Tuberous Begonia, single.]

In starting the tubers in March, they should be placed in moist sand or
moss in a temperature of 60° to 65°, either in the greenhouse or window.
After the buds are well started the tubers may be divided as pointed
out, or planted whole. They prefer a rich, rather sandy soil. When they
are well under way give them all the light and air they will bear, and
keep them close to the glass to avoid “legginess” and to insure a firm,
sturdy growth. A week before planting them out they should be given
abundance of air and light to “harden off” the plants preparatory to
setting them in sun and wind.

The beds should be in a somewhat sheltered place where they will be
partially shaded from the hot midday sun. Let the soil be well enriched
with old manure or humus and thoroughly worked over to a depth of one
foot. During dry periods the beds will need watering from time to time;
but never water them when the sun is shining full on them, or the
foliage may be scorched. A mulch of leaf-mold or old manure will be
helpful in keeping the soil moist and the roots cool.

Before frost the tubers should be carefully taken up and gradually dried
in the shade, after which they are to be placed in dry sand or earth, in
shallow boxes, and kept till time to start them in the spring. They
should be kept in a cool place, secure from frost and away from stoves
or heating pipes.

For amateurs it is better to recommend buying bulbs of the several
colors, instead of attempting to grow them from seeds, which are
extremely small and require early sowing, warmth and close attention.


TULIPS are hardy and easy to grow. The advice given under _Bulbs_,
_Crocus_ and _Hyacinth_ applies to Tulips. They may be forced for winter
bloom (see under _Window-Gardens_). The garden bed will last several
years if well cared for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the
old bulbs are taken up every two or three years and replanted, all the
inferior ones being cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy
anew. Plant in October, 4 to 6 inches deep.

[Illustration: Tulip as a pot-plant]


TURNIPS and RUTABAGAS are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July
and early August, although many kitchen gardens have them from spring
sown seed. The culture is easy. Sow in drills 12 inches apart. They will
become edible in from six to eight weeks. They are cool-weather crops,
and the tops stand much frost. If maggots bother, do not raise them on
the same land again for three or four years. Bordeaux mixture repels the
flea-beetles. One ounce will sow 150 feet of drill.


VARIETIES. It is usually one of the first desires of the intending
planter to inquire about Varieties. It is one of the secondary things to
be considered, however, for the first thing to do is to prepare the
land, to determine whether one’s soil and site are adapted to the plant
in question, and to discuss other matters of a general nature. When all
the fundamental things are settled, then the question of Varieties,
which is a special matter, may be taken up. Although the selection of
Varieties is a very special matter, it is nevertheless essential to
success or satisfaction in the growing of any plant.

It should first be considered that the selection of Varieties is very
largely a personal matter. The man should grow the Varieties which he
likes. This is especially true in the selection of Varieties for the
home grounds, in which case the market ideals enter very little into the
problem. Having satisfied one’s own mind as to what kinds of Varieties
he would like, he may then inquire of the neighbors and of experts if
those Varieties are adapted to the soil and climate. If he intends to
grow for market, he should canvass the market demands thoroughly before
choosing the Varieties. The lists of Varieties in books, bulletins, and
seedmen’s catalogues are hints, not rules. As a general statement, it
may be said that the only way to determine the best variety for one’s
own conditions is to experiment. There is intense satisfaction in the
experimenting itself. The best lists of Varieties are those which are
recommended for some specific purpose, and which represent the combined
opinions of many expert growers. It is rare that one man’s judgment
should be final, particularly with respect to fruits or plants which are
grown in general outdoor conditions. Under glass a gardener can make his
climate and conditions, and therefore he can adapt his conditions to his
plants. The experiment station test usually represents but one man’s
opinion. It may be a more valuable opinion than that of another man, but
it is not final. It should be studied in connection with other lists,
particularly those made by practical growers. If one desires to choose
Varieties, therefore, he should consult the best growers of those plants
in his immediate neighborhood; he should call upon the experiment
station of his state or province; and he should consult the most recent
writings on the subject.


VEGETABLE GARDEN. It is one of the choicest of pleasures to raise one’s
own vegetables. Make the Vegetable Garden ample, but economize labor.
Plant the things in rows, not in beds. Then they can be tilled easily,
either by horse- or hand-tools. Wheel-hoes will accomplish most of the
labor of tillage in a small garden. Have the rows long, to avoid waste
of time in turning and to economize the land. One row can be devoted to
one vegetable; or two or more vegetables of like requirements (as
parsnips and salsify) may comprise a row. Have the permanent vegetables,
as rhubarb and asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere
with the plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on
different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing
something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage maggots or
club-root become thoroughly established in the plantation, omit for a
year or more the vegetables on which they live.

[Illustration: Lay-out of a farm Vegetable Garden]

Make the soil deep, mellow and rich before the seeds are sown. Time and
labor will be saved. Rake the surface frequently to keep down weeds and
to prevent the soil from baking (see _Tillage_). Radish seeds sown with
celery or other slow-germinating seeds will come up quickly, breaking
the crust and marking the rows. About the borders of the Vegetable
Garden is a good place for flowers to be grown for the decoration of the
house and to give to friends. Along one side of the area rows of bush
fruits may be planted.

A home Vegetable Garden for a family of six would require, exclusive of
potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Beginning at one side of the
garden and running the rows the short way (having each row 100 feet
long) sowings may be made, as soon as the ground is in condition to
work, of the following:

Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify.

One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set
onions, the balance black-seed for summer and fall use.

Fifty feet of early beets, 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may be
sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the
room.

One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should be from
a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart.

One hundred feet of early cauliflower; culture same as for cabbage.

Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows:

  100 feet of extra early.
  100 feet of intermediate.
  100 feet of late.
  100 feet of extra early, sown late.
   50 feet of dwarf varieties.

If trellis or brush is to be avoided, frequent sowings of the dwarfs
will maintain a supply.

After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, the
tender vegetables may be planted, as follows:

Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate,
and two rows late.

One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties.

Vines as follows:

  10 hills of cucumbers, 6 x 6 feet.
  20 hills of muskmelon, 6 x 6 feet.
   6 hills of early squash, 6 x 6 feet.
  10 hills of Hubbard, 6 x 6 feet.

One hundred feet of okra.

Twenty eggplants. One hundred ft. (25 plants) tomatoes.

Six large clumps of rhubarb.

An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide.

Late cabbage, cauliflower and celery are to occupy the space made vacant
by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and string beans.

A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, thyme,
sage, hyssop, mints.


VERBENA. The Verbena is one of the most satisfactory garden plants,
blooming early. Bloom continues through the dry, hot days of summer. As
the cool weather of the fall comes on, Verbenas increase in size of
plant and flower until killed by severe frost. Plants grown from seed
sown in a hotbed or house early in the spring, transplanted into pots or
boxes when large enough, and planted out as soon as the ground has
become warm, are more vigorous and seem to have more fragrance than
those grown from cuttings. Many of the strains have become so well fixed
that the colors come true from seed. Cuttings are often employed, but
the handling of stock plants is a difficult matter except in the hands
of a professional, and when plants are wanted in quantity it is cheaper
to buy them of the plantsman than to grow them from seed or attempt to
keep over stock plants. Therefore, for the home garden, seed-grown
plants are usually most satisfactory. Give a sunny position. Thin to 10
to 15 inches apart each way.

[Illustration: Verbena]


VINCA, or PERIWINKLE. Trailing plants. Useful in covering unsightly
places, for vases, urns or baskets. Some of the species (as the common
evergreen, mat-like “running myrtle”) are hardy, but the most useful
ones need the protection of a house through the winter. The
variegated-leaved kinds are fine for winter decorations. Propagated
mostly by cuttings. Perennials.


VINES. The use of Vines for screens and pillar decorations has increased
in the last decade until now they may be seen in nearly all grounds. The
tendency has been towards using the hardy Vines, of which the
ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the most common. It is a very
rapid grower, and lends itself to training more readily than many
others. The Japan ampelopsis (_A. tricuspidata_ or _Veitchii_) is a fine
clinging Vine, growing very rapidly when once established, and being
brilliantly colored after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than
the other, but is not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from
cuttings or division of the plants. Two woody twiners of recent
introduction are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They
are perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large, thick,
glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing thickly along
the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch of leaves. It blooms in
June. The flowers, which are white with a purple center, are borne in
clusters, followed by round or longish edible fruits. The akebia has
very neat cut foliage, quaint purple flowers, and often bears ornamental
fruit. Other hardy Vines are the wistaria, clematis, tecoma (or
trumpet-flower), aristolochia (or Dutchman’s pipe), hedera (or ivy), and
loniceras (or honeysuckles).

[Illustration: A vine support for a porch]

Of the tender Vines, the nasturtiums and ipomœas are the most common,
while the adlumia (p. 3), balloon vine (p. 28), passion vine, and the
gourds (p. 115), are frequently used. One of the best of recent
introduction is the annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This
is a very rapid growing Vine, seeding itself each year, and needing
little care. See _Hop_. All the tender Vines should be planted after all
danger of frost is over.

_ANNUAL HERBACEOUS CLIMBERS_

_Tendril-climbers_

  Adlumia (biennial).
  Balloon Vine.
  Cobæa.
  Gourds.
  Nasturtiums.
  Sweet Pea.
  Wild Cucumber.

_Twiners_

  Beans, Flowering.
  Cypress Vine.
  Dolichos.
  Hop, Japanese.
  Ipomœa.
  Moonflower.
  Morning-glory.
  Thunbergia.
  Yam, Chinese, or Cinnamon Vine (perennial from a hardy tuber).

_PERENNIAL WOODY CLIMBERS FOR THE OPEN_

_Tendril-climbers_

  Ampelopsis tricuspidata.
  Clematis of many kinds.
  Grape of various kinds.
  Greenbrier.
  Ivy (by roots).
  Roses (scramblers).
  Trumpet Creeper (by roots).
  Virginia Creeper.

_Twiners_

  Actinidia polygama.
  Akebia quinata.
  Aristolochia, or Dutchman’s Pipe.
  Bittersweet, or Celastrus.
  Honeysuckles.
  Moonseed.
  Wistaria.


[Illustration: Violets]

VIOLET. While the culture of Violets as house-plants rarely proves
successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had
elsewhere through the greater part of the winter and the spring months.
A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may be
set in August or September. Have the ground rich and well drained. These
plants will make fine crowns by December, and often will bloom before
weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. In order to have flowers
through the winter, it will be necessary to afford some protection to
the plants. This may best be done by building a frame of boards large
enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the same way as for a
hotbed, four to six inches higher at the back than the front. Cover the
frame with sash or boards, and as the weather becomes severe, mats or
straw should be placed over and around the frame to protect the plants
from freezing. Whenever the weather will permit, the covering should be
removed and air admitted, but no harm will come if the frames are not
disturbed for several weeks. A large amount of sunlight and a high
temperature through the middle of winter are to be avoided, for if the
plants are stimulated a shorter period of bloom will result. In April
the frame may be removed, the plants yielding the later part of the crop
without protection. Violets belong with the “cool” plants of florists.
When well hardened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They
should always be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each
year. They thrive in a temperature of 55° to 65°.


WALKS. The place for a Walk is where it is needed. It should go directly
between two points. It need not be straight, but if it is curved, the
curve should be direct. That is, the pedestrian should be conscious that
he is going in the direction in which he desires to go, and is not
making a detour for the simple purpose of following the walk.
Convenience should be the first thing to be considered. After the Walks
have been laid in the most convenient places, the question of
ornamenting the borders may be considered. It is always well to avoid,
so far as possible, the bisecting of lawns by Walks, as that makes two
lawns where there should be only one. The larger a greensward can be
made to look, the more park-like and natural is the place. Avoid taking
the Walks circuitously around the borders unless they are laid for the
simple purpose of making a ramble to show off the grounds. All Walks
which are designed for serious use should appear to be necessary, direct
and convenient.

Some soils which contain considerable loam and sand will pack with
tramping and will make good Walks, but it is usually necessary to lay
some material on the soil. Gravel, cinders, and the like, may be better
than the natural surface; but in many cases they are worse, since the
surface is loose and is unpleasant to walk on. In Walks which are on
decided slopes, and down which the water is likely to run, any loose
material is very objectionable, since it runs to the low places. The
best material for Walks, all things considered, is cement, or what is
called artificial stone. If well made, it is as durable as flagging, and
is not so likely to get out of place. It holds its surface perfectly
year after year.

The only objection to cement Walks is when they are more or less
temporary, for in such cases they cannot be moved. There is often very
serious difficulty in securing good cement Walks, but the difficulties
are easily overcome. They are chiefly two: there is not sufficient
draining material beneath the cement; and the cement itself is not made
strong enough. There should be at least a foot of loose material, as
brickbats or cinders, below the cement cover; and if the place is low
and likely to hold water, there should be still greater drainage. Pound
the material down, or let it stand for some time until it becomes
thoroughly settled together. Then lay the cement in two courses. The
first course may be three or four inches thick and made of well mixed
mortar, comprising three parts Portland cement, one part water lime, and
two to three times as much sharp sand as Portland. When this has become
partially hardened, but before it is set and while still moist, put on a
finishing layer of one inch, made of one part Portland cement, one part
water lime, and one part sharp sand. It is important that the materials
be very thoroughly mixed. See that the edges of the walk are made square
and true by laying down a form of boards lengthwise the area before the
cement is put on. The edges should be as thick as the middle, for a thin
crust on the edge tends to snap off. A walk made in this way on a
well-drained foundation will last almost indefinitely. It is best that
it be made in such season that it can become thoroughly set before
frosty weather comes.


WALLFLOWER. A favorite plant for pots or garden, having a clove-like
fragrance. Seed of most varieties should be sown the year before wanted.
One kind, being an annual, will flower the same season the seed is sown.
Hardy. Two to 3 feet.


WASHING orchard trees is an old practice. It usually results in making
a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it destroys insects and fungi
which lodge underneath the bark; but probably the chief reason is that
it softens the bark and allows the trunk to expand. It is possible,
also, that the potash from the soap or lye eventually passes into the
ground and affords some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily Washed with
soap suds or with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with
an old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps
nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself.

It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, and
again in the fall, with the idea that such Washing destroys the eggs and
the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy borers if they are just
getting a start, but it will not keep away the insects which lay the
eggs, and will not destroy the borers which have found their way
underneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as well to wash the trees very
early in the spring, when they are starting into growth. It is an old
practice to wash trees with strong lye when they are affected with the
oyster-shell bark louse. The modern method of treating these pests,
however, is to spray with some kerosene compound when the young growth
is starting, for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new
wood and they are very easily destroyed.


WATERING HOUSE PLANTS. It is impossible to give rules for the Watering
of plants. Conditions that hold with one grower are different from those
of another. Advice must be general. Give one good Watering at the time
of potting, after which no water should be given until the plants really
need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives out a clear ring, it is an
indication that water is needed. In the case of a soft-wooded plant,
just before the leaves begin to show signs of wilt, is the time for
Watering. When plants are taken up from the ground, or when plants have
their roots cut back in repotting, gardeners rely, after the first
copious Watering, on syringing the tops of the plants two or three
times each day, until a new root-growth has started, Watering at the
roots only when absolutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into
larger pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but
those from the borders, that have had their roots mutilated or
shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be syringed often.
One soon becomes familiar with the wants of individual plants, and can
judge closely as to need of water. All soft-wooded plants with a large
leaf-surface need more water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in
luxuriant growth of any kind more than a plant that has been cut back or
become defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture must
be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has been made for
having a moist air the plants should be syringed often. See _Syringing_.

[Illustration: Watering pot]


WATERMELON. The culture of this is essentially the same as that for
muskmelons (which see), except that most varieties require a warmer
place and longer period of growth. Give the hills a distance of from 6
to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, “quick” soil and sunny exposure. It is
essential, in the North, that the plants grow rapidly and come into
bloom early. One ounce of seed will plant thirty hills.


WAX PLANT. The Wax Plant, or HOYA, is one of the commonest of
window-garden plants, and yet it is one which people usually have
difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants to
manage if a person understands its nature. It is naturally a
summer-blooming plant, and should rest during the winter time. In the
winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If the
temperature does not go above 50° Fahr., so much the better; neither
should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant is brought
out to warm temperature, given water and started into growth. The old
flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers come from them as
well as from the new wood. When it is brought out to be started into
growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a size larger pot, but always
with more or less fresh earth. The plant should increase in value each
year. In conservatories, it is sometimes planted out in the ground and
allowed to run over a wall, in which case it will reach a height of many
feet.


WEEDS. Many very strong Weeds are a compliment to one’s soil: only good
soil produces them. But they are not a compliment to one’s tillage. If
the soil is well prepared and well tilled to conserve moisture and to
unlock plant-food (see _Tillage_), Weeds will find little chance of
growing. Stir the ground often: it benefits the ground and keeps out the
Weeds. Plant vegetables in long straight rows rather than in beds, for
thereby tillage is made easier. For beds and for small plants, the
hand-weeders (as shown in the margin) are very efficient. They save
laborious finger-work. Weed seeds are often distributed in manure,
especially if Weeds have been allowed to grow and ripen on the piles.
See that pernicious Weeds do not seed about the premises. For the
treatment of weedy lawns, see the article _Lawns_.

[Illustration: Potato hook and weed-puller]

[Illustration: Finger-weeder]

[Illustration: Trowel and angle-weeder]


WINDBREAKS. There is the greatest difference of opinion as to the value
of Windbreaks for fruit plantations. These differences arise from the
fact that a Windbreak may be of great benefit in one place, but a
disadvantage in another. It is always advisable to break the force of
very strong winds, for such winds tend to injure the trees when laden
with fruit or ice, and they blow off the fruit; and in dry countries
they cause the soil to become parched. If the wind is usually warmer
than the area, however, particularly in the winter time, it is better
not to stop it, but to allow it to circulate through the plantation.
This is the case in areas which lie close to large bodies of water. The
wind coming off the water is warmer than that off the land, and tends
thereby to protect the fruit plantation from severe cold. A circulation
of air is desirable in late spring and early fall in order to avoid the
still frosts. Therefore, if the area is very closely surrounded by dense
plantations, it may have what the fruit-growers call “stagnant air;” but
thinning out the Windbreak on one or two sides, or cutting holes through
it, may allow the air to move through, thereby affording atmospheric
drainage and insuring greater immunity from the light local frosts.

It is ordinarily better to break the force of the winds than to stop or
deflect them. That is, the Windbreak may be thin enough to allow the
wind to take its normal direction, but its force is broken. A stone wall
or a very dense hedge of evergreens may cause the wind to rise over the
plantation or to be deflected to one side; and this, in many cases, as
already said, may be a decided disadvantage. The philosophy of a good
Windbreak for fruit plantations may be summed up in this way: the force
of heavy winds should be broken; warm winds should be allowed to
circulate freely through the plantation; still air should be avoided.

Ordinarily, one or two rows of deciduous trees are sufficient
protection. When the plantation is very much exposed to very cold or
land winds, a thick evergreen screen may be a decided advantage. It is
usually better to have the heavy Windbreak on the upper side of the
area, so that it may not interfere with the natural drainage of the cold
air down the slope. In making a Windbreak, it is important that those
trees be chosen which will not become harboring places for orchard
enemies. The wild cherry, for example, is inveterately attacked by the
tent caterpillar, and the wild crabs and wild plums are likely to breed
orchard insects. If the Windbreak is planted some time in advance of
the orchard, the row of fruit trees next the Windbreak will be very
likely to suffer from lack of moisture and food.

A different type of Windbreak is that which is desired for a shelter
belt about the home grounds. The matter of atmospheric drainage does not
enter into this problem to any great extent. Such shelter belt is
usually placed at the extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest
or prevailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If so,
the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes. For a lower
belt, the arborvitæ is excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or
Austrian, are also to be advised, particularly if the belt is at some
distance from the residence. As a rule, the coarser the tree the farther
it should be placed from the house.

Persons may desire to use the Windbreak as a screen to hide undesirable
objects. If these objects are of a permanent character, as a barn or an
unkempt property, evergreen trees should be used. For temporary screens,
any of the very large-growing herbaceous plants may be used. Very
excellent subjects are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor
beans, large varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Very
efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, paulownia,
basswood, sumac, and other plants which tend to throw up succulent
shoots from the base. After these plants have been set a year or two,
they are cut back nearly to the ground every winter or spring, and
strong shoots are thrown up with great luxuriance during the summer,
giving a dense screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such
purposes, the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If,
after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are weak, some
of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the area every fall with
manure will tend to make the ground rich enough to afford a very heavy
summer growth.


WIND FLOWER. See _Anemone_.


WINDOW-GARDENS. _The Summer Window Garden_.--This type of gardening is
particularly suited to those who live in the crowded city, where the
want of other space makes the Window-Garden the only one possible.

[Illustration: A summer window ledge]

Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket work of wood
and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the growing of plants, are
on the market; but such, while desirable, are by no means necessary. A
stout pine box of a length corresponding to the width of the window,
about 10 inches wide and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box,
since it will likely be some distance above the street, and its sides,
moreover, are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit
into the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend to keep
the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a necessity. A few
small holes in the bottom of the box will provide for drainage; but with
carefulness in watering these are not necessary, since the box by its
exposed position will dry out readily during summer weather, unless the
position is a shaded one. In the latter case provision for good drainage
is always advisable.

Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be necessary to
make the soil richer than would be required were the plants to grow in
the garden. The most desirable soil is one that does not pack hard like
clay, nor contract much when dry, but remains porous and springy. Such a
soil is found in the potting soil used by florists, and it may be
obtained from them at from 50 cts. to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of
the soil will be such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel
of sharp sand for mixing with the soil, to make it more porous and
prevent baking.

Some pot the plants and then set them in the window-box, filling the
spaces between the pots with moist moss. Again, they are planted
directly in the soil. The former method, as a general rule, is to be
preferred in the winter Window-Garden; the latter during the summer.

The plants most valuable for the purpose are those of drooping habit,
such as lobelias, tropæolums, _Othonna crassifolia_, Kenilworth ivy, and
sweet alyssum. Such plants may occupy the front row, while back of them
may be the erect-growing plants, like geraniums, heliotropes, begonias,
etc.

Just what plants will be most suitable will depend on the exposure. For
the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of plants may be
used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be necessary to select the
more vigorous-growing kinds. In the latter position, suitable plants for
drooping would be: *tropæolums, *passifloras, the single petunias, sweet
alyssum, lobelias, verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing
plants: geraniums, heliotropes, etc. If the position is a shaded one,
the drooping plants might be of the following: tradescantia, Kenilworth
ivy, *senecio or parlor ivy, sedums, *moneywort, vinca, *smilax,
*lygodium or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants would be dracænas,
palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, and others.

For shady situations the main dependence is upon plants of graceful form
or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window the selection may be of
blooming plants. Of the plants above mentioned for these two positions,
those marked with an asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be
trained up about the sides of the window. Others will be found among the
climbing plants mentioned under _Vines_, _Annuals_ and _Basket Plants_.

After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will be desirable
to give the surface of the soil among the plants a very light sprinkling
of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure from time to time
during the summer; or instead of this, a watering with weak liquid
manure about once a week. This is not necessary, however, until the
growth shows that the roots have about exhausted the soil.

In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. In this
case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, shorten in
some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the plants. It will also
be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich soil. Increased care will
be necessary, also, in watering, since the plants will have less light
than previously, and, moreover, there may be no provision for drainage.

_The Winter Window-Garden_ may consist simply of a jardiniere, or a few
choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of a considerable
collection, with more or less elaborate arrangements for their
accommodation in the way of box, brackets, shelves and stands. Expensive
arrangements are by no means necessary, nor is a large collection. The
plants and flowers themselves are the main consideration, and a small
collection well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be
easily accommodated and kept in good condition.

The window for plants should have a southern, south-eastern or eastern
exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in the winter,
especially those which are expected to bloom. The window should be
tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be an advantage in cold
weather.

Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very trying on
them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug and warm one night
and shivering in a temperature only a few degrees above freezing the
next. Some plants will live in spite of it, but they cannot be expected
to prosper. Those whose rooms are heated with steam, hot water or hot
air will have to guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as
keeping them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm all
day, if shut up and made snug in the evening will often keep warm over
night without heat except in the coldest weather. Rooms in frame
dwellings, and exposed on all sides, soon cool down.

It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas, as the burning
gas vitiates the atmosphere. Most living-rooms have too dry air for
plants. In such cases the bow window may be set off from the room by
glass doors; one then has a miniature conservatory.

While keeping the plants at a suitable temperature, we must not forget
that plants love moisture, or a humid atmosphere, and that our
living-rooms ordinarily are very dry. A pan of water on the stove or on
the register and damp moss among the pots, will afford plants the
necessary humidity.

The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free it from dust.
A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the water is an excellent
place for this purpose. The plants may be turned on their sides and
supported on a small box above the bottom of the tub. Then they may be
freely syringed without danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually
advisable not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen
kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of Rex begonias should be cleansed
with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But if the leaves can
be quickly dried off by placing them in the open air on mild days, or
moderately near the stove, the foliage may be syringed.

[Illustration: A window-box]

The window-box in the room will be seen near at hand, so may be more or
less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with ornamental
tile held in place by moulding; or a light lattice-work of wood
surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made and strong box of about
the dimensions mentioned on page 242, with a strip of moulding at the
top and bottom, answers just as well; and if painted green, or some
neutral shade, only the plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets,
jardinieres and stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists.

The window-box may consist of merely the wooden box; but a preferable
arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep instead of six, then
have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the box. This is provided with
a false wooden bottom, with cracks for drainage, two inches above the
real bottom of the tray. The plants will then have a vacant space below
them into which drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly
watered as the plants require without danger of the water running on the
carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some suitable point on
a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit of its being drained
every day or so if the water tends to accumulate. It would not do to
allow the water to remain long; especially should it never rise to the
false bottom, as then the soil would be kept too wet.

Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it on brackets
attached below the window-sill; but a preferable arrangement is to
support the box on a low and light stand of suitable height provided
with rollers. It may then be drawn back from the window, turned around
from time to time to give the plants light on all sides, or turned with
the handsome side in as may be desired, and so on.

Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they are kept in
pots they may be rearranged, changed about to give those which need it
more light, etc. Larger plants which are to stand on shelves or brackets
may be in porous earthenware pots; but the smaller ones which are to
fill the window-box may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of
these are flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded
close together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, damp
sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in place, keep the soil
from drying out too rapidly, and at the same time give off moisture, so
grateful to the foliage.

In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more pots on
either side of the window, about one-third or half way up, will be
desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge or pivot, to admit
of swinging it forward or backward. These bracket plants usually suffer
for moisture, and are rather difficult to manage.

Florists now usually grow plants suitable for Window-Gardens and winter
flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will take pleasure in
making out a suitable collection. The plants should be ordered early in
the fall; the florist will then not be so crowded for time and can give
the matter better attention.

Most of the plants suitable for the winter Window-Garden belong to the
groups which florists grow in their medium and cool houses. The former
are given a night temperature of about 60°, the latter about 50°. In
each case the temperature is 10 to 15° higher for the daytime. Five
degrees of variation below these temperatures will be allowable without
any injurious effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or
less check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day temperature
may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather.

_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 60°_

_Upright flowering plants._--Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria “Lincoln
Park,” begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia or
calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single
petunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas.

_Upright foliage plants._--Muehlenbeckia, _Cycas revoluta_, _Dracæna
fragrans_ and others, palms, cannas, _Farfugium grande_, achyranthes,
ferns, araucaria, epiphyllums, pandanus or “screw pine,” _Pilea
arborea_, _Ficus elastica_, _Grevillea robusta_.

_Climbing plants._--_Asparagus tenuissimus_, _A. plumosus_, _Cobæa
scandens_, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia),
_Senecio mikanioides_ and _S. macroglossus_ (parlor ivies). See also
list below.

_Low-growing, trailing, or drooping plants._--These may be used for
baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum, lobelia,
_Fuchsia procumbens_, mesembryanthemum, _Oxalis pendula_, _O.
floribunda_ and others, _Russelia juncea_, _Mahernia odorata_ or
honey-bell.

_Foliage plants of drooping habit._--Vincas, _Saxifraga sarmentosa_,
Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or Wandering Jew, _*Festuca glauca_,
othonna, _*Isolepsis gracilis_, English ivy, _Selaginella denticulata_
and others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers
are small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*)
droop but slightly.

_PLANTS FOR AN AVERAGE NIGHT TEMPERATURE OF 50°_

_Upright flowering plants._--Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations,
chrysanthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevia, marguerite or
Paris daisy, single petunias, _Anthemis coronaria_, camellias, ardisia
(berries), cineraria, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter
lily when in bloom, and others.

_Upright foliage plants._--Pittosporum, palms, aucuba, euonymus (golden
and silvery variegated), araucaria, pandanus, dusty miller.

_Climbing plants._--English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy,
lygodium (climbing fern).

_Drooping or trailing plants._--Flowering kinds are: Sweet alyssum,
_Mahernia odorata_, Russelia and ivy geranium.

_Bulbs in the Window-Garden._--The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent
house plant. Its flowers are small, but they are graceful and especially
well suited for cutting. The bulbs are easily forced, and are managed
like other hyacinths. The secret of forcing the Dutch bulbs and most
others is to pot them and then, after watering the pots, set them away
in a cool, dark place until the pot is filled with roots. They may be
placed in the cellar “to root up,” or be buried 3 or 4 inches deep in
the soil. It is well to delay potting them until such time as they can
be kept cool while forming their roots. A temperature of about 40° to
45° suits them during this period. In most cases it is well to select
pots 5 or 6 inches in diameter and place from three to six bulbs in a
pot, according to the size of the bulbs and the plants. The pot having
been filled with soil, it is only necessary to press them down till the
tip, or about one-fourth, shows above the soil. After this a slight
jarring or sharp rap will settle the soil. They are then watered and set
away, as before mentioned. If kept dark and cool they will need no more
watering until they are brought out and begin to grow, when they may be
watered freely.

[Illustration: Window-garden]

Hyacinths, tulips and narcissus all require about the same treatment.
When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are brought
out and given a temperature of some 55° to 60° till the flowers appear,
when they should be kept in a cooler temperature, say 50°.

The Easter lily is managed the same way, only, to hasten its flowers, it
should be kept at not lower than 60° at night. Warmer will be better.
Lilies may be covered an inch or more deep.

Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, and then
started into growth at once. At first they might be given a night
temperature of 50°, and 55° to 60° when they have begun to grow.

Bulbs like the snowdrop and crocus are planted several or a dozen in a
pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but they are very sensitive
to heat, and require only to be given the light when they have started
to grow, without any forcing. Forty to 45° will be as warm as they ever
need be kept. See the article on _Bulbs_; also, the advice given for the
various plants under their respective names.

_Pests._--Window-Garden pests are discussed under _Insects_.


WINTER-KILLING is induced by a late fall growth, and also by a dry,
unprotected soil. All tender woody plants should be well ripened before
cold weather comes: cease tillage early: do not apply stimulating
manures late in the season. Mulch all tender or half hardy plants (see
_Mulch_). Even hardy plants are benefited by a mulch. When possible, it
is better to bend plants to the ground and cover them than to wrap them
up as they stand; but this cannot be done with tall or stiff subjects.
Wrapping in straw or burlaps affords excellent protection, but it is
possible to wrap too heavily. A barrel, less the heads, may be set over
small plants and then filled with leaves or other loose litter; or a
cylinder of wire chicken-screen may be substituted for the barrel.
Remove the protection in the spring before the buds start. See that mice
do not nest in the barrel or in the mulch.


ZINNIA. Showy hardy annuals. The old formal type of Zinnias has given
place to a race of freer forms which are excellent plants either for
color effect or for cutting. The colors have been varied and brightened,
the flowers doubled and the plants dwarfed. Seed should be sown in a
hotbed or house in March, transplanted once at least before planting
out, and set in well enriched soil. Or, the seed may be sown where the
plants are to grow. The tall varieties (3 feet) should stand 18 to 24
inches apart. These are best for masses at a distance.


_The Best and Newest Rural Books_

BOOKS ON LEADING TOPICS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE ARE
HERE MENTIONED. EACH BOOK IS THE WORK OF A SPECIALIST, UNDER THE
EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF PROFESSOR L. H. BAILEY, OF THE CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, OR BY PROFESSOR BAILEY HIMSELF, AND IS READABLE, CLEAR-CUT
AND PRACTICAL.


THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES

Includes books which state the underlying principles of agriculture in
plain language. They are suitable for consultation alike by the amateur
or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist or the student, and
are freely illustrated and finely made.

The following volumes are now ready:

THE SOIL. By F. H. KING, of the University of Wisconsin. 303 pp. 45
illustrations. 75 cents.

THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell University.
Fifth edition. 421 pp. 45 illustrations. $1.25.

THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. By E. G. LODEMAN, late of Cornell University.
399 pp. 92 illustrations. $1.00.

MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. By H. H. WING, of Cornell University. Fifth
edition. 311 pp. 43 illustrations. $1.00.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT-GROWING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 516
pp. 120 illustrations. $1.25.

BUSH-FRUITS. By F. W. CARD, of Rhode Island College of Agriculture and
Mechanic Arts. Second edition. 537 pp. 113 illustrations. $1.50.

FERTILIZERS. By E. B. VOORHEES, of New Jersey Experiment Station. Third
edition. 332 pp. $1.00.

THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. By L. H. BAILEY. Third edition. 300 pp.
92 illustrations. $1.25.

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. By F. H. KING, University of Wisconsin. 502 pp.
163 illustrations. $1.50.

THE FARMSTEAD. By I. P. ROBERTS. 350 pp. 138 illustrations. $1.25.

RURAL WEALTH AND WELFARE. By GEORGE T. FAIRCHILD, Ex-President of the
Agricultural College of Kansas. 381 pp. 14 charts. $1.25.

THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING. By L. H. BAILEY 468 pp. 144
illustrations. $1.25.

THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. By W. H. JORDAN, of New York State Experiment
Station. 450 pp. $1.25 net.

FARM POULTRY. By GEORGE C. WATSON, of Pennsylvania State College. 341
pp. $1.25 net.

New volumes will be added from time to time to the RURAL SCIENCE SERIES.
The following are in preparation:

PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By J. C. ARTHUR, Purdue University.

THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK BREEDING. By W. H. BREWER, of Yale University.

PLANT PATHOLOGY. By B. T. GALLOWAY and associates, of U. S. Department
of Agriculture.

CARE OF ANIMALS. By N. S. MAYO, of Connecticut Agricultural College.

THE POME FRUITS (Apples, Pears, Quinces). By L. H. BAILEY.

THE FARMER’S BUSINESS HANDBOOK. By I. P. ROBERTS, of Cornell
University.


THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES

Comprises practical hand-books for the horticulturist, explaining and
illustrating in detail the various important methods which experience
has demonstrated to be the most satisfactory. They may be called manuals
of practice, and though all are prepared by Professor BAILEY, of Cornell
University, they include the opinions and methods of successful
specialists in many lines, thus combining the results of the
observations and experiences of numerous students in this and other
lands. They are written in the clear, strong, concise English and in the
entertaining style which characterize the author. The volumes are
compact, uniform in style, clearly printed, and illustrated as the
subject demands. They are of convenient shape for the pocket, and are
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THE HORTICULTURIST’S RULE-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 312 pp.
75 cts.

THE NURSERY-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 365 pp. 152
illustrations. $1.00.

PLANT-BREEDING. By L. H. BAILEY. 293 pp. 20 illustrations. $1.00.

THE FORCING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. 266 pp. 88 illustrations. $1.00.

GARDEN-MAKING. By L. H. BAILEY. Fifth edition. 417 pp. 256
illustrations. $1.00.

THE PRUNING-BOOK. By L. H. BAILEY. Fourth edition. 545 pp. 331
illustrations. $1.50.

THE PRACTICAL GARDEN-BOOK. By C. E. HUNN and L. H. BAILEY. 250 pp. Many
marginal cuts. $1.00.


WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY

THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE: A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested
by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of
Horticulture in the Cornell University.

FOURTH EDITION--515 PAGES--22 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00

To those interested in the underlying philosophy of plant life, this
volume, written in a most entertaining style, and fully illustrated,
will prove welcome. It treats of the modification of plants under
cultivation upon the evolution theory, and its attitude on this
interesting subject is characterized by the author’s well-known
originality and independence of thought. Incidentally, there is stated
much that will be valuable and suggestive to the working horticulturist,
as well as to the man or woman impelled by a love of nature to
horticultural pursuits. It may well be called, indeed, a philosophy of
horticulture, in which all interested may find inspiration and
instruction.

   THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE comprises thirty essays touching
   upon The General Fact and Philosophy of Evolution (The Plant
   Individual, Experimental Evolution, Coxey’s Army and the
   Russian Thistle, Recent Progress, etc.); Expounding the Fact
   and Causes of Variation (The Supposed Correlations of Quality
   in Fruits, Natural History of Synonyms, Reflective
   Impressions, Relation of Seed-bearing to Cultivation,
   Variation after Birth, Relation between American and Eastern
   Asian Fruits, Horticultural Geography, Problems of Climate and
   Plants, American Fruits, Acclimatization, Sex in Fruits,
   Novelties, Promising Varieties, etc.); and Tracing the
   Evolution of Particular Types of Plants (the Cultivated
   Strawberry, Battle of the Plums, Grapes, Progress of the
   Carnation, Petunia, The Garden Tomato, etc.).


THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of
Horticulture in the Cornell University.

472 PAGES--125 ILLUSTRATIONS--$2.00

In this entertaining volume, the origin and development of the fruits
peculiar to North America are inquired into, and the personality of
those horticultural pioneers whose almost forgotten labors have given us
our most valuable fruits is touched upon. There has been careful
research into the history of the various fruits, including inspection of
the records of the great European botanists who have given attention to
American economic botany. The conclusions reached, the information
presented, and the suggestions as to future developments, cannot but be
valuable to any thoughtful fruit-grower, while the terse style of the
author is at its best in his treatment of the subject.

   THE EVOLUTION OF OUR NATIVE FRUITS discusses The Rise of the
   American Grape (North America a Natural Vineland, Attempts to
   Cultivate the European Grape, The Experiments of the Dufours,
   The Branch of Promise, John Adlum and the Catawba, Rise of
   Commercial Viticulture, Why Did the Early Vine Experiments
   Fail? Synopsis of the American Grapes); The Strange History of
   the Mulberries (The Early Silk Industry, The “Multicaulis
   Craze,”); Evolution of American Plums and Cherries (Native
   Plums in General, The Chickasaw, Hortulana, Marianna and Beach
   Plum Groups, Pacific Coast Plum, Various Other Types of Plums,
   Native Cherries, Dwarf Cherry Group); Native Apples
   (Indigenous Species, Amelioration has begun); Origin of
   American Raspberry-growing (Early American History, Present
   Types, Outlying Types); Evolution of Blackberry and Dewberry
   Culture (The High-bush Blackberry and Its Kin, The Dewberries,
   Botanical Names); Various Types of Berry-like Fruits (The
   Gooseberry, Native Currants, Juneberry, Buffalo Berry,
   Elderberry, High-bush Cranberry, Cranberry, Strawberry);
   Various Types of Tree Fruits (Persimmon, Custard-Apple Tribe,
   Thorn-Apples, Nut-Fruits); General Remarks on the Improvement
   of our Native Fruits (What Has Been Done, What Probably Should
   Be Done).


LESSONS WITH PLANTS: Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the
Common Forms of Vegetation. By L. H. BAILEY, Professor of Horticulture
in the Cornell University, with delineations from nature by W. S.
HOLDSWORTH, of the Agricultural College of Michigan.

SECOND EDITION--491 PAGES--446 ILLUSTRATIONS--12 MO--CLOTH--$1.10 NET

There are two ways of looking at nature. The _old way_, which you have
found so unsatisfactory, was to classify everything--to consider leaves,
roots, and whole plants as formal herbarium specimens, forgetting that
each had its own story of growth and development, struggle and success,
to tell. Nothing stifles a natural love for plants more effectually than
that old way.

The new way is to watch the life of every growing thing, to look upon
each plant as a living creature, whose life is a story as fascinating as
the story of any favorite hero. “Lessons with Plants” is a book of
stories, or rather, a book of plays, for we can see each chapter acted
out if we take the trouble to _look_ at the actors.

   “I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it,
   and the longer I look, the better I like it. I find it not
   only full of interest, but eminently suggestive. I know of no
   book which begins to do so much to open the eyes of the
   student--whether pupil or teacher--to the wealth of meaning
   contained in simple plant forms. Above all else, it seems to
   be full of suggestions that help one to learn the language of
   plants, so they may talk to him.”--DARWIN L. BARDWELL,
   _Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton_.

   “It is an admirable book, and cannot fail both to awaken
   interest in the subject, and to serve as a helpful and
   reliable guide to young students of plant life. It will, I
   think, fill an important place in secondary schools, and comes
   at an opportune time, when helps of this kind are needed and
   eagerly sought.”--Professor V. M. SPALDING, _University of
   Michigan_.

FIRST LESSONS WITH PLANTS

An Abridgement of the above. 117 PAGES--116 ILLUSTRATIONS--40 CENTS
NET.


BOTANY: An Elementary Text for Schools. By L. H. BAILEY.

355 PAGES--500 ILLUSTRATIONS--$1.10 NET

“This book is made for the pupil: ‘Lessons With Plants’ was made to
supplement the work of the teacher.” This is the opening sentence of the
preface, showing that the book is a companion to “Lessons With Plants,”
which has now become a standard teacher’s book. The present book is the
handsomest elementary botanical text-book yet made. The illustrations
illustrate. They are artistic. The old formal and unnatural Botany is
being rapidly outgrown. The book disparages mere laboratory work of the
old kind: the pupil is taught to see things as they grow and behave. The
pupil who goes through this book will understand the meaning of the
plants which he sees day by day. It is a revolt from the dry-as-dust
teaching of botany. It cares little for science for science’s sake, but
its point of view is nature-study in its best sense. The book is divided
into four parts, any or all of which may be used in the school: the
plant itself; the plant in its environment; histology, or the minute
structure of plants; the kinds of plants (with a key, and descriptions
of 300 common species). The introduction contains advice to teachers.
The book is brand new from start to finish.

   “An exceedingly attractive text-book.”--_Educational Review._

   “It is a school book of the modern methods.”--_The Dial._

   “It would be hard to find a better manual for schools or for
   individual use.”--_The Outlook._

***

  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
  No. 66 Fifth Avenue  NEW YORK


THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURE: By L. H. BAILEY, of Cornell
University, assisted by WILHELM MILLER, and many expert cultivators and
botanists.

4 VOLS.--OVER 2800 ORIGINAL ENGRAVINGS--CLOTH--OCTAVO $20.00 NET PER
SET. HALF MOROCCO, $32.00 NET PER SET

This great work comprises directions for the cultivation of
horticultural crops and original descriptions of all the species of
fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants known to be in the
market in the United States and Canada. “It has the unique distinction
of presenting for the first time, in a carefully arranged and perfectly
accessible form, the best knowledge of the best specialists in America
upon gardening, fruit-growing, vegetable culture, forestry, and the
like, as well as exact botanical information.... The contributors are
eminent cultivators or specialists, and the arrangement is very
systematic, clear and convenient for ready reference.”

   “We have here a work which every ambitions gardener will wish
   to place on his shelf beside his Nicholson and his Loudon, and
   for such users of it a too advanced nomenclature would have
   been confusing to the last degree. With the safe names here
   given, there is little liability to serious perplexity. There
   is a growing impatience with much of the controversy
   concerning revision of names of organisms, whether of plants
   or animals. Those investigators who are busied with the
   ecological aspects of organisms, and also those who are
   chiefly concerned with the application of plants to the arts
   of agriculture, horticulture, and so on, care for the names of
   organisms under examination only so far as these aid in
   recognition and identification. To introduce unnecessary
   confusion is a serious blunder. Professor Bailey has avoided
   the risk of confusion. In short, in range, treatment and
   editing, the Cyclopedia appears to be emphatically useful; ...
   a work worthy of ranking by the side of the Century
   Dictionary.”--_The Nation._

THIS WORK IS SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION, AND TERMS AND FURTHER
INFORMATION MAY BE HAD OF THE PUBLISHERS.

  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
  No. 66 Fifth Avenue NEW YORK



Transcriber’s Note:


Extra, missing, or misprinted punctuation has been corrected without
note. Variation in hyphenation (e.g. house plants vs. house-plants), and
capitalization in some botanical names has been left as in the original.

The following changes were made to the text:

p. 9: couservatory to conservatory

p. 12: Burridgianum to Burridgeanum (Cosmidium Burridgeanum)

p. 13: autumnale to autumnalis (Adonis autumnalis.)

p. 13: Callirrhöe to Callirrhoë

p. 23: herbacous to herbaceous

p. 41: Beaumé to Baumé (26° Baumé)

p. 55: batchelor’s to bachelor’s (bachelor’s buttons)

p. 56: Callirhoë to Callirrhoë

p. 89: rocommended to recommended (the treatment recommended for Crocus)

p. 122: establishd to established (when well established)

p. 132: 80,° to 80°, (begins to fall below 80°,)

p. 133: witholding to withholding (gradually withholding water)

p. 207: seed to seeds (six seeds in each hill)

p. 233: ipomeas to ipomœas and Ipomea to Ipomœa

p. 233: Cobea to Cobæa

Advertisements (end of book): science’ to science’s (science for
science’s sake), and the repeated headings “WORKS BY PROFESSOR BAILEY”
removed.





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