Title: The Science of Animal Locomotion (Zoopraxography) - An Electro-Photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases - of Animal Movements
Author: Muybridge, Eadweard, 1830-1904
Language: English
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[Illustration]



 THE SCIENCE OF
 ANIMAL LOCOMOTION
 (ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY)

 AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF
 CONSECUTIVE PHASES OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS

 BY

 EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE

 EXECUTED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

 DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS
 RESULTS OF THE INVESTIGATION
 DIAGRAMS
 PROSPECTUS
 LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS

 EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE

 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

 PHILADELPHIA

 OR
 10 HENRIETTA STREET,
     COVENT GARDEN
       LONDON



ANIMAL LOCOMOTION.

(ZOOPRAXOGRAPHY.)



INTRODUCTORY.


In 1872, the author of the present work at Sacramento, California,
commenced an investigation with the object of illustrating by
photography some phases of animal movements. In that year his
experiments were made with a famous horse--Occident, owned by Senator
Stanford--and photographs were made, which illustrated several phases of
action while the horse was trotting at full speed, laterally, in front
of the camera.

The experiments were desultorily continued; but it was not until 1877
that the results of any of them were published.

In the meanwhile he devised an automatic electro-photographic apparatus,
for the purpose of making consecutive photographic exposures at
_regulated_ intervals of time or of distance. Some of the results of his
experiments with this apparatus, which illustrated successive phases of
the action of horses while walking, trotting, galloping, &c., were
published in 1878, with the title of "THE HORSE IN MOTION." Copies of
these photographs were deposited the same year in the Library of
Congress at Washington, and some of them found their way to Berlin,
London, Paris, Vienna, &c., where they were commented upon by the
journals of the day.

In 1882, during a lecture on "The Science of Animal Locomotion in its
relation to Design in Art," given at the Royal Institution (see
_Proceedings_ of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, March 13,
1882), he exhibited the results of some of his experiments made during a
few antecedent years at Palo Alto, California; when he, with the
zoopraxiscope and an oxy-hydrogen lantern, projected on the wall a
synthesis of many of the actions he had analysed.

It may not be considered irrelevant if he repeats what he on that
occasion said in his analysis of the quadrupedal walk:--

"So far as the camera has revealed, these successive foot fallings are
invariable, and are probably common to all quadrupeds....

"It is also highly probable that these photographic
investigations--which were executed with wet collodion plates, with
exposures not exceeding in some instances the one five-thousandth part
of a second--will dispel many popular illusions as to the gait of a
horse, and that future and more exhaustive experiments, with the
advantages of recent chemical discoveries, will completely unveil to the
artist all the visible muscular action of men and animals during their
most rapid movements....

"The employment of automatic apparatus for the purpose of obtaining a
regulated succession of photographic exposures is too recent for its
value to be properly understood, or to be generally used for scientific
experiment. At some future time the explorer for hidden truths will find
it indispensable for his investigations."

In 1883, the University of Pennsylvania, with an enlightened exercise of
its functions as a contributor to human knowledge, instructed the author
to make, under its auspices, a comprehensive investigation of "Animal
Locomotion" in the broadest significance of the words.


A DIAGRAM OF THE STUDIO

and the arrangement of the apparatus used for this purpose is here
given.

[Illustration]

TT represents the track along which the model M was caused to move. B is
the background, divided into spaces of 5 centimetres square for the
purpose of measurement.

L, a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras, parallel to the
line of motion (at a distance of 15 metres or about 48 feet therefrom),
for a series of 12 lateral exposures.

R, a vertical battery of electro-photographic cameras, at right angles
to the lateral battery, for a series of 12 _rear_ foreshortenings.

F, a horizontal battery of electro-photographic cameras, at any suitable
angle to the lateral battery for a series of _front_ foreshortenings.

O, the position of the electric batteries, a chronograph for recording
the time intervals of exposures, and other apparatus used in the
investigation.

A clock-work apparatus, set in motion at the will of the operator,
distributed a series of electric currents, and synchronously effected
consecutive exposures in each of the three batteries of cameras.

The intervals of exposures were recorded by the chronograph, and divided
into thousandths of a second. These intervals could be varied at will
from seventeen one-thousandth parts of a second to several seconds.

The task of making the original negatives was completed in 1885; the
remaining years have been devoted to the preparation of the work for
publication.

[Illustration:

LATERAL elevation of some consecutive phases of action by representative
horses.

Each line illustrates the successive fallings of the feet during a
single stride.

After the last phase illustrated, the feet, during continuous motion,
will revert practically to their position in the first phase.

The comparative distances of the feet from each other or from the ground
are not drawn to scale; and, in any event, would be merely approximate
for the succeeding stride.

In the conjectural stride No. 10, phase 3 is very doubtful, phases 5 and
7 seem probable in a very long stride.]



DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.


The results of this investigation are

=Seven Hundred and Eighty-one Sheets of Illustrations=, containing more
than 20,000 figures of men, women, and children, animals and birds,
actively engaged in walking, galloping, flying, working, jumping,
fighting, dancing, playing at base-ball, cricket, and other athletic
games, or other actions incidental to every-day life, which illustrate
motion or the play of muscles.

These sheets of illustrations are conventionally called "plates."

Each plate illustrates the successive phases of a single action,
photographed with automatic electro-photographic apparatus at regulated
and accurately recorded intervals of time, _consecutively_ from one
point of view; or, _consecutively_ AND _synchronously_ from _two_, or
from _three_ points of view.


=Each Plate is complete in itself without reference to any other Plate.=

When the complete series of twelve consecutive exposures, from each of
the three points of view, are included in ONE Plate, the arrangement is
usually thus:--

 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  | Laterals.
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  |
 |1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  |
 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  | Rear Foreshortenings from
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  |   points of view on the same
 |1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|   vertical line, at an angle
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  |   of 90° from the Laterals.
 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  | Front Foreshortenings from
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  |   points of view on the same
 |1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10|11|12|   horizontal plane, at suitable
 | | | | | | | | | |  |  |  |   angles from the Laterals.
 +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+--+--+

The plates are not _photographs_ in the common acceptation of the word,
but are printed in PERMANENT INK, from gelatinised copper-plates, by the
New York Photo-Gravure Company, on thick linen plate-paper.

The size of the paper is 45 × 60 centimetres--19 × 24 inches, and the
printed surface varies from 15 × 45 to 20 × 30 centimetres--6 × 18 to 9
× 12 inches.

The number of figures on each plate varies from 12 to 36.

To publish so great a number of plates as one undivided work was
considered unnecessary, for each subject tells its own story; and
inexpedient, for it would defeat the object which the University had in
view, and limit its acquisition to large Libraries, wealthy individuals,
or Institutions where it would be beyond the reach of many who might
desire to study it.

It has, therefore, been decided to issue a series of One Hundred Plates,
which number, for the purposes of publication, will be considered as a
"COPY" of the work. These one hundred plates will probably meet the
requirements of the greater number of the subscribers.

In accordance with this view is issued the following

     _PROSPECTUS_



 ANIMAL LOCOMOTION,

 AN ELECTRO-PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF CONSECUTIVE PHASES
 OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTS,

 BY

 EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE.

 1872-1885.

 PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE
 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.

 _Exclusively by Subscription._

 CONSISTING OF A SERIES OF

 ONE HUNDRED PLATES,

 AT A SUBSCRIPTION PRICE OF

 ONE HUNDRED DOLLARS
     For the United States, or

 TWENTY GUINEAS
     For Great Britain;

 Or the equivalent of Twenty Guineas in the gold currency
 of other countries in Europe.

 This will be for

 Austria,
     Two Hundred and Ten Florins;

 Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland,
     Five Hundred and Twenty-five Francs;

 Germany,
     Four Hundred and Twenty Marks;

 Holland,
     Two Hundred and Fifty Guilders.

The Plates are enclosed in a strong, canvas-lined, full AMERICAN-RUSSIA
LEATHER PORTFOLIO.

For the purpose of placing all of the subscribers upon an equal footing
in regard to cost, a copy of the work will be sent in the portfolio, and
packed between boards, to any well-established Institution, or to any
subscriber, properly endorsed, to any city in Central or Western Europe,
or in the United States.

     FREIGHT CHARGES PAID,

if so requested, to the railway station, with the understanding that the
subscription price is remitted within one week of the day of the arrival
of the work at the station.

Custom duties, or any other expenses, if any, at the cost of the
subscriber.

Additional Plates in any required number will be supplied to the
subscriber at the same proportionate rate; these, however, must be
ordered at the same time as the subscription Plates.

The Plates will be supplied

     EXCLUSIVELY TO SUBSCRIBERS.

It was considered inadvisable to make an _arbitrary_ selection of the
one hundred Plates offered to subscribers, and with the object of
meeting, as far as possible, their diverse requirements, they are
invited to make their own selection, either from the subjoined list of
subjects, or from a detailed catalogue, which will be forwarded free of
expense to every subscriber.

The following are the numbers of Plates published of each class of
subjects, from which the subscriber's selection can be made:--

                                                   Plates Published.

 Men,      draped                                              6
  "        pelvis cloth                                       72
  "        nude                                              133
 Women,    draped                                             60
   "       transparent drapery and semi-nude                  63
   "       nude                                              180
 Children, draped                                              1
    "      nude                                               15
 Movements of a man's hand                                     5
 Abnormal movements, men and women, nude and
     semi-nude                                                27
 Horses walking, trotting, galloping, jumping, &c.            95
 Mules, oxen, dogs, cats, goats, and other domestic
     animals                                                  40
 Lions, elephants, buffaloes, camels, deer, and other
     wild animals                                             57
 Pigeons, vultures, ostriches, eagles, cranes, and other
     birds                                                    27
                                                            ----
           Total number of Plates                            781
 Containing more than 20,000 Figures.

=Should the selection be made from the Catalogue, it will be advisable
to give the Author permission to change any one of the selected Plates
for any other illustrating the same action, if, in his judgment, the
substituted Plate illustrates that action with a better model, or in a
more perfect manner than the one selected.=

=With regard to the selection of Plates, however, it has been found by
experience that unless any special subject or plate is required it will
be more satisfactory to the subscriber if he gives the Author GENERAL
INSTRUCTIONS as to the CLASS of subjects desired and to leave the
SPECIFIC selection to him.=

Many of the large Libraries and Art or Science Institutions in America
and in Europe have subscribed for, and have now in their possession, a
complete series of the seven hundred and eighty-one Plates, the
subscription price for which is

     FIVE HUNDRED DOLLARS

in the United States,

     ONE HUNDRED GUINEAS

in Great Britain for the complete series, in eight full AMERICAN-RUSSIA
LEATHER PORTFOLIOS, or if bound in eleven volumes, each plate _hinged_,
full American-Russia leather,

     FIVE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DOLLARS

in the United States,

     ONE HUNDRED AND TEN GUINEAS

in Great Britain; or its equivalent for any city in Central or Western
Europe.

Subscribers who wish to make use of these Plates for the promotion or
diffusion of knowledge, or for artistic or scientific purposes, will be
afforded facilities for acquiring working copies by special arrangement
with the Author.



VALEDICTORY.


This is not exactly the place nor the time for the Author to express his
obligations and thanks to those gentlemen who have assisted him in his
labours, but it affords a perhaps not inappropriate opportunity for him
to pay a tribute of gratitude to his recently deceased friend M.
Meissonier, without whose enthusiastic encouragement it is probable the
present work would never have been undertaken.

In 1882 he invited his friends to attend an illustrated Lecture given in
his studio by the Author, and then referring to a full knowledge of a
subject being necessary for it to be truthfully or satisfactorily
translated by the artist, declared how much his own impression of a
horse's motion had been changed after having carefully studied its
consecutive phases. Attention need not be directed to the modifications
in the expression of animal movements now progressing in the works of
the Painter and the Sculptor.

The investigations of the Author are so well known, and so generally
recognised as affording the only basis of truthful interpretation or
accurate criticism of Animal Movement, that it is unnecessary to quote
from the many elaborate reviews of "Animal Locomotion," which have been
published in the American, English, French, and German Scientific,
Artistic, and other Journals.

For the value of the present work to the general student of Nature and
the lover of Art, no less than to the Artist and the Archæologist, the
Physiologist and the Anatomist, it is with much pride and gratitude that
he refers to the annexed list of some of his European subscribers.

                                                                  E. M.

 10 HENRIETTA STREET,
     COVENT GARDEN,
       LONDON,
         _August 1891_.



SUBSCRIBERS.

The general or departmental Libraries of the following


UNIVERSITIES.

 Amsterdam
 Andrews, St.
 Basel
 Berlin
 Bern
 Bologna
 Bonn
 Breslau
 Bruxelles
 Edinburgh
 Erlangen
 Freiburg
 Genève
 Genova
 Glasgow
 Göttingen
 Griefswald
 Halle
 Heidelberg
 Innsbrück
 Jena
 Kiel
 Königsberg
 Leiden
 Leipzig
 Liège
 Louvain
 München
 Napoli
 Oxford
 Padova
 Pisa
 Prag
 Roma
 Rostock
 Strassburg
 Torino
 Tübingen
 Utrecht
 Wien
 Würzburg
 Zürich


IMPERIAL, NATIONAL, OR ROYAL ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS.

 Amsterdam
 Antwerpen
 Berlin
 Bern
 Birmingham
 Bologna
 Breslau
 Bruxelles
 Budapest
 Dresden
 Düsseldorf
 Firenzi
 Frankfurt
 Genova
 Gent
 Leipzig
 Liège
 London
 Manchester
 Milano
 München
 Napoli
 Paris
 Praha
 Roma (_de France_)
 Sheffield
 Torino
 Venezia
 Wien
 Zürich
 Architectural Institute, München
 Herkomer School of Art, Bushey


ART MUSEUMS.

 Amsterdam
 Berlin
 Budapest


ARCHÆOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS.

 Dresden
 Griefswald
 Heidelberg
 Königsberg
 Leipzig
 Prag
 Rostock
 Strassburg
 Wien
 Würzburg
 Zürich


INDUSTRIAL ART AND SCIENCE MUSEUMS.

 Berlin
 Dublin
 Edinburgh
 Kensington
 Paris
 Wien


INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS.

 Amsterdam
 Breslau
 Budapest
 Frankfurt
 Nürnberg
 Zürich


LIBRARIES.

 The Royal Library, Windsor Castle
 Birmingham, Free Public
 Edinburgh, Advocates'
 Glasgow, Mitchell Free
 Liverpool, Free Public
 London, British Museum
 Manchester, Free Public
 Nottingham, Free Public
 Paris, National Library


ANATOMICAL INSTITUTES.

 Bern
 Breslau
 Freiburg
 Halle
 Innsbrück
 Kiel
 Königsberg
 Leipzig
 München
 Pisa
 Prag
 Rostock
 Tübingen
 Würzburg
 Zürich


ROYAL COLLEGES OF SURGEONS.

 Edinburgh
 London


PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTES.

 Basel
 Berlin
 Bern
 Bologna
 Bonn
 Breslau
 Bruxelles
 Erlangen
 Freiburg
 Genova
 Göttingen
 Griefswald
 Halle
 Heidelberg
 Innsbrück
 Jena
 Kiel
 Königsberg
 Leipzig
 Louvain
 München
 Napoli
 Prag
 Rostock
 Strassburg
 Torino
 Tübingen
 Wien
 Würzburg
 Zürich


VETERINARY INSTITUTES.

 Alfort
 Bern
 Berlin
 Dresden


ANTHROPOLOGICAL MUSEUMS.

 Dresden
 Firenze


ETHNOLOGICAL, NATURAL HISTORY, AND ZOOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND MUSEUMS.

 Amsterdam
 Bruxelles
 Freiburg
 Kiel
 Leiden
 Liège
 Napoli
 Paris
 Rostock


PHYSICAL INSTITUTES.

 Basel
 Bologna
 Bruxelles
 Genève
 Heidelberg
 Padova
 Prag
 Roma
 Rostock
 Utrecht


POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOLS.

 Berlin
 Firenze
 Wien
 Zürich


COLLEGES.

 Charterhouse
 Clifton
 Dublin (Trinity)
 Eton
 Owens
 Rossall
 Wellington


ROYAL PORCELAIN MANUFACTORIES.

 Berlin
 Dresden


ARTISTIC, LITERARY OR SCIENTIFIC CLUBS.

 Düsseldorf, _Malkesten_
 Glasgow, _Western_
 London, _Athenæum_
 Rome, _Internazionale_

       *       *       *       *       *

 Agricultural High School of Berlin
 Faculty of Medicine of Paris
 Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow
 Psychological Institute of Leipzig
 Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh
 Royal Institution, Edinburgh
 Royal Dublin Society
 Royal Society of London

The names and works of the following subscribers are so well known that
the Academical, University, and other honourable distinctions
appertaining to them are omitted, they being entirely unnecessary:--


ARTISTS, _Architects, Painters, and Sculptors_.

 Albano, Salvatore
 l'Allemand, Sigmund
 Alma-Tadema, L.
 Armitage, E.
 Barabino, Nicolo
 Becker, Carl
 Begas, Reinhold
 Benczur, Gyula
 Berger, Julius
 Behrens, Peter
 Birch, Chas. B.
 Boehm, Sir J. Edgar
 Bonnat, Léon
 Boughton, Geo. H.
 Bouguereau, W. A.
 Braith, Anton
 Brandt, Josef von
 Brausewetter, Otto
 Bridgman, F. A.
 Brock, Thos.
 Canneel
 Carland, Onorato
 Carolus-Durand
 Cavallucci, C. Jacopo
 Cavelier, P. J.
 Charlton, John
 Clay, Sir Arthur
 Coleman, Chas. Caryl
 Coleman, Enrico
 Colin, Paul
 Conti, Tito
 Costa, Giovanni
 Crowe, Eyre
 Dalou, Jules
 Dannat, W. T.
 Davinet, E.
 Davis, H. W. B.
 Defregger, Franz von
 Detaille, Edouard
 Dicksee, Frank
 Diez, Rob.
 Diez, Wm.
 Drion, Prosper
 Dubois, Paul
 Ebner, L.
 Eisenmenger, August
 Ende, Herm
 Ewald, Ernst
 Faed, Thomas
 Falguiere
 Fildes, Luke
 Ford, E. Onslow
 Fremiet, M.
 Frith, W. P.
 Gallegos, José
 Garnier, Charles
 Gehrts, Joh.
 Gelli, Edouardo
 Gérôme, Jean Léon
 Gilbert, Alfred
 Gilbert, Sir John
 Goodall, Fredk.
 Gordigiani, Michele
 Gow, Andrew C.
 Grosse, Th.
 Grützner, Eduard
 Guignard, Gaston
 Gysis, N.
 Haüser, O.
 Hebert, Ernesto
 Herkomer, Hubert
 Hess, Anton
 Higgins, A.
 Hübner, Eduard
 Hunt, Holman
 Janssen, Pet.
 Kampf, Arthur
 Kaulbach, F. A. von
 Kips, A.
 Kirchbach, Fr.
 Klein-Chevalier
 Knaus, Ludwig
 Knight, Ridgway
 Knille, Otto
 Koehler, Robert
 Kopf, Joseph
 Kowalski, A. von
 Kroner, Ch.
 Kruse, Max
 Kuehl, G.
 Kühn, H.
 Leighton, Sir Frederick
 Lenbach, Franz R. von
 Linton, Sir James D.
 Löfftz, Ludwig R. von
 Long, Edwin
 Lotz, Carl
 Lucas, Seymour
 Luthmer, F.
 MacWhirter, John
 Marks, H. Stacy
 Marshall, W. Calder
 Maurier, George du
 Max, Gabriel
 Meeks, Eugene
 Meissonier
 Menzel
 Meyerheim, Paul
 Millais, Sir John E.
 Miller, Ferdinand R. von
 Molkenbaer, H. B. G.
 Moore, Henry
 Morelli, D.
 Morot, Aimé
 Muller, Carl
 Munkacsy, Mich. de
 Murgatroyd, J.
 Mützel, G.
 Nieper, Ludw.
 Orchardson, W. Q.
 Otto, Heinrich
 Ouless, W. W.
 Papperitz, Georg
 Parsons, Alfred
 Passini, Ludwig
 Piglhein, Bruno
 Portaels
 Powers, Longworth
 Poynter, E. J.
 Prell, H.
 Preyer, Ernest
 Puvis, de Chavennes
 Richmond, W. B.
 Rivalta, Augusto
 Riviere, Briton
 Robert-Fleury, Tony
 Rodin, A.
 Roll
 Roth, Ch.
 Rümann, Wilh.
 Sant, James
 Sarti, Diego
 Schaper, F.
 Schill, Adolf
 Schilling, Johannes
 Severn, Arthur
 Siemering, R.
 Six, J.
 Sommer
 Stieler, Eugen von
 Story, W. W.
 Sturgess, John
 Süs, Wilh.
 Swan, John M.
 Taylor, Edw. R.
 Teschendorf, E.
 Thiersch, Fredk.
 Thoma, Hans
 Thornycroft, Hamo
 Uhde, F. von
 Vibert, J. G.
 Vinea, Francesco
 Vriendt, de Jules
 Vuillefroy, F. de
 Wagner, Alex.
 Watts, George F.
 Weeks, E. L.
 Weishaupt, Victor
 Wells, Hy. T.
 Werner, A. von
 Whistler, J. McNeil
 Woolner, Thos.
 Zimmermann, Ernst
 Zügel, H.


ARCHÆOLOGISTS, MEN OF LETTERS, AUTHORS OF ART WORKS, ETC.

 Ball, Valentine
 Berndorf, Otto
 Berlepsch, H. E. von
 Bullen, George
 Coleman, Alexander
 Dickson, Wm. P.
 Donnelly, Genl.
 Duhn, F. von
 Duplessis, Georges
 Eaton, Fredk. A.
 Evans, John
 Falke, J.
 Graf, T. T.
 Hirschfeld, Gustav
 Holmes, Richard R.
 Kekulé, Prof.
 Klein, Wilhelm
 Körte, G.
 Michaelis, Ad.
 Muntz, Eugene
 Obreen, Fr. D. O.
 Overbeck, Johannes
 Pietsch, Ludwig
 Preuner, A.
 Pulszky, Karoli
 Ruskin, John
 Sambuy, Conte Ernesto di
 Schrieber, Th.
 Sittl, K.
 Smith, Genl. Sir R. M.
 Sutton, Chas. W.
 Tedder, Hy. R.
 Thode, H.
 Treu, Georg
 Webster, H. A.
 Wolff, Albert


PHYSIOLOGISTS.

 Albertoni, Pietro
 Albini
 Aubert, H.
 Bernstein, J.
 Biedermann, W.
 du Bois-Reymond
 Brown-Séquard
 Ewald, R.
 Exner, Sigmund
 Fano, Giulio
 Fick, A.
 Gaule, J.
 Goltz, F.
 Grützner, P.
 Heidenhain, R.
 Hensen, V.
 Hering, Ewald
 Hermann, L.
 Kries, J.
 Kronecker, H.
 Kühne, W.
 Landois, L.
 Luciani, Luigi
 Ludwig, C.
 Marey, E. J.
 Masoin, E.
 Meissner, G.
 Miescher, F.
 Moleschott, Senator J.
 Mosso, A.
 Munk, Hermann
 Pettigrew, J. Bell
 Pflüger, E.
 Rosenthal, I.
 Schiff, M.
 Slosse, A.
 Vintschgau, M. von
 Voit, C. von


ANATOMISTS.

 Braune, Wilh.
 Brunn, A. von
 Cleland, John
 Eisler, P.
 Flemming, W.
 Hasse, C.
 Henke, W. J.
 Humphry, G. M.
 Kölliker
 Marshall, John
 Rabl
 Romiti
 Roux, W.
 Rückert, J.
 Schwalbe, G.
 Stieda, L.
 Stöhr, Ph.
 Strasser, H.
 Thanhoffer, L. von
 Van Beneden, Edouard
 Virchow, Hans
 Wiedersheim


ANTHROPOLOGISTS, BIOLOGISTS, PALEONTOLOGISTS, ZOOLOGISTS, ETC.

 Acland, Sir H. W.
 Barrier, Gustave
 Blochmann, F.
 Bowman, Sir Wm.
 Brandt, K. E.
 Carpenter, P. Herbert
 Darwin, Francis
 Flower, W. H.
 Galton, Francis
 Günther, Albert
 Hartog, Marcus
 Haughton, Saml.
 Hollis, W. A.
 Huxley, T. H.
 Jensink, F. A.
 Kerbert, C.
 Lankester, E. Ray
 Lubbock, Sir John
 Mantegazza, Senator
 Meyer, A. B.
 Milne-Edwards
 Mivart, St. George
 Müllenhoff
 Müller, Max
 Newton, Alfred
 Owen, Sir Richard
 Pasteur, L.
 Romanes, Geo. J.
 Schmidt, Emil
 Schütz
 Sorby, H. C.
 Swinhoe, Chas.
 Van Wulverhorst
 Virchow, Rudolf
 Weismann, August
 Wundt, W.
 Yseux
 Zittell, C. A. von


PHYSICISTS, ETC.

 Abney, Capt. W. de W.
 Bellati
 Blazerna, Pietro
 Bramwell, Sir Fredk.
 Bunsen, R.
 Ditscheiner, L.
 Glaisher, James
 Hagenbach-Bischoff
 Helmholtz, H. von
 Huggins, Wm.
 Julius, V. A.
 Mach, E.
 Matthiessen, L.
 Moss, Rich. J.
 Quincke, Georg
 Righi, Augusto
 Rousseau, E.
 Soret, C.
 Tissandier, Gaston
 Thomson, Sir Wm.
 Vogel, H. W.
 Weber, H. F.

       *       *       *       *       *

 Moltke, Count von
 Portland, The Duke of
 Wharncliffe, The Earl of

..........

    Transcriber's Note:

    Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as
    possible.

    The author spelled Greifswald as Griefswald, Innsbruck as
    Innsbrück and Häuser as Haüser in this text. These spellings have
    been retained.

    OE ligatures have been expanded.
    Italic text has been marked with _underscores_.
    Bold text has been marked with =equals signs=.





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