Title: Treatises on Friendship and Old Age
Author: Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 106 BC-43 BC
Language: English
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TREATISES ON FRIENDSHIP AND OLD AGE

By Marcus Tullius Cicero


Translated by E. S. Shuckburgh



INTRODUCTORY NOTE

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, the greatest of Roman orators and the chief
master of Latin prose style, was born at Arpinum, Jan. 3, 106 B.C.
His father, who was a man of property and belonged to the class of
the "Knights," moved to Rome when Cicero was a child; and the future
statesman received an elaborate education in rhetoric, law, and
philosophy, studying and practising under some of the most noted
teachers of the time. He began his career as an advocate at the age of
twenty-five, and almost immediately came to be recognized not only as a
man of brilliant talents but also as a courageous upholder of justice in
the face of grave political danger. After two years of practice he left
Rome to travel in Greece and Asia, taking all the opportunities that
offered to study his art under distinguished masters. He returned to
Rome greatly improved in health and in professional skill, and in 76
B. C. was elected to the office of quaestor. He was assigned to the
province of Lilybarum in Sicily, and the vigor and justice of his
administration earned him the gratitude of the inhabitants. It was at
their request that he undertook in 70 B. C. the Prosecution of Verres,
who as Praetor had subjected the Sicilians to incredible extortion and
oppression; and his successful conduct of this case, which ended in the
conviction and banishment of Verres, may be said to have launched him
on his political career. He became aedile in the same year, in 67 B.C.
praetor, and in 64 B. C. was elected consul by a large majority. The
most important event of the year of his consulship was the conspiracy of
Catiline. This notorious criminal of patrician rank had conspired with
a number of others, many of them young men of high birth but dissipated
character, to seize the chief offices of the state, and to extricate
themselves from the pecuniary and other difficulties that had resulted
from their excesses, by the wholesale plunder of the city. The plot was
unmasked by the vigilance of Cicero, five of the traitors were summarily
executed, and in the overthrow of the army that had been gathered in
their support Catiline himself perished. Cicero regarded himself as the
savior of his country, and his country for the moment seemed to give
grateful assent.

But reverses were at hand. During the existence of the political
combination of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus, known as the first
triumvirate, P. Clodius, an enemy of Cicero's, proposed a law banishing
"any one who had put Roman citizens to death without trial." This was
aimed at Cicero on account of his share in the Catiline affair, and in
March, 58 B. C., he left Rome. The same day a law was passed by which
he was banished by name, and his property was plundered and destroyed,
a temple to Liberty being erected on the site of his house in the city.
During his exile Cicero's manliness to some extent deserted him. He
drifted from place to place, seeking the protection of officials against
assassination, writing letters urging his supporters to agitate for
his recall, sometimes accusing them of lukewarmness and even treachery,
bemoaning the ingratitude of his' country or regretting the course
of action that had led to his outlawry, and suffering from extreme
depression over his separation from his wife and children and the wreck
of his political ambitions. Finally in August, 57 B. C., the decree
for his restoration was passed, and he returned to Rome the next month,
being received with immense popular enthusiasm. During the next few
years the renewal of the understanding among the triumvirs shut Cicero
out from any leading part in politics, and he resumed his activity in
the law-courts, his most important case being, perhaps, the defence of
Milo for the murder of Clodius, Cicero's most troublesome enemy. This
oration, in the revised form in which it has come down to us, is ranked
as among the finest specimens of the art of the orator, though in its
original form it failed to secure Milo's acquittal. Meantime, Cicero was
also devoting much time to literary composition, and his letters show
great dejection over the political situation, and a somewhat wavering
attitude towards the various parties in the state. In 55 B. C. he went
to Cilicia in Asia Minor as proconsul, an office which he administered
with efficiency and integrity in civil affairs and with success in
military. He returned to Italy in the end of the following year, and he
was publicly thanked by the senate for his services, but disappointed in
his hopes for a triumph. The war for supremacy between Caesar and Pompey
which had for some time been gradually growing more certain, broke out
in 49 B.C., when Caesar led his army across the Rubicon, and Cicero
after much irresolution threw in his lot with Pompey, who was overthrown
the next year in the battle of Pharsalus and later murdered in Egypt.
Cicero returned to Italy, where Caesar treated him magnanimously,
and for some time he devoted himself to philosophical and rhetorical
writing. In 46 B.C. he divorced his wife Terentia, to whom he had been
married for thirty years and married the young and wealthy Publilia in
order to relieve himself from financial difficulties; but her also
he shortly divorced. Caesar, who had now become supreme in Rome, was
assassinated in 44 B.C., and though Cicero was not a sharer in the
conspiracy, he seems to have approved the deed. In the confusion which
followed he supported the cause of the conspirators against Antony;
and when finally the triumvirate of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus was
established, Cicero was included among the proscribed, and on December
7, 43 B.C., he was killed by agents of Antony. His head and hand were
cut off and exhibited at Rome.

The most important orations of the last months of his life were the
fourteen "Philippics" delivered against Antony, and the price of this
enmity he paid with his life.

To his contemporaries Cicero was primarily the great forensic and
political orator of his time, and the fifty-eight speeches which have
come down to us bear testimony to the skill, wit, eloquence, and Passion
which gave him his pre-eminence. But these speeches of necessity deal
with the minute details of the occasions which called them forth, and
so require for their appreciation a full knowledge of the history,
political and personal, of the time. The letters, on the other hand,
are less elaborate both in style and in the handling of current events,
while they serve to reveal his personality, and to throw light upon
Roman life in the last days of the Republic in an extremely vivid
fashion. Cicero as a man, in spite of his self-importance, the
vacillation of his political conduct in desperate crises, and the
whining despondency of his times of adversity, stands out as at bottom
a patriotic Roman of substantial honesty, who gave his life to check the
inevitable fall of the commonwealth to which he was devoted. The evils
which were undermining the Republic bear so many striking resemblances
to those which threaten the civic and national life of America to-day
that the interest of the period is by no means merely historical.

As a philosopher, Cicero's most important function was to make his
countrymen familiar with the main schools of Greek thought. Much of
this writing is thus of secondary interest to us in comparison with his
originals, but in the fields of religious theory and of the application
of philosophy to life he made important first-hand contributions. From
these works have been selected the two treatises, on Old Age and on
Friendship, which have proved of most permanent and widespread interest
to posterity, and which give a clear impression of the way in which
a high-minded Roman thought about some of the main problems' of human
life.



ON FRIENDSHIP


THE augur Quintus Mucius Scaevola used to recount a number of stories
about his father-in-law Galus Laelius, accurately remembered and
charmingly told; and whenever he talked about him always gave him the
title of "the wise" without any hesitation. I had been introduced by my
father to Scaevola as soon as I had assumed the _toga virilis_, and I
took advantage of the introduction never to quit the venerable man's
side as long as I was able to stay and he was spared to us. The
consequence was that I committed to memory many disquisitions of his,
as well as many short pointed apophthegms, and, in short, took as much
advantage of his wisdom as I could. When he died, I attached myself
to Scaevola the Pontifex, whom I may venture to call quite the most
distinguished of our countrymen for ability and uprightness. But of this
latter I shall take other occasions to speak. To return to Scaevola the
augur. Among many other occasions I particularly remember one. He was
sitting on a semicircular garden-bench, as was his custom, when I and
a very few intimate friends were there, and he chanced to turn the
conversation upon a subject which about that time was in many people's
mouths. You must remember, Atticus, for you were very intimate
with Publius Sulpicius, what expressions of astonishment, or even
indignation, were called forth by his mortal quarrel, as tribune, with
the consul Quintus Pompeius, with whom he had formerly lived on terms of
the closest intimacy and affection. Well, on this occasion, happening
to mention this particular circumstance, Scaevola detailed to us a
discourse of Laelius on friendship delivered to himself and Laelius's
other son-in-law Galus Fannius, son of Marcus Fannius, a few days after
the death of Africanus. The points of that discussion I committed to
memory, and have arranged them in this book at my own discretion. For
I have brought the speakers, as it were, personally on to my stage to
prevent the constant "said I" and "said he" of a narrative, and to give
the discourse the air of being orally delivered in our hearing.

You have often urged me to write something on Friendship, and I
quite acknowledged that the subject seemed one worth everybody's
investigation, and specially suited to the close intimacy that has
existed between you and me. Accordingly I was quite ready to benefit the
public at your request.

As to the _dramatis personae_. In the treatise on Old Age, which I
dedicated to you, I introduced Cato as chief speaker. No one, I thought,
could with greater propriety speak on old age than one who had been an
old man longer than any one else, and had been exceptionally vigorous
in his old age. Similarly, having learnt from tradition that of all
friendships that between Gaius Laelius and Publius Scipio was the most
remarkable, I thought Laelius was just the person to support the chief
part in a discussion on friendship which Scaevola remembered him to have
actually taken. Moreover, a discussion of this sort gains somehow in
weight from the authority of men of ancient days, especially if they
happen to have been distinguished. So it comes about that in reading
over what I have myself written I have a feeling at times that it is
actually Cato that is speaking, not I.

Finally, as I sent the former essay to you as a gift from one old man to
another, so I have dedicated this _On Friendship_ as a most affectionate
friend to his friend. In the former Cato spoke, who was the oldest and
wisest man of his day; in this Laelius speaks on friendship--Laelius,
who was at once a wise man (that was the title given him) and eminent
for his famous friendship. Please forget me for a while; imagine Laelius
to be speaking.

Gaius Fannius and Quintus Mucius come to call on their father-in-law
after the death of Africanus. They start the subject; Laelius answers
them. And the whole essay on friendship is his. In reading it you will
recognise a picture of yourself.

2. _Fannius_. You are quite right, Laelius! there never was a better or
more illustrious character than Africanus. But you should consider that
at the present moment all eyes are on you. Everybody calls you "the
wise" _par excellence_, and thinks you so. The same mark of respect was
lately paid Cato, and we know that in the last generation Lucius Atilius
was called "the wise." But in both cases the word was applied with
a certain difference. Atilius was so called from his reputation as a
jurist; Cato got the name as a kind of honorary title and in extreme old
age because of his varied experience of affairs, and his reputation
for foresight and firmness, and the sagacity of the opinions which he
delivered in senate and forum. You, however, are regarded as wise in
a somewhat different sense not alone on account of natural ability and
character, but also from your industry and learning; and not in the
sense in which the vulgar, but that in which scholars, give that title.
In this sense we do not read of any one being called wise in Greece
except one man at Athens; and he, to be sure, had been declared by the
oracle of Apollo also to be "the supremely wise man." For those who
commonly go by the name of the Seven Sages are not admitted into the
category of the wise by fastidious critics. Your wisdom people believe
to consist in this, that you look upon yourself as self-sufficing and
regard the changes and chances of mortal life as powerless to affect
your virtue. Accordingly they are always asking me, and doubtless also
our Scaevola here, how you bear the death of Africanus. This curiosity
has been the more excited from the fact that on the Nones of this month,
when we augurs met as usual in the suburban villa of Decimus Brutus for
consultation, you were not present, though it had always been your
habit to keep that appointment and perform that duty with the utmost
punctuality.

_Scaevola_. Yes, indeed, Laelius, I am often asked the question
mentioned by Fannius. But I answer in accordance with what I have
observed: I say that you bear in a reasonable manner the grief which
you have sustained in the death of one who was at once a man of the most
illustrious character and a very dear friend. That of course you could
not but be affected--anything else would have been wholly unnatural in a
man of your gentle nature--but that the cause of your non-attendance at
our college meeting was illness, not melancholy.

_Laelius_. Thanks, Scaevola! You are quite right; you spoke the exact
truth. For in fact I had no right to allow myself to be withdrawn from
a duty which I had regularly performed, as long as I was well, by any
personal misfortune; nor do I think that anything that can happen will
cause a man of principle to intermit a duty. As for your telling me,
Fannius, of the honourable appellation given me (an appellation to
which I do not recognise my title, and to which I make no claim), you
doubtless act from feelings of affection; but I must say that you seem
to me to do less than justice to Cato. If any one was ever "wise,"--of
which I have my doubts,--he was. Putting aside everything else, consider
how he bore his son's death! I had not forgotten Paulus; I had seen with
my own eyes Gallus. But they lost their sons when mere children; Cato
his when he was a full-grown man with an assured reputation. Do not
therefore be in a hurry to reckon as Cato's superior even that same
famous personage whom Apollo, as you say, declared to be "the wisest."
Remember the former's reputation rests on deeds, the latter's on words.

3. Now, as far as I am concerned (I speak to both of you now), believe
me the case stands thus. If I were to say that I am not affected by
regret for Scipio, I must leave the philosophers to justify my conduct,
but in point of fact I should be telling a lie. Affected of course I am
by the loss of a friend as I think there will never be again, such as
I can fearlessly say there never was before. But I stand in no need of
medicine. I can find my own consolation, and it consists chiefly in my
being free from the mistaken notion which generally causes pain at the
departure of friends. To Scipio I am convinced no evil has befallen mine
is the disaster, if disaster there be; and to be severely distressed at
one's own misfortunes does not show that you love your friend, but that
you love yourself.

As for him, who can say that all is not more than well? For, unless he
had taken the fancy to wish for immortality, the last thing of which he
ever thought, what is there for which mortal man may wish that he did
not attain? In his early manhood he more than justified by extraordinary
personal courage the hopes which his fellow-citizens had conceived of
him as a child. He never was a candidate for the consulship, yet was
elected consul twice: the first time before the legal age; the second at
a time which, as far as he was concerned, was soon enough, but was near
being too late for the interests of the State. By the overthrow of two
cities which were the most bitter enemies of our Empire, he put an end
not only to the wars then raging, but also to the possibility of others
in the future. What need to mention the exquisite grace of his manners,
his dutiful devotion to his mother, his generosity to his sisters, his
liberality to his relations, the integrity of his conduct to every
one? You know all this already. Finally, the estimation in which his
fellow-citizens held him has been shown by the signs of mourning which
accompanied his obsequies. What could such a man have gained by the
addition of a few years? Though age need not be a burden,--as I remember
Cato arguing in the presence of myself and Scipio two years before he
died,--yet it cannot but take away the vigour and freshness which Scipio
was still enjoying. We may conclude therefore that his life, from the
good fortune which had attended him and the glory he had obtained, was
so circumstanced that it could not be bettered, while the suddenness
of his death saved him the sensation of dying. As to the manner of his
death it is difficult to speak; you see what people suspect. Thus much,
however, I may say: Scipio in his lifetime saw many days of supreme
triumph and exultation, but none more magnificent than his last, on
which, upon the rising of the Senate, he was escorted by the senators
and the people of Rome, by the allies, and by the Latins, to his own
door. From such an elevation of popular esteem the next step seems
naturally to be an ascent to the gods above, rather than a descent to
Hades.

4. For I am not one of these modern philosophers who maintain that our
souls perish with our bodies, and that death ends all. With me ancient
opinion has more weight: whether it be that of our own ancestors, who
attributed such solemn observances to the dead, as they plainly would
not have done if they had believed them to be wholly annihilated; or
that of the philosophers who once visited this country, and who by their
maxims and doctrines educated Magna Graecia, which at that time was in a
flourishing condition, though it has now been ruined; or that of the man
who was declared by Apollo's oracle to be "most wise," and who used to
teach without the variation which is to be found in most philosophers
that "the souls of men are divine, and that when they have quitted the
body a return to heaven is open to them, least difficult to those who
have been most virtuous and just." This opinion was shared by Scipio.
Only a few days before his death--as though he had a presentiment
of what was coming--he discoursed for three days on the state of the
republic. The company consisted of Philus and Manlius and several
others, and I had brought you, Scaevola, along with me. The last part of
his discourse referred principally to the immortality of the soul; for
he told us what he had heard from the elder Africanus in a dream. Now if
it be true that in proportion to a man's goodness the escape from what
may be called the prison and bonds of the flesh is easiest, whom can
we imagine to have had an easier voyage to the gods than Scipio? I am
disposed to think, therefore, that in his case mourning would be a sign
of envy rather than of friendship. If, however, the truth rather is that
the body and soul perish together, and that no sensation remains, then
though there is nothing good in death, at least there is nothing bad.
Remove sensation, and a man is exactly as though he had never been born;
and yet that this man was born is a joy to me, and will be a subject of
rejoicing to this State to its last hour.

Wherefore, as I said before, all is as well as possible with him. Not so
with me; for as I entered life before him, it would have been fairer
for me to leave it also before him. Yet such is the pleasure I take
in recalling our friendship, that I look upon my life as having been a
happy one because I have spent it with Scipio. With him I was associated
in public and private business; with him I lived in Rome and served
abroad; and between us there was the most complete harmony in our
tastes, our pursuits, and our sentiments, which is the true secret of
friendship. It is not therefore in that reputation for wisdom mentioned
just now by Fannius--especially as it happens to be groundless--that
I find my happiness so much, as in the hope that the memory of our
friendship will be lasting. What makes me care the more about this is
the fact that in all history there are scarcely three or four pairs of
friends on record; and it is classed with them that I cherish a hope of
the friendship of Scipio and Laelius being known to posterity.

_Fannius_. Of course that must be so, Laelius. But since you have
mentioned the word friendship, and we are at leisure, you would be doing
me a great kindness, and I expect Scaevola also, if you would do as it
is your habit to do when asked questions on other subjects, and tell
us your sentiments about friendship, its nature, and the rules to be
observed in regard to it.

_Scaevola_. I shall of course be delighted. Fannius has anticipated the
very request I was about to make. So you will be doing us both a great
favour.

5. _Laelius_. I should certainly have no objection if I felt confidence
in myself. For the theme is a noble one, and we are (as Fannius has
said) at leisure. But who am I? and what ability have I? What you
propose is all very well for professional philosophers, who are used,
particularly if Greeks, to have the subject for discussion proposed to
them on the spur of the moment. It is a task of considerable difficulty,
and requires no little practice. Therefore for a set discourse on
friendship you must go, I think, to professional lecturers. All I can
do is to urge on you to regard friendship as the greatest thing in the
world; for there is nothing which so fits in with our nature, or is so
exactly what we want in prosperity or adversity.

But I must at the very beginning lay down this principle--_friendship
can only exist between good men_. I do not, however, press this
too closely, like the philosophers who push their definitions to a
superfluous accuracy. They have truth on their side, perhaps, but it is
of no practical advantage. Those, I mean, who say that no one but the
"wise" is "good." Granted, by all means. But the "wisdom" they mean is
one to which no mortal ever yet attained. We must concern ourselves
with the facts of everyday life as we find it--not imaginary and
ideal perfections. Even Gaius Fannius, Manius Curius, and Tiberius
Coruncanius, whom our ancestors decided to be "wise," I could never
declare to be so according to their standard. Let them, then, keep
this word "wisdom" to themselves. Everybody is irritated by it; no one
understands what it means. Let them but grant that the men I mentioned
were "good." No, they won't do that either. No one but the "wise" can be
allowed that title, say they. Well, then, let us dismiss them and manage
as best we may with our own poor mother wit, as the phrase is.

We mean then by the "good" _those whose actions and lives leave no
question as to their honour, purity, equity, and liberality; who are
free from greed, lust, and violence; and who have the courage of their
convictions_. The men I have just named may serve as examples. Such men
as these being generally accounted "good," let us agree to call them so,
on the ground that to the best of human ability they follow nature as
the most perfect guide to a good life.

Now this truth seems clear to me, that nature has so formed us that
a certain tie unites us all, but that this tie becomes stronger from
proximity. So it is that fellow-citizens are preferred in our affections
to foreigners, relations to strangers; for in their case Nature herself
has caused a kind of friendship to exist, though it is one which lacks
some of the elements of permanence. Friendship excels relationship in
this, that whereas you may eliminate affection from relationship, you
cannot do so from friendship. Without it relationship still exists in
name, friendship does not. You may best understand this friendship by
considering that, whereas the merely natural ties uniting the human race
are indefinite, this one is so concentrated, and confined to so narrow a
sphere, that affection is ever shared by two persons only or at most by
a few.

6. Now friendship may be thus defined: a complete accord on all subjects
human and divine, joined with mutual goodwill and affection. And with
the exception of wisdom, I am inclined to think nothing better than this
has been given to man by the immortal gods. There are people who give
the palm to riches or to good health, or to power and office, many even
to sensual pleasures. This last is the ideal of brute beasts; and of the
others we may say that they are frail and uncertain, and depend less on
our own prudence than on the caprice of fortune. Then there are those
who find the "chief good" in virtue. Well, that is a noble doctrine. But
the very virtue they talk of is the parent and preserver of friendship,
and without it friendship cannot possibly exist.

Let us, I repeat, use the word virtue in the ordinary acceptation and
meaning of the term, and do not let us define it in high-flown language.
Let us account as good the persons usually considered so, such as
Paulus, Cato, Gallus, Scipio, and Philus. Such men as these are good
enough for everyday life; and we need not trouble ourselves about those
ideal characters which are nowhere to be met with.

Well, between men like these the advantages of friendship are almost
more than I can say. To begin with, how can life be worth living, to use
the words of Ennius, which lacks that repose which is to be found in the
mutual good-will of a friend? What can be more delightful than to
have some one to whom you can say everything with the same absolute
confidence as to yourself? Is not prosperity robbed of half its value if
you have no one to share your joy? On the other hand, misfortunes
would be hard to bear if there were not some one to feel them even more
acutely than yourself. In a word, other objects of ambition serve for
particular ends--riches for use, power for securing homage, office for
reputation, pleasure for enjoyment, health for' freedom from pain and
the full use of the functions of the body. But friendship embraces
innumerable advantages. Turn which way you please, you will find it at
hand. It is everywhere; and yet never out of place, never unwelcome.
Fire and water themselves, to use a common expression, are not of more
universal use than friendship. I am not now speaking of the common
or modified form of it, though even that is a source of pleasure and
profit, but of that true and complete friendship which existed
between the select few who are known to fame. Such friendship enhances
prosperity, and relieves adversity of its burden by halving and sharing
it.

7. And great and numerous as are the blessings of friendship, this
certainly is the sovereign one, that it gives us bright hopes for the
future and forbids weakness and despair. In the face of a true friend a
man sees as it were a second self. So that where his friend is he is;
if his friend be rich, he is not poor; though he be weak, his friend's
strength is his; and in his friend's life he enjoys a second life
after his own is finished. This last is perhaps the most difficult to
conceive. But such is the effect of the respect, the loving remembrance,
and the regret of friends which follow us to the grave. While they take
the sting out of death, they add a glory to the life of the survivors.
Nay, if you eliminate from nature the tie of affection, there will be an
end of house and city, nor will so much as the cultivation of the soil
be left. If you don't see the virtue of friendship and harmony, you may
learn it by observing the effects of quarrels and feuds. Was any family
ever so well established, any State so firmly settled, as to be beyond
the reach of utter destruction from animosities and factions? This may
teach you the immense advantage of friendship.

They say that a certain philosopher of Agrigentum, in a Greek poem,
pronounced with the authority of an oracle the doctrine that whatever in
nature and the universe was unchangeable was so in virtue of the binding
force of friendship; whatever was changeable was so by the solvent power
of discord. And indeed this is a truth which everybody understands and
practically attests by experience. For if any marked instance of loyal
friendship in confronting or sharing danger comes to light, every one
applauds it to the echo. What cheers there were, for instance, all
over the theatre at a passage in the new play of my friend and guest
Pacuvius; where the king, not knowing which of the two was Orestes,
Pylades declared himself to be Orestes, that he might die in his stead,
while the real Orestes kept on asserting that it was he. The audience
rose _en masse_ and clapped their hands. And this was at an incident in
fiction: what would they have done, must we suppose, if it had been in
real life? You can easily see what a natural feeling it is, when men
who would not have had the resolution to act thus themselves, shewed how
right they thought it in another.

I don't think I have any more to say about friendship. If there is any
more, and I have no doubt there is much, you must, if you care to do so,
consult those who profess to discuss such matters.

_Fannius_. We would rather apply to you. Yet I have often consulted
such persons, and have heard what they had to say with a certain
satisfaction. But in your discourse one somehow feels that there is a
different strain.

_Scaevola_. You would have said that still more, Fannius, if you had
been present the other day in Scipio's pleasure-grounds when we had
the discussion about the State. How splendidly he stood up for justice
against Philus's elaborate speech.

_Fannius_. Ah! it was naturally easy for the justest of men to stand up
for justice.

_Scaevola_. Well, then, what about friendship? Who could discourse on
it more easily than the man whose chief glory is a friendship maintained
with the most absolute fidelity, constancy, and integrity?

8. _Laclius_. Now you are really using force. It makes no difference
what kind of force you use: force it is. For it is neither easy nor
right to refuse a wish of my sons-in-law, particularly when the wish is
a creditable one in itself.

Well, then, it has very often occurred to me when thinking about
friendship, that the chief point to be considered was this: is it
weakness and want of means that make friendship desired? I mean, is its
object an interchange of good offices, so that each may give that in
which he is strong, and receive that in which he is weak? Or is it not
rather true that, although this is an advantage naturally belonging to
friendship, yet its original cause is quite other, prior in time, more
noble in character, and springing more directly from our nature itself?
The Latin word for friendship--_amicitia_--is derived from that for
love--_amor_; and love is certainly the prime mover in contracting
mutual affection. For as to material advantages, it often happens
that those are obtained even by men who are courted by a mere show
of friendship and treated with respect from interested motives. But
friendship by its nature admits of no feigning, no pretence: as far
as it goes it is both genuine and spontaneous. Therefore I gather that
friendship springs from a natural impulse rather than a wish for help:
from an inclination of the heart, combined with a certain instinctive
feeling of love, rather than from a deliberate calculation of the
material advantage it was likely to confer. The strength of this
feeling you may notice in certain animals. They show such love to their
offspring for a certain period, and are so beloved by them, that they
clearly have a share in this natural, instinctive affection. But of
course it is more evident in the case of man: first, in the natural
affection between children and their parents, an affection which only
shocking wickedness can sunder; and next, when the passion of love has
attained to a like strength--on our finding, that is, some one person
with whose character and nature we are in full sympathy, because we
think that we perceive in him what I may call the beacon-light of
virtue. For nothing inspires love, nothing conciliates affection, like
virtue. Why, in a certain sense we may be said to feel affection even
for men we have never seen, owing to their honesty and virtue. Who, for
instance, fails to dwell on the memory of Gaius Fabricius and Manius
Curius with some affection and warmth of feeling, though he has never
seen them? Or who but loathes Tarquinius Superbus, Spurius Cassius,
Spurius Maelius? We have fought for empire in Italy with two great
generals, Pyrrhus and Hannibal. For the former, owing to his probity, we
entertain no great feelings of enmity: the latter, owing to his cruelty,
our country has detested and always will detest.

9. Now, if the attraction of probity is so great that we can love it not
only in those whom we have never seen, but, what is more, actually in an
enemy, we need not be surprised if men's affections are roused when they
fancy that they have seen virtue and goodness in those with whom a close
intimacy is possible. I do not deny that affection is strengthened by
the actual receipt of benefits, as well as by the perception of a wish
to render service, combined with a closer intercourse. When these are
added to the original impulse of the heart, to which I have alluded,
a quite surprising warmth of feeling springs up. And if any one thinks
that this comes from a sense of weakness, that each may have some one
to help him to his particular need, all I can say is that, when he
maintains it to be born of want and poverty, he allows to friendship an
origin very base, and a pedigree, if I may be allowed the expression,
far from noble. If this had been the case, a man's inclination to
friendship would be exactly in proportion to his low opinion of his own
resources. Whereas the truth is quite the other way. For when a man's
confidence in himself is greatest, when he is so fortified by virtue and
wisdom as to want nothing and to feel absolutely self-dependent, it
is then that he is most conspicuous for seeking out and keeping up
friendships. Did Africanus, for example, want anything of me? Not
the least in the world! Neither did I of him. In my case it was
an admiration of his virtue, in his an opinion, may be, which he
entertained of my character, that caused our affection. Closer intimacy
added to the warmth of our feelings. But though many great material
advantages did ensue, they were not the source from which our affection
proceeded. For as we are not beneficent and liberal with any view
of extorting gratitude, and do not regard an act of kindness as an
investment, but follow a natural inclination to liberality; so we look
on friendship as worth trying for, not because we are attracted to it by
the expectation of ulterior gain, but in the conviction that what it has
to give us is from first to last included in the feeling itself.

Far different is the view of those who, like brute beasts, refer
everything to sensual pleasure. And no wonder. Men who have degraded
all their powers of thought to an object so mean and contemptible can of
course raise their eyes to nothing lofty, to nothing grand and divine.
Such persons indeed let us leave out of the present question. And let
us accept the doctrine that the sensation of love and the warmth of
inclination have their origin in a spontaneous feeling which arises
directly the presence of probity is indicated. When once men have
conceived the inclination, they of course try to attach themselves to
the object of it, and move themselves nearer and nearer to him. Their
aim is that they may be on the same footing and the same level in regard
to affection, and be more inclined to do a good service than to ask a
return, and that there should be this noble rivalry between them.
Thus both truths will be established. We shall get the most important
material advantages from friendship; and its origin from a natural
impulse rather than from a sense of need will be at once more dignified
and more in accordance with fact. For if it were true that its material
advantages cemented friendship, it would be equally true that any change
in them would dissolve it. But nature being incapable of change, it
follows that genuine friendships are eternal.

So much for the origin of friendship. But perhaps you would not care to
hear any more.

_Fannius_. Nay, pray go on; let us have the rest, Laelius. I take on
myself to speak for my friend here as his senior.

_Scaevola_. Quite right! Therefore, pray let us hear.

10. _Loelius_. Well, then, my good friends, listen to some conversations
about friendship which very frequently passed between Scipio and myself.
I must begin by telling you, however, that he used to say that the most
difficult thing in the world was for a friendship to remain unimpaired
to the end of life. So many things might intervene: conflicting
interests; differences of opinion in politics; frequent changes in
character, owing sometimes to misfortunes, sometimes to advancing years.
He used to illustrate these facts from the analogy of boyhood, since
the warmest affections between boys are often laid aside with the boyish
toga; and even if they did manage to keep them up to adolescence, they
were sometimes broken by a rivalry in courtship, or for some other
advantage to which their mutual claims were not compatible. Even if the
friendship was prolonged beyond that time, yet it frequently received a
rude shock should the two happen to be competitors for office. For while
the most fatal blow to friendship in the majority of cases was the lust
of gold, in the case of the best men it was a rivalry for office and
reputation, by which it had often happened that the most violent enmity
had arisen between the closest friends.

Again, wide breaches and, for the most part, justifiable ones were
caused by an immoral request being made of friends, to pander to a man's
unholy desires or to assist him in inflicting a wrong. A refusal, though
perfectly right, is attacked by those to whom they refuse compliance
as a violation of the laws of friendship. Now the people who have no
scruples as to the requests they make to their friends, thereby allow
that they are ready to have no scruples as to what they will do for
their friends; and it is the recriminations of such people which
commonly not only quench friendships, but give rise to lasting enmities.
"In fact," he used to say, "these fatalities overhang friendship in such
numbers that it requires not only wisdom but good luck also to escape
them all."

11. With these premises, then, let us first, if you please, examine
the question--how far ought personal feeling to go in friendship? For
instance: suppose Coriolanus to have had friends, ought they to have
joined him in invading his country? Again, in the case of Vecellinus
or Spurius Maelius, ought their friends to have assisted them in their
attempt to establish a tyranny? Take two instances of either line of
conduct. When Tiberius Gracchus attempted his revolutionary measures he
was deserted, as we saw, by Quintus Tubero and the friends of his own
standing. On the other hand, a friend of your own family, Scaevola,
Gains Blossius of Cumae, took a different course. I was acting as
assessor to the consuls Laenas and Rupilius to try the conspirators,
and Blossius pleaded for my pardon on the ground that his regard for
Tiberius Gracchus had been so high that he looked upon his wishes as
law. "Even if he had wished you to set fire to the Capitol?" said I.
"That is a thing," he replied, "that he never would have wished." "Ah,
but if he had wished it?" said I. "I would have obeyed." The wickedness
of such a speech needs no comment. And in point of fact he was as good
and better than his word for he did not wait for orders in the audacious
proceedings of Tiberius Gracchus, but was the head and front of them,
and was a leader rather than an abettor of his madness. The result
of his infatuation was that he fled to Asia, terrified by the special
commission appointed to try him, joined the enemies of his country, and
paid a penalty to the republic as heavy as it was deserved. I conclude,
then, that the plea of having acted in the interests of a friend is not
a valid excuse for a wrong action. For, seeing that a belief in a man's
virtue is the original cause of friendship, friendship can hardly remain
if virtue he abandoned. But if we decide it to be right to grant our
friends whatever they wish, and to ask them for whatever we wish,
perfect wisdom must be assumed on both sides if no mischief is to
happen. But we cannot assume this perfect wisdom; for we are speaking
only of such friends as are ordinarily to be met with, whether we have
actually seen them or have been told about them--men, that is to say, of
everyday life. I must quote some examples of such persons, taking care
to select such as approach nearest to our standard of wisdom. We read,
for instance, that Papus Aemilius was a close friend of Gaius Luscinus.
History tells us that they were twice consuls together, and colleagues
in the censorship. Again, it is on record that Manius Curius and
Tiberius Coruncanius were on the most intimate terms with them and with
each other. Now, we cannot even suspect that any one of these men ever
asked of his friend anything that militated against his honour or his
oath or the interests of the republic. In the case of such men as these
there is no point in saying that one of them would not have obtained
such a request if he had made it; for they were men of the most
scrupulous piety, and the making of such a request would involve a
breach of religious obligation no less than the granting it. However,
it is quite true that Gaius Carbo and Gaius Cato did follow Tiberius
Gracchus; and though his brother Caius Gracchus did not do so at the
time, he is now the most eager of them all.

12. We may then lay down this rule of friendship--neither ask nor
consent to do what is wrong. For the plea "for friendship's sake" is a
discreditable one, and not to be admitted for a moment. This rule
holds good for all wrong-doing, but more especially in such as involves
disloyalty to the republic. For things have come to such a point with
us, my dear Fannius and Scaevola, that we are bound to look somewhat far
ahead to what is likely to happen to the republic. The constitution, as
known to our ancestors, has already swerved somewhat from the regular
course and the lines marked out for it. Tiberius Gracchus made an
attempt to obtain the power of a king, or, I might rather say, enjoyed
that power for a few months. Had the Roman people ever heard or seen
the like before? What the friends and connexions that followed him, even
after his death, have succeeded in doing in the case of Publius Scipio
I cannot describe without tears. As for Carbo, thanks to the punishment
recently inflicted on Tiberius Gracchus, we have by hook or by crook
managed to hold out against his attacks. But what to expect of the
tribuneship of Caius Gracchus I do not like to forecast. One thing
leads to another; and once set going, the downward course proceeds with
ever-increasing velocity. There is the case of the ballot: what a blow
was inflicted first by the lex Gabinia, and two years afterwards by the
lex Cassia! I seem already to see the people estranged from the Senate,
and the most important affairs at the mercy of the multitude. For you
may be sure that more people will learn how to set such things in motion
than how to stop them. What is the point of these remarks? This: no one
ever makes any attempt of this sort without friends to help him. We
must therefore impress upon good men that, should they become inevitably
involved in friendships with men of this kind, they ought not to
consider themselves under any obligation to stand by friends who are
disloyal to the republic. Bad men must have the fear of punishment
before their eyes: a punishment not less severe for those who follow
than for those who lead others to crime. Who was more famous and
powerful in Greece than Themistocles? At the head of the army in the
Persian war he had freed Greece; he owed his exile to personal envy: but
he did not submit to the wrong done him by his ungrateful country as
he ought to have done. He acted as Coriolanus had acted among us twenty
years before. But no one was found to help them in their attacks upon
their fatherland. Both of them accordingly committed suicide.

We conclude, then, not only that no such confederation of evilly
disposed men must be allowed to shelter itself under the plea of
friendship, but that, on the contrary, it must be visited with the
severest punishment, lest the idea should prevail that fidelity to a
friend justifies even making war upon one's country. And this is a case
which I am inclined to think, considering how things are beginning to
go, will sooner or later arise. And I care quite as much what the state
of the constitution will be after my death as what it is now.

13. Let this, then, be laid down as the first law of friendship, that
_we should ask from friends, and do for friends', only what is good_.
But do not let us wait to be asked either: let there be ever an eager
readiness, and an absence of hesitation. Let us have the courage to give
advice with candour. In friendship, let the influence of friends who
give good advice be paramount; and let this influence be used to enforce
advice not only in plain-spoken terms, but sometimes, if the case
demands it, with sharpness; and when so used, let it be obeyed.

I give you these rules because I believe that some wonderful opinions
are entertained by certain persons who have, I am told, a reputation for
wisdom in Greece. There is nothing in the world, by the way, beyond the
reach of their sophistry. Well, some of them teach that we should avoid
very close friendships, for fear that one man should have to endure the
anxieties of several. Each man, say they, has enough and to spare on his
own hands; it is too bad to be involved in the cares of other people.
The wisest course is to hold the reins of friendship as loose as
possible; you can then tighten or slacken them at your will. For the
first condition of a happy life is freedom from care, which no one's
mind can enjoy if it has to travail, so to speak, for others besides
itself. Another sect, I am told, gives vent to opinions still less
generous. I briefly touched on this subject just now. They affirm that
friendships should be sought solely for the sake of the assistance they
give, and not at all from motives of feeling and affection; and that
therefore just in proportion as a man's power and means of support are
lowest, he is most eager to gain friendships: thence it comes that weak
women seek the support of friendship more than men, the poor more than
the rich, the unfortunate rather than those esteemed prosperous. What
noble philosophy! You might just as well take the sun out of the sky as
friendship from life; for the immortal gods have given us nothing better
or more delightful.

But let us examine the two doctrines. What is the value of this
"freedom from care"? It is very tempting at first sight, but in practice
it has in many cases to be put on one side. For there is no business
and no course of action demanded from us by our honour which you can
consistently decline, or lay aside when begun, from a mere wish to
escape from anxiety. Nay, if we wish to avoid anxiety we must avoid
virtue itself, which necessarily involves some anxious thoughts in
showing its loathing and abhorrence for the qualities which are opposite
to itself--as kindness for ill-nature, self-control for licentiousness,
courage for cowardice. Thus you may notice that it is the just who are
most pained at injustice, the brave at cowardly actions, the temperate
at depravity. It is then characteristic of a rightly ordered mind to be
pleased at what is good and grieved at the reverse. Seeing then that the
wise are not exempt from the heart-ache (which must be the case unless
we suppose all human nature rooted out of their hearts), why should we
banish friendship from our lives, for fear of being involved by it
in some amount of distress? If you take away emotion, what difference
remains I don't say between a man and a beast, but between a man and a
stone or a log of wood, or anything else of that kind?

Neither should we give any weight to the doctrine that virtue is
something rigid and unyielding as iron. In point of fact it is in regard
to friendship, as in so many other things, so supple and sensitive that
it expands, so to speak, at a friend's good fortune, contracts at his
misfortunes. We conclude then that mental pain which we must often
encounter on a friend's account is not of sufficient consequence to
banish friendship from our life, any more than it is true that the
cardinal virtues are to be dispensed with because they involve certain
anxieties and distresses.

14. Let me repeat then, "the clear indication of virtue, to which a
mind of like character is naturally attracted, is the beginning of
friendship." When that is the case the rise of affection is a necessity.
For what can be more irrational than to take delight in many objects
incapable of response, such as office, fame, splendid buildings, and
personal decoration, and yet to take little or none in a sentient being
endowed with virtue, which has the faculty of loving or, if I may use
the expression, loving back? For nothing is really more delightful than
a return of affection, and the mutual interchange of kind feeling
and good offices. And if we add, as we may fairly do, that nothing so
powerfully attracts and draws one thing to itself as likeness does to
friendship, it wilt at once be admitted to be true that the good love
the good and attach them to themselves as though they were united by
blood and nature. For nothing can be more eager, or rather greedy, for
what is like itself than nature. So, my dear Fannius and Scaevola, we
may look upon this as an established fact, that between good men there
is, as it were of necessity, a kindly feeling, which is the source of
friendship ordained by nature. But this same kindliness affects the many
also. For that is no unsympathetic or selfish or exclusive virtue, which
protects even whole nations and consults their best interests. And that
certainly it would not have done had it disdained all affection for the
common herd.

Again, the believers in the "interest" theory appear to me to destroy
the most attractive link in the chain of friendship. For it is not so
much what one gets by a friend that gives one pleasure, as the warmth
of his feeling; and we only care for a friend's service if it has been
prompted by affection. And so far from its being true that lack of means
is a motive for seeking friendship, it is usually those who being most
richly endowed with wealth and means, and above all with virtue (which,
after all, is a man's best support), are least in need of another, that
are most openhanded and beneficent. Indeed I am inclined to think that
friends ought at times to be in want of something. For instance, what
scope would my affections have had if Scipio had never wanted my advice
or co-operation at home or abroad? It is not friendship, then, that
follows material advantage, but material advantage friendship.

15. We must not therefore listen to these superfine gentlemen when they
talk of friendship, which they know neither in theory nor in practice.
For who, in heaven's name, would choose a life of the greatest wealth
and abundance on condition of neither loving or being beloved by any
creature? That is the sort of life tyrants endure. They, of course, can
count on no fidelity, no affection, no security for the goodwill of
any one. For them all is suspicion and anxiety; for them there is no
possibility of friendship. Who can love one whom he fears, or by whom he
knows that he is feared? Yet such men have a show of friendship offered
them, but it is only a fair-weather show. If it ever happen that they
fall, as it generally does, they will at once understand how friendless
they are. So they say Tarquin observed in his exile that he never knew
which of his friends were real and which sham, until he had ceased to
be able to repay either. Though what surprises me is that a man of his
proud and overbearing character should have a friend at all. And as it
was his character that prevented his having genuine friends, so it often
happens in the case of men of unusually great means--their very wealth
forbids faithful friendships. For not only is Fortune blind herself;
but she generally makes those blind also who enjoy her favours. They are
carried, so to speak, beyond themselves with self-conceit and self-will;
nor can anything be more perfectly intolerable than a successful fool.
You may often see it. Men who before had pleasant manners enough undergo
a complete change on attaining power of office. They despise their old
friends: devote themselves to new.

Now, can anything be more foolish than that men who have all the
opportunities which prosperity, wealth, and great means can bestow,
should secure all else which money can buy--horses, servants, splendid
upholstering, and costly plate--but do not secure friends, who are, if
I may use the expression, the most valuable and beautiful furniture
of life? And yet, when they acquire the former, they know not who will
enjoy them, nor for whom they may be taking all this trouble; for they
will one and all eventually belong to the strongest: while each man has
a stable and inalienable ownership in his friendships. And even if those
possessions, which are, in a manner, the gifts of fortune, do prove
permanent, life can never be anything but joyless which is without the
consolations and companionship of friends.

16. To turn to another branch of our subject. We must now endeavour
to ascertain what limits are to be observed in friendship--what is the
boundary-line, so to speak, beyond which our affection is not to go. On
this point I notice three opinions, with none of which I agree. One is
_that we should love our friend just as much as we love ourselves, and
no more; another, that our affection to them should exactly correspond
and equal theirs to us; a third, that a man should be valued at exactly
the same rate as he values himself_. To not one of these opinions do I
assent. The first, which holds that our regard for ourselves is to be
the measure of our regard for our friend, is not true; for how many
things there are which we would never have done for our own sakes, but
do for the sake of a friend! We submit to make requests from unworthy
people, to descend even to supplication; to be sharper in invective,
more violent in attack. Such actions are nut creditable in our own
interests, but highly so in those of our friends. There are many
advantages too which men of upright character voluntarily forego, or
of which they are content to be deprived, that their friends may enjoy
them rather than themselves.

The second doctrine is that which limits friendship to an exact equality
in mutual good offices and good feelings. But such a view reduces
friendship to a question of figures in a spirit far too narrow and
illiberal, as though the object were to have an exact balance in
a debtor and creditor account. True friendship appears to me to be
something richer and more generous than that comes to; and not to be so
narrowly on its guard against giving more than it receives. In such a
matter we must not be always afraid of something being wasted or running
over in our measure, or of more than is justly due being devoted to our
friendship.

But the last limit proposed is the worst, namely, that a friend's
estimate of himself is to be the measure of our estimate of him. It
often happens that a man has too humble an idea of himself, or takes too
despairing a view of his chance of bettering his fortune. In such a case
a friend ought not to take the view of him which he takes of himself.
Rather he should do all he can to raise his drooping spirits, and lead
him to more cheerful hopes and thoughts.

We must then find some other limit. But I must first mention the
sentiment which used to call forth Scipio's severest criticism. He often
said that no one ever gave utterance to anything more diametrically
opposed to the spirit of friendship than the author of the dictum, "You
should love your friend with the consciousness that you may one day
hate him." He could not be induced to believe that it was rightfully
attributed to Bias, who was counted as one of the Seven Sages. It was
the sentiment of some person with sinister motives or selfish ambition,
or who regarded everything as it affected his own supremacy. How can a
man be friends with another, if he thinks it possible that he may be his
enemy? Why, it will follow that he must wish and desire his friend
to commit as many mistakes as possible, that he may have all the
more handles against him; and, conversely, that he must be annoyed,
irritated, and jealous at the right actions or good fortune of his
friends. This maxim, then, let it be whose it will, is the utter
destruction of friendship. The true rule is to take such care in the
selection of our friends as never to enter upon a friendship with a man
whom we could under any circumstances come to hate. And even if we are
unlucky in our choice, we must put up with it--according to Scipio--in
preference to making calculations as to a future breach.

17. The real limit to be observed in friendship is this: the characters
of two friends must be stainless. There must be complete harmony of
interests, purpose, and aims, without exception. Then if the case arises
of a friend's wish (not strictly right in itself) calling for support in
a matter involving his life or reputation, we must make some concession
from the straight path--on condition, that is to say, that extreme
disgrace is not the consequence. Something must be conceded to
friendship. And yet we must not be entirely careless of our reputation,
nor regard the good opinion of our fellow-citizens as a weapon which we
can afford to despise in conducting the business of our life, however
lowering it may be to tout for it by flattery and smooth words. We must
by no means abjure virtue, which secures us affection.

But to return again to Scipio, the sole author of the discourse on
friendship. He used to complain that there was nothing on which men
bestowed so little pains: that every one could tell exactly how many
goats or sheep he had, but not how many friends; and while they took
pains in procuring the former, they were utterly careless in selecting
friends, and possessed no particular marks, so to speak, or tokens by
which they might judge of their suitability for friendship. Now the
qualities we ought to look out for in making our selection are firmness,
stability, constancy. There is a plentiful lack of men so endowed, and
it is difficult to form a judgment without testing. Now this testing
can only be made during the actual existence of the friend-ship; for
friendship so often precedes the formation of a judgment, and makes a
previous test impossible. If we are prudent then, we shall rein in our
impulse to affection as we do chariot horses. We make a preliminary
trial of horses. So we should of friendship; and should test our
friends' characters by a kind of tentative friendship. It may often
happen that the untrustworthiness of certain men is completely displayed
in a small money matter; others who are proof against a small sum are
detected if it be large. But even if some are found who think it mean
to prefer money to friendship, where shall we look for those who put
friendship before office, civil or military promotions, and political
power, and who, when the choice lies between these things on the one
side and the claims of friendship on the other, do not give a strong
preference to the former? It is not in human nature to be indifferent
to political power; and if the price men have to pay for it is the
sacrifice of friendship, they think their treason will be thrown into
the shade by the magnitude of the reward. This is why true friendship
is very difficult to find among those who engage in politics and the
contest for office. Where can you find the man to prefer his friend's
advancement to his own? And to say nothing of that, think how grievous
and almost intolerable it is to most men to share political disaster.
You will scarcely find anyone who can bring himself to do that. And
though what Ennius says is quite true,--" the hour of need shews the
friend indeed,"--yet it is in these two ways that most people betray
their untrustworthiness and inconstancy, by looking down on friends when
they are themselves prosperous, or deserting them in their distress. A
man, then, who has shewn a firm, unshaken, and unvarying friendship in
both these contingencies we must reckon as one of a class the rarest in
the world, and all but superhuman.

18. Now, what is the quality to look out for as a warrant for the
stability and permanence of friendship? It is loyalty. Nothing that
lacks this can be stable. We should also in making our selection look
out for simplicity, a social disposition, and a sympathetic nature,
moved by what moves us. These all contribute to maintain loyalty.
You can never trust a character which is intricate and tortuous.
Nor, indeed, is it possible for one to be trustworthy and firm who is
unsympathetic by nature and unmoved by what affects ourselves. We may
add, that he must neither take pleasure in bringing accusations against
us himself, nor believe them when they are brought. All these contribute
to form that constancy which I have been endeavouring to describe.
And the result is, what I started by saying, that friendship is only
possible between good men.

Now there are two characteristic features in his treatment of his
friends that a good (which may be regarded as equivalent to a wise) man
will always display. First, he will be entirely without any make-believe
or pretence of feeling; for the open display even of dislike is
more becoming to an ingenuous character than a studied concealment of
sentiment. Secondly, he will not only reject all accusations brought
against his friend by another, but he will not be suspicious himself
either, nor be always thinking that his friend has acted improperly.
Besides this, there should be a certain pleasantness in word and
manner which adds no little flavour to friendship. A gloomy temper and
unvarying gravity may be very impressive; but friendship should be a
little less unbending, more indulgent and gracious, and more inclined to
all kinds of good-fellowship and good-nature.

19. But here arises a question of some little difficulty. Are there any
occasions on which, assuming their worthiness, we should prefer new to
old friends, just as we prefer young to aged horses? The answer admits
of no doubt whatever. For there should be no satiety in friendship, as
there is in other things. The older the sweeter, as in wines that keep
well. And the proverb is a true one, "You must eat many a peck of salt
with a man to be thorough friends with him." Novelty, indeed, has its
advantage, which we must not despise. There is always hope of fruit,
as there is in healthy blades of corn. But age too must have its proper
position; and, in fact, the influence of time and habit is very great.
To recur to the illustration of the horse which I have just now used.
Every one likes _ceteris paribus_ to use the horse to which he has been
accustomed, rather than one that is untried and new. And it is not
only in the case of a living thing that this rule holds good, but
in inanimate things also; for we like places where we have lived the
longest, even though they are mountainous and covered with forest. But
here is another golden rule in friendship: _put yourself on a level with
your friend_. For it often happens that there are certain superiorities,
as for example Scipio's in what I may call our set. Now he never assumed
any airs of superiority over Philus, or Rupilius, or Mummius, or
over friends of a lower rank stilt. For instance, he always shewed a
deference to his brother Quintus Maximus because he was his senior, who,
though a man no doubt of eminent character, was by no means his equal.
He used also to wish that all his friends should be the better for his
support. This is an example we should all follow. If any of us have any
advantage in personal character, intellect, or fortune, we should be
ready to make our friends sharers and partners in it with ourselves.
For instance, if their parents are in humble circumstances, if their
relations are powerful neither in intellect nor means, we should supply
their deficiencies and promote their rank and dignity. You know the
legends of children brought up as servants in ignorance of their
parentage and family. When they are recognized and discovered to be
the sons of gods or kings, they still retain their affection for the
shepherds whom they have for many years looked upon as their parents.
Much more ought this to be so in the case of real and undoubted parents.
For the advantages of genius and virtue, and in short, of every kind of
superiority, are never realized to their fullest extent until they are
bestowed upon our nearest and dearest.

20. But the converse must also be observed. For in friendship and
relationship, just as those who possess any superiority must put
themselves on an equal footing with those who are less fortunate, so
these latter must not be annoyed at being surpassed in genius, fortune,
or rank. But most people of that sort are forever either grumbling at
something, or harping on their claims; and especially if they consider
that they have services of their own to allege involving zeal and
friendship and some trouble to themselves. People who are always
bringing up their services are a nuisance. The recipient ought to
remember them; the performer should never mention them. In the case of
friends, then, as the superior are bound to descend, so are they bound
in a certain sense to raise those below them. For there are people who
make their friendship disagreeable by imagining themselves undervalued.
This generally happens only to those who think that they deserve to
be so; and they ought to be shewn by deeds as well as by words the
groundlessness of their opinion. Now the measure of your benefits should
be in the first place your own power to bestow, and in the second place
the capacity to bear them on the part of him on whom you are bestowing
affection and help. For, however great your personal prestige may be,
you cannot raise all your friends to the highest offices of the State.
For instance, Scipio was able to make Publius Rupilius consul, but not
his brother Lucius. But granting that you can give anyone anything you
choose, you must have a care that it does not prove to be beyond his
powers. As a general rule, we must wait to make up our mind about
friendships till men's characters and years have arrived at their full
strength and development. People must not, for instance, regard as fast
friends all whom in their youthful enthusiasm for hunting or football
they liked for having the same tastes. By that rule, if it were a mere
question of time, no one would have such claims on our affections as
nurses and slave-tutors. Not that they are to be neglected, but they
stand on a different ground. It is only these mature friendships that
can be permanent. For difference of character leads to difference of
aims, and the result of such diversity is to estrange friends. The sole
reason, for instance, which prevents good men from making friends with
bad, or bad with good, is that the divergence of their characters and
aims is the greatest possible.

Another good rule in friendship is this: do not let an excessive
affection hinder the highest interests of your friends. This very
often happens. I will go again to the region of fable for an instance.
Neoptolemus could never have taken Troy if he had been willing to listen
to Lycomedes, who had brought him up, and with many tears tried to
prevent his going there. Again, it often happens that important business
makes it necessary to part from friends: the man who tries to baulk it,
because he thinks that he cannot endure the separation, is of a weak
and effeminate nature, and on that very account makes but a poor friend.
There are, of course, limits to what you ought to expect from a friend
and to what you should allow him to demand of you. And these you must
take into calculation in every case.

21. Again, there is such a disaster, so to speak, as having to break off
friendship. And sometimes it is one we cannot avoid. For at this point
the stream of our discourse is leaving the intimacies of the wise and
touching on the friendship of ordinary people. It will happen at times
that an outbreak of vicious conduct affects either a man's friends
themselves or strangers, yet the discredit falls on the friends. In
such cases friendships should be allowed to die out gradually by an
intermission of intercourse. They should, as I have been told that Cato
used to say, rather be unstitched than toni in twain; unless, indeed,
the injurious conduct be of so violent and outrageous a nature as
to make an instant breach and separation the only possible course
consistent with honour and rectitude. Again, if a change in character
and aim takes place, as often happens, or if party politics produces an
alienation of feeling (I am now speaking, as I said a short time ago, of
ordinary friendships, not of those of the wise), we shall have to be on
our guard against appearing to embark upon active enmity while we only
mean to resign a friendship. For there can be nothing more discreditable
than to be at open war with a man with whom you have been intimate.
Scipio, as you are aware, had abandoned his friendship for Quintus
Pompeius on my account; and again, from differences of opinion in
politics, he became estranged from my colleague Metellus. In both cases
he acted with dignity and moderation, shewing that he was offended
indeed, but without Tancour.

Our first object, then, should be to prevent a breach; our second, to
secure that, if it does occur, our friendship should seem to have died
a natural rather than a violent death. Next, we should take care that
friendship is not converted into active hostility, from which flow
personal quarrels, abusive language, and angry recriminations. These
last, however, provided that they do not pass all reasonable limits
of forbearance, we ought to put up with, and, in compliment to an old
friendship, allow the party that inflicts the injury, not the one that
submits to it, to be in the wrong. Generally speaking, there is but one
way of securing and providing oneself against faults and inconveniences
of this sort--not to be too hasty in bestowing our affection, and not to
bestow it at all on unworthy objects.

Now, by "worthy of friendship" I mean those who have in themselves the
qualities which attract affection. This sort of man is rare; and indeed
all excellent things are rare; and nothing in the world is so hard to
find as a thing entirely and completely perfect of its kind. But most
people not only recognize nothing as good in our life unless it is
profitable, but look upon friends as so much stock, caring most for
those by whom they hope to make most profit. Accordingly they never
possess that most beautiful and most spontaneous friendship which must
be sought solely for itself without any ulterior object. They fail
also to learn from their own feelings the nature and the strength of
friendship. For every one loves himself, not for any reward which such
love may bring, but because he is dear to himself independently of
anything else. But unless this feeling is transferred to another, what
a real friend is will never be revealed; for he is, as it were, a
second self. But if we find these two instincts shewing themselves in
animals,--whether of the air or the sea or the land, whether wild or
tame,--first, a love of self, which in fact is born in everything that
lives alike; and, secondly, an eagerness to find and attach themselves
to other creatures of their own kind; and if this natural action is
accompanied by desire and by something resembling human love, how much
more must this be the case in man by the law of his nature? For man not
only loves himself, but seeks another whose spirit he may so blend with
his own as almost to make one being of two.

22. But most people unreasonably, not to speak of modesty, want such
a friend as they are unable to be themselves, and expect from their
friends what they do not themselves give. The fair course is first to be
good yourself, and then to look out for another of like character. It
is between such that the stability in friendship of which we have been
talking can be secured; when, that is to say, men who are united by
affection learn, first of all, to rule those passions which enslave
others, and in the next place to take delight in fair and equitable
conduct, to bear each other's burdens, never to ask each other for
anything inconsistent with virtue and rectitude, and not only to serve
and love but also to respect each other. I say "respect"; for if respect
is gone, friendship has lost its brightest jewel. And this shows the
mistake of those who imagine that friendship gives a privilege to
licentiousness and sin. Nature has given us friendship as the handmaid
of virtue, not as a partner in guilt: to the end that virtue, being
powerless when isolated to reach the highest objects, might succeed in
doing so in union and partnership with another. Those who enjoy in the
present, or have enjoyed in the past, or are destined to enjoy in the
future such a partnership as this, must be considered to have secured
the most excellent and auspicious combination for reaching nature's
highest good. This is the partnership, I say, which combines moral
rectitude, fame, peace of mind, serenity: all that men think desirable
because with them life is happy, but without them cannot be so. This
being our best and highest object, we must, if we desire to attain it,
devote ourselves to virtue; for without virtue we can obtain neither
friendship nor anything else desirable. In fact, if virtue be neglected,
those who imagine themselves to possess friends will find out their
error as soon as some grave disaster forces them to make trial of them.
Wherefore, I must again and again repeat, you must satisfy your judgment
before engaging your affections: not love first and judge afterwards. We
suffer from carelessness in many of our undertakings: in none more than
in selecting and cultivating our friends. We put the cart before the
horse, and shut the stable door when the steed is stolen, in defiance
of the old proverb. For, having mutually involved ourselves in a
long-standing intimacy or by actual obligations, all on a sudden some
cause of offence arises and we break off our friendships in full career.

23. It is this that makes such carelessness in a matter of supreme
importance all the more worthy of blame. I say "supreme importance,"
because friendship is the one thing about the utility of which everybody
with one accord is agreed. That is not the case in regard even to virtue
itself; for many people speak slightingly of virtue as though it were
mere puffing and self-glorification. Nor is it the case with riches.
Many look down on riches, being content with a little and taking
pleasure in poor fare and dress, And as to the political offices for
which some have a burning desire--how many entertain such a contempt
for them as to think nothing in the world more empty and trivial!

And so on with the rest; things desirable in the eyes of some are
regarded by very many as worthless. But of friendship all think alike to
a man, whether those have devoted themselves to politics, or those who
delight in science and philosophy, or those who follow a private way of
life and care for nothing but their own business, or those lastly who
have given themselves body and soul to sensuality--they all think, I
say, that without friendship life is no life, if they want some part
of it, at any rate, to be noble. For friendship, in one way or another,
penetrates into the lives of us all, and suffers no career to be
entirely free from its influence. Though a man be of so churlish and
unsociable a nature as to loathe and shun the company of mankind, as we
are told was the case with a certain Timon at Athens, yet even he cannot
refrain from seeking some one in whose hearing he may disgorge the
venom of his bitter temper. We should see this most clearly, if it were
possible that some god should carry us away from these haunts of men,
and place us somewhere in perfect solitude, and then should supply us in
abundance with everything necessary to our nature, and yet take from us
entirely the opportunity of looking upon a human being. Who could steel
himself to endure such a life? Who would not lose in his loneliness the
zest for all pleasures? And indeed this is the point of the observation
of, I think, Archytas of Tarentum. I have it third hand; men who were my
seniors told me that their seniors had told them. It was this: "If a man
could ascend to heaven and get a clear view of the natural order of
the universe, and the beauty of the heavenly bodies, that wonderful
spectacle would give him small pleasure, though nothing could be
conceived more delightful if he had but had some one to whom to tell
what he had seen." So true it is that nature abhors isolation, and ever
leans upon something as a stay and support; and this is found in its
most pleasing form in our closest friend.

24. But though Nature also declares by so many indications what her wish
and object and desire is, we yet in a manner turn a deaf ear and will
not hear her warnings. The intercourse between friends is varied and
complex, and it must often happen that causes of suspicion and offence
arise, which a wise man will sometimes avoid, at other times remove,
at others treat with indulgence. The one possible cause of offence
that must be faced is when the interests of your friend and your own
sincerity are at stake. For instance, it often happens that friends need
remonstrance and even reproof. When these are administered in a kindly
spirit they ought to be taken in good part. But somehow or other there
is truth in what my friend Terence says in his _Andria_:

Compliance gets us friends, plain speaking hate.

Plain speaking is a cause of trouble, if the result of it is resentment,
which is poison of friendship; but compliance is really the cause of
much more trouble, because by indulging his faults it lets a friend
plunge into headlong ruin. But the man who is most to blame is he who
resents plain speaking and allows flattery to egg him on to his ruin. On
this point, then, from first to last there is need of deliberation and
care. If we remonstrate, it should be without bitterness; if we reprove,
there should be no word of insult. In the matter of compliance (for I
am glad to adopt Terence's word), though there should be every courtesy,
yet that base kind which assists a man in vice should be far from us,
for it is unworthy of a free-born man, to say nothing of a friend. It is
one thing to live with a tyrant, another with a friend. But if a man's
ears are so closed to plain speaking that he cannot hear to hear the
truth from a friend, we may give him up in despair. This remark of
Cato's, as so many of his did, shews great acuteness: "There are people
who owe more to bitter enemies than to apparently pleasant friends:
the former often speak the truth, the latter never." Besides, it is a
strange paradox that the recipients of advice should feel no annoyance
where they ought to feel it, and yet feel so much where they ought not.
They are not at all vexed at having committed a fault, but very angry at
being reproved for it. On the contrary, they ought to be grieved at the
crime and glad of the correction.

25. Well, then, if it is true that to give and receive advice--the
former with freedom and yet without bitterness, the latter with patience
and without irritation--is peculiarly appropriate to genuine friendship,
it is no less true that there can be nothing more utterly subversive of
friendship than flattery, adulation, and base compliance. I use as many
terms as possible to brand this vice of light-minded, untrustworthy men,
whose sole object in speaking is to please without any regard to truth.
In everything false pretence is bad, for it suspends and vitiates our
power of discerning the truth. But to nothing it is so hostile as to
friendship; for it destroys that frankness without which friendship is
an empty name. For the essence of friendship being that two minds become
as one, how can that ever take place if the mind of each of the separate
parties to it is not single and uniform, but variable, changeable, and
complex? Can anything be so pliable, so wavering, as the mind of a man
whose attitude depends not only on another's feeling and wish, but on
his very looks and nods?

If one says "No," I answer "No"; if "Yes," I answer "Yes." In fine,
I've laid this task upon myself To echo all that's said--to quote my
old friend Terence again. But he puts these words into the mouth of
a Gnatho. To admit such a man into one's intimacy at all is a sign of
folly. But there are many people like Gnatho, and it is when they
are superior either in position or fortune or reputation that their
flatteries become mischievous, the weight of their position making up
for the lightness of their character. But if we only take reasonable
care, it is as easy to separate and distinguish a genuine from a
specious friend as anything else that is coloured and artificial from
what is sincere and genuine. A public assembly, though composed of men
of the smallest possible culture, nevertheless will see clearly
the difference between a mere demagogue (that is, a flatterer and
untrustworthy citizen) and a man of principle, standing, and solidity.
It was by this kind of flattering language that Gaius Papirius the
other day endeavoured to tickle the ears of the assembled people, when
proposing his law to make the tribunes re-eligible. I spoke against it.
But I will leave the personal question. I prefer speaking of Scipio.
Good heavens! how impressive his speech was, what a majesty there was
in it! You would have pronounced him, without hesitation, to be no mere
henchman of the Roman people, but their leader. However, you were there,
and moreover have the speech in your hands. The result was that a law
meant to please the people was by the people's votes rejected. Once
more to refer to myself, you remember how apparently popular was the law
proposed by Gaius Licinius Crassus "about the election to the College
of Priests" in the consulship of Quintus Maximus, Scipio's brother, and
Lucius Mancinus. For the power of filling up their own vacancies on
the part of the colleges was by this proposal to be transferred to the
people. It was this man, by the way, who began the practice of turning
towards the forum when addressing the people. In spite of this, however,
upon my speaking on the conservative side, religion gained an easy
victory over his plausible speech. This took place in my praetorship,
five years before I was elected consul, which shows that the cause
was successfully maintained more by the merits of the case than by the
prestige of the highest office.

26. Now, if on a stage, such as a public assembly essentially is,
where there is the amplest room for fiction and half-truths, truth
nevertheless prevails if it be but fairly laid open and brought into
the light of day, what ought to happen in the case of friendship, which
rests entirely on truthfulness? Friendship, in which, unless you both
see and show an open breast, to use a common expression, you can neither
trust nor be certain of anything--no, not even of mutual affection,
since you cannot be sure of its sincerity. However, this flattery,
injurious as it is, can hurt no one but the man who takes it in and
likes it. And it follows that the man to open his ears widest to
flatterers is he who first flatters himself and is fondest of himself. I
grant you that Virtue naturally loves herself; for she knows herself
and perceives how worthy of love she is. But I am not now speaking of
absolute virtue, but of the belief men have that they possess virtue.
The fact is that fewer people are endowed with virtue than wish to be
thought to be so. It is such people that take delight in flattery.
When they are addressed in language expressly adapted to flatter their
vanity, they look upon such empty persiflage as a testimony to the truth
of their own praises. It is not then properly friendship at all when the
one will not listen to the truth, and the other is prepared to lie. Nor
would the servility of parasites in comedy have seemed humorous to us
had there been no such things as braggart captains. "Is Thais really
much obliged to me?" It would have been quite enough to answer "Much,"
but he must needs say "Immensely." Your servile flatterer always
exaggerates what his victim wishes to be put strongly. Wherefore,
though it is with those who catch at and invite it that this flattering
falsehood is especially powerful, yet men even of soldier and steadier
character must be warned to be on the watch against being taken in by
cunningly disguised flattery. An open flatterer any one can detect,
unless he is an absolute fool the covert insinuation of the cunning
and the sly is what we have to be studiously on our guard against. His
detection is not by any means the easiest thing in the world, for
he often covers his servility under the guise of contradiction, and
flatters by pretending to dispute, and then at last giving in and
allowing himself to be beaten, that the person hoodwinked may think
himself to have been the clearer-sighted. Now what can be more degrading
than to be thus hoodwinked? You must be on your guard against this
happening to you, like the man in the _Heiress_:

     How have I been befooled! no drivelling dotards
     On any stage were e'er so p1ayed upon.

For even on the stage we have no grosser representation of folly than
that of short-sighted and credulous old men. But somehow or other I have
strayed away from the friendship of the perfect, that is of the "wise"
(meaning, of course, such "wisdom" as human nature is capable of), to
the subject of vulgar, unsubstantial friendships. Let us then return to
our original theme, and at length bring that, too, to a conclusion.

27. Well, then, Fannius and Mucius, I repeat what I said before. It
is virtue, virtue, which both creates and preserves friendship. On
it depends harmony of interest, permanence, fidelity. When Virtue has
reared her head and shewn the light of her countenance, and seen and
recognised the same light in another, she gravitates towards it, and in
her turn welcomes that which the other has to shew; and from it springs
up a flame which you may call love or friendship as you please. Both
words are from the same root in Latin; and love is just the cleaving
to him whom you love without the prompting of need or any view to
advantage--though this latter blossoms spontaneously on friendship,
little as you may have looked for it. It is with such warmth of feeling
that I cherished Lucius Paulus, Marcus Cato, Galus Gallus, Publius
Nasica, Tiberius Gracchus, my dear Scipio's father-in-law. It shines
with even greater warmth when men are of the same age, as in the case of
Scipio and Lucius Furius, Publius Rupilius, Spurius Mummius, and myself.
_En revanche_, in my old age I find comfort in the affection of young
men, as in the case of yourselves and Quintus Tubero: nay more, I
delight in the intimacy of such a very young man as Publius Rutilius and
Aulus Verginius. And since the law of our nature and of our life is that
a new generation is for ever springing up, the most desirable thing is
that along with your contemporaries, with whom you started in the
race, you may also teach what is to us the goal. But in view of
the instability and perishableness of mortal things, we should be
continually on the look-out for some to love and by whom to be loved;
for if we lose affection and kindliness from our life, we lose all that
gives it charm. For me, indeed, though torn away by a sudden stroke,
Scipio still lives and ever wilt live. For it was the virtue of the man
that I loved, and that has not suffered death. And it is not my eyes
only, because I had all my life a personal experience of it, that never
lose sight of it: it will shine to posterity also with undimmed glory.
No one will ever cherish a nobler ambition or a loftier hope without
thinking his memory and his image the best to put before his eyes. I
declare that of all the blessings which either fortune or nature has
bestowed upon me I know none to compare with Scipio's friendship. In
it I found sympathy in public, counsel in private business; in it too a
means of spending my leisure with unalloyed delight. Never, to the best
of my knowledge, did I offend him even in the most trivial point; never
did I hear a word from him I could have wished unsaid. We had one house,
one table, one style of living; and not only were we together on foreign
service, but in our tours also and country sojourns. Why speak of
our eagerness to be ever gaining some knowledge, to be ever learning
something, on which we spent all our leisure hours far from the gaze of
the world? If the recollection and memory of these things had perished
with the man, I could not possibly have endured the regret for one so
closely united with me in life and affection. But these things have not
perished; they are rather fed and strengthened by reflexion and memory.
Even supposing me to have been entirely bereft of them, still my time
of life of itself brings me no small consolation: for I cannot have much
longer now to bear this regret; and everything that is brief ought to be
endurable, however severe.

This is all I had to say on friendship. One piece of advice on parting.
Make up your minds to this. Virtue (without which friendship is
impossible) is first; but next to it, and to it alone, the greatest of
all things is Friendship.



ON OLD AGE


     1. And should my service, Titus, ease the weight
     Of care that wrings your heart, and draw the sting
     Which rankles there, what guerdon shall there he?

FOR I may address you, Atticus, in the lines in which Flamininus was
addressed by the man,

     who, poor in wealth, was rich in honour's gold,

though I am well assured that you are not, as Flamininus was,

     kept on the rack of care by night and day.

For I know how well ordered and equable your mind is, and am fully aware
that it was not a surname alone which you brought home with you from
Athens, but its culture and good sense. And yet I have an idea that you
are at times stirred to the heart by the same circumstances as myself.
To console you for these is a more serious matter, and must be put off
to another time. For the present I have resolved to dedicate to you an
essay on Old Age. For from the burden of impending or at least advancing
age, common to us both, I would do something to relieve us both though
as to yourself I am fully aware that you support and will support it,
as you do everything else, with calmness and philosophy. But directly I
resolved to write on old age, you at once occurred to me as deserving
a gift of which both of us might take advantage. To myself, indeed, the
composition of this book has been so delightful, that it has not only
wiped away all the disagreeables of old age, but has even made it
luxurious and delightful too. Never, therefore, can philosophy be
praised as highly as it deserves considering that its faithful disciple
is able to spend every period of his life with unruffled feelings.
However, on other subjects I have spoken at large, and shall often speak
again: this hook which I herewith send you is on Old Age. I have put the
whole discourse not, as Alisto of Cos did, in the mouth of Tithonus--for
a mere fable would have lacked conviction--but in that of Marcus Cato
when he was an old man, to give my essay greater weight. I represent
Laelius and Scipio at his house expressing surprise at his carrying
his years so lightly, and Cato answering them. If he shall seem to shew
somewhat more learning in this discourse than he generally did in his
own books, put it down to the Greek literature of which it is known that
he became an eager student in his old age. But what need of more? Cato's
own words will at once explain all I feel about old age.


M. Cato. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (the younger). Gaius
Laelius.

2. _Scipio_. Many a time have I in conversation with my friend Gaius
Laelius here expressed my admiration, Marcus Cato, of the eminent,
nay perfect, wisdom displayed by you indeed at all points, but above
everything because I have noticed that old age never seemed a burden to
you, while to most old men it is so hateful that they declare themselves
under a weight heavier than Aetna.

_Cato_. Your admiration is easily excited, it seems, my dear Scipio
and Laelius. Men, of course, who have no resources in themselves for
securing a good and happy life find every age burdensome. But those who
look for all happiness from within can never think anything had which
nature makes inevitable. In that category before anything else comes
old age, to which all wish to attain, and at which all grumble when
attained. Such is Folly's inconsistency and unreasonableness! They say
that it is stealing upon them faster than they expected. In the first
place, who compelled them to hug an illusion? For in what respect did
old age steal upon manhood faster than manhood upon childhood? In the
next place, in what way would old age have been less disagreeable to
them if they were in their eight-hundredth year than in their eightieth?
For their past, however long, when once it was past, would have no
consolation for a stupid old age. Wherefore, if it is your wont to
admire my wisdom--and I would that it were worthy of your good opinion
and of my own surname of Sapiens--it really consists in the fact that I
follow Nature, the best of guides, as I would a god, and am loyal to
her commands. It is not likely, if she has written the rest of the play
well, that she has been careless about the last act like some idle poet.
But after all some "last" was inevitable, just as to the berries of a
tree and the fruits of the earth there comes in the fulness of time a
period of decay and fall. A wise man will not make a grievance of this.
To rebel against nature--is not that to fight like the giants with the
gods?

_Laelius_. And yet, Cato, you will do us a very great favour (I venture
to speak for Scipio as for myself) if--since we all hope, or at least
wish, to become old men--you would allow us to learn from you in good
time before it arrives, by what methods we may most easily acquire the
strength to support the burden of advancing age.

_Cato_. I will do so without doubt, Laelius, especially if, as you say,
it will be agreeable to you both.

_Laelius_ We do wish very much, Cato, if it is no trouble to you, to
be allowed to see the nature of the bourne which you have reached after
completing a long journey, as it were, upon which we too are bound to
embark.

3. _Cato_. I will do the best I can, Laelius. It has often been my
fortune to bear the complaints of my contemporaries--like will to like,
you know, according to the old proverb--complaints to which men like C.
Salinator and Sp. Albinus, who were of consular rank and about my time,
used to give vent. They were, first, that they had lost the pleasures of
the senses, without which they did not regard life as life at all; and,
secondly, that they were neglected by those from whom they had been used
to receive attentions. Such men appear to me to lay the blame on the
wrong thing. For if it had been the fault of old age, then these same
misfortunes would have befallen me and all other men of advanced years.
But I have known many of them who never said a word of complaint against
old age; for they were only too glad to be freed from the bondage of
passion, and were not at all looked down upon by their friends. The fact
is that the blame for all complaints of that kind is to be charged
to character, not to a particular time of life. For old men who are
reasonable and neither cross-grained nor churlish find old age tolerable
enough: whereas unreason and churlishness cause uneasiness at every time
of life.

_Laelius_ It is as you say, Cato. But perhaps some one may suggest that
it is your large means, wealth, and high position that make you think
old age tolerable: whereas such good fortune only falls to few.

_Cato_. There is something in that, Laelius, but by no means all. For
instance, the story is told of the answer of Themistocles in a wrangle
with a certain Seriphian, who asserted that he owed his brilliant
position to the reputation of his country, not to his own. "If I had
been a Seriphian," said he, "even I should never have been famous, nor
would you if you had been an Athenian." Something like this may be said
of old age. For the philosopher himself could not find old age easy
to bear in the depths of poverty, nor the fool feel it anything but a
burden though he were a millionaire. You may be sure, my dear Scipio
and Laelius, that the arms best adapted to old age are culture and the
active exercise of the virtues. For if they have been maintained at
every period--if one has lived much as well as long--the harvest they
produce is wonderful, not only because they never fail us even in our
last days (though that in itself is supremely important), but also
because the consciousness of a well-spent life and the recollection of
many virtuous actions are exceedingly delightful.

4. Take the case of Q. Fabius Maximus, the man, I mean, who recovered
Tarentum. When I was a young man and he an old one, I was as much
attached to him as if he had been my contemporary. For that great man 5
serious dignity was tempered by courteous manners, nor had old age made
any change in his character. True, he was not exactly an old man when my
devotion to him began, yet he was nevertheless well on in life; for his
first consulship fell in the year after my birth. When quite a stripling
I went with him in his fourth consulship as a soldier in the ranks, on
the expedition against Capua, and in the fifth year after that against
Tarentum. Four years after that I was elected Quaestor, holding office
in the consulship of Tuditanus and Cethegus, in which year, indeed,
he as a very old man spoke in favour of the Cincian law "on gifts and
fees."

Now this man conducted wars with all the spirit of youth when he was far
advanced in life, and by his persistence gradually wearied out Hannibal,
when rioting in all the confidence of youth. How brilliant are those
lines of my friend Ennius on him!

     For us, down beaten by the storms of fate,
     One man by wise delays restored the State.
     Praise or dispraise moved not his constant mood,
     True to his purpose, to his country's good!
     Down ever-lengthening avenues of fame
     Thus shines and shall shine still his glorious name.

Again what vigilance, what profound skill did he show in the capture of
Tarentum! It was indeed in my hearing that he made the famous retort to
Salinator, who had retreated into the citadel after losing the town: "It
was owing to me, Quintus Fabius, that you retook Tarentum." "Quite so,"
he replied with a laugh; "for had you not lost it, I should never have
recovered it." Nor was he less eminent in civil life than in war. In his
second consulship, though his colleague would not move in the matter, he
resisted as long as he could the proposal of the tribune C. Flaminius
to divide the territory of the Picenians and Gauls in free allotments in
defiance of a resolution of the Senate. Again, though he was an augur,
he ventured to say that whatever was done in the interests of the State
was done with the best possible auspices, that any laws proposed against
its interest were proposed against the auspices. I was cognisant of much
that was admirable in that great man, but nothing struck me with greater
astonishment than the way in which he bore the death of his son--a man
of brilliant character and who had been consul. His funeral speech
over him is in wide circulation, and when we read it, is there any
philosopher of whom we do not think meanly? Nor in truth was he only
great in the light of day and in the sight of his fellow-citizens;
he was still more eminent in private and at home. What a wealth of
conversation! What weighty maxims! What a wide acquaintance with ancient
history! What an accurate knowledge of the science of augury! For a
Roman, too, he had a great tincture of letters. He had a tenacious
memory for military history of every sort, whether of Roman or
foreign wars. And I used at that time to enjoy his conversation with a
passionate eagerness, as though I already divined, what actually turned
out to be the case, that when he died there would be no one to teach me
anything.

5. What then is the purpose of such a long disquisition on Maximus? It
is because you now see that an old age like his cannot conscientiously
be called unhappy. Yet it is after all true that everybody cannot be a
Scipio or a Maximus, with stormings of cities, with battles by land and
sea, with wars in which they themselves commanded, and with triumphs to
recall. Besides this there is a quiet, pure, and cultivated life which
produces a calm and gentle old age, such as we have been told Plato's
was, who died at his writing-desk in his eighty-first year; or like that
of Isocrates, who says that he wrote the book called The Panegyric in
his ninety-fourth year, and who lived for five years afterwards; while
his master Gorgias of Leontini completed a hundred and seven years
without ever relaxing his diligence or giving up work. When some one
asked him why he consented to remain so long alive--"I have no fault,"
said he, "to find with old age." That was a noble answer, and worthy of
a scholar. For fools impute their own frailties and guilt to old age,
contrary to the practice of Ennui, whom I mentioned just now. In the
lines--

     Like some brave steed that oft before
     The Olympic wreath of victory bore,
     Now by the weight of years oppressed,
     Forgets the race, and takes his rest--

he compares his own old age to that of a high-spirited and successful
race-horse. And him indeed you may very well remember. For the present
consuls Titus Flamininus and Manius Acilius were elected in the
nineteenth year after his death; and his death occurred in the
consulship of Caepio and Philippus, the latter consul for the second
time: in which year I, then sixty-six years old, spoke in favour of
the Voconian law in a voice that was still strong and with lungs
still sound; while be, though seventy years old, supported two burdens
considered the heaviest of all--poverty and old age--in such a way as to
be all but fond of them.

The fact is that when I come to think it over, I find that there are
four reasons for old age being thought unhappy: First, that it withdraws
us from active employments; second, that it enfeebles the body; third,
that it deprives us of nearly all physical pleasures; fourth, that it is
the next step to death. Of each of these reasons, if you will allow me,
let us examine the force and justice separately.

6. OLD AGE WITHDRAWS US FROM ACTIVE EMPLOYMENTS. From which of them? Do
you mean from those carried on by youth and bodily strength? Are
there then no old men's employments to be after all conducted by the
intellect, even when bodies are weak? So then Q. Maximus did
nothing; nor L. Aemilius--our father, Scipio, and my excellent son's
father-in-law! So with other old men--the Fabricii, the Guru and
Coruncanii--when they were supporting the State by their advice and
influence, they were doing nothing! To old age Appius Claudius had the
additional disadvantage of being blind; yet it was he who, when the
Senate was inclining towards a peace with Pyrrhus and was for making a
treaty, did not hesitate to say what Ennius has embalmed in the verses:

     Whither have swerved the souls so firm of yore?
     Is sense grown senseless? Can feet stand no more?

And so on in a tone of the most passionate vehemence. You know the
poem, and the speech of Appius himself is extant. Now, he delivered
it seventeen years after his second consulship, there having been an
interval of ten years between the two consulships, and he having been
censor before his previous consulship. This will show you that at the
time of the war with Pyrrhus he was a very old man. Yet this is the
story handed down to us.

There is therefore nothing in the arguments of those who say that old
age takes no part in public business. They are like men who would say
that a steersman does nothing in sailing a ship, because, while some
of the crew are climbing the masts, others hurrying up and down the
gangways, others pumping out the bilge water, he sits quietly in the
stern holding the tiller. He does not do what young men do; nevertheless
he does what is much more important and better. The great affairs of
life are not performed by physical strength, or activity, or nimbleness
of body, but by deliberation, character, expression of opinion. Of these
old age is not only not deprived, but, as a rule, has them in a greater
degree. Unless by any chance I, who as a soldier in the ranks, as
military tribune, as legate, and as consul have been employed in various
kinds of war, now appear to you to be idle because not actively engaged
in war. But I enjoin upon the Senate what is to be done, and how.
Carthage has long been harbouring evil designs, and I accordingly
proclaim war against her in good time. I shall never cease to entertain
fears about her till I bear of her having been levelled with the ground.
The glory of doing that I pray that the immortal gods may reserve
for you, Scipio, so that you may complete the task begun by your
grand-father, now dead more than thirty-two years ago; though all years
to come will keep that great man's memory green. He died in the year
before my censorship, nine years after my consulship, having been
returned consul for the second time in my own consulship. If then he had
lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted having lived to be
old? For he would of course not have been practising rapid marches, nor
dashing on a foe, nor hurling spears from a distance, nor using swords
at close quarters--but only counsel, reason, and senatorial eloquence.
And if those qualities had not resided in us _seniors_, our ancestors
would never have called their supreme council a Senate. At Sparta,
indeed, those who hold the highest magistracies are in accordance with
the fact actually called "elders." But if you will take the trouble
to read or listen to foreign history, you will find that the mightiest
States have been brought into peril by young men, have been supported
and restored by old. The question occurs in the poet Naevius's _Sport_:

     Pray, who are those who brought your State
     With such despatch to meet its fate?

There is a long answer, but this is the chief point:

     A crop of brand-new orators we grew,
     And foolish, paltry lads who thought they knew.

For of course rashness is the note of youth, prudence of old age.

7. But, it is said, memory dwindles. No doubt, unless you keep it in
practice, or if you happen to be somewhat dull by nature. Themistocles
had the names of all his fellow-citizens by heart. Do you imagine that
in his old age he used to address Aristides as Lysimachus? For my part,
I know not only the present generation, but their fathers also, and
their grandfathers. Nor have I any fear of losing my memory by reading
tombstones, according to the vulgar superstition. On the contrary, by
reading them I renew my memory of those who are dead and gone. Nor, in
point of fact, have I ever heard of any old man forgetting where he had
hidden his money. They remember everything that interests them: when to
answer to their bail, business appointments, who owes them money, and
to whom they owe it. What about lawyers, pontiffs, augurs, philosophers,
when old? What a multitude of things they remember! Old men retain their
intellects well enough, if only they keep their minds active and fully
employed. Nor is that the case only with men of high position and
great office: it applies equally to private life and peaceful pursuits.
Sophocles composed tragedies to extreme old age; and being believed to
neglect the care of his property owing to his devotion to his art, his
sons brought him into court to get a judicial decision depriving him of
the management of his property on the ground of weak intellect--just as
in our law it is customary to deprive a paterfamilias of the management
of his property if he is squandering it. There--upon the old poet is
said to have read to the judges the play he had on hand and had just
composed--the _Oedipus Coloneus_--and to have asked them whether they
thought that the work of a man of weak intellect. After the reading he
was acquitted by the jury. Did old age then compel this man to become
silent in his particular art, or Homer, Hesiod, Simonides, or Isocrates
and Gorgias whom I mentioned before, or the founders of schools of
philosophy, Pythagoras, Democritus, Plato, Xenocrates, or later Zeno and
Cleanthus, or Diogenes the Stoic, whom you too saw at Rome? Is it not
rather the case with all these that the active pursuit of study only
ended with life?

But, to pass over these sublime studies, I can name some rustic Romans
from the Sabine district, neighbours and friends of my own,
without whose presence farm work of importance is scarcely ever
performed--whether sowing, or harvesting or storing crops. And yet in
other things this is less surprising; for no one is so old as to think
that he may not live a year. But they bestow their labour on what they
know does not affect them in any case:

     He plants his trees to serve a race to come,

as our poet Statius says in his Comrades. Nor indeed would a farmer,
however old, hesitate to answer any one who asked him for whom he was
planting: "For the immortal gods, whose will it was that I should not
merely receive these things from my ancestors, but should also hand them
on to the next generation."

8. That remark about the old man is better than the following:

     If age brought nothing worse than this,
     It were enough to mar our bliss,
     That he who bides for many years
     Sees much to shun and much for tears.

Yes, and perhaps much that gives him pleasure too. Besides, as to
subjects for tears, he often comes upon them in youth as well.

A still more questionable sentiment in the same Caecilius is:

     No greater misery can of age be told
     Than this: be sure, the young dislike the old.

Delight in them is nearer the mark than dislike. For just as old men, if
they are wise, take pleasure in the society of young men of good parts,
and as old age is rendered less dreary for those who are courted and
liked by the youth, so also do young men find pleasure in the maxims of
the old, by which they are drawn to the pursuit of excellence. Nor do
I perceive that you find my society less pleasant than I do yours. But
this is enough to show you how, so far from being listless and sluggish,
old age is even a busy time, always doing and attempting something, of
course of the same nature as each man's taste had been in the previous
part of his life. Nay, do not some even add to their stock of learning?
We see Solon, for instance, boasting in his poems that he grows old
"daily learning something new." Or again in my own case, it was only
when an old man that I became acquainted with Greek literature, which in
fact I absorbed with such avidity--in my yearning to quench, as it were,
a long-continued thirst--that I became acquainted with the very facts
which you see me now using as precedents. When I heard what Socrates had
done about the lyre I should have liked for my part to have done that
too, for the ancients used to learn the lyre but, at any rate, I worked
hard at literature.

9. Nor, again, do I now MISS THE BODILY STRENGTH OF A YOUNG MAN (for
that was the second point as to the disadvantages of old age) any more
than as a young man I missed the strength of a bull or an elephant. You
should use what you have, and whatever you may chance to be doing, do
it with all your might. What could be weaker than Milo of Croton's
exclamation? When in his old age he was watching some athletes
practising in the course, he is said to have looked at his arms and to
have exclaimed with tears in his eyes: "Ah well! these are now as good
as dead." Not a bit more so than yourself, you trifler! For at no time
were you made famous by your real self, but by chest and biceps. Sext.
Aelius never gave vent to such a remark, nor, many years before him,
Titus Coruncanius, nor, more recently, P. Crassus--all of them learned
juris-consults in active practice, whose knowledge of their profession
was maintained to their last breath. I am afraid an orator does lose
vigour by old age, for his art is not a matter of the intellect alone,
but of lungs and bodily strength. Though as a rule that musical ring
in the voice even gains in brilliance in a certain way as one grows
old--certainly I have not yet lost it, and you see my years. Yet
after all the style of speech suitable to an old man is the quiet and
unemotional, and it often happens that the chastened and calm delivery
of an old man eloquent secures a hearing. If you cannot attain to that
yourself, you might still instruct a Scipio and a Laelius. For what is
more charming than old age surrounded by the enthusiasm of youth? Shall
we not allow old age even the strength to teach the young, to train
and equip them for all the duties of life? And what can be a nobler
employment? For my part, I used to think Publius and Gnaeus Scipio and
your two grandfathers, L. Aemilius and P. Africanus, fortunate men when
I saw them with a company of young nobles about them. Nor should we
think any teachers of the fine arts otherwise than happy, however much
their bodily forces may have decayed and failed. And yet that same
failure of the bodily forces is more often brought about by the vices of
youth than of old age; for a dissolute and intemperate youth hands down
the body to old age in a worn-out state. Xenophon's Cyrus, for instance,
in his discourse delivered on his death-bed and at a very advanced age,
says that he never perceived his old age to have become weaker than his
youth had been. I remember as a boy Lucius Metellus, who having been
created Pontifex Maximus four years after his second consulship, held
that office twenty-two years, enjoying such excellent strength of body
in the very last hours of his life as not to miss his youth. I need not
speak of myself; though that indeed is an old man's way and is generally
allowed to my time of life. Don't you see in Homer how frequently Nestor
talks of his own good qualities? For he was living through a third
generation; nor had he any reason to fear that upon saying what was true
about himself he should appear either over vain or talkative. For, as
Homer says, "from his lips flowed discourse sweeter than honey," for
which sweet breath he wanted no bodily strength. And yet, after all, the
famous leader of the Greeks nowhere wishes to have ten men like Ajax,
but like Nestor: if he could get them, he feels no doubt of Troy shortly
falling.

10. But to return to my own case: I am in my eighty-fourth year. I could
wish that I had been able to make the same boast as Cyrus; but, after
all, I can say this: I am not indeed as vigorous as I was as a private
soldier in the Punic war, or as quaestor in the same war, or as consul
in Spain, and four years later when as a military tribune I took part in
the engagement at Thermopylae under the consul Manius Acilius Glabrio;
but yet, as you see, old age has not entirely destroyed my muscles, has
not quite brought me to the ground. The Senate-house does not find all
my vigour gone, nor the rostra, nor my friends, nor my clients, nor
my foreign guests. For I have never given in to that ancient and
much-praised proverb:

     Old when young
     Is old for long.

For myself, I had rather be an old man a somewhat shorter time than
an old man _before_ my time. Accordingly, no one up to the present has
wished to see me, to whom I have been denied as engaged. But, it may
be said, I have less strength than either of you. Neither have you the
strength of the centurion T. Pontius: is he the more eminent man on that
account? Let there be only a proper husbanding of strength, and let each
man proportion his efforts to his powers. Such an one will assuredly not
be possessed with any great regret for his loss of strength. At Olympia
Milo is said to have stepped into the course carrying a live ox on
his shoulders. Which then of the two would you prefer to have given to
you--bodily strength like that, or intellectual strength like that of
Pythagoras? In fine, enjoy that blessing when you have it; when it is
gone, don't wish it back--unless we are to think that young men should
wish their childhood back, and those somewhat older their youth! The
course of life is fixed, and nature admits of its being run but in one
way, and only once; and to each part of our life there is something
specially seasonable; so that the feebleness of children, as well as
the high spirit of youth, the soberness of maturer years, and the ripe
wisdom of old age--all have a certain natural advantage which should
be secured in its proper season. I think you are informed, Scipio, what
your grandfather's foreign friend Masinissa does to this day, though
ninety years old. When he has once begun a journey on foot he does not
mount his horse at all; when on horseback he never gets off his horse.
By no rain or cold can he be induced to cover his head. His body is
absolutely free from unhealthy humours, and so he still performs all
the duties and functions of a king. Active exercise, therefore, and
temperance can preserve some part of one's former strength even in old
age.

11. Bodily strength is wanting to old age; but neither is bodily
strength demanded from old men. Therefore, both by law and custom,
men of my time of life are exempt from those duties which cannot be
supported without bodily strength. Accordingly not only are we not
forced to do what we cannot do; we are not even obliged to do as much
as we can. But, it will be said, many old men are so feeble that they
cannot perform any duty in life of any sort or kind. That is not a
weakness to be set down as peculiar to old age: it is one shared by ill
health. How feeble was the son of P. Africanus, who adopted you! What
weak health he had, or rather no health at all! If that had not been
the case, we should have had in him a second brilliant light in the
political horizon; for he had added a wider cultivation to his father's
greatness of spirit. What wonder, then, that old men are eventually
feeble, when even young men cannot escape it? My dear Laelius and
Scipio, we must stand up against old age and make up for its drawbacks
by taking pains. We must fight it as we should an illness. We must look
after our health, use moderate exercise, take just enough food and drink
to recruit, but not to overload, our strength. Nor is it the body alone
that must be supported, but the intellect and soul much more. For they
are like lamps: unless you feed them with oil, they too go out from
old age. Again, the body is apt to get gross from exercise; but the
intellect becomes nimbler by exercising itself. For what Caecilius means
by "old dotards of the comic stage" are the credulous, the forgetful,
and the slipshod. These are faults that do not attach to old age as
such, but to a sluggish, spiritless, and sleepy old age. Young men are
more frequently wanton and dissolute than old men; but yet, as it is not
all young men that are so, but the bad set among them, even so senile
folly--usually called imbecility--applies to old men of unsound
character, not to all. Appius governed four sturdy sons, five daughters,
that great establishment, and all those clients, though he was both old
and blind. For he kept his mind at full stretch like a how, and never
gave in to old age by growing slack. He maintained not merely an
influence, but an absolute command over his family: his slaves feared
him, his sons were in awe of him, all loved him. In that family, indeed,
ancestral custom and discipline were in full vigour. The fact is that
old age is respectable just as long as it asserts itself, maintains its
proper rights, and is not enslaved to any one. For as I admire a young
man who has something of the old man in him, so do I an old one who has
something of a young man. The man who aims at this may possibly become
old in body--in mind he never will. I am now engaged in composing the
seventh book of my _Origins_. I collect all the records of antiquity.
The speeches delivered in all the celebrated cases which I have defended
I am at this particular time getting into shape for publication. I am
writing treatises on augural, pontifical, and civil law. I am, besides,
studying hard at Greek, and after the manner of the Pythagoreans--to
keep my memory in working order--I repeat in the evening whatever I have
said, heard, or done in the course of each day. These are the exercises
of the intellect, these the training grounds of the mind: while I sweat
and labour on these I don't much feel the loss of bodily strength. I
appear in court for my friends; I frequently attend the Senate and bring
motions before it on my own responsibility, prepared after deep and
long reflection. And these I support by my intellectual, not my bodily
forces. And if I were not strong enough to do these things, yet I should
enjoy my sofa--imagining the very operations which I was now unable to
perform. But what makes me capable of doing this is my past life. For a
man who is always living in the midst of these studies and labours
does not perceive when old age creeps upon him. Thus, by slow and
imperceptible degrees life draws to its end. There is no sudden
breakage; it just slowly goes out.

12. The third charge against old age is that it LACKS SENSUAL PLEASURES.
What a splendid service does old age render, if it takes from us the
greatest blot of youth! Listen, my dear young friends, to a speech of
Archytas of Tarentum, among the greatest and most illustrious of men,
which was put into my hands when as a young man I was at Tarentum
with Q. Maximus. "No more deadly curse than sensual pleasure has been
inflicted on mankind by nature, to gratify which our wanton appetites
are roused beyond all prudence or restraint. It is a fruitful source of
treasons, revolutions, secret communications with the enemy. In fact,
there is no crime, no evil deed, to which the appetite for sensual
pleasures does not impel us. Fornications and adulteries, and every
abomination of that kind, are brought about by the enticements of
pleasure and by them alone. Intellect is the best gift of nature or
God: to this divine gift and endowment there is nothing so inimical
as pleasure. For when appetite is our master, there is no place for
self-control; nor where pleasure reigns supreme can virtue hold its
ground. To see this more vividly, imagine a man excited to the highest
conceivable pitch of sensual pleasure. It can be doubtful to no one that
such a person, so long as he is under the influence of such excitation
of the senses, will be unable to use to any purpose either intellect,
reason, or thought. Therefore nothing can be so execrable and so fatal
as pleasure; since, when more than ordinarily violent and lasting, it
darkens all the light of the soul."

These were the words addressed by Archytas to the Samnite Caius Pontius,
father of the man by whom the consuls Spurius Postumius and Titus
Veturius were beaten in the battle of Caudium. My friend Nearchus of
Tarentum, who had remained loyal to Rome, told me that he had heard them
repeated by some old men; and that Plato the Athenian was present, who
visited Tarentum, I find, in the consulship of L. Camillus and Appius
Claudius.

What is the point of all this? It is to show you that, if we were unable
to scorn pleasure by the aid of reason and philosophy, we ought to have
been very grateful to old age for depriving us of all inclination for
that which it was wrong to do. For pleasure hinders thought, is a foe to
reason, and, so to speak, blinds the eyes of the mind. It is, moreover,
entirely alien to virtue. I was sorry to have to expel Lucius, brother
of the gallant Titus Flamininus, from the Senate seven years after his
consulship; but I thought it imperative to affix a stigma on an act of
gross sensuality. For when he was in Gaul as consul, he had yielded to
the entreaties of his paramour at a dinner-party to behead a man who
happened to be in prison condemned on a capital charge. When his brother
Titus was Censor, who preceded me, he escaped; but I and Flaccus could
not countenance an act of such criminal and abandoned lust, especially
as, besides the personal dishonour, it brought disgrace on the
Government.

13. I have often been told by men older than myself, who said that they
had heard it as boys from old men, that Gaius Fabricius was in the
habit of expressing astonishment at having heard, when envoy at the
headquarters of king Pyrrhus, from the Thessalian Cineas, that there was
a man of Athens who professed to be a "philosopher," and affirmed that
everything we did was to be referred to pleasure. When he told this to
Manius Curius and Publius Decius, they used to remark that they wished
that the Samnites and Pyrrhus himself would hold the same opinion. It
would be much easier to conquer them, if they had once given themselves
over to sensual indulgences. Manius Curius had been intimate with
P. Decius, who four years before the former's consulship had devoted
himself to death for the Republic. Both Fabricius and Coruncanius knew
him also, and from the experience of their own lives, as well as from
the action of P. Decius, they were of opinion that there did exist
something intrinsically noble and great, which was sought for its own
sake, and at which all the best men aimed, to the contempt and neglect
of pleasure. Why then do I spend so many words on the subject of
pleasure? Why, because, far from being a charge against old age, that it
does not much feel the want of any pleasures, it is its highest praise.

But, you will say, it is deprived of the pleasures of the table, the
heaped up board, the rapid passing of the wine-cup. Well, then, it is
also free from headache, disordered digestion, broken sleep. But if we
must grant pleasure something, since we do not find it easy to resist
its charms,--for Plato, with happy inspiration, calls pleasure "vice's
bait," because of course men are caught by it as fish by a hook,--yet,
although old age has to abstain from extravagant banquets, it is still
capable of enjoying modest festivities. As a boy I often used to see
Gaius Duilius the son of Marcus, then an old mali, returning from
a dinner-party. He thoroughly enjoyed the frequent use of torch and
flute-player, distinctions which he had assumed though unprecedented in
the case of a private person. It was the privilege of his glory. But why
mention others? I will come back to my own case. To begin with, I have
always remained a member of a "club"--clubs, you know, were established
in my quaestorship on the reception of the Magna Mater from Ida. So I
used to dine at their feast with the members of my club--on the whole
with moderation, though there was a certain warmth of temperament
natural to my time of life; but as that advances there is a daily
decrease of all excitement. Nor was I, in fact, ever wont to measure
my enjoyment even of these banquets by the physical pleasures they gave
more than by the gathering and conversation of friends. For it was
a good idea of our ancestors to style the presence of guests at a
dinner-table--seeing that it implied a community of enjoyment--a
_convivium_, "a living together." It is a better term than the Greek
words which mean "a drinking together," or, "an eating together." For
they would seem to give the preference to what is really the least
important part of it.

14. For myself, owing to the pleasure I take in conversation, I enjoy
even banquets that begin early in the afternoon, and not only in company
with my contemporaries--of whom very few survive--but also with men
of your age and with yourselves. I am thankful to old age, which has
increased my avidity for conversation, while it has removed that for
eating and drinking. But if anyone does enjoy these--not to seem to have
proclaimed war against all pleasure without exception, which is perhaps
a feeling inspired by nature--I fail to perceive even in these very
pleasures that old age is entirely without the power of appreciation.
For myself, I take delight even in the old-fashioned appointment of
master of the feast; and in the arrangement of the conversation, which
according to ancestral custom is begun from the last place on the
left-hand couch when the wine is brought in; as also in the cups which,
as in Xenophon's banquet, are small and filled by driblets; and in the
contrivance for cooling in summer, and for warming by the winter sun or
winter fire. These things I keep up even among my Sabine countrymen, and
every day have a full dinner-party of neighbours, which we prolong as
far into the night as we can with varied conversation.

But you may urge--there is not the same tingling sensation of pleasure
in old men. No doubt; but neither do they miss it so much. For nothing
gives you uneasiness which you do not miss. That was a fine answer of
Sophocles to a man who asked him, when in extreme old age, whether he
was still a lover. "Heaven forbid!" he replied; "I was only too glad to
escape from that, as though from a boorish and insane master." To
men indeed who are keen after such things it may possibly appear
disagreeable and uncomfortable to be without them; but to jaded
appetites it is pleasanter to lack than to enjoy. However, he cannot be
said to lack who does not want: my contention is that not to want is the
pleasanter thing.

But even granting that youth enjoys these pleasures with more zest; in
the first place, they are insignificant things to enjoy, as I have said;
and in the second place, such as age is not entirely without, if it
does not possess them in profusion. Just as a man gets greater pleasure
from Ambivius Turpio if seated in the front row at the theatre than if
he was in the last, yet, after all, the man in the last row does get
pleasure; so youth, because it looks at pleasures at closer quarters,
perhaps enjoys itself more, yet even old age, looking at them from
a distance, does enjoy itself well enough. Why, what blessings are
these--that the soul, having served its time, so to speak, in the
campaigns of desire and ambition, rivalry and hatred, and all the
passions, should live in its own thoughts, and, as the expression goes,
should dwell apart! Indeed, if it has in store any of what I may call
the food of study and philosophy, nothing can be pleasanter than an
old age of leisure. We were witnesses to C. Gallus--a friend of your
father's, Scipio--intent to the day of his death on mapping out the sky
and land. How often did the light surprise him while still working out
a problem begun during the night! How often did night find him busy on
what he had begun at dawn! How he delighted in predicting for us solar
and lunar eclipses long before they occurred! Or again in studies of
a lighter nature, though still requiring keenness of intellect, what
pleasure Naevius took in his _Punic War_! Plautus in his _Truculentus_
and _Pseudolus_! I even saw Livius Andronicus, who, having produced
a play six years before I was born--in the consulship of Cento and
Tuditanus--lived till I had become a young man. Why speak of Publius
Licinius Crassus's devotion to pontifical and civil law, or of the
Publius Scipio of the present time, who within these last few days
has been created Pontifex Maximus? And yet I have seen all whom I have
mentioned ardent in these pursuits when old men. Then there is Marcus
Cethegus, whom Ennius justly called "Persuasion's Marrow"--with what
enthusiasm did we see him exert himself in oratory even when quite old!
What pleasures are there in feasts, games, or mistresses comparable to
pleasures such as these? And they are all tastes, too, connected with
learning, which in men of sense and good education grow with their
growth. It is indeed an honourable sentiment which Solon expresses in a
verse which I have quoted before--that he grew old learning many a fresh
lesson every day. Than that intellectual pleasure none certainly can be
greater.

15. I come now to the pleasures of the farmer, in which I take amazing
delight. These are not hindered by any extent of old age, and seem to
me to approach nearest to' the ideal wise man's life. For he has to deal
with the earth, which never refuses its obedience, nor ever returns
what it has received without usury; sometimes, indeed, with less, but
generally with greater interest. For my part, however, it is not merely
the thing produced, but the earth's own force and natural productiveness
that delight me. For received in its bosom the seed scattered broadcast
upon it, softened and broken up, she first keeps it concealed therein
(hence the harrowing which accomplishes this gets its name from a word
meaning "to hide"); next, when it has been warmed by her heat and close
pressure, she splits it open and draws from it the greenery of the
blade. This, supported by the fibres of the root, little by little grows
up, and held upright by its jointed stalk is enclosed in sheaths, as
being still immature. When it has emerged from them it produces an ear
of corn arranged in order, and is defended against the pecking of the
smaller birds by a regular palisade of spikes.

Need I mention the starting, planting, and growth of vines? I can never
have too much of this pleasure--to let you into the secret of what gives
my old age repose and amusement. For I say nothing here of the natural
force which all things propagated from the earth possess--the earth
which from that tiny grain in a fig, or the grape-stone in a grape, or
the most minute seeds of the other cereals and plants, produces such
huge trunks and boughs. Mallet-shoots, slips, cuttings, quicksets,
layers--are they not enough to fill anyone with delight and
astonishment? The vine by nature is apt to fall, and unless supported
drops down to the earth; yet in order to keep itself upright it embraces
whatever it reaches with its tendrils as though they were hands. Then
as it creeps on, spreading itself in intricate and wild profusion, the
dresser's art prunes it with the knife and prevents it growing a forest
of shoots and expanding to excess in every direction. Accordingly at the
beginning of spring in the shoots which have been left there protrudes
at each of the joints what is termed an From this the grape emerges and
shows itself; which, swollen by the juice of the earth and the heat
of the sun, is at first very bitter to the taste, but afterwards grows
sweet as it matures; and being covered with tendrils is never without a
moderate warmth, and yet is able to ward off the fiery heat of the sun.
Can anything be richer in product or more beautiful to contemplate?
It is not its utility only, as I said before, that charms me, but the
method of its cultivation and the natural process of its growth: the
rows of uprights, the cross-pieces for the tops of the plants, the tying
up of the vines and their propagation by layers, the pruning, to which
I have already referred, of some shoots, the setting of others. I need
hardly mention irrigation, or trenching and digging the soil, which much
increase its fertility. As to the advantages of manuring I have spoken
in my book on agriculture. The learned Hesiod did not say a single word
on this subject, though he was writing on the cultivation of the soil;
yet Homer, who in my opinion was many generations earlier, represents
Laertes as softening his regret for his son by cultivating and manuring
his farm. Nor is it only in cornfields and meadows and vineyards and
plantations that a farmer's life is made cheerful. There are the garden
and the orchard, the feeding of sheep, the swarms of bees, endless
varieties of flowers. Nor is it only planting out that charms: there
is also grafting--surely the most ingenious invention ever made by
husbandmen.

16. I might continue my list of the delights of country life; but even
what I have said I think is somewhat over long. However, you must
pardon me; for farming is a very favourite hobby of mine, and old age is
naturally rather garrulous--for I would not be thought to acquit it of
all faults.

Well, it was in a life of this sort that Manius Curius, after
celebrating triumphs over the Samnites, the Sabines, and Pyrrhus, spent
his last days. When I look at his villa--for it is not far from my
own--I never can enough admire the man's own frugality or the spirit of
the age. As Curius was sitting at his hearth the Samnites, who brought
him a large sum of gold, were repulsed by him; for it was not, lie
said, a fine thing in his eyes to possess gold, but to rule those who
possessed it. Could such a high spirit fail to make old age pleasant?

But to return to farmers--not to wander from my own metier. Tn those
days there were senators, _i. e_. old men, on their farms. For L.
Quinctius Cincinnatus was actually at the plough when word was brought
him that he had been named Dictator. It was by his order as Dictator,
by the way, that C. Servilius Ahala, the Master of the Horse, seized
and put to death Spurius Maelius when attempting to obtain royal power.
Curius as well as other old men used to receive their summonses to
attend the Senate in their farm-houses, from which circumstance the
summoners were called _viatores_ or "travellers." Was these men's old
age an object of pity who found their pleasure in the cultivation of the
land? In my opinion, scarcely any life can be more blessed, not alone
from its utility (for agriculture is beneficial to the whole human
race), but also as much from the mere pleasure of the thing, to which
I have already alluded, and from the rich abundance and supply of all
things necessary for the food of man and for the worship of the gods
above. So, as these are objects of desire to certain people, let us
make our peace with pleasure. For the good and hard-working farmer's
wine-cellar and oil-store, as well as his larder, are always well
filled, and his whole farm-house is richly furnished. It abounds in
pigs, goats, lambs, fowls, milk, cheese, and honey. Then there is the
garden, which the farmers themselves call their "second flitch." A zest
and flavour is added to all these by hunting and fowling in spare hours.
Need I mention the greenery of meadows, the rows of trees, the beauty
of vineyard and olive-grove? I 'will put it briefly: nothing can either
furnish necessaries more richly, or present a fairer spectacle, than
well-cultivated land. And to the enjoyment of that, old age does not
merely present no hindrance--it actually invites and allures to it. For
where else can it better warm itself, either by basking in the sun or by
sitting by the fire, or at the proper time cool itself more wholesomely
by the help of shade or water? Let the young keep their arms then to
themselves, their horses, spears, their foils and ball, their swimming
baths and running path. To us old men let them, out of the many forms of
sport, leave dice and counters; but even that as they choose, since old
age can be quite happy without them.

17. Xenophon's books are very useful for many purposes. Pray go on
reading them with attention, as you have ever done. In what ample
terms is agriculture lauded by him in the book about husbanding one's
property, which is called _Oceonomicus_! But to show you that he thought
nothing so worthy of a prince as the taste for cultivating the soil, I
will translate what Socrates says to Critobulus in that book:

"When that most gallant Lacedaemonian Lysander came to visit the Persian
prince Cyrus at Sardis, so eminent for his character and the glory of
his rule, bringing him presents from his allies, he treated Lysander
in all ways with courteous familiarity and kindness, and, among other
things, took him to see a certain park carefully planted. Lysander
expressed admiration of the height of the trees and the exact
arrangement of their rows in the quincunx, the careful cultivation
of the soil, its freedom from weeds, and the sweetness of the odours
exhaled from the flowers, and went on to say that what he admired was
not the industry only, but also the skill of the man by whom this had
been planned and laid out. Cyrus replied: 'Well, it was I who planned
the whole thing these rows are my doing, the laying out is all mine;
many of the trees were even planted by own hand.' Then Lysander, looking
at his purple robe, the brilliance of his person, and his adornment
Persian fashion with gold and many jewels, said: 'People are quite
right, Cyrus, to call you happy, since the advantages of high fortune
have been joined to an excellence like yours.'"

This kind of good fortune, then, it is in the power of old men to enjoy;
nor is age any bar to our maintaining pursuits of every other kind, and
especially of agriculture, to the very extreme verge of old age. For
instance, we have it on record that M. Valerius Corvus kept it up to his
hundredth year, living on his land and cultivating it after his active
career was over, though between his first and sixth consulships there
was an interval of six and forty years. So that he had an official
career lasting the number of years which our ancestors defined as coming
between birth and the beginning of old age. Moreover, that last period
of his old age was more blessed than that of his middle life, inasmuch
as he had greater influence and less labour. For the crowning grace of
old age is influence.

How great was that of L. Caecilius Metellus! How great that of Atilius
Calatinus, over whom the famous epitaph was placed, "Very many classes
agree in deeming this to have been the very first man of the nation"!
The line cut on his tomb is well known. It is natural, then, that a man
should have had influence, in whose praise the verdict of history is
unanimous. Again, in recent times, what a great man was Publius Crassus,
Pontifex Maximus, and his successor in the same office, M. Lepidus! I
need scarcely mention Paulus or Africanus, or, as I did before, Maximus.
It was not only their senatorial utterances that had weight: their least
gesture had it also. In fact, old age, especially when it has enjoyed
honours, has an influence worth all the pleasures of youth put together.

18. But throughout my discourse remember that my panegyric applies to
an old age that has been established on foundations laid by youth. From
which may be deduced what I once said with universal applause, that
it was a wretched old age that had to defend itself by speech. Neither
white hairs nor wrinkles can at once claim influence in themselves: it
is the honourable conduct of earlier days that is rewarded by possessing
influence at the last. Even things generally regarded as trifling and
matters of course--being saluted, being courted, having way made for
one, people rising when one approaches, being escorted to and from the
forum, being referred to for advice--all these are marks of respect,
observed among us and in other States--always most sedulously where the
moral tone is highest. They say that Lysander the Spartan, whom I have
mentioned before, used to remark that Sparta was the most dignified home
for old age; for that nowhere was more respect paid to years, no-where
was old age held in higher honour. Nay, the story is told of how when
a man of advanced years came into the theatre at Athens when the games
were going on, no place was given him anywhere in that large assembly
by his own countrymen; but when he came near the Lacedaemonians, who as
ambassadors had a fixed place assigned to them, they rose as one man out
of respect for him, and gave the veteran a seat. When they were greeted
with rounds of applause from the whole audience, one of them remarked:

"The Athenians know what is right, but will not do it." There are many
excellent rules in our augural college, but among the best is one which
affects our subject--that precedence in speech goes by seniority; and
augurs who are older are preferred only to those who have held higher
office, but even to those who are actually in possession of imperium.
What then are the physical pleasures to be compared with the reward of
influence? Those who have employed it with distinction appear to me to
have played the drama of life to its end, and not to have broken down in
the last act like unpractised players.

But, it will be said, old men are fretful, fidgety, ill-tempered, and
disagreeable. If you come to that, they are also avaricious. But these
are faults of character, not of the time of life. And, after all,
fretfulness and the other faults I mentioned admit of some excuse--not,
indeed, a complete one, but one that may possibly pass muster: they
think themselves neglected, looked down upon, mocked, Besides with
bodily weakness every rub is a source of pain. Yet all these faults are
softened both by good character and good education. Illustrations of
this may be found in real life, as also on the stage in the case of
the brothers in the _Adeiphi_. What harshness in the one, what gracious
manners in the other The fact is that, just as it is not every wine, so
it is not every life, that turns sour from keeping, Serious gravity I
approve of in old age, but, as in other things, it must be within due
limits: bitterness I can in no case approve. What the object of senile
avarice may be I cannot conceive. For can there be anything more absurd
than to seek more journey money, the less there remains of the journey?

19. There remains the fourth reason, which more than anything else
appears to torment men of my age and keep them in a flutter--THE
NEARNESS OF DEATH, which, it must be allowed, cannot be far from an old
man. But what a poor dotard must he be who has not learnt in the course
of so long a life that death is not a thing to be feared? Death, that is
either to be totally disregarded, if it entirely extinguishes the soul,
or is even to be desired, if it brings him where he is to exist forever.
A third alternative, at any rate, cannot possibly be discovered. Why
then should I be afraid if I am destined either not to be miserable
after death or even to be happy? After all, who is such a fool as to
feel certain--however young he may be--that he will be alive in the
evening? Nay, that time of life has many more chances of death than
ours, Young men more easily contract diseases; their illnesses are more
serious; their treatment has to be more severe. Accordingly, only a few
arrive at old age. If that were not so, life would be conducted better
and more wisely; for it is in old men that thought, reason, and prudence
are to be found; and if there had been no old men, States would never
have existed at all. But I return to the subject of the imminence of
death. What sort of charge is this against old age, when you see that it
is shared by youth? I had reason in the case of my excellent son--as you
had, Scipio, in that of your brothers, who were expected to attain the
highest honours--to realise that death is common to every time of life.
Yes, you will say; but a young man expects to live long; an old man
cannot expect to do so. Well, he is a fool to expect it. For what can be
more foolish than to regard the uncertain as certain, the false as true?
"An old man has nothing even to hope." Ah, but it is just there that
he is in a better position than a young man, since what the latter only
hopes he has obtained. The one wishes to live long; the other has lived
long.

And yet, good heaven! what is "long" in a man's life? For grant
the utmost limit: let us expect an age like that of the King of the
Tartessi. For there was, as I find recorded, a certain Agathonius at
Gades who reigned eighty years and lived a hundred and twenty. But to my
mind nothing seems even long in which there is any "last," for when that
arrives, then all the past has slipped away--only that remains to which
you have attained by virtue and righteous actions. Hours indeed, and
days and months and years depart, nor does past time ever return, nor
can the future be known. Whatever time each is granted for life, with
that he is bound to be content. An actor, in order to earn approval,
is not bound to perform the play from beginning to end; let him only
satisfy the audience in whatever act he appears. Nor need a wise man go
on to the concluding "plaudite." For a short term of life is long enough
for living well and honourably. But if you go farther, you have no more
right to grumble than farmers do because the charm of the spring season
is past and the summer and autumn have come. For the word "spring" in a
way suggests youth, and points to the harvest to be: the other seasons
are suited for the reaping and storing of the crops. Now the harvest of
old age is, as I have often said, the memory and rich store of blessings
laid up in easier life. Again, all things that accord with nature are to
be counted as good. But what can be more in accordance with nature
than for old men to die? A thing, indeed, which also beliefs young men,
though nature revolts and fights against it. Accordingly, the death of
young men seems to me like putting out a great fire with a deluge of
water; but old men die like a fire going out because it has burnt down
of its own nature without artificial means. Again, just as apples when
unripe are torn from trees, but when ripe and mellow drop down, so it
is violence that takes life from young men, ripeness from old. This
ripeness is so delightful to me, that, as I approach nearer to death,
I seem as it were to be sighting land, and to be coming to port at last
after a long voyage.

20. Again, there is no fixed borderline for old age, and you are making
a good and proper use of it as long as you can satisfy the call of duty
and disregard death. The result of this is, that old age is even more
confident and courageous than youth. That is the meaning of Solon's
answer to the tyrant Pisistratus. When the latter asked him what he
relied upon in opposing him with such boldness, he is said to have
replied, "On my old age." But that end of life is the best, when,
without the intellect or senses being impaired, Nature herself takes
to pieces her own handiwork which she also put together. Just as the
builder of a ship or a house can break them up more easily than any one
else, so the nature that knit together the human frame can also
best unfasten it. Moreover, a thing freshly glued together is always
difficult to pull asunder; if old, this is easily done.

The result is that the short time of life left to them is not to be
grasped at by old men with greedy eagerness, or abandoned without cause.
Pythagoras forbids us, without an order from our commander, that is God,
to desert life's fortress and outpost. Solon's epitaph, indeed, is that
of a wise man, in which he says that he does not wish his death to be
unaccompanied by the sorrow and lamentations of his friends. He wants, I
suppose, to be beloved by them. But I rather think Ennius says better:

None grace me with their tears, nor weeping loud Make sad my funeral
rites!

He holds that a death is not a subject for mourning when it is followed
by immortality.

Again, there may possibly be some sensation of dying and that only for
a short time, especially in the case of an old man: after death, indeed,
sensation is either what one would desire, or it disappears altogether.
But to disregard death is a lesson which must be studied from our youth
up; for unless that is learnt, no one can have a quiet mind. For die we
certainly must, and that too without being certain whether it may not be
this very day. As death, therefore, is hanging over our head every hour,
how can a man ever be unshaken in soul if he fears it?

But on this theme I don't think I need much enlarge: when I remember
what Lucius Brutus did, who was killed while defending his country; or
the two Decii, who spurred their horses to a gallop and met a voluntary
death; or M. Atilius Regulus, who left his home to confront a death of
torture, rather than break the word which lie had pledged to the enemy;
or the two Scipios, who determined to block the Carthaginian advance
even with their own bodies; or your grandfather Lucius Paulus, who
paid with his life for the rashness of his colleague in the disgrace at
Cannae; or M. Marcellus, whose death not even the most bloodthirsty of
enemies would allow to go without the honour of burial. It is enough to
recall that our legions (as I have recorded in my _Origins_) have
often marched with cheerful and lofty spirit to ground from which they
believed that they would never return. That, therefore, which young
men--not only uninstructed, but absolutely ignorant--treat as of no
account, shall men who are neither young nor ignorant shrink from in
terror? As a general truth, as it seems to me, it is weariness of all
pursuits that creates weariness of life. There are certain pursuits
adapted to childhood: do young men miss them? There are others suited
to early manhood: does that settled time of life called "middle age" ask
for them? There are others, again, suited to that age, but not looked
for in old age. There are, finally, some which belong to Old age.
Therefore, as the pursuits of the earlier ages have their time for
disappearing, so also have those of old age. And when that takes place,
a satiety of life brings on the ripe time for death.

21. For I do not see why I should not venture to tell you my personal
opinion as to death, of which I seem to myself to have a clearer vision
in proportion as I am nearer to it. I believe, Scipio and Laelius, that
your fathers--those illustrious men and my dearest friends--are still
alive, and that too with a life which alone deserves the name. For as
long as we are imprisoned in this framework of the body, we perform a
certain function and laborious work assigned us by fate. The soul, in
fact, is of heavenly origin, forced down from its home in the highest,
and, so to speak, buried in earth, a place quite opposed to its divine
nature and its immortality. But I suppose the immortal gods to have sown
souls broadcast in human bodies, that there might be some to survey
the world, and while contemplating the order of the heavenly bodies to
imitate it in the unvarying regularity of their life. Nor is it only
reason and arguments that have brought me to this belief, but the great
fame and authority of the most distinguished philosophers. I used to
be told that Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans--almost natives of
our country, who in old times had been called the Italian school of
philosophers--never doubted that we had souls drafted from the universal
Divine intelligence. I used besides to have pointed out to me the
discourse delivered by Socrates on the last day of his life upon the
immortality of the soul--Socrates who was pronounced by the oracle at
Delphi to be the wisest of men. I need say no more. I have convinced
myself, and I hold--in view of the rapid movement of the soul, its vivid
memory of the past and its prophetic knowledge of the future, its many
accomplishments, its vast range of knowledge, its numerous discoveries
--that a nature embracing such varied gifts cannot itself be mortal.
And since the soul is always in motion and yet has no external source of
motion, for it is self-moved, I conclude that it will also have no end
to its motion, because it is not likely ever to abandon itself. Again,
since the nature of the soul is not composite, nor has in it any
admixture that is not homogeneous and similar, I conclude that it is
indivisible, and, if indivisible, that it cannot perish. It is again
a strong proof of men knowing most things before birth, that when mere
children they grasp innumerable facts with such speed as to show that
they are not then taking them in for the first time, but remembering and
recalling them. This is roughly Plato's argument.

22. Once more in Xenophon we have the elder Cyrus on his deathbed
speaking as follows:--

"Do not suppose, my dearest sons, that when I have left you I shall be
nowhere and no one. Even when I was with you, you did not see my soul,
but knew that it was in this body of mine from what I did. Believe then
that it is still the same, even though you see it not. The honours paid
to illustrious men had not continued to exist after their death, had
the souls of these very men not done something to make us retain our
recollection of them beyond the ordinary time. For myself, I never could
be persuaded that souls while in mortal bodies were alive, and died
directly they left them; nor, in fact, that the soul only lost all
intelligence when it left the unintelligent body. I believe rather that
when, by being liberated from all corporeal admixture, it has begun to
be pure and undefiled, it is then that it becomes wise. And again,
when man's natural frame is resolved into its elements by death, it is
clearly seen whither each of the other elements departs: for they all go
to the place from which they came: but the soul alone is invisible alike
when present and when departing. Once more, you see that nothing is so
like death as sleep. And yet it is in sleepers that souls most clearly
reveal their divine nature; for they foresee many events when they are
allowed to escape and are left free. This shows what they are likely to
be when they have completely freed themselves from the fetters of the
body. Wherefore, if these things are so, obey me as a god. But if my
soul is to perish with my body, nevertheless do you from awe of the
gods, who guard and govern this fair universe, preserve my memory by the
loyalty and piety of your lives."

23. Such are the words of the dying Cyrus. I will now, with your good
leave, look at home. No one, my dear Scipio, shall ever persuade me that
your father Paulus and your two grandfathers Paulus and Africanus, or
the father of Africanus, or his uncle, or many other illustrious men
not necessary to mention, would have attempted such lofty deeds as to be
remaindered by posterity, had they not seen in their minds that future
ages concerned them. Do you suppose--to take an old man's privilege of
a little self-praise--that I should have been likely to undertake
such heavy labours by day and night, at home and abroad, if I had been
destined to have the same limit to my glory as to my life? Had it not
been much better to pass an age of ease and repose without any labour
or exertion? But my soul, I know not how, refusing to be kept down, ever
fixed its eyes upon future ages, as though from a conviction that it
would begin to live only when it had left the body. But had it not been
the case that souls were immortal, it would not have been the souls of
all the best men that made the greatest efforts after an immortality of
fame.

Again, is there not the fact that the wisest man ever dies with the
greatest cheerfulness, the most unwise with the least? Don't you think
that the soul which has the clearer and longer sight sees that it is
starting for better things, while the soul whose vision is dimmer does
not see it? For my part, I am transported with the desire to see your
fathers, who were the object of my reverence and affection. Nor is it
only those whom I knew that I long to see; it is those also of whom I
have been told and have read, whom I have myself recorded in my history.
When I am setting out for that, there is certainly no one who will find
it easy to draw me back, or boil me up again like second Pelios. Nay, if
some god should grant me to renew my childhood from my present age and
once more to be crying in my cradle, I would firmly refuse; nor should
I in truth be willing, after having, as it were, run the full course, to
be recalled from the winning--crease to the barriers. For what blessing
has life to offer? Should we not rather say what labour? But granting
that it has, at any rate it has after all a limit either to enjoyment
or to existence. I don't wish to depreciate life, as many men and good
philosophers have often done; nor do I regret having lived, for I have
done so in a way that lets me think that I was not born in vain. But I
quit life as I would an inn, not as I would a home. For nature has given
us a place of entertainment, not of residence.

Oh glorious day when I shall set out to join that heavenly conclave and
company of souls, and depart from the turmoil and impurities of
this world! For I shall not go to join only those whom I have before
mentioned, but also my son Cato, than whom no better man was ever born,
nor one more conspicuous for piety. His body was burnt by me, though
mine ought, on the contrary, to have been burnt by him; but his spirit,
not abandoning, but ever looking back upon me, has certainly gone
whither he saw that I too must come. I was thought to bear that loss
heroically, not that I really bore it without distress, but I found my
own consolation in the thought that the parting and separation between
us was not to be for long.

It is by these means, my dear Scipio,--for you said that you and Laelius
were wont to express surprise on this point,--that my old age sits
lightly on me, and is not only not oppressive but even delightful.
But if I am wrong in thinking the human soul immortal, I am glad to be
wrong; nor will I allow the mistake which gives me so much pleasure
to be wrested from me as long as I live. But if when dead, as some
insignificant philosophers think, I am to be without sensation, I am not
afraid of dead philosophers deriding my errors. Again, if we are not to
be immortal, it is nevertheless what a man must wish--to have his
life end at its proper time. For nature puts a limit to living as to
everything else. Now, old age is as it were the playing out of the
drama, the full fatigue of which we should shun, especially when we also
feel that we have had more than enough of it.

This is all I had to say on old age. I pray that you may arrive at it,
that you may put my words to a practical test.





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