Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2 - "Luray Cavern" to "Mackinac Island"
Author: Various
Language: English
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.

*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 17, Slice 2 - "Luray Cavern" to "Mackinac Island"" ***

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE LUTHER, MARTIN: "... den Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel,
Eck und Prierias, und den Antworten Luthers darauf ..." 'und'
amended from 'and'.

ARTICLE LYLY, JOHN: "What the further relations between them were
we have no means of knowing ..." 'between' amended from 'beween'.

ARTICLE LYRE: "Examination of the construction of the instruments
thus identified reveals the fact that both possessed
characteristics which have persisted throughout the middle ages to
the present day in various instruments evolved from these two
archetypes." 'identified' amended from 'indentified'.

ARTICLE M: "... which survives in its earliest representations in
Greek. The greater length of the first limb of m is characteristic
of the earliest forms." 'survives' amended from 'survivies'.

ARTICLE M: "The sound m can in unaccented syllables form a syllable
by itself without an audible vowel, e.g. the English word fathom
comes from an Anglo-Saxon fathm, where the m was so used."
'English' amended from 'Enghlish'.

ARTICLE MABUSE, JAN: "At Scawby he illustrates the legend of the
count of Toulouse, who parted with his worldly goods to assume the
frock of a hermit. " 'worldly' amended from 'wordly'.

ARTICLE MACAQUE: "Mention of some of the more important species,
typifying distinct sub-generic groups, is made in the article
Primates." 'is' added.

ARTICLE MACEDONIA: "... it contains a number of Greek word which
are often replaced in the northern speech by Slavonic or Latin
synonyms." 'words' amended from 'works'.

ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ: "Machiavelli returned from Germany in
June 1508." 'Machiavelli' amended from 'Michiavelli'.

ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ: "He was exiled from Florence and
confined to the dominion for one year, and on the 17th of November
was further prohibited from setting foot in the Palazzo Pubblico."
'further' amended from 'futher'.

ARTICLE MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ: "It seems written to expose the
corruption of domestic life in Florence, and especially to satirize
the friars in their familiar part of go-betweens, tame cats,
confessors and adulterers." 'familiar' amended from 'familar'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XVII, SLICE II

Luray Cavern to Mackinac Island

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

LURAY CAVERN MACABRE
LURCH McADAM, JOHN LOUDON
LURGAN MACAIRE
LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON McALESTER
LURISTAN MACALPINE, JOHN
LUSATIA MACAO
LUSHAI HILLS MACAQUE
LUSIGNAN MACARONI
LUSSIN MACARONICS
LUSTRATION MACARSCA
LUTE MACARTNEY, GEORGE MACARTNEY
LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST MACASSAR
LUTHER, MARTIN MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY
LUTHERANS MACAW
LUTHER LEAGUE MACBETH
LUTON MACCABEES
LUTSK MACCABEES, BOOKS OF
LUTTERWORTH MacCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE
LUTTRELL, HENRY M'CARTHY, JUSTIN
LÜTTRINGHAUSEN McCHEYNE, ROBERT MURRAY
LÜTZEN McCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON
LÜTZOW, ADOLF McCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER
LUXEMBURG, DE MONTMORENCY-B. MACCLESFIELD, CHARLES GERARD
LUXEMBURG (district) MACCLESFIELD
LUXEMBURG (town) M'CLINTOCK, SIR FRANCIS LEOPOLD
LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS McCLINTOCK, JOHN
LUXOR McCLOSKEY, JOHN
LUXORIUS M'CLURE, SIR ROBERT JOHN LE MESURIER
LUYNES MacCOLL, MALCOLM
LUZÁN DE SUELVES, IGNACIO McCOMBIE, WILLIAM
LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR McCOOK, ALEXANDER McDOWELL
LUZZATTI, LUIGI MacCORMAC, SIR WILLIAM
LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM McCORMICK, CYRUS HALL
LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID McCOSH, JAMES
LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN McCOY, SIR FREDERICK
LYALL, EDNA M'CRIE, THOMAS
LYALLPUR MACCULLAGH, JAMES
LYCAEUS MACCULLOCH, HORATIO
LYCANTHROPY McCULLOCH, HUGH
LYCAON M'CULLOCH, SIR JAMES
LYCAONIA MACCULLOCH, JOHN
LYCEUM M'CULLOCH, JOHN RAMSAY
LYCIA McCULLOUGH, JOHN EDWARD
LYCK MACCUNN, HAMISH
LYCOPHRON MACDONALD, FLORA
LYCOPODIUM MACDONALD, GEORGE
LYCOSURA MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD
LYCURGUS (Spartan) MACDONALD, JACQUES ÉTIENNE ALEXANDRE
LYCURGUS (Attic orator) MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER
LYCURGUS (Greek leader) MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD
LYDD MACDONALD, LAWRENCE
LYDENBURG MACDONELL, JAMES
LYDFORD MACDONNELL, ALESTAIR RUADH
LYDGATE, JOHN MACDONNELL, SORLEY BOY
LYDIA MACDONOUGH, THOMAS
LYDUS, JOANNES LAURENTIUS MacDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER
LYE McDOWELL, IRVIN
LYELL, SIR CHARLES MACDUFF
LYLY, JOHN McDUFFIE, GEORGE
LYME REGIS MACE
LYMINGTON MACEDO, JOSÉ AGOSTINHO DE
LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION MACEDONIA
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
LYNCH, PATRICIO MACEDONIUS
LYNCHBURG MACEIÓ
LYNCH LAW McENTEE, JERVIS
LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY MACER, AEMILIUS
LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID MACERATA
LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM MACFARREN, SIR GEORGE ALEXANDER
LYNN McGEE, THOMAS D'ARCY
LYNTON and LYNMOUTH McGIFFERT, ARTHUR CUSHMAN
LYNX McGILLIVRAY, ALEXANDER
LYON, MARY MASON MACGILLIVRAY, WILLIAM
LYON, NATHANIEL MacGREGOR, JOHN
LYONNESSE MACH, ERNST
LYONS, EDMUND LYONS MACHAERODUS
LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON LYONS MACHALE, JOHN
LYONS (city of France) MACHAULT D'ARNOUVILLE, BAPTISTE DE
LYONS, COUNCILS OF MACHAUT, GUILLAUME DE
LYRA MACHIAVELLI, NICCOLÒ
LYRE MACHICOLATION
LYRE-BIRD MACHINE
LYRICAL POETRY MACHINE-GUN
LYSANDER MACÍAS
LYSANIAS MACINTOSH, CHARLES
LYSIAS MACKAY, CHARLES
LYSIMACHUS MACKAY, HUGH
LYSIPPUS MACKAY, JOHN WILLIAM
LYSIS OF TARENTUM MACKAY
LYSISTRATUS McKEESPORT
LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS McKEES ROCKS
LYTHAM MACKENNAL, ALEXANDER
LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER
LYTTELTON MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER
LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE BULWER-LYTTON MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL
LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE
M MACKENZIE, HENRY
MAAS, JOSEPH McKENZIE, SIR JOHN
MAASIN MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL
MAASSLUIS MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON
MAASTRICHT MACKENZIE (river of Canada)
MABILLON, JOHN MACKEREL
MABINOGION McKIM, CHARLES FOLLEN
MABUSE, JAN MACKINAC ISLAND
MACABEBE

LURAY CAVERN, a large cave in Page county, Virginia, U.S.A., 39° 35´ N.
and 78° 17´ W., near the village of Luray, on the Norfork & Western
railway. The valley, here 10 m. wide, extends from the Blue Ridge to the
Massanutton Mountain. The ridges lie in vast folds and wrinkles; and
elevations in the valley are often found to be pierced by erosion. Cave
Hill, 300 ft. above the water-level, had long been an object of local
interest on account of its pits and oval hollows or sink-holes, through
one of which, on the 13th of August 1878, Andrew J. Campbell and others
entered, thus discovering the cavern now described.

The Luray cavern does not date beyond the Tertiary period, though carved
from the Silurian limestone. At some period, long subsequent to its
original excavation, and after many large stalactites had grown, it was
completely filled with glacial mud charged with acid, whereby the
dripstone was eroded into singularly grotesque shapes. After the mud had
been mostly removed by flowing water, these eroded forms remained amid
the new growths. To this contrast may be ascribed some of the most
striking scenes in the cave. The many and extraordinary monuments of
aqueous energy include massive columns wrenched from their place in the
ceiling and prostrate on the floor; the Hollow Column, 40 ft. high and
30 ft. in diameter, standing erect, but pierced by a tubular passage
from top to bottom; the Leaning Column nearly as large, undermined and
tilting like the campanile of Pisa; the Organ, a cluster of stalactites
in the chamber known as the Cathedral; besides a vast bed of
disintegrated carbonates left by the whirling flood in its retreat
through the great space called the Elfin Ramble.

The stalactitic display exceeds that of any other cavern known. The old
material is yellow, brown or red; and its wavy surface often shows
layers like the gnarled grain of costly woods. The new stalactites
growing from the old, and made of hard carbonates that had already once
been used, are usually white as snow, though often pink, blue or
amber-coloured. The Empress Column is a stalagmite 35 ft. high,
rose-coloured, and elaborately draped. The double column, named from
Professors Henry and Baird, is made of two fluted pillars side by side,
the one 25 and the other 60 ft. high, a mass of snowy alabaster.
Several stalactites in the Giant Hall exceed 50 ft. in length. The
smaller pendants are innumerable; in the canopy above the Imperial
Spring it is estimated that 40,000 are visible at once.

The "cascades" are wonderful formations like foaming cataracts caught in
mid-air and transformed into milk-white or amber alabaster. The
Chalcedony Cascade displays a variety of colours. Brand's Cascade, the
finest of all, is 40 ft. high and 30 ft. wide, and is unsullied and
wax-like white, each ripple and braided rill seeming to have been
polished.

The Swords of the Titans are monstrous blades, eight in number, 50 ft.
long, 3 to 8 ft. wide, hollow, 1 to 2 ft. thick, but drawn down to an
extremely thin edge, and filling the cavern with tones like tolling
bells when struck heavily by the hand. Their origin and also that of
certain so-called scarfs and blankets is from carbonates deposited by
water trickling down a sloping and corrugated surface. Sixteen of these
alabaster scarfs hang side by side in Hovey's Balcony, three white and
fine as crape shawls, thirteen striated like agate with every shade of
brown, and all perfectly translucent. Down the edge of each a tiny rill
glistens like silver, and this is the ever-plying shuttle that weaves
the fairy fabric.

[Illustration: Luray Cavern. Scale 500 ft. to the inch.

1. The Vestibule. 19. Chalcedony Cascade.
2. Washington's Pillar. 20. Coral Spring.
3. Flower Garden. 21. The Dragon.
4. Amphitheatre. 22. Bootjack Alley.
5. Natural Bridge. 23. Scaly Column.
6. Fish Market. 24. Lost Blanket.
7. Crystal Spring. 25. Helen's Scarf.
8. Proserpine's Pillar. 26. Chapman's Lake.
9. The Spectral Column. 27. Broaddus Lake.
10. Hovey's Balcony. 28. Castles on the Rhine.
11. Oberon's Grot. 29. Imperial Spring.
12. Titania's Veil. 30. The Skeleton.
13. Saracen's Tent. 31. The Twin Lakes.
14. The Organ. 32. The Engine Room.
15. Tower of Babel. 33. Miller's Room.
16. Empress Column. 34. Hawes Cabinet.
17. Hollow Column. 35. Specimen Avenue.
18. Henry-Baird Column. 36. Proposed Exit.]

Streams and true springs are absent, but there are hundreds of basins,
varying from 1 to 50 ft. in diameter, and from 6 in. to 15 ft. in depth.
The water in them is exquisitely pure, except as it is impregnated by
the carbonate of lime, which often forms concretions, called according
to their size, pearls, eggs and snowballs. A large one is known as the
cannon ball. On fracture these spherical growths are found to be
radiated in structure.

Calcite crystals, drusy, feathery or fern-like, line the sides and
bottom of every water-filled cavity, and indeed constitute the
substance of which they are made. Variations of level at different
periods are marked by rings, ridges and ruffled margins. These are
strongly marked about Broaddus Lake and the curved ramparts of the
Castles on the Rhine. Here also are polished stalagmites, a rich buff
slashed with white, and others, like huge mushrooms, with a velvety
coat of red, purple or olive-tinted crystals. In some of the smaller
basins it sometimes happens that, when the excess of carbonate acid
escapes rapidly, there is formed, besides the crystal bed below, a
film above, shot like a sheet of ice across the surface. One pool 12
ft. wide is thus covered so as to show but a third of its surface. The
quantity of water in the cavern varies greatly at different seasons.
Hence some stalactites have their tips under water long enough to
allow tassels of crystals to grow on them, which, in a drier season,
are again coated over with stalactitic matter; and thus singular
distortions are occasioned. Contiguous stalactites are often inwrapped
thus till they assume an almost globular form, through which by making
a section the primary tubes appear. Twig-like projections, to which
the term _helictite_ has been applied by the present writer, are met
with in certain portions of the cave, and are interesting by their
strange and uncouth contortions. Their presence is due to lateral
outgrowths of crystals shooting from the side of a growing stalactite,
or to deflections caused by currents of air, or to the existence of a
diminutive fungus peculiar to the locality and designated from its
habitat _Mucor stalactitis_. The Toy-Shop is an amusing collection of
these freaks of nature.

The dimensions of the various chambers included in Luray Cavern cannot
easily be stated, on account of the great irregularity of their
outlines. Their size may be seen from the diagram. But it should be
understood that there are several tiers of galleries, and the vertical
depth from the highest to the lowest is 260 ft. The large tract of land
owned by the Luray Caverns Corporations covers all possible modes of
entrance.

The waters of this cavern appear to be entirely destitute of life; and
the existing fauna comprises only a few bats, rats, mice, spiders, flies
and small centipedes. When the cave was first entered, the floor was
covered with thousands of tracks of raccoons, wolves and bears--most of
them probably made long ago, as impressions made in the tenacious clay
that composes most of the cavern floor would remain unchanged for
centuries. Layers of excrementitious matter appear, and also many small
bones, along with a few large ones, all of existing species. The traces
of human occupation are pieces of charcoal, flints, moccasin tracks and
a single skeleton embedded in stalagmite in one of the chasms,
estimated, from the present rate of stalagmitic growth, to have lain
where found for not more than five hundred years.

The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., coinciding with that of Mammoth
Cave, Kentucky. The air is very pure, and the avenues are not
uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the public are now lighted by
electric lamps. The registered number of visitors in 1906 was 18,000. A
unique and highly successful experiment merits mention, by which the
cool pure air of Luray Cavern is forced through all the rooms of the
Limair sanatorium erected in 1901, by Mr T. C. Northcott, president of
the Luray Caverns Corporation, on the summit of Cave Hill. Tests made
for several successive years by means of culture media and sterile
plates, demonstrated the perfect bacteriologic purity of the air, first
drawn into the caverns through myriads of rocky crevices that served as
natural filters, then further cleansed by floating over the transparent
springs and pools, and finally supplied to the inmates of the
sanatorium.

For a full description see an article by Dr G. L. Hunner, of Johns
Hopkins University, in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for April 1904.
(H. C. H.)

LURCH, a word with several meanings, the etymological relationships of
which are obscure. The chief uses which survive are--(1) in the phrase
"to leave in the lurch," to abandon some one, to leave him in a position
of great difficulty; (2) a stagger, sudden leaning over, originally a
nautical expression of a sudden "list" made by a ship; (3) the name of a
dog, the "lurcher" used by poachers, properly a cross between a sheepdog
or collie and a greyhound. In (1) "lurch" is the name of a game, of
which nothing is known (it is supposed to have resembled backgammon),
and also of a state of the score in various games, in which the loser
either scores nothing or is beaten by very heavy points. In this sense
the term is practically obsolete. It was taken from Fr. _lourche_,
connected with many German forms, now only dialectical such as
_Lortsch_, _Lurtsch_, _Lorz_, _Lurz_, all for some kind of game, but
also meaning left-hand, wrong, which the _New English Dictionary_ thinks
is the origin of the word, it being first used as a term in gambling. In
(2) "lurch" occurs first in the form "lee-lurches," sudden rolls a ship
takes to leeward in a heavy sea, which may be a corruption of
"lee-latch," defined in Smyth's _Sailor's Word Book_ as dropping to
leeward of the course. In (3) "lurch" is probably another form of
"lurk," to lie in wait for, watch stealthily, hence to pilfer, steal.

LURGAN, a market-town of Co. Armagh, Ireland, well situated on high
ground overlooking Lough Neagh a few miles to the north; 20 m. S.W. of
Belfast by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 11,782. The parish
church of Shankill (this parish including Lurgan) has a finely
proportioned tower. Contiguous to the town is Lurgan Castle, a fine
modern Elizabethan structure, the seat of Lord Lurgan. Lurgan is famed
for its diapers, and the linen trade is of the first importance, but
there are also tobacco factories and coach factories. It is governed by
an urban district council. Lurgan was founded by William Brownlow, to
whom a grant of the town was made by James I. In 1619 it consisted of
forty-two houses, all inhabited by English settlers. It was burned by
the insurgents in 1641, and again by the troops of James II. After its
restoration in 1690 a patent for a market and fair was obtained.

LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (1534-1572), Jewish mystic, was born in
Jerusalem. From his German descent he was surnamed _Ashkenazi_ (the
German), and we find that epithet applied to him in a recently
discovered document of date 1559. In that year Isaac Luria was living in
Cairo and trading as a spice merchant with his headquarters in
Alexandria. He had come to Egypt as a boy after his father's death, and
was brought up by his wealthy maternal uncle Mordecai Francis. The boy,
according to the legends which soon grew round his life, was a
"wonder-child," and early displayed marvellous capacity. He married as a
lad of fifteen, his bride being his cousin. For some time he continued
his studies; later on when engaged in business there was no break in
this respect. Two years after his marriage he became possessed of a copy
of the Kabbalistic "Bible"--the _Zohar_ of Moses de Léon (q.v.). In
order to meditate on the mystic lore he withdrew to a hut by the Nile,
returning home for the Sabbath. Luria afterwards gave to the Sabbath a
mystic beauty such as it had never before possessed. Thus passed several
years; he was still young, but his new mode of life produced its effects
on a man of his imagination and saintly piety. He became a visionary.
Elijah, who had been his godfather in his babyhood, now paid him
frequent visits, initiating him into sublime truths. By night Luria's
soul ascended to heaven and conversed with celestial teachers who had
once been men of renown on earth.

In 1566 at earliest Luria removed to Safed. This Palestinian town was in
the 16th century the headquarters of the Kabbala. A large circle of
Talmudists lived there; at their head Joseph Qaro, then over eighty
years of age. Qaro's son married Luria's daughter, and Qaro rejoiced at
the connexion, for he had a high opinion of Luria's learning. Mysticism
is often the expression of a revolt against authority, but in Luria's
case mysticism was not divorced from respect for tradition. After his
arrival at Safed Luria lived at most six years, and died in 1572. But
these years were momentous for Judaism. He established an extraordinary
reputation; his personality had a winning attractiveness; and he founded
a school of mystics who powerfully affected Judaism after the master's
death. The Holy Spirit, we are told, rested on him, drawn to him by the
usual means of the mystics--self-flogging, ablutions and penance. He had
wonderful gifts of insight, and spoke to the birds. Miracles abounded.
More soberly true is the statement that he went on long walks with
enthusiastic disciples, whom he taught without books. Luria himself
wrote no mystical works; what we know of his doctrines and habits comes
chiefly from his Boswell, Hayim Vital.

There was little of originality in Luria's doctrines; the theory of
emanations, the double belief in the process of the Divine Essence as
it were self-concentrating (_Zimzum_) and on the other hand as
expanding throughout creation; the philosophical "sceptism" which
regards God as unknowable but capable of direct intuition by
feeling--these were all common elements of mystical thought. Luria was
an inspirer of saintly conduct rather than an innovator in theories.
Not beliefs, he said, but believers need rebirth. As he rose in the
morning he prayed: "O God, grant that throughout this coming day I may
be able to love my neighbour as myself." Never would he retire to rest
until he had fulfilled his definite engagements to those who had
served him. Luria and his school altered the very look of the Jewish
Prayer Book. Prayer was his main prop. By it men became controllers of
the earthly world and reached God. He or his school introduced
innumerable ritual customs, some of them beautiful enough. On Sabbath
he dressed in white, wearing a four-fold garment to typify the four
letters of the Divine Name. The Sabbath was to him an actual cult. It
was a day of the most holy joy. Resuming the Talmudic idea of an
Over-soul present in every Israelite on the Sabbath, Luria and his
school made play with this Over-soul, fed it with spiritual and
material dainties and evolved an intricate maze of mystic ceremonial,
still observed by countless masses. Another strong point with Luria
was penance. The confessions of sin which he introduced descend to
minute ritual details and rise to the most exalted aspects of social
and spiritual life. He deprecated general confessions and demanded
that the individual must lay bare the recesses of his heart. Hayim
Vital reports that on his death-bed Luria said to his disciples: "Be
at peace with one another: bear with one another: and so be worthy of
my coming again to reveal to you what no mortal ear has heard before."
His mystic ceremonial became a guide to religious practice, and though
with this there came in much meaningless and even bewildering
formalism, yet the example of his life and character was a lasting
inspiration to saintliness.

See S. Schecher, _Studies in Judaism_, second series, pp. 251 seq.;
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 210; E. Worman in _Revue des Études
Juives_, lvii. 281. (I. A.)

LURISTAN, in the wider sense (as its name implies) the "Land of the
Lurs," namely that part of western Persia which is bounded by Turkish
territory on the west and extends for about 400 m. N.W.-S.E. from
Kermanshah to Fars with a breadth of 100 to 140 m. It is chiefly
mountainous, being intersected by numerous ranges running N.W.-S.E. The
central range has many summits which are almost within the line of
perpetual snow, rising to 13,000 ft. and more, and in it are the sources
of Persia's most important rivers, as the Zayendeh-rud, Jarahi, Karun,
Diz, Abi, Kerkheh. Between the higher ranges are many fertile plains and
low hilly districts, well watered but comparatively little cultivated in
consequence of intertribal feuds. The Lurs are thought to be aboriginal
Persians with a mixture of Semitic blood. Their language is a dialect of
Persian and does not differ materially from Kurdish. Outwardly they are
Mussulmans of the Shiah branch, but most of them show little veneration
for either Prophet or Koran, and the religion of some of them seems to
be a mixture of Ali-Illahism involving a belief in successive
incarnations combined with mysterious, ancient, heathen rites. The
northern part of Luristan, which was formerly known as Lurikuchik
(little Luristan), is inhabited by the Feili Lurs and these are divided
into the Pishkuh (cis-montane) Lurs in the east and Pushtkuh
(ultra-montane) Lurs in the west adjoining Turkish territory. They
number about 350,000. Little Luristan was governed by a race of
independent princes of the Khurshidi dynasty, and called atabegs, from
1155 to the beginning of the 17th century when the last atabeg, Shah
Verdi Khan, was removed by Shah Abbas I. and the government of the
province given to Husain Khan, the chief of a rival tribe, with the
title of vali in exchange for that of atabeg. The descendants of Husain
Khan have retained the title but now govern only the Pushtkuh Lurs, to
whom only the denomination of Feili is at present applied. The southern
part of Luristan was formerly known as Lur i Buzurg (great Luristan) and
is composed of the Bakhtiari division of the Arabistan province and the
districts of the Mamasennis and Kuhgilus which belong to Fars. The
Bakhtiaris number about 200,000, the others 40,000. Great Luristan was
an independent state under the Fazlevieh atabegs from 1160 until 1424,
and its capital was Idaj, now represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir
60 m. S.E. of Shushter.

LUSATIA (Ger. _Lausitz_), a name applied to two neighbouring districts
in Germany, Upper and Lower Lusatia, belonging now mainly to Prussia,
but partly to Saxony. The name is taken from the Lusitzi, a Slav tribe,
who inhabited Lower Lusatia in the 9th and 10th centuries.

In the earliest times Lower Lusatia reached from the Black Elster to the
Spree; its inhabitants, the Lusitzi, were conquered by the German king,
Henry the Fowler, and by the margrave Gero in the 10th century. Their
land was formed into a separate march, which for about three centuries
was sometimes attached to, and sometimes independent of, the margraviate
of Meissen, its rulers being occasionally called margraves of Lusatia.
In 1303 it was purchased by the margrave of Brandenburg, and after other
changes it fell in 1368 into the hands of the king of Bohemia, the
emperor Charles IV., who already possessed Upper Lusatia. During the
Hussite wars its people remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. In
1469 they recognized Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, as their
sovereign, but in 1490 they came again under the rule of the Bohemian
king.

The district now known as Upper Lusatia was occupied by a Slav tribe, the
Milzeni, who like the Lusitzi, were subdued by Henry the Fowler early in
the 10th century. For about three centuries it was called Baudissin
(Bautzen), from the name of its principal fortress. In the 11th and 12th
centuries it was connected at different periods with Meissen, Poland and
Bohemia. Towards 1160 the emperor Frederick I. granted it to Ladislas,
king of Bohemia, and under this ruler and his immediate successors it was
largely colonized by German immigrants. In 1253 it passed to the margrave
of Brandenburg, and about the same time it was divided into an eastern
and a western part, Baudissin proper and Görlitz. In 1319 the former was
restored to Bohemia, which also recovered Görlitz in 1329. During the
14th century the nobles and the townsmen began to take part in the
government, and about this time Upper Lusatia was known as the district
of the six towns (_Sechsstädtelandes_), these being Bautzen, Görlitz,
Zittau, Löbau, Lauban and Kamenz. From 1377 to 1396 Görlitz was a
separate duchy ruled by John, a son of the emperor Charles IV., and, like
Lower Lusatia, Upper Lusatia owned the authority of Matthias Corvinus
from 1469 to 1490, both districts passing a little later with the
kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia to the German king, Ferdinand I. The "six
towns" were severely punished for their share in the war of the league of
Schmalkalden, and about this time the reformed teaching made very rapid
progress in Lusatia, the majority of the inhabitants becoming
Protestants. The name of Lusatia hitherto confined to Lower Lusatia, was
soon applied to both districts, the adjectives Upper and Lower being used
to distinguish them. In 1620, early in the Thirty Years' War, the two
Lusatias were conquered by the elector of Saxony, John George I., who was
allowed to keep them as the price of his assistance to the emperor
Ferdinand I. In 1635 by the treaty of Prague they were definitely
transferred from Bohemia to Saxony, although the emperor as king of
Bohemia retained a certain supremacy for the purpose of guarding the
rights and privileges of the Roman Catholics. They suffered much during
the wars of the 18th century. By the peace of Vienna (1815) the whole of
Lower Lusatia and part of Upper Lusatia were transferred from Saxony to
Prussia.

The area of the part of Upper Lusatia retained by Saxony was slightly
increased in 1845; it is now about 960 sq. m. In 1900 Lower Lusatia
contained 461,973 inhabitants, of whom 34,837 were Wends; the portion of
Upper Lusatia belonging to Prussia had 305,080 inhabitants, of whom
24,361 were Wends. There were 405,173 inhabitants, including 28,234
Wends, in Saxon Upper Lusatia. Laws relating to this district, after
passing through the Saxon parliament must be submitted to the Lusatian
diet at Bautzen. The chief towns of Upper Lusatia are Bautzen, Zittau,
Löbau, Kamenz, Görlitz, Rothenburg, Hoyerswerda and Lauban; in Lower
Lusatia they are Guben, Kottbus, Forst, Lübben and Spremberg. The
principal rivers are the Spree with its tributaries, the Black Elster
and the Neisse. Upper Lusatia is generally mountainous and picturesque,
Lower Lusatia is flat and sandy. The chief industries are linen weaving,
cloth making and coal mining.

For the history of Lusatia see the collections, _Scriptores rerum
Lusaticarum antiqui et recentiores_, edited by C. G. Hoffmann (4
vols., Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); and _Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum_
(4 vols., Görlitz, 1839-1870). See also W. Lippert, _Wettiner und
Wittelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert_ (Dresden,
1894); T. Scheltz, _Gesamtgeschichte der Ober- und Niederlausitz_,
Band i. (Halle, 1847), Band ii. (Görlitz, 1882); J. G. Worbs,
_Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Markgraftums Niederlausitz_ (Lübben
1897); and J. A. E. Köhler, _Die Geschichte der Oberlausitz_ (Görlitz,
1867).

LUSHAI HILLS, a mountainous district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, south
of Cachar, on the border between Assam and Burma. Area, 7227 sq. m.;
pop. (1901) 82,434. The hills are for the most part covered with dense
bamboo jungle and rank undergrowth; but in the eastern portion, owing
probably to a smaller rainfall, open grass-covered slopes are found,
with groves of oak and pine interspersed with rhododendrons. These hills
are inhabited by the Lushais and cognate tribes, but the population is
extremely scanty. From the earliest known times the original inhabitants
were Kukis, and the Lushais were not heard of until 1840, when they
invaded the district from the north. Their first attack upon British
territory took place in November 1849, and after that date they proved
one of the most troublesome tribes on the north-east frontier of India;
but operations in 1890 resulted in the complete pacification of the
northern Lushai villages, and in 1892 the eastern Lushais were reduced
to order. The management of the South Lushai hill country was
transferred from Bengal to Assam in 1898. To obtain more efficient
control over the country the district has been divided into eighteen
circles, each in charge of an interpreter, through whom all orders are
transmitted to the chiefs. The Welsh Presbyterian Mission began work at
Aijal in 1897, and the people have shown unexpected readiness to accept
education. According to the census of 1901 the total number of Lushais
in Assam was 63,452.

See Colonel T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of N.E. India_ (1870); _Lushai
Hills Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1906).

LUSIGNAN, the name of a family which sprang from Poitou[1] and
distinguished itself by its connexion with the kingdom of Jerusalem, and
still more by its long tenure of the kingdom of Cyprus (1192-1475). A
Hugh de Lusignan appears in the ill-fated crusade of 1100-1101; another
Hugh, the Brown, came as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in 1164, and was
taken prisoner by Nureddin. In the last quarter of the 12th century the
two brothers Amalric and Guy, sons of Hugh the Brown, played a
considerable part in the history of the Latin East. About 1180 Amalric
was constable of the kingdom of Jerusalem; and he is said to have
brought his handsome brother Guy to the notice of Sibylla, the widowed
heiress of the kingdom. Guy and Sibylla were married in 1180; and Guy
thus became heir presumptive of the kingdom, if the young Baldwin V.,
Sibylla's son by her first marriage to William of Montferrat, should die
without issue. He acted as regent in 1183, but he showed some incapacity
in the struggle with Saladin, and was deprived of all right of
succession. In 1186, however, on the death of Baldwin V., he succeeded
in obtaining the crown, in spite of the opposition of Raymund of
Tripoli. Next year he suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of
Hittin, and was taken prisoner by Saladin. Released on parole in 1188,
he at once broke his parole, and began the siege of Acre. Difficulties,
however, had arisen with Conrad of Montferrat; and when Guy lost his
wife Sibylla in 1190, and Conrad married Isabella, her sister, now
heiress of the kingdom, these difficulties culminated in Conrad's laying
claim to the crown. Guy found his cause espoused in 1191 by the overlord
of his house, Richard I. of England; but Conrad's superior ability, and
the support of the French crusaders, ultimately carried the day, and in
1192 Richard himself abandoned the pretensions of Guy, and recognized
Conrad as king. Though Conrad was almost immediately assassinated, the
crown did not return to Guy, but went to Henry of Champagne, who
married the widowed Isabella. Guy found some satisfaction for his loss
in buying from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he reigned
for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is judged harshly by
contemporary writers, as _simplex_ and _insufficiens_; but Dodu (in his
_Histoire des institutions du royaume de Jerusalem_) suggests that Guy
was depreciated because the kingdom had been lost in his reign, in much
the same way as Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had
just been won at his accession. Guy was a brave if not a particularly
able knight; and his instant attack on Acre after his release by Saladin
shows that he had the _sentiment de ses devoirs_.

He was succeeded in Cyprus by his brother Amalric, who acquired the
title of king of Cyprus from the emperor Henry VI., and became king of
Jerusalem in 1197 by his marriage to Isabella, after the death of Henry
of Champagne (see AMALRIC II.). Amalric was the founder of a dynasty of
kings of Cyprus, which lasted till 1475, while after 1269 his
descendants regularly enjoyed the title of kings of Jerusalem. The
scions of the house of Lusignan proved themselves the most sincere of
crusaders. They possessed in Cyprus a kingdom, in which they had
vindicated for themselves a stronger hold over their feudatories than
the kings of Jerusalem had ever enjoyed, and in which trading centres
like Famagusta flourished vigorously; and they used the resources of
their kingdom, in conjunction with the Hospitallers of Rhodes, to check
the progress of the Mahommedans.

Among the most famous members of the house who ruled in Cyprus three may
be mentioned. The first is Hugh III. (the Great), who was king from 1267
to 1285: to him, apparently, St Thomas dedicated his _De Regimine
Principum_; and it is in his reign that the kingdom of Jerusalem becomes
permanently connected with that of Cyprus. The second is Hugh IV.
(1324-1359), to whom Boccaccio dedicated one of his works, and who set
on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospitallers, which
resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344). The last is Peter I., Hugh's
second son and successor, who reigned from 1359 to 1369, when he was
assassinated as the result of a conspiracy of the barons. Peter and his
chancellor de Mezières represent the last flicker of the crusading
spirit (see CRUSADES).

Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had succeeded in putting a
branch on the throne of Armenia. Five short-lived kings of the house
ruled in Armenia after 1342, "Latin exiles," as Stubbs says, "in the
midst of several strange populations all alike hostile." The kingdom of
Armenia fell before the sultan of Egypt, who took prisoner its last king
Leo V. in 1375, though the kings of Cyprus afterwards continued to bear
the title; the kingdom of Cyprus itself continued to exist under the
house of Lusignan for 100 years longer. The mother of the last king,
James III. (who died when he was two years old), was a Venetian lady,
Catarina Cornaro. She had been made a daughter of the republic at the
time of her marriage to the king of Cyprus; and on the death of her
child the republic first acted as guardian for its daughter, and then,
in 1489, obtained from her the cession of the island.

See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, _Histoire de l'île de Chypre sous les
princes de la maison de Lusignan_ (Paris, 1852-1853); W. Stubbs,
_Lectures on Medieval and Modern History_ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A branch of the line continued in Poitou during the 13th century,
and ruled in LaMarche till 1303. Hugh de la Marche, whose betrothed
wife, Isabella of Angoulême, King John of England seized (thus
bringing upon himself the loss of the greater part of his French
possessions), was a nephew of Guy of Lusignan. He ultimately married
Isabella, after the death of John, and had by her a number of sons,
half-brothers of Henry III. of England, who came over to England,
amongst other foreign favourites, during his reign.

LUSSIN, a small island in the Adriatic Sea, in the Gulf of Quarnero,
forming together with the adjacent islands of Veglia and Cherso an
administrative district in the Austrian crownland of Istria. Pop. (1900)
11,615. The island is 24 m. in length, is of an average breadth of 1.64
m., being little more than 300 yds. wide at its narrowest point, and has
an area of 29 sq. m. The chief town and principal harbour is
Lussinpiccolo (pop. 7207), which is the most important trading centre in
the Quarnero group. The town has become a favourite winter resort, its
climate resembling that of Nice. To the south-east of it is Lussingrande
(pop. 2349), with an old Venetian palace and a shipbuilding wharf. The
island was first peopled at the end of the 14th century. Its inhabitants
are renowned seamen.

LUSTRATION, a term that includes all the methods of purification and
expiation among the Greeks and Romans. Among the Greeks there are two
ideas clearly distinguishable--that human nature must purify itself
([Greek: katharsis]) from guilt before it is fit to enter into communion
with God or even to associate with men, and that guilt must be expiated
voluntarily ([Greek: hilasmos]) by certain processes which God has
revealed, in order to avoid the punishment that must otherwise overtake
it. It is not possible to make such a distinction among the Latin terms
_lustratio_, _piacula_, _piamenta_, _caerimoniae_, and even among the
Greeks it is not consistently observed. Guilt and impurity arose in
various ways; among the Greeks, besides the general idea that man is
always in need of purification, the species of guilt most insisted on by
religion are incurred by murder, by touching a dead body, by sexual
intercourse, and by seeing a prodigy or sign of the divine will. The
last three spring from the idea that man had been without preparation
and improperly brought into communication with God, and was therefore
guilty. The first, which involves a really moral idea of guilt, is far
more important than the others in Hellenic religion. Among the Romans we
hear more of the last species of impurity; in general the idea takes the
form that after some great disaster the people become convinced that
guilt has been incurred and must be expiated. The methods of
purification consist in ceremonies performed with water, fire, air or
earth, or with a branch of a sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and
also in sacrifice and other ceremonial. Before entering a temple the
worshipper dipped his hand in the vase of holy water ([Greek:
perirrhanterion], _aqua lustralis_) which stood at the door; before a
sacrifice bathing was common; salt-water was more efficacious than
fresh, and the celebrants of the Eleusinian mysteries bathed in the sea
([Greek: halade, mystai]); the water was more efficacious if a firebrand
from the altar were plunged in it. The torch, fire and sulphur ([Greek:
to theion]) were also powerful purifying agents. Purification by air was
most frequent in the Dionysiac mysteries; puppets suspended and swinging
in the air (_oscilla_) formed one way of using the lustrative power of
the air. Rubbing with sand and salt was another method. The sacrifice
chiefly used for purification by the Greeks was a pig; among the Romans
it was always, except in the Lupercalia, a pig, a sheep and a bull
(_suovetaurilia_). In Athens a purificatory sacrifice and prayer was
held before every meeting of the ecclesia; the Maimacteria,[1] in honour
of Zeus Maimactes (the god of wrath), was an annual festival of
purification, and at the Thargelia two men (or a woman and a man) were
sacrificed on the seashore, their bodies burned and the ashes thrown
into the sea, to avert the wrath of Apollo. On extraordinary occasions
lustrations were performed for a whole city. So Athens was purified by
Epimenides after the Cylonian massacre, and Delos in the Peloponnesian
War (426 B.C.) to stop the plague and appease the wrath of Apollo. In
Rome, besides such annual ceremonies as the _Ambarvalia_, _Lupercalia_,
_Cerialia_, _Paganalia_, &c., there was a lustration of the fleet before
it sailed, and of the army before it marched. Part of the ceremonial
always consisted in leading or carrying the victims round the impure
persons or things. After any disaster the _lustratio classium_ or
_exercitus_ was often again performed, so as to make certain that the
gods got all their due. The _Amburbium_, a solemn procession of the
people round the boundaries of Rome, was a similar ceremonial performed
for the whole city on occasions of great danger or calamity; the
_Ambilustrium_ (so called from the sacrificial victims being carried
round the people assembled on the Campus Martius) was the purificatory
ceremony which took place after the regular quinquennial census
(_lustrum_) of the Roman people.

See C. F. Hermann, _Griechische Altertümer_, ii.; G. F. Schömann,
_ib._ ii.; P. Stengel, _Die griechischen Kultusaltertümer_ (1898);
Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii. p. 200 (1885); P. E. von
Lasaulx, _Die Sühnopfer der Griechen und Römer_ (1841); J. Donaldson,
"On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of the Greeks," in
_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xxvii., 1876; and
the articles by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des antiquités_, and by W. Warde Fowler in Smith's
_Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1891).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Maimacteria does not actually occur in ancient authorities as the
name of a festival.

LUTE (Arabic _al'ud_, "the wood"; Fr. _luth_; Ital. _liuto_; Span.
_laud_; Ger. _Laute_; Dut. _luit_), an ancient stringed musical
instrument, derived in form as well as name from the Arabs. The complete
family consisted of the pandura, tanbur or mandoline as treble, the lute
as alto or tenor, the barbiton or theorbo as bass, and the chitarrone as
double bass. The Arab instrument, with convex sound-body, pointing to
the resonance board or membrane having been originally placed upon a
gourd, was strung with silk and played with a plectrum of shell or
quill. It was adopted by the Arabs from Persia. Instruments with vaulted
backs are all undoubtedly of Eastern origin; the distinct type,
resembling the longitudinal section of a pear, is more specially traced
in ancient India, Persia and the countries influenced by their
civilization. This type of instrument includes many families which
became known during the middle ages of western Europe, being introduced
into southern Europe and Spain by the Moors, into southern Russia by the
Persians of the Sassanian period, into Greece from the confines of the
Byzantine Empire. As long as the strings were plucked by fingers or
plectrum the large pear-shaped instrument may be identified as the
archetype of the lute. When the bow, obtained from Persia, was applied
to the instrument by the Arabs, a fresh family was formed, which was
afterwards known in Europe as rebab and later rebec. The largest member
of the ancient lute family--the bass lute or theorbo--has been
identified with the barbiton.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Post-Mycenaean terra-cotta figure, with ancient
lute (1000 B.C.) from the cemetery at Goshen.]

Until recently the existence of these ancient stringed instruments was
presumed on the evidence of the early medieval European instruments
and of the meagre writings extant, such as those of Farabi.[1] But a
chain of plastic evidence can now be offered, beginning with the Greek
post-Mycenaean age (c. 1000 B.C.). A statuette of a female musician
playing upon a large lute with only an embryonic neck, on which
nevertheless the left hand is stopping strings, was unearthed in Egypt
in a tomb of the XXth Dynasty in the cemetery of Goshen by the members
of the British School of Archaeology in Egypt,[2] under the direction
of Professor Flinders Petrie, to whose courtesy we owe the photograph
(fig. 1) here reproduced. It is difficult to form a conclusive opinion
as to the number of strings the artist intended to represent, owing to
the decorative figures following the direction of the strings, but,
judging from the position of the right hand plucking a string, there
may have been seven. Among a number of terra-cotta figures of
musicians, brought to light during the excavations in a Tell at Suza
and dating from the 8th century B.C.,[3] although there is no
instrument that might be identified with the alto lute, the treble
lute or tanbur is represented with a long, curved neck and a head bent
back to increase the tension, and there is also an instrument having a
smaller and more elongated body than the lute. On one of the friezes
from Afghanistan presented to the British Museum by Major-General
Cunningham, which formed the risers of steps leading to the tope at
Jumal Garhi, dating from the 1st century A.D. are represented scenes
of music and dancing. Here the archetype of the lute appears several
times; it had four strings, and the head was bent back at right angles
to the neck. In the 6th century A.D. illustrations of this early lute
are no longer rare, more especially on Persian silver-work of the
Sassanian period[4] and in the paintings of the Buddhist cave-temples
of Ajanta.[5] Several representations of the barbiton are extant from
the classical Roman period.

The modern Egyptian 'ud is the direct descendant of the Arabic lute,
and, according to Lane, is strung with seven pairs of catgut strings
played by a plectrum. A specimen in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
given by the khedive, has four pairs only, which appears to have been
the old stringing of the instrument. When frets (cross-lines dividing
the neck or finger-board to show the fingering) are employed they are
of catgut disposed according to the Arabic scale of seventeen
intervals in the octave, consisting of twelve limmas, an interval
rather less than our equal semitone, and five commas, which are very
small but quite recognizable differences of pitch.

The lute family is separated from the guitars, also of Eastern origin,
by the formation of the sound body, which is in all lutes pear-shaped,
without the sides or ribs necessary to the structure of the
flat-backed guitar and cither. Observing this distinction, we include
with the lute the little Neapolitan mandoline of 2 ft. long and the
large double-necked Roman chitarrone, not infrequently 6 ft. long.
Mandolines are partly strung with wire, and are played with a
plectrum, indispensable for metal or short strings. Perhaps the
earliest lutes were so played, but the large lutes and theorbos strung
with catgut have been invariably touched by the fingers only, the
length permitting this more sympathetic means of producing the tone.

Praetorius,[6] writing when the lute was in universal favour, mentions
seven varieties distinguished by size and tuning. The smallest would
be larger than a mandoline, and the melody string, the "chanterelle,"
often a single string, lower in pitch. Praetorius calls this an octave
lute, with the chanterelle C or D. The two discant lutes have
respectively B and A, the alto G, the tenor E, the bass D, and the
great octave bass G, an octave below the alto lute which may be taken
as the model lute cultivated by the amateurs of the time. The bass
lutes were theorbos, that is, double-necked lutes, as described below.
The accordance of an alto lute was [musical notes] founded upon that
of the original eight-stringed European lute, to which the highest and
lowest notes had, in course of time, been added. A later addition was
the [musical notes] also on the finger-board, and bass strings, double
or single, known as diapasons, which, descending to the deep C of the
violoncello, were not stopped with the fingers. The diapasons were
tuned as the key of the piece of music required. Fig. 2 represents an
Italian instrument made by one of the most celebrated lute makers,
Venere of Padua, in 1600; it is 3 ft. 6 in. high, and has six pairs of
unisons and eight single diapasons. The finger-board, divided into
approximately equal half tones by the frets, as a rule eight in
number, was often further divided on the higher notes, for ten,
eleven, or, as in the woodcut, even twelve, semitones. The head,
bearing the tuning pegs, was placed at an obtuse or a right angle to
the neck, to increase the bearing of the strings upon the nut, and be
convenient for sudden requirements of tuning during performance, the
trouble of keeping a lute in tune being proverbial.

The lute was in general use during the 16th and 17th centuries. In the
18th it declined; still J. S. Bach wrote a "partita" for it. The
latest date we have met with of an engraved publication for the lute
is 1760.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Lute, by Venere of Padua.]

The large double-necked lute, with two sets of tuning pegs, the lower
for the finger-board, the higher for the diapason strings, was known
as the theorbo; also, and especially in England, as the arch-lute;
and, in a special form, the neck being then very long, as the
chitarrone. Theorbo and chitarrone appear together at the close of the
16th century, and their introduction was synchronous with the rise of
accompanied monody in music, that is, of the oratorio and the opera.
Peri, Caccini and Monteverde used theorbos to accompany their
newly-devised recitative, the invention of which in Florence, from the
impulse of the Renaissance, is well known. The height of a theorbo
varied from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft., the Paduan being always the largest,
excepting the Roman 6-ft. long chitarrone. These large lutes had very
deep notes, and doubtless great liberties were allowed in tuning, but
the strings on the finger-board followed the lute accordance already
given, or another quoted by Baron (_Untersuchung des Instruments der
Lauten_, Nuremberg, 1727) as the old theorbo or "violway" (see Mace,
_Musick's Monument_, London, 1676):--

[Illustration]

We find again both these accordances varied and transposed a tone
higher, perhaps with thinner strings, or to accommodate local
differences of pitch. Praetorius recommends the chanterelles of
theorbos being tuned an octave lower on account of the great strain.
By such a change, another authority, the Englishman Thomas Mace, says,
the life and spruceness of airy lessons were quite lost. The theorbo
or arch-lute had at last to give way to the violoncello and double
bass, which are still used to accompany the "recitativo secco" in
oratorios and operas. Handel wrote a part for a theorbo in _Esther_
(1720); after that date it appears no more in orchestral scores, but
remained in private use until nearly the end of the century.

The lute and the organ share the distinction of being the first
instruments for which the oldest instrumental compositions we possess
were written. For the lute, however, they were not written in our
present notation, but in tablature, "lyrawise," a system by which as
many lines were drawn horizontally as there were pairs of strings on
the finger-board, the frets, distributed at intervals of a semitone,
being distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, repeated from A,
representing the open string, for each line. This was the English and
French manner; the Italian was by numbers instead of letters. The
signs of time were placed over the stave, and were not repeated unless
the mensural values changed. (A. J. H.; K. S.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Latin translation by J. G. L. Kosegarten, _Alii Ispahenensis
Liber ... Arabice editur adjectaque translatione adnotationibusque
illustratus_ (Greifswald, 1840).

[2] See _Hyksos and Israelite Cities_, by W. M. Flinders Petrie and
J. Garrow Duncan, 1906 (double volume), Brit. Sch. of Arch.

[3] J. de Morgan, _Délégation en Perse_ (Paris, 1900), vol. i. pl.
viii. Nos. 8, 7 and 9.

[4] See "The Treasures of the Oxus," catalogue of the Franks Bequest
to the British Museum by Ormonde M. Dalton (London, 1905), pl; xxvi.
No. 190; see also J. R. Aspelin, "Les antiquités du nord," No. 608;
also for further references, Kathleen Schlesinger, "Precursors of the
Violin Family," pt. ii. of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, pp.
407-408, and appendix B, pp. 492-493; and _Gazette archéologique_
(Paris, 1886), vol. xi. pl. x. and p. 70.

[5] By John Griffiths (London, 1896), vol. ii. pl. 105, cave I. 10,
e.

[6] _Syntagm. Music._ pt. ii., "Organographie" (Wolfenbüttel, 1618),
pp. 30 and 58-61.

LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST (1823-1902), German Lutheran theologian, was
born at Maroldsweisach, Bavaria, on the 22nd of March 1823. He studied
theology at Erlangen and Berlin, and in 1856 became professor ordinarius
of systematic theology and New Testament exegesis at Leipzig. In 1865 he
was made a counsellor to the consistory, in 1871 canon of Meissen
cathedral, and in 1887 a privy councillor to the church. He died at
Leipzig on the 21st of September 1902. A strictly orthodox theologian,
and a clear writer, though not a very profound scholar, Luthardt became
widely appreciated as the author of apologetic lectures. These were
collected under the title _Apologie des Christentums_ (vol. i., 1864,
14th ed. 1896; vol. ii. 7th ed., 1901; vol. iii. 7th ed., 1898; vol. iv.
2nd ed., 1880), a work of which the first three volumes have been
translated into English. In 1868 he founded and edited the _Allgemeine
evang.-lutherische Kirchenzeitung_, with its supplement the
_Theologisches Litteraturblatt_, and in 1880 became editor of the
_Zeitschrift für kirchl. Wissenschaft und kirchl. Leben._

His other works include _Das Johanneische Evangelium ... erklärt_
(1852-1853; 2nd ed. in 2 vols., 1875-1876), _Offenbarung Johannis
erklärt_ (1861), _Lehre von den letzten Dingen_ (1861; 3rd ed. 1885);
_Kompendium der Dogmatik_ (1865; 9th ed., 1893), _Geschichte der
christlichen Ethik_ (2 vols., 1888-1893), _Gnade und Wahrheit_ (1874),
_Das Wort des Lebens_ (1877) and _Gnade und Frieden_ (1880). His
autobiography was published with the title _Erinnerungen aus
vergangenen Tagen_ (1889; 2nd ed., 1891).

LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546), the great German religious reformer, was
born at Eisleben on the 10th of November 1483. His father, Hans Luther
(Lyder, Luder, Ludher), a peasant from the township of Möhra in
Thuringia, after his marriage with Margarethe Ziegler, had settled in
Mansfeld, attracted by the prospects of work in the mines there. The
counts of Mansfeld, who, many years before, had started the mining
industry, made a practice of building and letting out for hire small
furnaces for smelting the ore. Hans Luther soon leased one, then three.
In 1491 he became one of the four elected members of the village council
(_vier Herren von der Gemeinde_); and we are told that the counts of
Mansfeld held him in esteem. The boy grew up amid the poor, coarse
surroundings of the German peasant life, imbibing its simple beliefs. He
was taught that the Emperor protected the poor people against the Turk,
that the Church was the "Pope's House," wherein the Bishop of Rome had
all the rights of the house-father. He shared the common superstitions
of the time and some of them never left him.

Young Martin went to the village school at Mansfeld; to a school at
Magdeburg kept by the Brethren of the Common Lot; then to the well-known
St George's school at Eisenach. At Magdeburg and Eisenach Luther was "a
poor student," i.e. a boy who was received into a hospice where he lived
rent-free, attended school without paying fees, and had the privilege of
begging for his bread at the house-doors of the town; in return for
which he sang as a chorister in the church to which the school was
attached. Luther was never a "wandering student"; his parents were too
careful of their child to permit him to lead the life of wandering
licence which marked these pests of medieval German scholastic life. At
Eisenach he attracted the notice of the wife of a wealthy merchant of
Eisenach, whom his biographers usually identify as Frau Cotta.

After three happy years at Eisenach, Luther entered the university of
Erfurt (1501), then the most famous in Germany. Hans Luther had been
prospering, and was more than ever resolved to make his son a lawyer.
Young Luther entered his name on the matriculation book in letters which
can still be read "Martinus Ludher ex Mansfelt," a free student, no
longer embarrassed by great poverty. In Luther's time Erfurt was the
intellectual centre of Germany and its students were exposed to a
variety of influences which could not fail to stimulate young men of
mental ability.

Its theology was, of course, scholastic, but of what was then called the
modern type, the Scotist; its philosophy was the nominalist system of
William of Occam, whose great disciple, Gabriel Biel (d. 1495), had been
one of its most famous professors; Nicholas de Lyra's (d. 1340) system
of biblical interpretation had been long taught there by a succession of
able teachers; Humanism had won an early entrance to the university; the
anti-clerical teaching of John of Wessel, who had himself taught at
Erfurt for fifteen years (1445-1460), had left its mark on the place and
was not forgotten. Hussite propagandists, even in Luther's time,
secretly visited the town and whispered among the students their
anti-clerical Christian socialism. Papal legates to Germany seldom
failed to visit the university and by their magnificence bore witness to
the majesty of the Roman church.

A study of the scholastic philosophy was then the preliminary training
for a course of law, and Luther worked so hard at the prescribed studies
that he had little leisure, he said, for classical learning. He attended
none of the Humanist lectures, but he read a good many of the Latin
authors and also learned a little Greek. He never was a member of the
Humanist circle; he was too much in earnest about religious questions
and of too practical a turn of mind. The young Humanists would have
gladly welcomed him into their select band. They dubbed him the
"philosopher," the "musician," recalled in after days his fine social
disposition, his skill in playing the lute, and his ready power in
debate. He took the various degrees in an unusually brief time. He was
bachelor in 1502 and master in 1505. His father, proud of his son's
steady application and success, sent him the costly present of a _Corpus
Juris_. He may have begun to study law. Suddenly he plunged into the
Erfurt Convent of the Augustinian Eremites and after due noviciate
became a monk.

The action was so unexpected that his contemporaries felt bound to give
all manner of explanations which have been woven into accounts which are
legendary. Nothing is known about the cause of the sudden plunge but
what Luther has himself revealed. He has told us that he entered the
monastery because he doubted of himself, and that his action was sudden
because he knew that his father would have disapproved of his intention.

The word "doubt" has made historians think of intellectual
difficulties--of the "theological scepticism" taught by Occam and Biel,
of the disintegrating criticism of Humanism. But there is no trace of
any theological difficulties in Luther's mind in the struggles which
sent him into the convent and distracted him there. He was driven to do
what he did by the pressure of a practical religious need, the desire to
save his soul. The fires of hell and the shades of purgatory, which are
the constant background of Dante's "Paradiso," were present to Luther
from childhood.

Luther was the greatest religious genius which the 16th century
produced, and the roots of the movement in which he was the central
figure must be sought for in the popular religious life of the last
decades of the 15th and opening decades of the 16th centuries--a field
which has been neglected by almost all his biographers. When it is
explored traces of at least five different types of religious sentiment
can be discovered. Pious parents, whether among the burghers or
peasants, seem to have taught their children a simple evangelical faith.
Martin Luther and thousands of children like him were trained at home to
know the creed, the ten commandments, the Lord's prayer, and such simple
hymns as _Ein Kindelein so lobelich_, _Nun bitten wir den Heiligen
Geist_ and _Crist ist erstanden_; and they were taught to believe that
God for Christ's sake freely pardons sin. They learned that simple faith
which Luther afterwards expounded in his _Small Catechism_ and called
the _Kinderlehre_. When lads trained like himself entered school and
college they came in contact with that religious revival which
characterized the last half of the 15th century. Fear seemed to brood
over the peoples of Western Europe. The plague devastated the badly
drained towns, new diseases spread death, the fear of the Turks was
permanent. All this went to feed revival, which, founded on fear,
refused to see in Jesus Christ anything but a stern judge, and made the
Virgin Mother and Anna the "grandmother" the intercessors; which found
consolation in pilgrimages from shrine to shrine; which believed in
crude miracles, and in the thought that God could be best served within
convent walls. Luther's mind was caught in this current of feeling. He
records how it was burnt into him by pictures which filled his boyish
imagination. Jesus in the painted window of Mansfeld church, stern of
face, sword in hand, sitting on a rainbow, coming to judge; an
altar-piece at Magdeburg, in which a ship with its crew was sailing on
to heaven, carrying no layman on board; the deeds of St Elizabeth
emblazoned on the window of St George's parish church at Eisenach; the
living pictures of a young nobleman who had turned monk to save his
soul, of a monk, the holiest man Luther had ever known, who was aged far
beyond his years by his maceration; and many others of the same kind.

Alongside this we can trace the growth of another religious movement of
a different kind. We can see a sturdy common-sense religion taking
possession of multitudes in Germany, which insisted that laymen might
rule in many departments supposed to belong exclusively to the clergy.
The _jus episcopale_ which Luther afterwards claimed for the secular
authorities had been practically exercised in Saxony and Brandenburg;
cities and districts had framed police regulations which set aside
ecclesiastical decrees about holidays and begging; the supervision of
charity was passing from the hands of the church into those of laymen;
and religious confraternities which did not take their guidance from the
clergy were increasing. Lastly, the medieval Brethren were engaged in
printing and distributing tracts, mystical, anti-clerical, sometimes
socialist. All these influences abounded as Luther was growing to
manhood and laid their marks upon him. It was the momentary power of the
second which drove him into the convent, and he selected the monastic
order which represented all that was best in the revival of the latter
half of the 15th century--the Augustinian Eremites.

In the convent Luther set himself to find salvation. The last word of
that Scotist theology which ruled at the close of the middle ages was
that man must work out his own salvation, and Luther tried to do so in
the most approved later medieval fashion by the strictest asceticism. He
fasted and scourged himself; he practised all the ordinary forms of
maceration and invented new ones, all to no purpose. His theological
studies, part of the convent education, told him that pardon could be
had through the Sacrament of Penance, and that the first part of the
sacrament was sorrow for sin. The older theology declared that such
sorrow must be based on love to God. Had he this love? God always
appeared to him as an implacable judge, threatening punishment for
breaking a law which it was impossible to keep. He confessed to himself
that he often hated this arbitrary Will which Scotist theology called
God. The later theology, taught in the convent by John of Palz and John
Nathin, said that sorrow might be based on a meaner motive provided the
Sacrament of Penance was continually resorted to. Luther wearied his
superiors with his attendance at the confessional. He was looked upon as
a young saint, and his reputation extended throughout the convents of
his order. The young saint felt himself to be no nearer the pardon of
God; he thought that he was "gallows-ripe." At last his superiors seemed
to discover his real difficulties. Partly by their help, partly by study
of the scriptures, he came to understand that God's pardon was to be won
by trusting to His promises. Thus after two years of indescribable
mental conflicts Luther found peace. The struggle marked him for life.
His victory gave him a sense of freedom, and the feeling that life was
given by God to be enjoyed. In all external things he remained
unchanged. He was a faithful son of the medieval church, with its
doctrines, ceremonies and usages.

Soon after he had attained inward peace, Luther was ordained. He
continued his studies in theology, devoting himself to the more
"experimental" portions of Augustine, Bernard and Gerson. He showed
himself a good man of business and was advanced in his order. In 1508 he
was sent with some other monks to Wittenberg to assist the small
university which had been opened there in 1502 by Frederick the Wise,
elector of Saxony. It was there that Luther began to preach, first in a
small chapel to the monks of his order; later taking the place of one of
the town's clergy who was in ill-health. From Wittenberg he was sent by
the chiefs of the German Augustinian Eremites to Rome on a mission
concerning the organization of the order. He went up with the feelings
of the medieval pilgrim rather than with the intoxication of the ardent
Humanist. On his return (1512) he was sent by Staupitz, his
vicar-general, to Erfurt to take the necessary steps for higher
graduation in theology, in order to succeed Staupitz himself as
professor of theology in Wittenberg. He graduated as Doctor of the Holy
Scripture, took the Wittenberg doctor's oath to defend the evangelical
truth vigorously (_viriliter_), became a member of the Wittenberg
Senate, and three weeks later succeeded Staupitz as professor of
theology.

From the first Luther's lectures in theology differed from those
ordinarily given at the time. He had no opinions on theological subjects
at variance with the theology taught at Erfurt and elsewhere. No one
attributed any heretical views to the young Wittenberg professor. He
differed from others because he looked at theology in a more practical
way. He thought it ought to be made useful to guide men to the grace of
God and to tell them how to persevere in a life of joyous obedience to
God and His commandments. His teaching was "experimental" from the
beginning. Besides he believed that he had been specially set apart to
lecture on the Holy Scriptures, and he began by commenting on the Psalms
and on the Epistles of St Paul. He never knew much Hebrew and was not
specially strong in Greek; so he used the Vulgate in his prelections. He
had a huge widely printed volume on his desk, and wrote the notes for
his lectures on the margins and between the lines. Some of the pages
survive. They contain in the germ the leading thoughts of what became
Lutheran theology. At first he expressed himself in the phrases common
to scholastic theology, when these were found to be inadequate in words
borrowed from the mystical writers of the 14th and 15th centuries, and
then in new phrases more appropriate to the circle of fresh thoughts.
Those new thoughts at first simply pushed aside the ordinary theology
taught in the schools without staying to criticize it. Gradually,
however, Luther began to find that there was some real opposition
between what he was teaching and the theology he had been taught in the
Erfurt convent. It appeared characteristically enough on the practical
and not on the speculative side of theology in a sermon on _Indulgences_
preached in July 1516. Once begun the breach widened, until Luther
could contrast "our theology" with what was taught at Erfurt, and by
September he began to write against the scholastic theology, to declare
that it was Pelagian at heart, that it repudiated the Augustinian
doctrines of grace, and neglected to teach the supreme value of that
faith "which throws itself upon God."

These lectures and the teaching they contained soon made a great
impression. Students began to flock to the small obscure university of
Wittenberg, and the elector grew proud of the teacher who was making his
university famous. It was at this interesting stage of his own religious
career that he felt himself compelled to stand forth in opposition to
what he believed to be a great religious scandal, and almost
unconsciously to become a Reformer.

Luther began his work as a Reformer by proposing to discuss the true
meaning of Indulgences. The occasion was an Indulgence proclaimed by
Pope Leo X., farmed by the archbishop of Mainz, and preached by John
Tetzel, a Dominican monk and a famed seller of Indulgences. Many of the
German princes had no great love for Indulgence sellers, and Frederick
of Saxony had prohibited Tetzel from entering his territories. But it
was easy to reach most parts of Electoral Saxony without actually
crossing the frontiers. The Red Cross of the Indulgence seller had been
set up at Zerbst and at Jüterbogk, and people had gone from Wittenberg
to buy the _Papal Tickets_. Luther believed that the sales were
injurious to the morals of the townsmen; he had heard reports of
Tetzel's sermons; he had become wrathful on reading the letter of
recommendation of the archbishop; and friends had urged him to
interfere. He protested with a characteristic combination of caution and
courage. The church of All Saints (the castle church) was closely
connected with the university of Wittenberg. Its doors were commonly
used for university proclamations. The Elector Frederick was a great
collector of relics and had stored them in his church. He had procured
an Indulgence for all who attended its services on All Saints' Day, and
crowds commonly gathered. Luther nailed ninety-five _theses_ on the
church door on that day, the 1st of November 1517, when the crowd could
see and read them.

The proceeding was strictly academic. The matter discussed, to judge by
the writings of theologians, was somewhat obscure; and Luther offered
his _theses_ as an attempt to make it clearer. No one was supposed to be
committed to every opinion he advanced in such a way. But the _theses_
posted somehow touched heart and conscience in a way unusual in the
common subjects of academic disputation. Every one wanted to read them.
The University Press could not supply copies fast enough. They were
translated into German, and were known throughout Germany in less than a
fortnight. Within a month they had been heard of all over western and
southern Europe. Luther himself was staggered at the way they were
received. He said he had never meant to determine, but to debate.

The _theses_ were singularly unlike what might have been expected from a
professor of theology. They made no attempt at theological definition,
no pretence at logical arrangement; they were anything but a brief
programme of reformation. They were simply ninety-five sledge-hammer
blows directed against the most flagrant ecclesiastical abuse of the
age. They were addressed to the "common" man and appealed to his common
sense of spiritual things.

The practice of offering, selling and buying Indulgences (see
INDULGENCE) was everywhere common in the beginning of the 16th century.
The beginnings go back more than a thousand years before the time of
Luther. In the earliest church life, when Christians fell into sin, they
were required to make public confession before the congregation, to
declare their sorrow, and to vow to perform certain acts which were
regarded as evidence of the sincerity of their repentance. When the
custom of public confession before the congregation had changed to
private confession to the clergy, it became the confessor's duty to
impose these satisfactions. It was thought only right that there should
be some uniformity in dealing with repentant sinners, and books
appeared giving lists of sins and what were supposed to be suitable
satisfactions. When the sins confessed were very heinous the
satisfactions were correspondingly severe and sometimes lasted over many
years. About the 7th century arose a custom of commuting or relaxing
these imposed satisfactions. A penance of several years fasting might be
commuted into saying so many prayers, or giving an arranged amount in
alms, or even into a money-fine. In the last case the analogy of the
Wergeld of the German tribal codes was commonly followed. The usage
generally took the form that any one who visited a church, to which the
Indulgence had been attached, on a day named, and gave a contribution to
its funds, had his penance shortened by one-seventh, one-third or
one-half, as might be arranged. This was the origin of Indulgences
properly so-called. They were always mitigations of satisfactions or
penances which had been imposed by the church as outward signs of inward
sorrow, tests of fitness for pardon, and the needful precedents of
absolution. Luther uttered no protest against Indulgences of this kind.
He held that what the church had imposed the church could remit.

This old and simple conception of Indulgences had been greatly altered
since the beginning of the 13th century. The institution of penance had
been raised to the dignity of a sacrament, and this had changed both the
place and the character of satisfactions. Under the older conception the
order had been Sorrow (_Contritio_), Confession, Satisfaction (or due
manifestation of sorrow in ways prescribed) and Absolution. Under the
newer theory the order was Sorrow, Confession, Absolution, Satisfaction,
and both satisfaction and sorrow took new meanings. It was held that
Absolution removed guilt and freed from eternal punishment, but that
something had to be done to free the penitent from temporal punishment
whether in this life or in purgatory. Satisfactions took the new meaning
of the temporal punishments due in this life and the substitute for the
pains of purgatory. The new thought of a treasury of merits (_thesaurus
meritorum_) introduced further changes. It was held that the good deeds
over and above what were needed for their own salvation by the living or
by the saints in heaven, together with the inexhaustible merits of
Christ, were all deposited in a treasury out of which they could be
taken by the pope and given by him to the faithful. They could be added
to the satisfactions actually done by penitents. Thus Satisfactions
became not merely signs of sorrow but actual merits, which freed men
from the need to undergo the temporal pains here and in purgatory which
their sins had rendered them liable to. By an Indulgence merits could be
transferred from the storehouse to those who required them. The change
made in the character of Sorrow made Indulgences all the more necessary
for the indifferent penitent. On the older theory Sorrow (_Contritio_)
had for its one basis love to God; but on the newer theory the
starting-point might be a less worthy king of sorrow (_Attritio_) which
it was held would be changed into the more worthy kind in the Sacrament
of Penance. The conclusion was naturally drawn that a process of
penitence which began with sorrow of the more unworthy kind needed a
larger amount of Satisfactions or penance than what began with
Contrition. Hence for the indifferent Christian, _Attrition_,
_Confession_ and _Indulgence_ became the three heads in the scheme of
the church of the later middle ages for his salvation. The one thing
which satisfied his conscience was the burdensome thing he had to do,
and that was to procure an Indulgence--a matter made increasingly easy
for him as time went on.

This doctrine of _Attrition_ had not the undivided support of the
theologians of the later medieval church; but it was taught by the
Scotists and was naturally a favourite theme with the sellers of
Indulgences. Nor were all theologians at one upon the whole theory of
Indulgences. The majority of the best theologians held that
Indulgences had nothing to do with the pardoning of guilt, but only
with freeing from temporal penalties in this life or in purgatory. But
the common people did not discriminate, and believed that when they
bought an Indulgence they were purchasing pardon from sin; and Luther
placed himself in the position of the ordinary Christian uninstructed
in the niceties of theological distinctions.

His _Ninety-five Theses_ made six different assertions about
Indulgences and their efficacy:--

i. An Indulgence is and can only be the remission of a merely
ecclesiastical penalty; the church can remit what the church has
imposed; it cannot remit what God has imposed.

ii. An Indulgence can never remit guilt; the pope himself cannot do
such a thing; God has kept that in His own hand.

iii. It cannot remit the divine punishment for sin; that also is in
the hands of God alone.

iv. It can have no efficacy for souls in Purgatory; penalties imposed
by the church can only refer to the living; death dissolves them; what
the pope can do for souls in Purgatory is by prayer, not by
jurisdiction or the power of the keys.

v. The Christian who has true repentance has already received pardon
from God altogether apart from an Indulgence, and does not need one;
Christ demands this true repentance from every one.

vi. The Treasury of Merits has never been properly defined; it is hard
to say what it is, and it is not properly understood by the people; it
cannot be the merits of Christ and of His saints, because these act of
themselves and quite apart from the intervention of the pope; it can
mean nothing more than that the pope, having the power of the keys,
can remit ecclesiastical penalties imposed by the church; the true
Treasure-house of merits is the Holy Ghost of the grace and glory of
God.

The unexpected effect of the _Theses_ was that the sale of Indulgences
began to decline rapidly, and the archbishop of Mainz, disappointed in
his hopes of revenue, sent a copy to Rome. The pope thinking that the
whole dispute was a monkish quarrel, contented himself with asking the
general of the Augustinian Eremites to keep his monks quiet. This was
not easy. Tetzel, in conjunction with a friend, Conrad Wimpina, had
published a set of counter-theses. John Mayr of Eck, a noted
controversialist and professor of theology in the university of
Ingolstadt, scented the Hussite heresy in the _Theses_, and denounced
them in a tract entitled _Obelisks_. Luther at once answered in his
_Asterisks_. A controversy raged in Germany. Meanwhile, at Rome,
Silvester Mazzolini of Prierio, a Dominican monk and Inquisitor, had
been studying the _Theses_, was profoundly dissatisfied with them, and
wrote a _Dialogue about the Power of the Pope, against the presumptuous
conclusions of Martin Luther_. This book reached Germany about the
middle of January 1518, and increased the tumult.

Luther's friends had been provokingly silent about the _Theses_; but in
April 1518, at the annual chapter of the Augustinian Eremites held at
Heidelberg, Luther heard his positions temperately discussed, and found
somewhat to his astonishment that his views were not acceptable to all
his fellow monks. On his return to Wittenberg he began an answer to his
opponents. He carefully considered his positions, found them
unassailable, and published his _Resolutions_, the most carefully
written of all his works. The book practically discarded all the ideas
and practices concerning Indulgences which had come into the medieval
church since the beginning of the 13th century, and all the ingenious
explanations of the scholastic theologians from Bonaventura and Thomas
Aquinas downwards. The effect of the controversy was a great decrease in
the sale of Indulgences in Germany, and the Papal Curia saw with alarm a
prolific source of revenue decaying. It was felt that Luther must be
silenced. He was accordingly summoned to Rome. To obey would have meant
death; to refuse in his own name would have been contumacy. But the
peremptory summons could be construed as an attack on the university of
Wittenberg, and both the elector of Saxony and the emperor Maximilian so
regarded it. The result was that Pope Leo cancelled the summons, and it
was arranged that Luther should appear before the papal Legate to the
German Diet, Thomas de Vio, Cardinal Cajedtan, at Augsburg. The
interview was not very successful. At its conclusion Luther wrote two
appeals--one from the pope ill-informed to the pope well-informed, and
the other to a General Council. True to his habit of taking the German
people into his confidence, he wrote an account of his interview with
the Legate, and published it under the title of the _Acta Augustana_.

The publication greatly increased the sympathy of almost all classes in
Germany for Luther. They saw in him a pious man, an esteemed professor,
who had done nothing but propose a discussion on the notoriously
intricate subject of Indulgences, peremptorily ordered to recant and to
remain silent. The elector Frederick shared the common feelings and
resolved to defend the man who had made his university so famous. His
action compelled the Roman Curia to pause. Germany was on the eve, it
was believed, of an election of a king of the Romans; it was possible
that an imperial election was not far distant; Frederick was too
important a personage to offend. So the condemnation by the
Cardinal-Legate was withdrawn for the time, and the pope resolved to
deal with the matter otherwise. He selected one of his chamberlains,
Charles von Miltitz, the elector's private agent at Rome, and
commissioned him to deal with the matter as he best could. Miltitz
received the "golden rose" to give to Frederick, and was furnished with
several letters in all of which the pope spoke of Luther as a "child of
the devil." His holiness had probably forgotten the fact when he
addressed Luther some months later as "his dear son."

When Miltitz arrived in Germany he discovered that the movement was much
more important than the Roman Curia had imagined. He had not to deal
with the opposition of a recalcitrant monk, but with the awakening of a
nation. He resolved to meet with Tetzel and with Luther privately before
he produced his credentials. Tetzel he could not see; the man was afraid
to leave his convent; but he had lengthy interviews with Luther in the
house of Spalatin the chaplain and private secretary of the elector
Frederick. There he disowned the sermons of the pardon-sellers, let it
be seen that he did not approve of the action of the Legate, and so
prevailed with Luther that the latter promised to write a submissive
letter to the pope, to exhort people to reverence the Roman See, to say
that Indulgences were useful to remit canonical penances, and to promise
to write no more on the matter unless he happened to be attacked. Luther
did all this. A reconciliation might have taken place had the Roman
Curia supported Miltitz. But the Curia did not support Miltitz, and
placed more faith in Eck, who was eager to extinguish Luther in a public
discussion.

Luther had been spending the time between his interview with the Legate
at Augsburg (Oct. 1518) and the Leipzig Disputation (June 1519) in
severe and disquieting studies. He had found that all his opponents had
pursued one line of argument: the power to issue an Indulgence is simply
one case of the universal papal jurisdiction; Indulgences are what the
pope proclaims them to be, and to attack them is to attack the power of
the pope; the pope represents the Roman church, which is actually the
universal church, and to oppose the pope is to defy the whole church of
Christ; whoever attacks such a long-established system as that of
Indulgences is a heretic. Such was the argument. Luther felt himself
confronted with the pope's absolute supremacy in all ecclesiastical
matters. It was a plea whose full force he felt. The papal supremacy was
one of his oldest inherited beliefs. He re-examined his convictions
about justifying faith and whether they did lead to his declarations
about Indulgences. He could come to no other conclusion. It then became
necessary to examine the papal claims. He set himself to study the
Decretals, and to his amazement and indignation he found that they were
full of frauds. It is hard to say whether the discovery brought him more
joy or more grief. His letters show him half-exultant and
half-terrified. While he was in this state of mind he received Eck's
challenge to dispute with him at Leipzig on the papal supremacy.

This Leipzig Disputation was perhaps the most important point in
Luther's career. He met Eck in June 1519. It soon appeared that the
intention of that practised debater was to force Luther into some
admission which would justify opponents in accusing him of holding the
opinions of Huss, who had been condemned by the great German Council of
Constance. In this he was eminently successful. Eck left Leipzig
triumphant, and Luther returned to Wittenberg much depressed. As usual
he wrote out and published an account of the Disputation, which was an
appeal to his fellow Germans. The result surpassed his expectations. The
Disputation made him see that his protest against the abuses of
Indulgences was no criticism of an excrescence on the medieval
ecclesiastical system, but an attack on its centre of existence. He saw
that he stood for the spiritual priesthood of all believers and that
medievalism in religion meant that man cannot approach God without a
priestly mediator. The people also saw his position and rallied round
him; and the Humanists discerned in him a champion against the old
intolerance against which they had been revolting in vain. Luther's
depression fled. Sermons, pamphlets, letters from his tireless pen
flooded the land, and Luther began to be the leader of a German revolt
against Rome.

The year 1520 saw the publication of his three most important works, all
written at a time when he was fully convinced that he had broken for
ever with Rome. They were, _On the Liberty of a Christian Man_, _An
Address to the Nobility of the German Nation_, and _On the Babylonian
Captivity of the Church of God_--the three primary treatises, as they
have been called.

Meanwhile at Rome the pope had entrusted Eck and Prierias with the
preparation of a bull (_Exurge Domine_) against Luther--a bull which
followed the line of Eck's charges at Leipzig. The reformer had been
expecting it ever since the Disputation at Leipzig, and had resolved to
answer it by one striking act which would impress the imagination of
every man. He posted up a notice inviting the Wittenberg students to
witness the burning of the bull (10th of December 1520). Rome had shot
its last ecclesiastical bolt. Nothing remained but an appeal to the
secular power, and this was at once prepared.

The emperor Maximilian had died suddenly (12th January 1519), and for
long Germany was disturbed with intrigues about the succession--the
papal policy being specially tortuous. The widely expressed desire for a
German emperor secured the unanimous election of Charles, the grandson
of Maximilian and the king of Spain. Never were a people more mistaken
and disappointed. The veins of Charles were full of German blood, but he
was his mother's son. It was the Spaniard, not the German, who faced
Luther at Worms.

Charles was crowned at Aachen, 23rd of October 1520, and opened his
first German diet at Worms, 22nd of January 1521. The pope had selected
two envoys to wait on the young emperor, one of them, Jerome Aleander,
being specially appointed to secure the outlawry of Luther. The agenda
of the diet contained many things seriously affecting all Germany, but
the one problem which every one was thinking about was how Luther would
be dealt with. The Electoral College was divided. The archbishop of
Cologne, the elector of Brandenburg and his brother the archbishop of
Mainz were for instant outlawry, while the elector of Saxony, who was
resolved to protect Luther, had great influence with the archbishop of
Trier and the Count Palatine of the Rhine.

Aleander had no difficulty in persuading Charles, while both were still
in the Netherlands, to put Luther under the ban within his hereditary
dominions, and the papal nuncio expected that the decree would be
extended to the whole German empire. But Charles at first refused to
deal summarily with Luther so far as Germany was concerned. The emperor
even wrote to the elector of Saxony, asking him to bring Luther with him
to the diet for examination. Gradually he came to think that Luther
might be condemned without appearing. The members of the diet were slow
to come to any conclusion. At last they made up their minds, and
presented a memorial to the emperor (19th of February 1521) in which
they reminded him that no imperial edict could be published against
Luther without their sanction, and proposed that he should be invited to
Worms under a safe-conduct and be there examined. They also suggested
that Luther should be heard upon the papal claims, and ended by asking
the emperor to deliver Germany from the papal tyranny. The emperor
agreed to summon Luther under a safe-conduct, and that he should be
heard; but he refused to mix his case with that of grievances against
Rome. He had no sooner made the promise than he seems to have repented
it. He saw no need for Luther's appearance. He tried to get him
condemned unheard. An edict against Luther had been drafted (15th of
February) which the diet refused to sanction. A few days later a second
edict was drafted which ordered the burning of Luther's books. The diet
again objected. Finally four days after the safe-conduct had been
despatched the emperor revised this second edict, limited it to the
seizure of Luther's books, and published it on his own authority without
consulting the diet (10th March). After Luther had begun his journey,
this edict was posted up along his route in order to intimidate him;
other means were taken to make him turn aside from Worms; but he was
resolved to go there and nothing daunted him. He reached the town (16th
April) and was met by encouraging crowds. He was summoned to appear
before the diet on the 17th and measures were taken to prevent him doing
more than answering definite questions put to him. He was asked whether
certain books had been written by him and whether he was prepared to
maintain or to abjure what he had written. He asked time to prepare an
answer to the second question. The diet was anxious to hear Luther, if
the emperor was not, and his request was granted. He thus defeated the
plot to keep him silent. On the 18th he made his second appearance and
delivered the speech, which electrified his audience. At the close he
was threatened by Spaniards in the diet. The Germans ringed him round,
and, with their hands raised high in the fashion of a landsknecht who
had struck a successful blow, passed out into the street and escorted
him to his lodgings. Next day (April 19th) the emperor proposed to place
Luther under the ban of the empire and read to the assembly a brief
statement of his own views. The diet objected, and asked for a
conference between Luther and some selected members. Conferences were
held, but came to nothing. No compromise was possible between the
declaration that man's conscience could only be bound by the Word of God
and the emperor's belief in the infallibility of a general council. The
commission had to report that its efforts had failed. Luther was ordered
to leave Worms and to return to Wittenberg. His safe-conduct was to
expire twenty-one days after the 16th of April. Then he was liable to be
seized and put to death as a pestilent heretic. There only remained to
draft and publish the edict containing the ban. Days passed and it did
not appear. Suddenly the startling news reached Worms that Luther had
disappeared, no one knew where. It was reported that his body had been
found in a silver-mine pierced with a dagger. The news flew over Germany
and beyond it that he had been slain by papal emissaries. At Worms the
indignation of the populace was intense. The public buildings were
placarded during the night with an intimation that four hundred knights
had sworn not to leave Luther unavenged, and the ominous words
_Bundschuh, Bundschuh, Bundschuh_ (the watchword of peasant revolts)
were written at the foot. The combination suggested an alliance between
the lesser knights and the peasants, dreaded by all the ruling classes.
The true story of Luther's disappearance was not known until long
afterwards. After the failure of the conference the elector of Saxony
had commissioned two of the councillors to convey Luther to a place of
safety without telling him where it was. Many weeks elapsed before
Frederick himself learned that Luther was safe in his own castle of the
Wartburg. The disappearance did not mean that Luther had ceased to be a
leader of men; but it marked the beginning of an organized national
opposition to Rome.

It was not till the 25th of May that the edict against Luther was
presented to a small number of members of the diet, after the elector of
Saxony and many important members had left Worms. It threatened all
Luther's sympathisers with extermination, and practically proclaimed an
Albigensian war in Germany. But few public documents prepared with so
much care have proved so futile. The latter half of 1521 saw the silent
spread of Lutheran opinions all over Germany. This was not unaccompanied
with dangers. Every movement for reform carries within it the seeds of
revolution, and Luther's was no exception to the rule.

The revolution began in Wittenberg during Luther's seclusion in the
Wartburg. Andrew Boden of Carlstadt, a colleague of Luther's in the
university of Wittenberg, was strongly impressed with the contradiction
which he believed to exist between evangelical teaching and the usages
of medieval ecclesiastical life. He denounced monastic vows, a
distinctive dress for the clergy, the thought of a propitiatory mass,
and the presence of images and pictures in the churches. Zwilling, a
young Augustinian Eremite, added his fiery denunciations. His preaching
stirred the commonalty. Turbulent crowds invaded two of the churches and
rioted inside. The excitement of the people was increased by the arrival
of three men known in history as the _Zwickau prophets_. Melanchthon
felt himself powerless to restrain the tumult. The magistrates of the
town were won over and issued an ordinance which attempted to express in
legislation the new evangelical ideas. Duke George of Saxony, a resolute
opponent of the Reformation, threatened to make the diet interfere.
Luther became alarmed, and, not without a private hint from the elector
of Saxony,[1] left his retreat and appeared among his townsmen. His
presence and exertions restored order, and the conservative reformation
resumed its quiet course. From this time onwards to the outbreak of the
Peasants' War (1525) Luther was the real leader of the German nation,
and everything seemed to promise a gradual reformation without tumult.

The Peasants' War ended this anticipation. From one point of view this
insurrection was simply the last, the most wide-spreading and the most
disastrous of these revolts, which had been almost chronic in Germany
during the later decades of the 15th and earlier years of the 16th
century and which had been almost continuous between 1503 and 1517. All
the social and economic causes which produced them were increasingly
active in 1524 and 1525. But it is undoubted that the religious revolt
intensified the rebellion of the lower classes. Luther's voice awoke
echoes he never dreamt of. The times were ripe for revolution, and the
message which spoke of a religious democracy could not fail to suggest
the social democracy also. In his appeal to the _Nobility of the German
Nation_ he had stated with severe precision the causes of social
discontent. Himself a peasant's son and acquainted with the grievances
under which the peasant lived, he had at various times formulated most
of the demands which afterwards figured conspicuously in the Twelve
Articles. The insurgents had good cause to regard him as a sympathiser.
But Luther, rightly or wrongly, believed that of the two ways in which
wrongs can be set right--the way of war and the path of peace--the
latter is the only sure road in the long run. He did his best therefore
to prevent the rising and risked his life among the infuriated peasants
as readily as when he stood before the emperor and the diet. When the
rebellion was at its height and Thomas Münzer had sent forth fiery
proclamations urging the peasantry "not to let the blood cool on their
swords," Luther issued the pamphlet, which casts a stain on his whole
life, in which he hounds on the ruling classes to suppress the
insurgents with all violence. In the end the rebellion, formidable as it
seemed for a few months, was crushed, and a heavier yoke was laid on the
shoulders of the unfortunate peasants.

This year, 1525, saw the parting of the ways in the movement for reform.
It ceased to be national and became ecclesiastical. It divided into
three separate parts. One, guided by Luther himself, ended, after a long
struggle with pope and emperor, in the establishment of evangelical
churches under the rule of the secular authorities of the territories
which adopted the Lutheran Reformation. Another, remaining true to the
principles, doctrines, usages and hierarchy of the medieval church,
dreamt only of a purification of moral life, and saw its end realised in
the reforms of the council of Trent. The third, gathering together the
more revolutionary impulses, expanded into that complex movement called
Anabaptism--which spread over western Europe from England to Poland and
from Scandinavia to northern Italy, and endured a long and sanguinary
persecution at the hands of the civil authorities in most European
countries. Its strength and popularity, especially among the artizan
classes, have been very much underrated by most historians.

During the storm of the Peasants' War (13th of June 1525) Luther married
Catherine von Bora, the daughter of a noble but impoverished family
belonging to Meissen. She had been a Cistercian nun in the convent of
Nimtzch near Grimma--a convent reserved for ladies of noble birth.
Luther's writings, circulating through Saxony, had penetrated the
convent walls and had convinced most of the inmates of the unlawfulness
of monastic vows. Catherine and eight companions resolved to escape.
Their relatives refused to aid them, and they applied to Luther. He
entrusted the business to Leonhard Koppe of Torgau, and the rescue was
safely carried out (4th of April 1523). The rescued nuns found places of
refuge in the families of Wittenberg burghers. The elector John of
Saxony (who had succeeded his brother Frederick) gave Luther the house
which had served as the Augustinian Convent. The family gathered in this
three-storeyed building, with its back windows looking over the Elbe and
its front door opening on a great garden, was latterly Luther and his
wife, their three sons and two daughters, Magdelena von Bora,
Catherine's aunt, two orphan nieces and a grandniece. At the beginning
of his married life Luther must have been in straitened circumstances.
He married a portionless nun. On to 1532 his salary was two hundred
gulden annually (about £160 in present money); after 1532 the stipend
was increased to £240 with various payments in kind--corn, wood, malt,
wine, &c.--which meant a great deal more. The town added occasional
gifts to enable Luther to entertain the great personages who came to
consult him frequently. Princes made him presents in money. This enabled
Luther to purchase from his wife's brother the small estate of Zulsdorf.
Catherine, too, was an excellent house-wife. She made the long-neglected
garden profitable; kept pigs and poultry; rented other gardens; stocked
a fishpond; farmed in a small way; and had her house full of boarders.
Luther had a high opinion of her intelligence; she took rank among those
consulted on all important occasions; in one letter to her, seldom
quoted, he gives the fairest statement he ever made about the views of
Zwingli on the Sacrament of the Supper.

The diet of Speyer (1526) saw Germany divided into a Protestant and a
Romanist party. After much debate a compromise was arrived at, which
foreshadowed the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555. It was resolved
that the Word of God should be preached without disturbance, that
indemnity should be given for past offences against the edict of Worms,
and that meanwhile each state should live religiously as it hoped to
answer for its conduct to God and the emperor. The Lutherans interpreted
this to mean the right to frame ecclesiastical regulations for various
principalities and to make changes in public worship. Luther busied
himself in simplifying the service, in giving advice, anxiously sought
for, about the best modes of organising ecclesiastical affairs. In the
diet held at Speyer in 1529 a compact Roman Catholic majority faced a
weak Lutheran minority. The emperor declared through his commissioners
that he abolished "by his imperial and absolute authority" the clause in
the ordinance of 1526 on which the Lutherans had relied when they began
to organize their territorial churches. The majority of the diet
supported the emperor in this, and further proceeded to decree that no
ecclesiastical body was to be deprived of its revenues or authority.
This meant that throughout all Germany medieval ecclesiastical rule was
to be upheld, and that none of the revenues of the medieval church could
be appropriated for Protestant uses. On this a portion of the Protestant
minority drafted a legal protest, in which the signers declared that
they meant to abide by the decision of the diet of 1526 and refused to
be bound by that of 1529. From this protest came the name _Protestant_.

A minority in such a case could only maintain their protest if they were
prepared to defend each other by force in case of an attack. Three days
after the protest had been read, many of the protesting cities and
states concluded "a secret and particular treaty," and Philip of Hesse,
the ablest statesman among the Protesters, saw the need for a general
union of all evangelical Christians in the empire. The difficulties in
the way were great. The Saxons and the Swiss, Luther and Zwingli, were
in fierce controversy about the true doctrine of the sacrament of the
Supper. Luther was a patriotic German who was for ever bewailing the
disintegration of the Fatherland; Zwingli was full of plans for
confederations of Swiss cantons with South German cities, which could
not fail to weaken the empire. Luther had but little trust in the
"common man"; Zwingli was a thorough democrat. When Luther thought of
the Swiss reformer he muttered as Archbishop Parker did of John
Knox--"God keep us from such visitations as Knox hath attempted in
Scotland; the people to be orderers of things." Above all Luther had
good grounds for believing that at the conference at Memmingen friends
of Zwingli had helped to organize a Peasants' War and to link the social
revolution to the religious awakening. All these suspicions were in
Luther's mind when he consented very half-heartedly to meet Zwingli at a
conference to be held in Philip of Hesse's castle at Marburg. The debate
proceeded as such debates usually do. Zwingli attacked the weakest part
of Luther's theory--the _ubiquity_ of the body of Christ; and Luther
attacked Zwingli's exegesis of the words of the institution. Neither
sought to bring out their points of agreement. Yet the conference did
good; it showed that the Protestants were agreed on all doctrinal points
but one. If union was for the present impossible, there were hopes for
it in the future.

In 1530 the emperor Charles, resolved to crush the Reformation, himself
presided at the diet. The Protestant divisions were manifest. Three
separate confessions were presented to the emperor--one from Zwingli,
one by the theologians of the four cities of Strassbourg, Constance,
Lindau and Memmingen (_Confessio Tetrapolitana_), and the _Augsburg
Confession_, the future symbol of the Lutheran church. The third was the
most important, and the emperor seriously set himself to see whether it
might not be made the basis of a compromise. He found that
reconciliation was hopeless. Thereupon the diet resolved that the edict
of Worms was to be enforced against Luther and his partizans; that the
ecclesiastical jurisdictions were to be preserved; and that all the
church property taken possession of by the Lutheran princes was to be
restored; and that in all cases of dispute the last court of appeal was
to be the Imperial Court of Appeals. The last provision meant that the
growing Protestantism was to be fought by harrassing litigation--_nicht
fechten sondern rechten_ was the phrase.

Luther was not present at the diet nor at the negotiations. He was still
an outlaw according to imperial ideas. Melanchthon took his place as
leader.

The decision of the diet compelled the Protestant princes to face the
new and alarming situation. They met in conference in mid-winter at the
little town of Schmalkald, and laid the foundations of what became the
powerful Schmalkald League, which effectually protected the Protestants
of Germany until it was broken up by the intrigues of the imperial
party. From the time of the formation of this league, Luther retired
gradually from the forefront of a reformation movement which had become
largely political, and busied himself with reforms in public worship and
suggestions for an organization of the polity of the Evangelical church.
In this work his natural conservatism is apparent, and he contented
himself with such changes as would make room for the action of
evangelical principles. He disclaimed the right of suggesting a common
order of worship or a uniform ecclesiastical polity; and Lutheran ritual
and polity, while presenting common features, did not follow one common
use. It may be said generally that while Luther insisted on a service in
the vernacular, including the singing of German hymns, he considered it
best to retain most of the ceremonies, the vestments and the uses of
lights on the altar, which had existed in the unreformed church, while
he was careful to explain that their retention might be dispensed with
if thought necessary. To the popular mind the great distinction between
the Lutheran and the medieval church service, besides the use of the
vernacular and the supreme place assigned to preaching, was that the
people partook of the cup in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; and the
Lutheran service became popularly distinguished from the Reformed
because it retained, while the Reformed did away with, most of the
medieval ceremonies and vestments (see LUTHERANS). The variations in the
details of the polity of the Lutheran churches were very numerous, but
they all preserved the same distinctive principles. Two conceptions lay
at the basis--the thought of the spiritual priesthood of all believers
and the belief that the state was a divine ordinance, that the
magistracy might represent the whole body of believers and that
discipline and administration might be exercised through courts
constituted somewhat like the consistorial courts of the medieval
bishops, their members being appointed by the magistracy.

The last years of Luther's life were spent in incessant labour disturbed
by almost continuous ill-health. He was occupied in trying to unite
firmly together the whole evangelical movement; he laboured to give his
countrymen a good system of schools; he was on the watch to defeat any
attempt of the Roman Curia to regain its hold over Germany; and he was
the confidential adviser of a large number of the evangelical princes.
Luther's intimacy with his own elector, first John, then John Frederick,
helped to give him the place accorded to him by the princes. The chiefs
of the Houses of Anhalt and Lüneburg, Duke Henry of Saxony, Joachim II.
of Brandenburg, Albert of Brandenburg and the counts of Mansfeld, were
among Luther's most devoted supporters and most frequently sought his
advice. Princely correspondence was not always pleasant. It took its
most disagreeable form when Philip of Hesse besieged Luther with
requests to give his sanction to taking a second wife while his first
was still alive. Luther's weakness brought the second great blot on his
career. The document sanctioning the bigamy of the landgrave was signed
by Martin Bucer, Luther and Melanchthon, and is a humiliating paper. It
may be thus summarized. According to the original commandment of God,
marriage is between one man and one woman, and this original precept has
been confirmed by our Lord; but sin brought it about that first Lamech,
then the heathen, and then Abraham, took more than one wife, and this
was permitted under the law. We are now living under the Gospel, which
does not give prescribed rules for the external life and has not
expressly prohibited bigamy. The law of the land expresses the original
commandment of God, and the plain duty of the pastorate is to denounce
bigamy. Nevertheless, the pastorate, in single cases of the direst need
and to prevent worse, may sanction bigamy in a purely exceptional way.
Such a bigamous marriage is a true marriage in the sight of God (the
necessity being proved), but it is not a true marriage in the eye of
public law and custom. Such a marriage and the dispensation for it ought
to be kept secret; if it is made known, the dispensation becomes _eo
ipso_ invalid and the marriage is mere concubinage. The principle which
underlies this extraordinary paper is probably the conception that the
Protestant church has the same dispensing power which the medieval
church claimed, but that it was to be exercised altogether apart from
fees of any kind.

In his later years Luther became more tolerant on the sacramental
question which divided him from the South German cities, although he
never departed from his strong opposition to the supposed views of
Zwingli himself. He consented to a conference, which, as he was too ill
to leave home, met at Wittenberg (May-June 1536). After prolonged
discussion the differences were narrowed to one point--the presence of
the body of Christ _extended in space_ in the sacrament of the Supper.
It was agreed in the _Wittenberg Concord_ to leave this an open
question. Thus North and South Germany were united. It is possible that
had Luther lived longer his followers might have been united with the
Swiss. He repeatedly expressed an admiration for Calvin's writings on
the subject of the sacrament; and Melanchthon believed that if the Swiss
accepted Calvin's theory of the Supper, the Wittenberg Concord could be
extended to include them. But the _Consensus Tigurinus_, which dates the
adhesion of the Swiss to the views of Calvin, was not signed until 1549,
when Luther was already dead.

Year by year Luther had been growing weaker, his attacks of illness more
frequent and his bodily pains more continuous. Despite the entreaties
of wife and elector he resolved to do what he could to end some trifling
dispute about inheritance which threatened the peace of the House of
Mansfeld. He left Wittenberg in bitterly cold weather on the 23rd of
January 1546, and the journey was tedious and hazardous. He was accepted
as arbiter and his decision brought an end to the strife. He preached in
Eisleben (February 14) with all his old fervour; but suddenly said
quietly: "This and much more is to be said about the Gospel; but I am
too weak and we will close here." These were his last words in the
pulpit. On the 16th and 17th the deeds of reconciliation were signed and
Luther's work was done. The end came swiftly. He was very ill on the
evening of the 17th; he died on the early morning of the 18th of
February 1546 in his sixty-third year.

The elector of Saxony and Luther's family resolved that he must be
buried at Wittenberg, and on the 20th the funeral procession began its
long march. The counts of Mansfeld, the magistrates of the city and all
the burghers of Eisleben accompanied the coffin to the gates of their
town. A company of fifty light-armed troops commanded by the young
counts of Mansfeld headed the procession and went with it all the way to
Wittenberg. The following was temporarily swelled as it passed through
villages and towns. Delegates from the elector of Saxony met it as it
crossed the boundaries of the principality. Luther was laid to rest in
the Castle church on whose door he had nailed the _theses_ which had
kindled the great conflagration.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) For Luther's life as a whole: Melanchthon,
"Historia de vita et actis Lutheri" (Wittenberg, 1545), in the _Corpus
Reformatorum_, vi.; Mathesius, _Historien von ... Martini Lutheri,
Anfang, Lehre, Leben und Sterben_ (Prague, 1896); Myconius, _Historia
Reformationis 1517-1542_ (Leipzig, 1718); Ratzeberger, _Geschichte
über Luther und seine Zeit_ (Jena, 1850); Wrampelmeyer, _Tagebuch über
Dr Martin Luther geführt von Dr Conrad Cordatus, 1537_ (Halle, 1885);
Förstemann, _Neues Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte der evangelischen
Kirchenreformation_ (Hamburg, 1842); Kolde, _Analecta Lutherana_
(Gotha, 1883); G. Lösche, _Analecta Lutherana et Melanchthoniana_
(Gotha, 1892); G. Lösche, _Vollständige Reformations-Acta und
Documenta_ (Leipzig, 1720-1729); Enders, _Dr Martin Luther's
Briefwechsel_ (5 vols., Frankfurt, 1884-1893); J. Cochlaeus (Rom.
Cath.), _Commentarius de actis et scriptis M. Lutheri, &c_. (St Victor
prope Moguntium). See also J. Köstlin, _Martin Luther, sein Leben und
seine Schriften_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1889); Th. Kolde, _Martin Luther,
Eine Biographie_ (2 vols., Gotha, 1884-1893); A. Hausrath, _Luther's
Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1904); Lindsay, _Luther and the German
Reformation_ (Edinburgh, 1900); _Cambridge Modern History_, ii.
(Cambridge, 1903); _History of the Reformation_, i. (Edinburgh, 1906).

(b) For special incidents: The _Theses_ and their publication: W.
Köhler, _Luthers 95 Theses sammt seinen Resolutionen, den
Gegenschriften von Wimpina-Tetzel, Eck und Prierias, und den Antworten
Luthers darauf_ (Leipzig, 1903); Emil Reich, _Select Documents
illustrating Medieval and Modern History_ (London, 1905); The Leipzig
Disputation: Seidemann, _Die Leipziger Disputation im Jahre 1519_
(Dresden, 1843); Luther before the Diet of Worms: _Deutsche
Reichstagsakten unter Kaiser Karl V_. (Gotha, 1893-1901), ii.; The
Marburg Colloquy; Schirrmacher, _Briefe und Acten zu der Geschichte
des Religionsgespräches zu Marburg, 1529, und des Reichstages zu
Augsburg 1530_ (Gotha, 1876); Hospinian, _Historia Sacramentaria_, ii.
123b-126b; Ehrard, _Das Dogma vom heiligen Abendmahl und seine
Geschichte_, ii. (Frankfurt a M., 1846); The Augsburg Confession:
Schaff, _The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches_ (London,
1877), _History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (London, 1877).
(T. M. L.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Enders, _Dr Martin Luther's Briefwechsel_, iii. 292-295; von
Bezold, _Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_ xx. 186 sqq.; Barge,
_Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt_, i. 432 sqq.

LUTHERANS, the general title given to those Christians who have adopted
the principles of Martin Luther in his opposition to the Roman Church,
to the followers of Calvin, and to the sectaries of the times of the
Reformation. Their distinctive name is the _Evangelical_, as opposed to
the _Reformed_ church. Their dogmatic symbols are usually said to
include nine separate creeds which together form the _Book of Concord_
(_Liber Concordiae_). Three belong to the Early Christian church--the
_Apostles' Creed_, the _Nicene Creed_ (in its Western form, i.e. with
the _filioque_), and the so-called _Athanasian Creed_; six come from the
16th century--the _Augsburg Confession_, the _Apology for the Augsburg
Confession_, the _Schmalkald Articles_, Luther's two _Catechisms_, and
the _Form of Concord_. But only the three early creeds and the Augsburg
Confession are recognized by all Lutherans. Luther's Catechisms,
especially the shorter of the two, have been almost universally
accepted, but the Form of Concord was and is expressly rejected by many
Lutheran churches. The Augsburg Confession and Luther's Short Catechism
may therefore be said to contain the distinctive principles which all
Lutherans are bound to maintain, but, as the principal controversies of
the Lutheran church all arose after the publication of the Augsburg
Confession and among those who had accepted it, it does not contain all
that is distinctively Lutheran. Its universal acceptance is perhaps due
to the fact that it exists in two forms (the _variata_ and the
_invariata_) which vary slightly in the way in which they state the
doctrine of the sacrament of the Supper. The _variata_ edition was
signed by Calvin, in the meaning, he said, of its author Melanchthon.

After Luther's death the more rigid Lutherans declared it to be their
duty to preserve the _status religionis in Germania per Lutherum
instauratus_, and to watch over the _depositum Jesu Christi_ which he
had committed to their charge. As Luther was a much greater preacher
than a systematic thinker, it was not easy to say exactly what this
deposit was, and controversies resulted among the Lutheran theologians
of the 16th century. The Antinomian controversy was the earliest
(1537-1560). It arose from differences about the precise meaning of the
word "law" in Luther's distinction between law and gospel. Luther
limited the meaning of the word to mean a definite command accompanied
by threats, which counts on terror to produce obedience. He declared
that Christ was not under the dominion of the law in this sense of the
word, and that believers enter the Christian life only when they
transcend a rule of life which counts on selfish motives for obedience.
But law may mean ethical rule, and the Antinomians so understood it, and
interpreted Luther's declaration to mean that believers are not under
the dominion of the moral law. The controversy disturbed the Lutheran
church for more than twenty years.

The Arminian controversy in the Reformed church, the Jansenist
controversy in the Roman Catholic church, had their parallel in three
separate disputes among the Lutherans lasting from 1550 to 1580. (1)
George Major, discussing the relation of good works to conversion,
declared that such works were both useful and necessary to holiness. He
was attacked by Flacius and Amsdorf, and after a long controversy, full
of ambiguities and lacking in the exhibition of guiding principles, he
was condemned because his statement savoured of Pelagianism. (2) The
same problem took a new form in the Synergist controversy, which
discussed the first impulse in conversion. One party taught that while
the first impulse must come from the Holy Spirit the work might be
compared to reviving a man _apparently_ dead. It was answered that the
sinner was _really_ dead, and that the work of the Spirit was to give an
actually new life. The latter assertion was generally approved of. (3)
Then a fresh controversy was started by the assertion that sin was part
of the substance of man in his fallen condition. It was answered that
sin had not totally destroyed man's ethical nature, and that grace
changed what was morally insensitive into what was morally sensitive, so
that there could be a co-operation between God's grace and man's will.

The controversy raised by Andrew Osiander was more important. He felt
that Luther had omitted to make adequate answer to an important
practical question, how Christ's death on the cross could be brought
into such actual connexion with every individual believer as to be the
ground of his actual justification. The medieval church had spanned the
centuries by supposing that Christ's death was continuous down through
the age in the sacrifice of the Mass; Protestant theology had nothing
equivalent. He proposed to supply the lack by the theory that
justification is a real work done in the individual by the same Christ
who died so many centuries ago. Redemption, he said, was the result of
the historical work of Christ; but justification was the work of the
living risen Christ, dwelling within the believer and daily influencing
him. Osiander's theory did not win much support, but it was the
starting-point of two separate doctrines. In the Lutheran church,
Striegel taught that the principal effect of Christ's work on the cross
was to change the attitude of God towards the whole human race, and
that, in consequence, when men come into being and have faith, they can
take advantage of the change of attitude effected by the past historical
work of Christ. The Reformed church, on the other hand, constructed
their special doctrine of the limited reference in the atonement.

The other controversies concerned mainly the doctrine of the sacrament
of the Supper, and Luther's theory of Consubstantiation. This required a
doctrine of _Ubiquity_, or the omnipresence of the body of Christ
extended in space, and therefore of its presence in the communion
elements. Calvin had taught that the true way to regard substance was to
think of its power (_vis_), and that the presence of a substance was the
immediate application of its power. The presence of the body of Christ
in the sacramental elements did not need a presence extended in space.
Melanchthon and many Lutherans accepted the theory of Calvin, and
alleged that Luther before his death had approved of it. Whereupon the
more rigid Lutherans accused their brethren of Crypto-Calvinism, and
began controversies which dealt with that charge and with a defence of
the idea of ubiquity.

The university of Jena, led by Matthias Flacius, was the headquarters of
the stricter Lutherans, while Wittenberg and Leipzig were the centres of
the Philippists or followers of Melanchthon. Conferences only increased
the differences. The Lutheran church seemed in danger of falling to
pieces. This alarmed both parties. New conferences were held and various
articles of agreement were proposed, the most notable being the _Torgau
Book_ (1576). In the end, the greater proportion adopted the _Book of
Concord_ (1577), drafted chiefly by Jacob Andreae of Tübingen, Martin
Chemnitz of Brunswick and Nicolas Selnecker of Leipzig. Its recognition
was mainly due to the efforts of Augustus, elector of Saxony. This _Book
of Concord_ was accepted by the Lutheran churches of Sweden and of
Hungary in 1593 and 1597; but it was rejected by the Lutheran churches
of Denmark, of Hesse, of Anhalt, of Pomerania and of several of the
imperial cities. It was at first adopted and then rejected by Brunswick,
the Palatinate and Brandenburg. The churches within Germany which
refused the _Book of Concord_ became for the most part Calvinistic or
Reformed. They published, as was the fashion among the Reformed
churches, separate creeds for themselves, but almost all accepted the
_Heidelberg Catechism_. These differences in the German Protestant
churches of the second half of the 16th century are reflected in the
great American Lutheran church. The church exists in three separate
organizations. The General Synod of the Evangelical Church of the United
States, organized in 1820, has no other creed than the _Augsburg
Confession_, so liberally interpreted as not to exclude Calvinists. The
Synodical Conference of North America, organized in 1872, compels its
pastors to subscribe to the whole of the nine creeds contained in the
Book of Concord. The General Council, a secession from the General
Synod, was organized in 1867, and accepts the "unaltered" (_invariata_)
_Augsburg Confession_ in its original sense, and the other Lutheran
symbols as explanatory of the Augsburg Confession.

The divided state of German Protestantism, resulting from these
theological differences, contributed in no small degree to the disasters
of the Thirty Years' War, and various attempts were made to unite the
two confessions. Conferences were held at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645),
Cassel (1661); but without success. At length the union of the two
churches was effected by the force of the civil authorities in Prussia
(1817), in Nassau (1817), in Hesse (1823), in Anhalt-Dessau (1827) and
elsewhere. These unions for the most part aimed, not at incorporating
the two churches in doctrine and in worship, but at bringing churches or
congregations professing different confessions under one government and
discipline. They permitted each congregation to use at pleasure the
_Augsburg Confession_ or the _Heidelberg Catechism_. The enforced union
in Prussia was combined with the publication of a new liturgy intended
for common use. This led to secessions from the state church. These
seceders were at first treated with great harshness, but have won their
way to toleration, and form the Lutheran Free churches of Germany.

The most important of these latter is the Evangelical Lutheran church of
Prussia, sometimes called the Old Lutherans. It came into being in 1817
and gradually gained the position of a tolerated nonconformist church
(1845 being the date of its complete recognition by the state). At the
1905 census it numbered 51,600 members under 75 pastors. Its affairs are
managed by an _Oberkirchencollegium_, with four ordained and two lay
members. The Evangelical Lutheran Immanuel Synod came into being in
1864, and has a membership of 5300 with 13 ordained pastors. Its
headquarters is Liegnitz. The Independent Evangelical Lutheran church in
the lands of Hesse arose partly on account of the slumbering opposition
to the union of 1823 and more particularly in consequence of an attempt
made at a stricter union in 1874. It has a membership of about 1800. The
_renitente_ church of Lower Hesse has a membership of 2400. The
Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Hanover has a membership of 3050
under 10 ordained pastors. The Hermannsburg Free Church has a membership
of about 2000 under 2 pastors. The Evangelical Lutheran Community in
Baden has a membership of about 1100 with 2 ordained pastors. The
Evangelical Lutheran Free Church of Saxony has a membership of about
3780 with 15 ordained pastors. These free churches exist separate from
the State Evangelical United Church (_Evangelische unirte Landskirche_).

The general system of ecclesiastical government which prevails among all
Lutheran churches is called the _consistorial_. It admits of great
variety of detail under certain common features of organization. It
arose partly from the makeshift policy of the times of the Reformation,
and partly from Luther's strong belief that the _jus episcopale_
belonged in the last resort to the civil authorities. It may be most
generally described by saying that the idea was taken from the
consistorial courts through which the medieval bishops managed the
affairs of their dioceses. Instead of the appointments to the membership
of the consistories being made by the bishops, they were made by the
supreme civil authority, whatever that might be. Richter, in his
_Evangelische Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols., 1846),
has collected more than one hundred and eight separate ecclesiastical
constitutions, and his collection is confessedly imperfect. The
publication of a complete collection by Emil Sehling was begun in 1902.

The liturgies of the Lutheran churches exhibit the same diversities in
details as appear in their constitutions. It may be said in general that
while Luther insisted that public worship ought to be conducted in a
language understood by the people, and that all ideas and actions which
were superstitious and obscured the primary truth of the priesthood of
all believers should be expurged, he wished to retain as much as
possible of the public service of the medieval church. The external
features of the medieval churches were retained; but the minor altars,
the _tabernacula_ to contain the Host, and the light permanently burning
before the altar, were done away with. The ecclesiastical year with its
fasts and festivals was retained in large measure. In 1526 Luther
published the _German Mass and order of Divine Service_, which, without
being slavishly copied, served as a model for Lutheran communities. It
retained the altar, vestments and lights, but explained that they were
not essential and might be dispensed with. The peril attending the
misuse of pictures in churches was recognized, but it was believed to be
more than counterbalanced by the instruction given through them when
their presence was not abused. In short Luther contented himself with
setting forth general principles of divine service, leaving them to be
applied as his followers thought best. The consequence was that there is
no uniform Lutheran liturgy. In his celebrated _Codex Liturgicus
Ecclesiae Lutheranae in epitomen redactus_ (Leipzig, 1848), Daniel has
used 98 different liturgies and given specimens to show the differences
which they exhibit.

The divergences in ritual and organization, the principle underlying all
the various ecclesiastical unions, viz. to combine two different
confessions under one common government, and, resulting from it, the
possibility of changing from one confession to another, have all
combined to free the state churches from any rigid interpretation of
their theological formulas. A liberal and a conservative theology
(rationalist and orthodox) exist side by side within the churches, and
while the latter clings to the theology of the 16th century, the former
ventures to raise doubts about the truth of such a common and simple
standard as the Apostles' Creed. The extreme divergence in doctrinal
position is fostered by the fact that the theology taught in the
universities is in a great measure divorced from the practical religious
life of the people, and the theological opinions uttered in the
theological literature of the country cannot be held to express the
thoughts of the members of the churches. In each state the sovereign is
still held to be the _summus episcopus_. He appoints a minister of
public worship, and through him nominates the members of the governing
body, the _Oberkirchenrath_ or _Consistorium_ or _Directorium_. This
council deals with the property, patronage and all other ecclesiastical
matters. But each parish elects its own council for parochial affairs,
which has a legal status and deals with such matters as the
ecclesiastical assessments. Delegates from these parish councils form
the _Landessynode_. In cases that call for consultation together, the
_Consistorium_ and the Synod appoint committees to confer. In
Alsace-Lorraine about half of those entitled to vote appear at the
polls; but in other districts of Germany very little interest is shown
in the elections to the parish councils.

The income of the state churches is derived from four sources. The state
makes an annual provision for the stipends of the clergy, for the
maintenance of fabrics and for other ecclesiastical needs. The
endowments for church purposes, of which there are many, and which are
destined to the support of foreign missions, clerical pensions, supply
of books to the clergy, &c. are administered by the supreme council. The
voluntary contributions of the people are all absorbed in the common
income of the national churches and are administered by the supreme
council. Each parish is legally entitled to levy ecclesiastical
assessments for defined purposes.

Appointments to benefices are in the hands of the state (sometimes with
consent of parishes), of private patrons and of local parish councils.
The number of these benefices is always increasing; and in 1897 they
amounted to 16,400, or 300 more than in 1890. The state appoints to 56%,
private and municipal patrons to 34%, and congregations to 10% of the
whole. Customs vary in different states; thus in Schleswig-Holstein the
state nominates but the parish elects; in Alsace-Lorraine the
directorium or supreme consistory appoints, but the appointment must be
confirmed by the viceroy; in Baden the state offers the parish a
selection from six names and then appoints the one chosen.

The Lutheran state churches of Denmark, Sweden and Norway have retained
the episcopate. In all of them the king is recognized to be the _summus
episcopus_ or supreme authority in all ecclesiastical matters, but in
Norway and Sweden his power is somewhat limited by that of parliament.
The king exercises his ecclesiastical authority through a minister who
superintends religion and education. The position and functions of the
bishops vary in the different countries. In all the rite of ordination
is in their hands. In Denmark they are the inspectors of the clergy and
of the schools. In Sweden they preside over local consistories composed
of clerical and lay members. The episcopate in all three countries
accommodates itself to something like the Lutheran consistorial system
of ecclesiastical government.

The two leading religions within Germany are the Evangelical (Lutheran)
and the Roman Catholic, including respectively 58 and 39% of the
population. The proportions are continually varying, owing to the new
migratory habits of almost every class of the population. Generally
speaking, the Roman Catholics are on the increase in Prussia, Bavaria,
Saxony and Württemburg; and the Evangelicals in the other districts of
Germany, especially in the large cities. There is a growing tendency to
mixed marriages, which are an important factor in religious changes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des
sechzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (Weimar, 1846); Sehling, _Die evangelischen
Kirchenordnungen des 16ten Jahrhunderts_ (Leipzig, 1902, &c.);
Richter, _Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts_
(8th ed., Leipzig, 1886); Hundeshagen, _Beiträge zur
Kirchenverfassungsgeschichte und Kirchenpolitik inbesondere des
Protestantismus_, i. (Wiesbaden, 1864), or in _Ausgewählte kl.
Schriften_, ii. (Gotha, 1875); Höfling, _Grundsätze der
evangelischen-Lutherischen Kirchenverfassung_ (Erlangen, 1850, 3rd
ed., 1853); Drews, _Das kirchl. Leben d. deutschen evangelischen
Landeskirchen_ (Tübingen, 1902); Erich Forster, _Die Enstehung der
preussischen Landeskirchen unter der Regierung König Friedrich
Wilhelms III._, i. (Tübingen, 1905); Emil Sehling, _Geschichte der
protestantischen Kirchenverfassung_ (Leipzig, 1907); articles in
Herzog's _Realencyklopädie für protest. Theologie_ (3rd ed.), on
Kirchenregiment, Kirchenrecht, Kirchenordnung, Konsistorien,
Episcopalsystem, Gemeinde, Kollegialsystem, Territorialsystem; Schaff,
_History of the Creeds of Christendom_ (London, 1877). (T. M. L.)

LUTHER LEAGUE, a religious association for young people in the United
States of America. It began with a local society founded by delegates of
six Lutheran church societies in New York City in 1888. The first
national convention was held at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 30th and
31st of October 1895. The basis of the league is the Augsburg
Confession. Its membership is open to "any society of whatever name
connected with a Lutheran congregation or a Lutheran institution of
learning." According to the constitution its objects are "to encourage
the formation of the young people's societies in all Lutheran
congregations in America, to urge their affiliation with their
respective state or territorial leagues, and with this league to
stimulate the various young people's societies to greater Christian
activity and to foster the spirit of loyalty to the church." The league
publishes a monthly paper, _The Luther League Review_, in Washington.
According to its official report it had 70,000 members in 1906, which
had increased to more than 100,000 in 1910.

LUTON, a market town and municipal borough in the southern or Luton
parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 30 m. N.W. by N. of
London by the Midland railway, served also by a branch of the Great
Northern. Pop. (1901) 36,404. It lies in a narrow valley on the south
flank of the Chiltern Hills, on the upper part of the river Lea. The
church of St Mary is mainly Decorated, but has portions of Early English
and Perpendicular work. It has brasses and monuments of interest and a
late Decorated baptistery of stone, an ornate roofed structure,
octagonal in form. The font within it is Early English. Luton is the
principal seat in England of the straw-plait manufacture, and large
quantities of hats and other straw goods have been exported, though in
recent years the industry has suffered from increased foreign
competition. The industry originated with the colony of straw-plaiters
transplanted by James I. from Scotland, whither they had been brought
from Lorraine by Queen Mary. The town has also foundries, motor car
works and other manufactures. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 18 councillors. Area, 3133 acres.

LUTSK (Polish, _Luck_), a town of southern Russia, in the government of
Volhynia, on the Styr, 51 m. by rail N.W. of Kovel. Pop. (1900) 17,701.
It is supposed to have been founded in the 7th century; in the 11th
century it was known as Luchesk, and was the chief town of an
independent principality. In the 15th century it was the seat of a
bishop and became wealthy, but during the wars between Russia and Poland
in the second half of the 16th century, and especially after the
extermination of its 40,000 inhabitants, it lost its importance. In 1791
it was taken by Russia. Its inhabitants, many of them Jews, live mainly
by shipping goods on the Styr. Among its buildings is a 16th-century
castle. Lutsk is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.

LUTTERWORTH, a market town in the Harborough parliamentary division of
Leicestershire, England; 90 m. N.N.W. from London by the Great Central
railway. Pop. (1901) 1734. It lies in a pleasant undulating country on
the small river Swift, an affluent of the Avon. The church of St Mary is
a fine building, mainly Decorated and Perpendicular, wherein are
preserved relics of John Wycliffe, who was rector here from 1374 until
his death in 1384. The exhumation and burning of his body in 1428, when
the ashes were cast into the Swift, gave rise to the saying that their
distribution by the river to the ocean resembled that of Wycliffe's
doctrines over the world. Wycliffe is further commemorated by a modern
obelisk in the town. Trade is principally agricultural.

LUTTRELL, HENRY (c. 1765-1851), English wit and writer of society verse,
was the illegitimate son of Henry Lawes Luttrell, 2nd earl of Carhampton
(1743-1821), a grandson of Colonel Henry Luttrell (c. 1655-1717), who
served James II. in Ireland in 1689 and 1690, and afterwards deserted
him, being murdered in Dublin in November 1717. Colonel Luttrell's son
Simon (1713-1787) was created earl of Carhampton in 1785, and the
latter's son was Henry Lawes Luttrell. Before succeeding to the peerage,
the 2nd earl, then Colonel Luttrell, had won notoriety by opposing John
Wilkes at the Middlesex election of 1769. He was beaten at the poll, but
the House of Commons declared that he and not Wilkes had been elected.
In 1796 he was made commander of the forces in Ireland and in 1798 he
became a general. Being an Irish peer, Carhampton was able to sit in the
English parliament until his death in April 1821. The earldom became
extinct on the death of his brother John, the 3rd earl, in 1829.

Henry Luttrell secured a seat in the Irish parliament in 1798 and a post
in the Irish government, which he commuted for a pension. Introduced
into London society by the duchess of Devonshire, his wit made him
popular. Soon he began to write verse, in which the foibles of
fashionable people were outlined. In 1820 he published his _Advice to
Julia_, of which a second edition, altered and amplified, appeared in
1823 as _Letters to Julia in Rhyme_. This poem, suggested by the ode to
Lydia in the first book of Horace's Odes, was his most important work.
His more serious literary contemporaries nicknamed it "Letters of a
Dandy to a Dolly." In 1827 in _Crockford House_ he wrote a satire on the
high play then in vogue. Byron characterized him as "the best sayer of
good things, and the most epigrammatic conversationist I ever met"; Sir
Walter Scott wrote of him as "the great London wit," and Lady
Blessington described him as the one talker "who always makes me think."
Luttrell died in London on the 19th of December 1851.

LÜTTRINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 6 m.
S.E. of Elberfeld by rail. Pop. (1905) 11,829. It is the seat of various
iron and other metal industries, and has cloth and calico mills.

LÜTZEN, a town in Prussian Saxony, in the circle of Merseburg (pop. in
1905, 3981), chiefly famous as the scene of a great battle fought on the
6/16th of November 1632 between the Swedes, under King Gustavus
Adolphus, and the Imperialists, under Wallenstein. On the 5/15th
November, Gustavus, with some 20,000 men, advanced from Naumburg on the
Saale to meet a contingent of his German allies at Grimma, S.E. of
Leipzig, but becoming aware of the presence of Wallenstein's army near
Lützen, and that it had been weakened by a large detachment sent away
under Pappenheim towards Halle, he turned towards Lützen. Wallenstein's
posts at Weissenfels and Rippach prevented him from fighting his main
battle the same evening, and the Swedes went into camp near Rippach, a
little more than an hour's march from Lützen.

Wallenstein made ready to give battle on the following day and recalled
Pappenheim. The latter had taken a small castle, the reduction of which
was one of the objects of his expedition, but his men had dispersed to
plunder and could not be rallied before the following morning. Gustavus
had now to choose between proceeding to Grimma and fighting Wallenstein
on the chance that Pappenheim had not rejoined. He chose the latter. In
the mist of the early morning Wallenstein's army was formed in line of
battle along the Leipzig road with its right on Lützen. Its left was not
carried out as far as the Flossgraben in order to leave room on that
flank for Pappenheim. His infantry was arranged in five huge oblongs,
four of which (in lozenge formation) formed the centre and one the
right wing at Lützen. These "battalias" had their angles strengthened in
the old-fashioned way that had prevailed since Marignan, with small
outstanding bodies of musketeers, so that they resembled rectangular
forts with bastions. On either side of this centre was the cavalry in
two long lines, while in front of the centre and close to the right at
Lützen were the two batteries of heavy artillery. Lützen was set on fire
as a precaution. Skirmishers lined the bank and the ditch of the Leipzig
road. The total strength of the Imperial army was about 12,000 foot and
8000 horse.

[Illustration: BATTLE OF LÜTZEN November 16th., 1632.]

Gustavus's hopes of an early decision were frustrated by the fog, which
delayed the approach and deployment of the Swedes. It was 8 A.M. before
all was ready. The royal army was in two lines. The infantry in the
centre was arrayed in the small and handy battalions then peculiar to
Gustavus's army, the horse on either wing extended from opposite Lützen
to some distance beyond Wallenstein's left, which Pappenheim was to
extend on his arrival. By the accident of the terrain, or perhaps,
following the experience of Breitenfeld (q.v.), by design, the right of
the Swedes was somewhat nearer to the enemy than the left. In front,
near the centre, were the heavy guns and each infantry battalion had its
own light artillery. The force of infantry and cavalry on either side
was about equal, the Swedes had perhaps rather less cavalry and rather
more infantry, but their artillery was superior to Wallenstein's. Not
until 11 was it possible to open fire, for want of a visible target, but
about noon, after a preliminary cannonade, Gustavus gave the word to
advance.

The king himself commanded the right wing, which had to wait until small
bodies of infantry detached for the purpose had driven in the
Imperialist skirmish line, and had then to cross a ditch leading the
horses. They were not charged by the Imperialists at this moment, for
Pappenheim had not yet arrived, and the usual cavalry tactics of the day
were founded on the pistol and not on the sword and the charging horse.
Gaining at last room to form, the Swedes charged and routed the first
line of the Imperial cavalry but were stopped by the heavy squadrons of
cuirassiers in second line, and at that moment Gustavus galloped away to
the centre where events had taken a serious turn. The Swedish centre
(infantry) had forced their way across the Leipzig road and engaged
Wallenstein's living forts at close quarters. The "Blue"
brigade--Gustavus's infantry wore distinctive colours--overran the
battery of heavy guns, and the "Swedish"[1] and "Yellow" brigades
engaged the left face of the Imperialist lozenge with success. But a gap
opened between the right of the infantry and the left of the cavalry and
Wallenstein's second line squadrons pressed into it. It was this which
brought Gustavus from the extreme right, and he was killed here in
leading a counter charge.

On the extreme left, meanwhile, the "Green" brigade had come to close
quarters with Wallenstein's infantry and guns about Lützen, and the
heavy artillery had gone forward to close range between the "Green" and
the "Yellow" infantry. But the news of Gustavus's death spread and the
fire of the assault died out. Wallenstein advanced in his turn,
recaptured his guns and drove the Swedes over the road.

But the fiery Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar took up the command and
ordered a fresh advance. He was too good a soldier to waste his reserves
and only brought up a few units of the second line to help the
disordered brigades of the first. Again the Imperialists were driven in
and their guns recaptured, this time all along the line. About three in
the afternoon the Swedes were slowly bearing back Wallenstein's stubborn
infantry when Pappenheim appeared. The famous cavalry leader had brought
on his mounted men ahead of the infantry and asking, "Where is the king
of Sweden?" charged at once in the direction of the enemy's right.
Wallenstein thus gained time to reestablish his order, and once more the
now exhausted brigades of the Swedish first line were driven over the
road. But Pappenheim fell in the moment of victory and his death
disheartened the Imperialists almost as much as the fall of Gustavus had
disheartened the Swedes. For the last time Bernhard, wounded as he was,
forced the Swedish army to the attack. The three infantry brigades of
his second line had not been engaged,[2] and as usual the last closed
reserve, resolutely handled, carried the day. Wallenstein's army gave
way at all points and the Swedes slept on the battlefield. The infantry
of Pappenheim's corps did not appear on the field until the battle was
over. Of the losses on either side no accurate statement can be given,
but the Swedish "Green" and "Yellow" brigades are said to have lost
five-sixths of their numbers. Near the spot where Gustavus fell a
granite boulder was placed in position on the day after the battle. A
canopy of cast-iron was erected over this "Schwedenstein" in 1832, and
close by, a chapel, built by Oskar Ekman. a citizen of Gothenburg (d.
1907), was dedicated on the 6th of November 1907.

Lützen is famous also as the scene of a victory of Napoleon over the
Russians and Prussians on the 2nd of May 1813 (see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS). This battle is often called Gross Görschen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The foregoing account of Gustavus's last victory is
founded chiefly upon Lieut.-Colonel Hon. E. Noel's _Gustaf Adolf_
(London, 1904) and a paper by the same officer in the _Journal of the
United States Institution of India_ (Oct. 1908), which should be
consulted for further details.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] So called as being the only brigade containing no foreign
elements in the army.

[2] They had, however, found detachments to reinforce the first line.

LÜTZOW, ADOLF, FREIHERR VON (1782-1834), Prussian lieutenant-general,
entered the army in 1795, and eleven years later as a lieutenant took
part in the disastrous battle of Auerstädt. He achieved distinction in
the siege of Colberg, as the leader of a squadron of Schill's
volunteers. In 1808, as a major, he retired from the Prussian army,
indignant at the humiliating treaty of Tilsit. He took part in the
heroic venture of his old chief Schill in 1809; wounded at Dodendorf and
left behind, he thereby escaped the fate of his comrades. In 1811 he was
restored to the Prussian army as major, and at the outbreak of the "war
of liberation" received permission from Scharnhorst to organize a "free
corps" consisting of infantry, cavalry and Tirolese marksmen, for
operating in the French rear and rallying the smaller governments into
the ranks of the allies. This corps played a marked part in the campaign
of 1813. But Lützow was unable to coerce the minor states, and the
wanderings of the corps had little military influence. At Kitzen (near
Leipzig) the whole corps, warned too late of the armistice of
Poischwitz, was caught on the French side of the line of demarcation
and, as a fighting force, annihilated. Lützow himself, wounded, cut his
way out with the survivors, and immediately began reorganizing and
recruiting. In the second part of the campaign the corps served in more
regular warfare under Wallmoden. Lützow and his men distinguished
themselves at Gadebusch (where Körner fell) and Göhrde (where Lützow
himself, for the second time, received a severe wound at the head of the
cavalry). Sent next against Denmark, and later employed at the siege of
Jülich, Lützow in 1814 fell into the hands of the French. After the
peace of 1814 the corps was dissolved, the infantry becoming the 25th
Regiment, the cavalry the 6th Ulans. At Ligny he led the 6th Ulans to
the charge, but they were broken by the French cavalry, and he finally
remained in the hands of the enemy, escaping, however, on the day of
Waterloo. Made colonel in this year, his subsequent promotions were:
major-general 1822, and lieutenant-general (on retirement) 1830. He died
in 1834. One of the last acts of his life for which Lützow is remembered
is his challenge (which was ignored) to Blücher, who had been ridden
down in the rout of the 6th Ulans at Ligny, and had made, in his
official report, comments thereon, which their colonel considered
disparaging.

See Koberstein in _Preussisches Jahrbuch_, vol. xxiii (Berlin, 1868),
and _Preussisches Bilderbuch_ (Leipzig, 1889); K. von Lützow, _Adolf
Lützows Freikorps_ (Berlin, 1884); Fr. von Jagwitz, _Geschichte des
Lutzowschen Freikorps_ (Berlin, 1892); and the histories of the
campaigns of 1813 and 1815.

LUXEMBURG, FRANÇOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCY-BOUTEVILLE, DUKE OF
(1628-1695), marshal of France, the comrade and successor of the great
Condé, was born at Paris on the 8th of January 1628. His father, the
comte de Montmorency-Bouteville, had been executed six months before his
birth for killing the marquis de Beuvron in a duel, but his aunt,
Charlotte de Montmorency, princess of Condé, took charge of him and
educated him with her son, the duc d'Enghien. The young Montmorency (or
Bouteville as he was then called) attached himself to his cousin, and
shared his successes and reverses throughout the troubles of the Fronde.
He returned to France in 1659 and was pardoned, and Condé, then much
attached to the duchesse de Châtillon, Montmorency's sister, contrived
the marriage of his adherent and cousin to the greatest heiress in
France, Madeleine de Luxemburg-Piney, princesse de Tingry and heiress of
the Luxemburg dukedom (1661), after which he was created duc de
Luxembourg and peer of France. At the opening of the War of Devolution
(1667-68), Condé, and consequently Luxemburg, had no command, but during
the second campaign he served as Condé's lieutenant-general in the
conquest of Franche Comté. During the four years of peace which followed
Luxemburg cultivated the favour of Louvois, and in 1672 held a high
command against the Dutch. He defeated the prince of Orange at Woerden
and ravaged Holland, and in 1673 made his famous retreat from Utrecht to
Maestricht with only 20,000 men in face of 70,000, an exploit which
placed him in the first rank of generals. In 1674 he was made captain of
the gardes du corps, and in 1675 marshal of France. In 1676 he was
placed at the head of the army of the Rhine, but failed to keep the duke
of Lorraine out of Philipsburg; in 1677 he stormed Valenciennes; and in
1678 he defeated the prince of Orange, who attacked him at St Denis
after the signature of the peace of Nijmwegen. His reputation was now
high, and it is reputed that he quarrelled with Louvois, who managed to
involve him in the "affair of the poisons" (see LA VOISIN, CATHERINE)
and get him sent to the Bastille. Rousset in his _Histoire de Louvois_
has shown that this quarrel is probably apocryphal. There is no doubt
that Luxemburg spent some months of 1680 in the Bastille, but on his
release took up his post at court as _capitaine des gardes_. When the
war of 1690 broke out, the king and Louvois recognized that Luxemburg
was the only general fit to cope with the prince of Orange, and he was
put in command of the army of Flanders. On the 1st of July 1690 he won a
great victory over the prince of Waldeck at Fleurus. In the following
year he commanded the army which covered the king's siege of Mons and
defeated William III. of England at Leuze on September 18, 1691. Again
in the next campaign he covered the king's siege of Namur, and defeated
William at Steenkirk (q.v.) on June 5, 1692; and on July 29, 1693, he
won his greatest victory over his old adversary at Neerwinden, after
which he was called _le tapissier de Nôtre Dame_ from the number of
captured colours that he sent to the cathedral. He was received with
enthusiasm at Paris by all but the king, who looked coldly on a relative
and adherent of the Condes. St Simon describes in the first volume of
his _Memoirs_ how, instead of ranking as eighteenth peer of France
according to his patent of 1661, he claimed through his wife to be duc
de Piney of an old creation of 1571, which would place him second on the
roll. The affair is described with St Simon's usual interest in the
peerage, and was chiefly checked through his assiduity. In the campaign
of 1694, Luxemburg did little in Flanders, except that he conducted a
famous march from Vignamont to Tournay in face of the enemy. On his
return to Versailles for the winter he fell ill, and died on January 4,
1695. In his last moments he was attended by the famous Jesuit priest
Bourdaloue, who said on his death, "I have not lived his life, but I
would wish to die his death." Luxemburg's morals were bad even in those
times, and he had shown little sign of religious conviction. But as a
general he was Condé's grandest pupil. Though slothful like Condé in the
management of a campaign, at the moment of battle he seemed seized with
happy inspirations, against which no ardour of William's and no
steadiness of Dutch or English soldiers could stand. His death and
Catinat's disgrace close the second period of the military history of
the reign of Louis XIV., and Catinat and Luxemburg, though inferior to
Condé and Turenne, were far superior to Tallard and Villeroi. He was
distinguished for a pungent wit. One of his retorts referred to his
deformity. "I never can beat that cursed humpback," William was reputed
to have said of him. "How does he know I have a hump?" retorted
Luxemburg, "he has never seen my back." He left four sons, the youngest
of whom was a marshal of France as Maréchal de Montmorency.

See, besides the various memoirs and histories of the time, Beaurain's
_Histoire militaire du duc de Luxembourg_ (Hague and Paris, 1756);
_Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire du marechal duc de Luxembourg_
(Hague and Paris, 1758); Courcelles, _Dictionnaire des généraux
français_ (Paris, 1823), vol. viii. There are some interesting facts
in Desormeaux's _Histoire de la maison de Montmorency_ (1764), vols.
iv. and v. Camille Rousset's _Louvois_ and the recent biography of
Luxemburg by Count de Ségur (1907) should also be studied.

LUXEMBURG, a district in the European low countries, of which the
eastern part forms the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the western is the
Belgian province of that name (for map, see BELGIUM). The name is
derived from the chief town.

Under the Romans the district was included in the province of _Belgica
prima_, afterwards forming part of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia and
of the empire of Charlemagne. About 1060 it came under the rule of
Conrad (d. 1086), who took the title of count of Luxemburg. His
descendants ruled the county, first in the male and then in the female
line, until the death of the emperor Sigismund in 1437. Through the
marriage of Sigismund's daughter, Elizabeth, with the German king,
Albert II., Luxemburg, which had been made a duchy in 1354, passed to
the house of Habsburg, but was seized in 1443 by Philip III. the Good,
duke of Burgundy, who based his claim upon a bargain concluded with
Sigismund's niece Elizabeth (d. 1451). Regained by the Habsburgs in 1477
when Mary, daughter and heiress of duke Charles the Bold, married the
German king Maximilian I., the duchy passed to Philip II. of Spain in
1555, though subject to the laws of the empire, of which it still formed
part. After a section had been ceded to France in 1659, the remainder
was given to the emperor Charles VI. by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
It was conquered by France in 1795, and retained by that power until the
end of the Napoleonic wars. The congress of Vienna (1814-1815) erected
Luxemburg into a grand-duchy, added part of the duchy of Bouillon to it,
and assigned it to William I., king of the Netherlands, in return for
the German territories of the house of Orange-Nassau, which Napoleon had
confiscated in 1806, and which were given by the congress to the king
of Prussia. In 1830 when the Belgian provinces separated from Holland,
an effort was made to include Luxemburg in the new kingdom of the
Belgians; but in November 1831 the powers decided that part of the
grand-duchy should be retained by the king of Holland, who refused to
accept this arrangement. Consequently the whole of Luxemburg remained in
the possession of the Belgians until 1838, when the treaty of the 19th
of April, concluded at the conference of London, enforced the partition
of 1831.

The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, the portion under the rule of William I.
retaining the name, was ruled by the kings of Holland until the death of
William III. in 1890. William's daughter, Wilhelmina, succeeded to the
throne of Holland, but under the Salic law[1] the grand-duchy passed to
his kinsman, Adolphus, duke of Nassau, who died in 1905, and was
succeeded by his son William (b. 1852).

By modifications of the treaty of Vienna the garrisoning of the fortress
of Luxemburg had passed into Prussian hands, an arrangement which lasted
until 1867. In the previous year the German Confederation, to which the
grand-duchy of Luxemburg had belonged since 1815, had been dissolved;
but the Prussians maintained their garrison in Luxemburg, which was not
included in the new North German Confederation, while King William III.
proposed to sell his rights over the grand-duchy to France. The
Prussians were irritated by this proposal, but war was averted, and the
question was referred to a conference of the powers in London. The
treaty of London, signed on the 11th of May 1867, decided that the
Prussian garrison must be withdrawn and the fortress dismantled, which
was done in 1872. At the same time the great powers guaranteed the
neutrality of the grand-duchy, and although a member of the German
_Zollverein_, Luxemburg now forms a sovereign and independent state.

The GRAND-DUCHY lies S.E. of Belgium. Its area is 999 sq. m., with a
population (1905) of 246,455. The people are nearly all Catholics. The
country is rich in iron ore. The hills in the south of the duchy are a
continuation of the Lorraine plateau, and the northern districts are
crossed in all directions by outrunners from the Ardennes. The streams
mostly join the Moselle, which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and
the Rhine province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important
stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosières in Belgian Luxemburg,
crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary from the confluence of
the Our till it joins the Moselle after a course of 50 m., during which
it receives the Wiltz, Attert, Alzette, White and Black Ernz, &c. The
soil of Luxemburg is generally good; the southern districts are on the
whole the most fertile as well as the most populous. Building materials
of all sorts are obtained throughout the duchy. Besides the iron
furnaces, situated in the south near the Lorraine plateau, there are
tanneries, weaving and glove-making factories, paper-mills for all sorts
of paper, breweries and distilleries, and sugar refineries. A German
patois mixed with French words is spoken throughout the country; but
French, which is employed by the commercial community, is also the
common speech on the French and Belgian frontiers. Though liberty of
worship prevails, Roman Catholicism is almost the sole form. The
government is in the hands of the grand-duke, who sanctions and
promulgates the laws. There is a council (_staatsrat_) of 15 members.
There is a chamber of deputies with 48 members elected by the cantons
(12 in number) for six years, half the body being elected every three
years. No law can be passed without the consent of the chamber. Bills
are introduced by the grand-duke, but the house has also the right of
initiative. A single battalion (150) of volunteers composes the
grand-ducal army. The gendarmerie consists of about 150 men. There are
cantonal courts and two district courts, one at Luxemburg, the other at
Diekirch, and a high court at Luxemburg. The bishopric of Luxemburg
holds its authority directly from the Holy See. From 13,000,000 to
17,000,000 francs is the annual amount of the state budget, and the
debt, consisting of loans contracted principally for the construction of
railways, of which there are about 350 m., is 12,000,000 francs.

Among towns next to the capital, Luxemburg, are Echternach and Diekirch,
both worthy of note for their blast furnaces. Grevenmacher is the centre
of a great wine district.

The PROVINCE OF LUXEMBURG is the largest and least populous of the nine
provinces of Belgium. Its capital is Arlon, which lies near the borders
of the grand-duchy. A considerable part of the province is forested and
the state requires systematic replanting. Marble, granite and slate
quarries are worked in different districts. Successful attempts have
been made to introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered
by the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sûre. The general elevation of the
country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which form the
prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range from 1200 to 1500
ft. The highest point of the province is the Baraque de Fraiture (1980
ft.), N.E. of La Roche. The woods are well stocked with red and roe
deer, wild boar, hares, rabbits, pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area
of the province is 1725 sq. m. The population was 225,963 in 1904.

The HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG was descended from Count Conrad (d. 1086), and
its fortunes were advanced through the election of Count Henry IV. as
German king in 1308 and his coronation as emperor under the title of
Henry VII. Henry's son was John, king of Bohemia, who fell on the
field of Crécy, and John's eldest son was the emperor Charles IV.,
while another famous member of the family was Baldwin, archbishop of
Treves (1285-1354), who took an active part in imperial affairs. Two
of the sons of Charles IV., Wenceslaus and Sigismund, succeeded in
turn to the imperial throne, and one of his nephews, Jobst, margrave
of Moravia, was chosen German king in opposition to Sigismund in 1410.
The French branch of the Luxemburg family was descended from Waleran
(d. 1288), lord of Ligny and Roussy, a younger son of Count Henry II.
Waleran's great-grandson was Guy (d. 1371), who married Matilda,
sister and heiress of Guy V., count of Saint-Pol (d. 1360), and was
created count of Ligny in 1367. Guy's son, Waleran (d. 1417), who
became constable of France in 1412, had been carried as a prisoner to
England, and had married Matilda, daughter of Thomas Holland, earl of
Kent (d. 1360) and half-sister of King Richard II. To avenge Richard's
death he made a raid on the Isle of Wight, and then took part in the
civil wars in France. He left no sons, and was succeeded by his
nephew, Peter, count of Brienne (d. 1433), who, like his brother Louis
(d. 1443), cardinal archbishop of Rouen and chancellor of France, was
found on the side of the English in their struggle against France.
Another of Peter's brothers, John (d. 1440), a stout supporter of
England, was made governor of Paris by Henry V. He sold Joan of Arc to
the English. Peter's son and successor, Louis, fought at first for
England, but about 1440 he entered the service of France and obtained
the office of constable. King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and
he took refuge with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke
handed him over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder
branch of his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and
was merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon-Vendôme.
Louis's third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of
Luxemburg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in 1608.
A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of
Luxemburg-Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d.
1680), married firstly Léon d'Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly
Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by her
second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis Henry de
Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently, members of the
family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of Luxemburg. The
Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to the fact that it was built
on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-Piney.

See N. van Werveke, _Beiträge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger Landes_
(Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J. Schötter, _Geschichte des Luxemburger
Landes_ (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, _Histoire de la maison de
Luxembourg_ (Paris, 1619).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate
to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in the
case of the _complete extinction_ of males. Thus Article xlii. of the
Nassau Pact of the 30th of June 1783 provides "that in the event of
the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the
daughter or nearest heiress of the last male."

LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or town), the capital
of the grand-duchy of the same name (see above), situated on the
Alzette, a tributary of the Sûre. Pop. (1905) 20,984. The situation is
romantic, steep cliffs overhanging the winding river, and the principal
portion of the town with the palace and public buildings covering a
central plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen,
Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxemburg was
considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar, which it was
supposed to resemble because many of its casemates were cut into the
rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal viaducts carry the railway
and the approach from the railway station to the town. Since the place
ceased to be a fortress the population has more than doubled, and the
Alzette is lined with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hôtel
de Ville dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The
church of Nôtre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael, with
parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of Luxemburg,
king of Bohemia, slain at Crécy. There are two annual fête days, one in
honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, patroness of the city, held on the
Sunday before Ascension Day, and the other the annual fair or
_Schobermesse_ (tent fair), instituted in 1340 and held each year on the
24th of August.

LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of
Haute-Saône, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) 5195. It is situated in a
region of forests on the right bank of the Breuchin. It has an
abbey-church dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, containing a
curious 17th-century organ loft in the form of an immense bracket
supported by a colossal figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (16th and
18th centuries) serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the
15th century and other buildings of the 17th century also remain. There
are several mansions and houses dating from various periods from the
14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carrée, once the town hall, an
interesting specimen of 15th-century architecture, was built by Perrin
Jouffroy, father of Cardinal Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at
Luxeuil in 1412, built the house with a graceful balcony and turret
which faces the Maison Carrée. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison
François I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont
Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for its
mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being ferruginous,
and the rest charged with chloride of sodium; their temperatures range
from 70° to 158° F. The water is employed for drinking and for baths.
The bathing establishment contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities
and there are also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or
near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding, the spinning
and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and the distilling of kirsch
are carried on.

Luxeuil was the Roman _Lixovium_ and contained many fine buildings at
the time of its destruction by the Huns under Attila in 451. In 590 St
Columban here founded a monastery, afterwards one of the most famous in
Franche Comté. In the 8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens;
afterwards rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans in
the 9th century and plllaged on several occasions afterwards. The abbey
schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the abbots had great
influence; but their power was curtailed by the emperor Charles V. and
the abbey was suppressed at the Revolution.

See H. Beaumont, _Etude hist. sur l'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790_ (Lux.
1895); Grandmongin and A. Garnier, _Hist. de la ville et des thermes
de Luxeuil_ (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates.

LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, "The Castles" (plur. of kasr), a town of
Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m. above Cairo by river
and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census) 12,644. It is the centre for
visitors to the ruins of and about Thebes, and is frequented by
travellers and invalids in the winter season, several fine hotels having
been built for their accommodation. There are Anglican and Roman
Catholic churches, and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The
district is the seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques.

The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments of Thebes
(q.v.). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side of the town and
measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front. There may have been an
earlier temple here, but the present structure, dedicated to the Theban
triad of Ammon, Mut and Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great
colonnade, which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended
for the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to be
hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of Amenophis IV.
(Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete work was taken in hand by
Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.;
a long paved road bordered by recumbent rams led from the façade to the
temples of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and
Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive court
to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of axis. He
embellished the walls and pylons of his court with scenes from his
victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed a number of colossal
statues within it. In front of the pylon Rameses set up colossi and a
pair of obelisks (one of which was taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected
in the Place de la Concorde). A few scenes and inscriptions were added
by later kings, but the above is practically the history of the temple
until Alexander the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief
religious festival of Thebes was that of "Southern Opi," the ancient
name of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the
sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water to Luxor
and back again; a representation of the festal scenes is given on the
walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built churches within the
temple. The greater part of the old village of Luxor lay inside the
courts: it was known also as Abu 'l Haggag from a Moslem saint of the
7th century, whose tomb-mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a
high heap of débris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the
buildings and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the
expropriation and clearances by the Service des Antiquités began in
1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the ancient
avenue.

See G. Daressy, _Notice explicative des ruines du temple de Louxor_
(Cairo, 1803); Baedeker's _Egypt_. (F. Ll. G.)

LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during the reigns of
the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He
speaks of his poor circumstances, but from the superscription
_clarissimus_ and _spectabilis_ in one MS., he seems to have held a high
official position. About a hundred epigrams by him in various metres
(the elegiac predominating) have been preserved. They are after the
manner of Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with
the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows the
author to have been well acquainted with the legends and antiquities of
the classical period of Rome.

Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in _Journal
of Philology_, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in the
_Anthologia Latina_, edited by F. Bücheler and A. Riese (1894).

LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French house. The family
of Albert, which sprang from Thomas Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de
Boussargues, _bailli_ of Viviers and Valence, and _viguier_ of Bagnols
and Pont St Esprit in Languedoc, acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of
Indre-et-Loire) in the 16th century. Honoré d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur
de Luynes, was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of
Henry IV., and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of
artillery in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons:
Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of Louis XIII.;
Honoré (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who married Charlotte Eugénie
d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, and was created duke of Chaulnes
in 1621; and Léon, seigneur de Brantes, who became duke of
Luxemburg-Piney by his marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of
Luxemburg.

By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse, Marie de
Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired in 1655 the duchy
of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis Charles d'Albert, her son
by her first husband; and from that time the title of duke of Chevreuse
and duke of Luynes was borne by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes,
which also inherited the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of
the descendants of Honoré d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of
Luxemburg-Piney became extinct in 1697.

Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up at court
and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII. The king shared
his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced him in favour. In 1615 he
was appointed commander of the Louvre and counsellor, and the following
year grand falconer of France. He used his influence over the king in
the court intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her
favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain of the guard,
arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassination (1617) and
secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and France. In the same
year he was appointed captain of the Bastille and lieutenant-general of
Normandy, and married Marie de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon.
He employed extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but
sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he negotiated
the treaty of Angoulême by which Marie de Medici was accorded complete
liberty. He was made governor of Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising
of nobles in 1620; and in 1621, with slight military ability or
achievement, was appointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power
made him a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini.
In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an
expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the midst of
the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the 15th of December 1621.

His brother Honoré (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was governor of
Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended his province
successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly
(1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became marshal of France (1741).
Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes (1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was
in the service of the emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and
ambassador in France.

Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished in letters
and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690), duke of Luynes, son of
the constable, was an ascetic writer and friend of the Jansenists; Paul
d'Albert de Luynes (1703-1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an
astronomer; Michel Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of
Chaulnes, a writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph
Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honoré Théodore Paul Joseph
(1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology.

For the first duke see _Recueil des pièces les plus curieuses qui ont
esté faites pendant le règne du connestable M. de Luynes_ (2nd ed.,
1624); Le Vassor, _Histoire de Louis XIII._ (Paris, 1757); Griffet,
_Histoire du règne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre_
(Paris, 1758); V. Cousin, "Le Duc et connétable de Luynes," in
_Journal des savants_ (1861-1863); B. Zeller, _Études critiques sur le
règne de Louis XIII.: le connétable de Luynes, Montauban et la
Valteline_ (Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, _La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et
Marie de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, vi.^2,
141-216 (Paris, 1905).

LUZÁN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO (1702-1754), Spanish critic
and poet, was born at Saragossa on the 28th of March 1702. His youth was
passed under the care of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he
graduated in philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took
minor orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and
took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously. Business
took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in Madrid as a scholar
with a tendency towards innovations in literature. _La Poética, ó Reglas
de la poesía en general y de sus principales especies_ (1737) proved
that this impression was correct. He at once took rank as the leader of
the literary reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the
respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the
Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in 1750, was
elected to the "Academia Poética del Buen Gusto," where, on account of
his travels, he was known by the sobriquet of _El Peregrino_. He became
master of the mint and treasurer of the royal library. He died at
Madrid, after a short illness, on the 19th of May 1754. Luzán was not
the pioneer of Franco-Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most
powerful exponent, and his _Poética_ is an admirable example of
destructive criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are
indicated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzán is
notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one exhausted
convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic unities had not the
saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and, though he succeeded in
banishing the older dramatists from the boards, he and his school failed
to produce a single piece of more than mediocre merit. His theories,
derived chiefly from Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their
ingenuity cannot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the
partisans of the national tradition.

LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in the department of
Hautes-Pyrénées, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is
beautifully situated at a height of 2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a
remarkable church, built by the Templars in the 12th and 13th centuries
and fortified later. The crenelated ramparts with which it is
surrounded, and the tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep,
give it the aspect of a fortress; other interesting features are the
Romanesque north door and a chapel of the 16th century. The village of
St Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of the
Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing Pont Napoleon
(1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is visited for its warm
sulphurous springs. Discovered in the 16th century, the waters came into
vogue after 1820, in which year they were visited by the duchesses of
Angoulême and Berry. There is much picturesque mountain scenery in the
vicinity; 12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is
the magnificent rock amphitheatre or _cirque_ of Gavarnie, with its
cascade, one of the highest in Europe.

LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and financier, was born of
Jewish parents at Venice on the 11th of March 1841. After completing his
studies in law at the university of Padua, he attracted the attention of
the Austrian police by his lectures on political economy, and was
obliged to emigrate. In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan
Technical Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of
constitutional law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university
of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized in Italy the
economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for the establishment of a
commercial college at Venice, and contributed to the spread of people's
banks on a basis of limited liability throughout the country. In 1869 he
was appointed by Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of
agriculture and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government
control over commercial companies and promoted a state inquiry into the
conditions of industry. Though theoretically a free trader, he was
largely instrumental in creating the Italian protective system. In 1877
he participated in the commercial negotiations with France, in 1878
compiled the Italian customs tariff, and subsequently took a leading
part in the negotiations of all the commercial treaties between Italy
and other countries. Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di
Rudini cabinet of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent
clearings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which
facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and hastened
the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second Di Rudini cabinet
as minister of the treasury, and by timely legislation helped to save
the bank of Naples from failure. After his fall from office in June
1898, his principal achievement was the negotiation of the
Franco-Italian commercial treaty, though, as deputy, journalist and
professor, he continued to take an active part in all political and
economic manifestations. He was again minister of the treasury from
November 1903 to March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for
the third time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership.
During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the
Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3¾% to be eventually
lowered to 3½%, an operation which other ministers had attempted without
success; although the actual conversion was not completed until after
the fall of the cabinet of which he formed part the merit is entirely
his. In 1907 he was president of the co-operative congress at Cremona.

See L. Carpi's _Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which
contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti.

LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist and mystic, was born
in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He was influenced by Isaac Luria
(q.v.) on the mystical side, and on the poetical side by Italian drama
of the school of Guarini (q.v.). He attacked Léon of Modena's
anti-Kabbalistic treatises, and as a result of his conflict with the
Venetian Rabbinate left Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he
maintained himself by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his
popular religious manual the _Path of the Upright_ (_Messilath
Yesharim_) and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally
settled in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in
the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are: the _Tower
of Victory_ (_Migdal 'Oz_) and _Glory to the Upright_ (_Layesharim
Tehillah_). Both of these dramas, which were not printed at the time but
were widely circulated in manuscript, are of the type which preceded the
Shakespearean age--they are allegorical and all the characters are
types. The beautiful Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry,
and the Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses
Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto.

See Grätz, _History of the Jews_, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, _Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages_, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, _The Renascence
of Hebrew Literature_, ch. i. (I. A.)

LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar, was born at Trieste
in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was the most distinguished of the
Italian Jewish scholars of the 19th century. The first Jew to suggest
emendations to the text of the Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah
(1856-1867), and wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His
grammatical works were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to
the history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.) and
Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval Hebrew
hymnology and secular verse.

See Grätz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N.
Slouschz, _The Renascence of Hebrew Literature_, pp. 84-92; the
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.)

LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian civil servant and man of
letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall, was born in 1835, and educated at
Eton and Haileybury. He entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw
service during the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and
with the Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar
(1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and Foreign
departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western Provinces
(1882-1887), and member of the Council of India (1888-1903). Among his
writings, his _Verses Written in India_ (1889) attained considerable
popularity, and in his _Asiatic Studies_ (1882 and 1899) he displays a
deep insight into Indian life and character. He wrote the _Life_ of Lord
Dufferin (1905), and made numerous contributions to periodical
literature.

LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (1857-1903), English
novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the daughter of a barrister.
Her parents died while she was a child, and she was brought up at
Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne, where most of her life was spent, she
was well known for her philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of
February 1903. Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a
combination of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and
religious spirit of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to
many readers. Though her _Won by Waiting_ (1879) had some success, it
was with _Donovan_ (1882) and _We Two_ (1884), in which the persecuted
atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Bradlaugh, that she
became widely popular. Other novels were _In the Golden Days_ (1885), a
story of the Great Rebellion; _Knight Errant_ (1887); _Autobiography of
a Slander_ (1887); _A Hardy Norseman_ (1889); _Derrick Vaughan_, _The
Story of a Novelist_ (1889); _To Right the Wrong_ (1892); _Doreen_
(1894), a statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; _The Autobiography
of a Truth_ (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the Armenian
Relief Fund; _In Spite of All_ (1901), which had originally been
produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and _The Bruges Letters_ (1902), a
book for children.

A _Life_ by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of
her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903.

LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. It
was constituted in 1904 to comprise the "Chenab Colony," being the waste
portion of the former Jhang district that is now irrigated by the Lower
Chenab canal. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by
a section of the North-western railway. The headquarters are at Lyallpur
town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a
lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning and
pressing cotton.

See _Chenab Colony Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1904).

LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, [Greek: Lychaion oros]: mod. _Diaphorti_), a
mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said to have been
born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon,
who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practised on its summit.
This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the
man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as
Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of
a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no
shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it died
within the year.

LYCANTHROPY (Gr. [Greek: lykos], wolf, [Greek: anthropos], man), a name
employed (1) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human being to
undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology for a form of
insanity in which the patient believes that he is transformed into an
animal and behaves accordingly.

I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to
metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used of
transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of kynanthropy
([Greek: kyon], dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the tiger is the
commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan the fox, in Africa
the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion, in South America the
jaguar; but though there is a tendency for the most important
carnivorous animal of the area to take the first place in stories and
beliefs as to transformation, the less important beasts of prey and even
harmless animals like the deer also figure among the wer-animals.

Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the essential
feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative form or the
double of a living human being, while the soul-animal is the vehicle,
temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead human being. The vampire
is sometimes regarded as an example of lycanthropy; but it is in human
form, sometimes only a head, sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a
living person, at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave
to prey upon the living.

Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the
animal-metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed
together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat
capriciously applied. The transformation may be voluntary or
involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-animal may be the man
himself metamorphosed, it may be his double whose activity leaves the
real man to all appearance unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes
forth seeking whom it may devour and leaving its body in a state of
trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a
real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its
owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a
phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the
human being.

The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of
sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the
supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are
also attributed to the magician, male and female, all the world over;
and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with,
lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of
lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another
direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself
in connexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the _nagual_ of
Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn
on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate
association of the bush-soul or the _nagual_ with a human being are not
termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these
beliefs here.

In North and Central America, and to some extent in West Africa,
Australia and other parts of the world, every male acquires at puberty a
tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in some tribes of Indians the youth
kills the animal of which he dreams in his initiation fast; its claw,
skin or feathers are put into a little bag and become his "medicine" and
must be carefully retained, for a "medicine" once lost can never be
replaced. In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by
means of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal
causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession of a
tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician. In
Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the abodes of men;
the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him, which he kills by
saying "O" four times; he then cuts out its tongue and thereby secures
the powers which he seeks. The Malays believe that the office of
_pawang_ (priest) is only hereditary if the soul of the dead priest, in
the form of a tiger, passes into the body of his son. While the familiar
is often regarded as the alternative form of the magician, the _nagual_
or bush-soul is commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human
being. Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa,
in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole of the
population of certain areas. The people of Banana are said to change
themselves by magical means, composed of human embryos and other
ingredients, but in their leopard form they may do no hurt to mankind
under pain of retaining for ever the beast shape. In other cases the
change is supposed to be made for the purposes of evil magic and human
victims are not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of
demarcation, and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected
with nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with
metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as suggested by J.
F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu belief that the
magician's familiar is really a transformed human being; when he finds a
dead body on which he can work his spells without fear of discovery, the
wizard breathes a sort of life into it, which enables it to move and
speak, it being thought that some dead wizard has taken possession of
it. He then burns a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts
the tongue. Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified
body into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter
being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's servant
and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however, to inflict
sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by its master.

_Lycanthropy in Europe._--The wolf is the commonest form of the
wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes its
pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated with the
belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines, gives an
account of a disease which befell people in February; but a
pathological state seems to be meant.

_Lycanthropy in Africa._--In Abyssinia the power of transformation is
attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records of
pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited with
magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant that
the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the _Life of N. Pearce_
(i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed
transformation which took place in his presence and almost before his
eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than
coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience.

_The Wer-tiger of the East Indies._--The Poso-Alfures of central
Celebes believe that man has three souls, the _inosa_, the _angga_ and
the _tanoana_. The _inosa_ is the vital principle; it can be detected
in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the great
natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The _angga_ is the
intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes to
the under-world, and, unlike the _inosa_, which is believed to be
dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an
immaterial body. The _tanoana_ is the divine in man and after death
returns to its lord, Poewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep,
and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he
dreams. According to another account, the _tanoana_ is the substance
by which man lives, thinks and acts; the _tanoana_ of man, plants and
animals is of the same nature. A man's _tanoana_ can be strengthened
by those of others; when the _tanoana_ is long away or destroyed the
man dies. The _tanoana_ seems to be the soul of which lycanthropic
feats are asserted.

Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's
"inside" can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other
animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed _lamboyo_. The
exact relation of the _lamboyo_ to the _tanoana_ does not seem to be
settled; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According
to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others
hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating food
left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same
pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes a
werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that werwolfism
can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must be rubbed and
pinched, just as when any other witch object has to be extracted. The
patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves the body in the form
of snakes and worms. There are certain marks by which a werman can be
recognized. His eyes are unsteady and sometimes green with dark
shadows underneath. He does not sleep soundly and fireflies come out
of his mouth. His lips remain red in spite of betel chewing, and he
has a long tongue. The Todjoers add that his hair stands on end.

Some of the forms of the _lamboyo_ are distinguishable from ordinary
animals by the fact that they run about among the houses; the
wer-buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into
an ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman does
not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the sorcerer,
only sends out a messenger. The _lamboyo_ attacks by preference
solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The victim
feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the _lamboyo_ then assumes human
form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his victim,
scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver and eats
it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long tongue and
joins it together. When the victim comes to himself again he has no
idea that anything unusual has happened to him. He goes home, but soon
begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies, but before his death he
is able sometimes to name the werman to whom he has fallen a victim.

From this account it might be inferred that the _lamboyo_ was
identical with the _tanoana_; the absence of the _lamboyo_ seems to
entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human form.
In other cases, however, the _lamboyo_ seems to be analogous to the
familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how a man once
came to a house and asked the woman to give him a rendezvous; it was
night and she was asleep; the question was put three times before the
answer was given "in the tobacco plantation." The husband was awake,
and next day followed his wife, who was irresistibly drawn thither.
The werman came to meet her in human form, although his body was
engaged in building a new house, and caused the woman to faint by
stamping three times on the ground. Thereupon the husband attacked the
werman with a piece of wood, and the latter to escape transformed
himself into a leaf; this the husband put into a piece of bamboo and
fastened the ends so that he could not escape. He then went back to
the village and put the bamboo in the fire. The werman said "Don't,"
and as soon as it was burnt he fell dead.

In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to be due
to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by her body. For,
like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason, wishes to revive
his victim and comes in human form to carry off the coffin. As soon as
the woman was brought to life the husband attacked the werwolf, who
transformed himself into a piece of wood and was burnt. The woman
remained alive, but her murderer died the same night.

According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman is
itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a party
were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions heard a deer
and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came back and said he
had been shot. Although no marks were to be seen he died a few days
later.

In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The power of
transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the use of
spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c. Save when
it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile to man;
in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night and to guard
the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the _balams_ (magicians) of
Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal form. Variants of
this belief assert that the werman does not recognize his friends
unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as a mendicant and
transforms himself to take vengeance on those who refuse him alms.
Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for them the tiger is
friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies, and a man is said
to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just vengeance.

_Lycanthropy in South America._--According to K. F. P. v. Martius the
_kanaima_ is a human being who employs poison to carry out his
function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the _kanaima_
as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a
cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the seventh
child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a wer-man or
woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar or pig.

II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described as a kind of
hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into connexion with the form of it
known as _latah_. It is characterized by the patient's belief that he
has been metamorphosed into an animal, and is often accompanied by a
craving for strange articles of food, including the flesh of living
beings or of corpses. In the lower stages of culture the state of the
patient is commonly explained as due to possession, but where he leaves
the neighbourhood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in
ordinary lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the
patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable by their
yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The Garrows of India are
said to tear their hair when they are seized with the complaint, which
is put down to the use of a drug applied to the forehead; this recalls
the stories of the witch's salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is
usually a woman; two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and
the leopard respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the
fingers are clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the
patient, when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all
fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion or
garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the anthropological side of the subject see
bibliography to WERWOLF; also _Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land en
Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; _Med.
Zendelingsgenootschap_, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, _Suggestion_, p. 418;
W. H. Brett, _Indians of British Guiana_. For the pathological side,
see Hack Tuke, _Dict. of Psychological Medicine_, s.v. "Lycanthropy";
_Dict. des sciences médicales_; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_, p. 64; A.
J. Hayes, _Source of Blue Nile_, p. 286 seq.; _Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse
kgl. sächsische Gesellschaft der Wiss._ 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.)

LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical first king of
Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained Zeus and set before
him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed away the dish in disgust and
either killed the king and his sons by lightning or turned them into
wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 198). Some say that Lycaon
slew and dished up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. _Protrept._ ii. 36;
Nonnus, _Dionys._ xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to
have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence of the
sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon sacrificed a child
to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and immediately after the
sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This gave rise to the story that a man
was turned into a wolf at each annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but
recovered his human form if he abstained from human flesh for ten years.
The oldest city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first
civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story has been
variously interpreted. According to Weizsäcker, he was an old Pelasgian
or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human sacrifice was offered, bearing a
non-Hellenic name similar to [Greek: Lykos], whence the story originated
of his metamorphosis into a wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the
Hellenic Zeus, and Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil
spirit, who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before
him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the wolf-Zeus
in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of a wolf-tribe, who
recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener and others identify Lycaon
with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light, who slays his son Nyctimus (the
dark) or is succeeded by him, in allusion to the perpetual succession of
night and day. According to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus
accepted human sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the
myth that Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e.
participated in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did
all who afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the ceremony
an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of which was to
prevent the failure of the crops and to avert pestilence (or to protect
them and the flocks against the ravages of wolves). Others (e.g. V.
Bérard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported
into Arcadia by the Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus
Phyxios, the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed
blood. Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once
worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and in popular
tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians, who was supposed to
have been punished for his insulting treatment of Zeus. It is possible
that the whole may be merely a reminiscence of a superstition similar to
the familiar werwolf stories.

See articles by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher's _Lexikon_ and by G.
Fougères (s.v. "Lykaia") in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
antiquités_; W. Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_, 1.
(1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, i. (1896),
p. 40; A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_ (1899); C. Pascal, _Studii
di antichità e mitologia_ (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death
honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten
Geschichte_, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_,
ii. (1905); G. Fougères, _Mantinée et l'Arcadie orientale_ (1898), p.
202; V. Bérard, _De l'origine des cultes arcadiens_ (1894); H. D.
Müller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stämme_, ii. (1861), p. 78; H.
Usener, _Rheinisches Museum_, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Görres,
_Berliner Studien für classische Philologie_, x. 1 (1889), who regards
the Lycaea as a funeral festival connected with the changes of
vegetation; Vollgraf, _De Ovidii mythopoeia_; a concise statement of
the various forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, _Griechische
Mythologie_, ii. p. 920, n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, "Apollo
Liceo," in _Rivista di storia antica_, i. (1895); and Frazer's
_Pausanias_, iv. p. 189. (J. H. F.)

LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the interior of Asia
Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the E. by Cappadocia, on
the N. by Galatia, on the W. by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it
extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country
popularly called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine
period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different times.
The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is mentioned by
Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on his march through Asia.
That author describes Iconium as the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts
xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to
Lystra in Lycaonia. Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a
part of the province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the
Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries are clearly
distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by authorities generally.

Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated plains,
affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the present day
sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown. Amyntas, king of
Galatia, to whom the district was for a time subject, maintained there
not less than three hundred flocks. It forms part of the interior
tableland of Asia Minor, and has an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It
suffers from want of water, aggravated in some parts by abundance of
salt in the soil, so that the northern portion, extending from near
Iconium to the salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is
almost wholly barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium
and the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is
productive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and
distributing the water, so that much land now barren was formerly
cultivated and supported a large number of cities.

The plain is interrupted by some minor groups of mountains, of volcanic
character, of which the Kara Dagh in the south, a few miles north of
Karaman, rises above 7000 ft., while the Karadja Dagh, north-east of it,
though of inferior elevation, presents a striking range of volcanic
cones. The mountains in the north-west, near Iconium and Laodicea, are
the termination of the Sultan Dagh range, which traverses a large part
of Phrygia.

The Lycaonians appear to have been in early times to a great extent
independent of the Persian empire, and were like their neighbours the
Isaurians a wild and lawless race of freebooters; but their country was
traversed by one of the great natural lines of high road through Asia
Minor, from Sardis and Ephesus to the Cilician gates, and a few
considerable towns grew up along or near this line. The most important
was Iconium, in the most fertile spot in the country, of which it was
always regarded by the Romans as the capital, although ethnologically it
was Phrygian. It is still called Konia, and it was the capital of the
Seljuk Turkish empire for several centuries. A little farther north,
immediately on the frontier of Phrygia, stood Laodicea (Ladik), called
Combusta, to distinguish it from the Phrygian city of that name; and in
the south, near the foot of Mount Taurus, was Laranda, now called
Karaman, which has given name to the province of Karamania. Derbe and
Lystra, which appear from the Acts of the Apostles to have been
considerable towns, were between Iconium and Laranda. There were many
other towns, which became bishoprics in Byzantine times. Lycaonia was
Christianized very early; and its ecclesiastical system was more
completely organized in its final form during the 4th century than that
of any other region of Asia Minor.

After the defeat of Antiochus the Great, Lycaonia was given by the
Romans to Eumenes II., king of Pergamos. About 160 B.C. part of it, the
"Tetrarchy of Lycaonia," was added to Galatia; and in 129 B.C. the
eastern half (usually called during the following 200 years Lycaonia
proper) was given to Cappadocia as an eleventh strategia. In the
readjustment of the Provinciae, 64 B.C., by Pompey after the Mithradatic
wars, he gave the northern part of the tetrarchy to Galatia and the
eastern part of the eleventh strategia to Cappadocia. The remainder was
attached to Cilicia. Its administration and grouping changed often under
the Romans. In A.D. 371 Lycaonia was first formed into a separate
province. It now forms part of the Konia viláyet.

The Lycaonians appear to have retained a distinct nationality in the
time of Strabo, but their ethnical affinities are unknown. The mention
of the Lycaonian language in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 11) shows
that the native language was spoken by the common people at Lystra about
A.D. 50; and probably it was only later and under Christian influence
that Greek took its place.

See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ (1890),
_Historical Commentary on Galatians_ (1899) and _Cities of St Paul_
(1907); also an article on the topography in the _Jahreshefte des
Oesterr. Archaeolog. Instituts_, 194 (Beiblatt) pp. 57-132.
(W. M. Ra.)

LYCEUM, the latinized form of Gr. [Greek: Lykeion], the name of a
gymnasium and garden with covered walks, near the temple of Apollo
Lyceus ([Greek: Apollon Aykeios]) at Athens. Aristotle taught here, and
hence the name was applied to his school of philosophy. The name had
been used in many languages for places of instruction, &c. In France the
term _lycée_ is given to the secondary schools which are administered by
the state, in contradistinction to the communal _collèges_.

LYCIA, in ancient geography, a district in the S.W. of Asia Minor,
occupying the coast between Caria and Pamphylia, and extending inland as
far as the ridge of Mt Taurus. The region thus designated is a peninsula
projecting southward from the great mountain masses of the interior. It
is for the most part a rugged mountainous country, traversed by
offshoots of the Taurus range, which terminate on the coast in lofty
promontories. The coast, though less irregular than that of Caria, is
indented by a succession of bays--the most marked of which is the Gulf
of Macri (anc. _Glaucus Sinus_) in the extreme west. A number of smaller
bays, and broken rocky headlands, with a few small islets, constitute
the coast-line thence to the S.E. promontory of Lycia, formed by a long
narrow tongue of rocky hill, known in ancient times as the "Sacred
Promontory" (Hiera Acra), with three small adjacent islets, called the
Chelidonian islands, which was regarded by some ancient geographers as
the commencement of Mt. Taurus. Though the mountain ranges of Lycia are
all offshoots of Mt, Taurus, in ancient times several of them were
distinguished by separate names. Such were Daedala in the west,
adjoining the Gulf of Macri, Cragus on the sea-coast, west of the valley
of the Xanthus, Massicytus (10,000 ft.) nearly in the centre of the
region, and Solyma in the extreme east above Phaselis (7800 ft.). The
steep and rugged pass between Solyma and the sea, called the Climax
("Ladder"), was the only direct communication between Lycia and
Pamphylia.

The only two considerable rivers are: (1) the Xanthus, which descends
from the central mass of Mt Taurus, and flows through a narrow valley
till it reaches the city of the same name, below which it forms a plain
of some extent before reaching the sea, and (2) the Limyrus, which
enters the sea near Limyra. The small alluvial plains at the mouths of
these rivers are the only level ground in Lycia, but the hills that rise
thence towards the mountains are covered with a rich arborescent
vegetation. The upper valleys and mountain sides afford good pasture for
sheep, and the main Taurus range encloses several extensive upland
basin-shaped valleys (_vailas_), which are characteristic of that range
throughout its extent (see ASIA MINOR).

The limits of Lycia towards the interior seem to have varied at
different times. The high and cold upland tract to the north-east,
called Milyas, was by some writers included in that province, though
it is naturally more connected with Pisidia. According to Artemidorus
(whose authority is followed by Strabo), the towns that formed the
Lycian league in the days of its integrity were twenty-three in
number; but Pliny states that Lycia once possessed seventy towns, of
which only twenty-six remained in his day. Recent researches have
fully confirmed the fact that the sea-coast and the valleys were
thickly studded with towns, many of which are proved by existing
remains to have been places of importance. By the aid of inscriptions
the position of the greater part of the cities mentioned in ancient
authors can be fixed. On the gulf of Glaucus, near the frontiers of
Caria, stood Telmessus, an important place, while a short distance
inland from it were the small towns of Daedala and Cadyanda. At the
entrance of the valley of the Xanthus were Patara, Xanthus itself,
and, a little higher up, Pinara on the west and Tlos on the east side
of the valley, while Araxa stood at the head of the valley, at the
foot of the pass leading into the interior. Myra, one of the most
important cities of Lycia, occupied the entrance of the valley of the
Andriacus; on the coast between this and the mouth of the Xanthus
stood Antiphellus, while in the interior at a short distance were
found Phellus, Cyaneae and Candyba. In the alluvial plain formed by
the rivers Arycandus and Limyrus stood Limyra, and encircling the same
bay the three small towns of Rhodiapolis, Corydalla and Gagae.
Arycanda commanded the upper valley of the river of the same name. On
the east coast stood Olympus, one of the cities of the league, while
Phaselis, a little farther north, which was a much more important
place, never belonged to the Lycian league and appears always to have
maintained an independent position.

The cold upland district of the Milyas does not seem to have contained
any town of importance. Podalia appears to have been its chief place.
Between the Milyas and the Pamphylian Gulf was the lofty mountain
range of Solyma, which was supposed to derive its name from the
Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer in connexion with the Lycians and
the story of Bellerophon. In the flank of this mountain, near a place
called Deliktash, was the celebrated fiery source called the Chimaera,
which gave rise to many fables. It has been visited in modern times by
Captain F. Beaufort, T. A. B. Spratt and Edward Forbes, and other
travellers, and is merely a stream of inflammable gas issuing from
crevices in the rocks, such as are found in several places in the
Apennines. No traces of recent volcanic action exist in Lycia.

_History._--The name of the Lycians, _Lukki_, is first met with in the
Tel el-Amarna tablets (1400 B.C.) and in the list of the nations from
the eastern Mediterranean who invaded Egypt in the reign of Mineptah,
the successor of Rameses II. At that time they seem to have occupied the
Cilician coast. Their occupation of Lycia was probably later, and since
the Lycian inscriptions are not found far inland, we may conclude that
they entered the country from the sea. On the other hand the name
appears to be preserved in Lycaonia, where some bands of them may have
settled. According to Herodotus they called themselves Termilae, written
Trmmile in the native inscriptions, and he further states that the
original inhabitants of the country were the Milyans and Solymi, the
Lycians being invaders from Crete. In this tradition there is a
reminiscence of the fact that the Lycians had been sea-rovers before
their settlement in Lycia. The Lycian Sarpedon was believed to have
taken part in the Trojan war. The Lydians failed to subdue Lycia, but
after the fall of the Lydian empire it was conquered by Harpagus the
general of Cyrus, Xanthus or Arnna, the capital, being completely
destroyed. While acknowledging the suzerainty of Persia, however, the
Lycians remained practically independent, and for a time joined the
Delian league. "The son of Harpagus" on the obelisk of Xanthus boasts of
having sacked numerous cities in alliance with the Athenian goddess. The
Lycians were incorporated into the empire of Alexander and his
successors, but even after their conquest by the Romans, preserved their
federal institutions as late as the time of Augustus. According to
Strabo the principal towns in the league were Xanthus, Patara, Pinara,
Olympus, Myra and Tlos; each of these had three votes in the general
assembly, while the other towns had only two or one. Taxation and the
appointment of the Lyciarch and other magistrates were vested in the
assembly. Under Claudius Lycia was formally annexed to the Roman empire,
and united with Pamphylia: Theodosius made it a separate province.

_Antiquities._--Few parts of Asia Minor were less known in modern times
than Lycia up to the 19th century. Captain Beaufort was the first to
visit several places on the sea-coast, and the remarkable rock-hewn
tombs of Telmessus had been already described by Dr Clarke, but it was
Sir Charles Fellows who first discovered and drew attention to the
extraordinary richness of the district in ancient remains, especially of
a sepulchral character. His visits to the country in 1838 and 1840 were
followed by an expedition sent by the British government in 1842 to
transport to England the valuable monuments now in the British Museum,
while Admiral Spratt and Edward Forbes explored the interior, and laid
down its physical features on an excellent map. The monuments thus
brought to light are among the most interesting of those discovered in
Asia Minor, and prove the existence of a distinct native architecture,
especially in the rock-cut tombs. But the theatres found in almost every
town, some of them of very large size, are sufficient to attest the
pervading influence of Greek civilization; and this is confirmed by the
sculptures, which are for the most part wholly Greek. None of them,
indeed, can be ascribed to a very early period, and hardly any trace can
be found of the influence of Assyrian or other Oriental art.

One of the most interesting results of these recent researches has been
the discovery of numerous inscriptions in the native language of the
country, and written in an alphabet peculiar to Lycia. A few of these
inscriptions are bilingual, in Greek and Lycian, and the clue thus
afforded to their interpretation has been followed up, first by Daniel
Sharpe and Moritz Schmidt, and in more recent years by J. Imbert, W.
Arkwright, V. Thomsen, A. Torp, S. Bugge and E. Kalinka.

The alphabet was derived from the Doric alphabet of Rhodes, but ten
other characters were added to it to express vocalic and other sounds
not found in Greek. The attempts to connect the language with the
Indo-European family have been unsuccessful; it belongs to a separate
family of speech which we may term "Asianic." Most of the inscriptions
are sepulchral; by far the longest and most important is that on an
obelisk found at Xanthus, which is a historical document, the concluding
part of it being in a peculiar dialect, supposed to be an older and
poetical form of the language. Among the deities mentioned are Trzzube
(Trosobis) and Trqqiz or Trqqas.

Lycian art was modelled on that of the Greeks. The rock-cut tomb usually
represented the house of the living, with an elaborate façade, but in
one or two instances, notably that of the so-called Harpy-tomb, the
façade is surmounted by a tall, square tower, in the upper part of which
is the sepulchral chamber. Lycian sculpture followed closely the
development of Greek sculpture, and many of the sculptures with which
the tombs are adorned are of a high order of merit. The exquisite
bas-reliefs on a Lycian sarcophagus now in the museum of Constantinople
are among the finest surviving examples of classical art. The
bas-reliefs were usually coloured. For the coinage, see NUMISMATICS,
section "Asia Minor."

AUTHORITIES.--C. Fellows, _Journal in Asia Minor_ (1839) and
_Discoveries in Lycia_ (1841); T. A. B. Spratt and E. Forbes, _Travels
in Lycia_ (1847); O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, _Reisen im südwestlichen
Kleinasien_ (1884); E. Petersen and F. von Luschan, _Reisen in Lykien_
(1889); O. Treuber, _Geschichte der Lykier_ (1887); G. Perrot and C.
Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); P.
Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_
(1896); S. Bugge, _Lykische Studien_ (from 1897); A. Torp, _Lykische
Beiträge_ (from 1898); V. Thomsen, _Études lyciennes_ (1899); E.
Kalinka and R. Heberdey, _Tituli Asiae Minoris_, i. (1901); see also
articles XANTHUS, MYRA, PATARA. (A. H. S.)

LYCK, or LYK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East
Prussia, 112 m. by rail S.E. of Königsberg, and close to the frontier of
Poland, on a lake and river of the same name. Pop. (1900) 11,386. It is
the chief town of the region known as Masuria. On an island in the lake
is a castle formerly belonging to the Teutonic order, and dating from
1273, now used as a prison. There are iron-foundries, distilleries,
breweries, tanneries, paper mills and flour mills, and a trade in grain
and cattle.

LYCOPHRON, Greek poet and grammarian, was born at Chalcis in Euboea. He
flourished at Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247
B.C.). According to Suïdas, he was the son of Socles, but was adopted by
Lycus of Rhegium. He was entrusted by Ptolemy with the task of arranging
the comedies in the Alexandrian library, and as the result of his
labours composed a treatise _On Comedy_. His own compositions, however,
chiefly consisted of tragedies (Suïdas gives the titles of twenty, of
which very few fragments have been preserved), which secured him a place
in the Pleiad of Alexandrian tragedians. One of his poems, _Alexandra_
or _Cassandra_, containing 1474 iambic lines, has been preserved entire.
It is in the form of a prophecy uttered by Cassandra, and relates the
later fortunes of Troy and of the Greek and Trojan heroes. References to
events of mythical and later times are introduced, and the poem ends
with a reference to Alexander the Great, who was to unite Asia and
Europe in his world-wide empire. The style is so enigmatical as to have
procured for Lycophron, even among the ancients, the title of "obscure"
([Greek: skoteinos]). The poem is evidently intended to display the
writer's knowledge of obscure names and uncommon myths; it is full of
unusual words of doubtful meaning gathered from the older poets, and
many long-winded compounds coined by the author. It has none of the
qualities of poetry, and was probably written as a show-piece for the
Alexandrian school. It was very popular in the Byzantine period, and was
read and commented on very frequently; the collection of scholia by
Isaac and John Tzetzes is very valuable, and the MSS. of the _Cassandra_
are numerous.[1] A few well-turned lines which have been preserved from
Lycophron's tragedies show a much better style; they are said to have
been much admired by Menedemus of Eretria, although the poet had
ridiculed him in a satyric drama. Lycophron is also said to have been a
skilful writer of anagrams.

Editio princeps (1513); J. Potter (1697, 1702); L. Sebastiani (1803);
L. Bachmann (1830); G. Kinkel (1880); E. Scheer (1881-1908), vol. ii.
containing the scholia. The most complete edition is by C. von
Holzinger (with translation, introduction and notes, 1895). There are
translations by F. Deheque (1853) and Viscount Royston (1806; a work
of great merit). See also Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _De Lycophronis
Alexandra_ (1884); J. Konze, _De Dictione Lycophronis_ (1870). The
commentaries of the brothers Tzetzes have been edited by C. O. Müller
(1811).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Two passages of the _Cassandra_, 1446-1450 and 1226-1282, in
which the career of the Roman people and their universal empire are
spoken of, could not possibly have been written by an Alexandrian
poet of 250 B.C. Hence it has been maintained by Niebuhr and others
that the poem was written, by a later poet mentioned by Tzetzes, but
the opinion of Welcker that these paragraphs are a later
interpolation is generally considered more probable.

LYCOPODIUM, the principal genus of the Lycopodiaceae, a natural order of
the Fern-allies (see PTERIDOPHYTA). They are flowerless herbs, with an
erect, prostrate or creeping widely-branched stem, with small simple
leaves which thickly cover the stem and branches. The "fertile" leaves
are arranged in cones, and bear spore-cases (sporangia) in their axils,
containing spores of one kind only. The prothallium developed from the
spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and bears
the male and female organs (_antheridia_ and _archegonia_). There are
about a hundred species widely distributed in temperate and tropical
climates; five occur in Britain on heaths and moors, chiefly in
mountainous districts, and are known as club-mosses The commonest
species, _L. clavatum_, is also known as stag-horn moss.

[Illustration: From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.

FIG. 1.--Lycopodium clavatum.

A, Old prothallus.
B, Prothallus bearing a young sporophyte.
G, Polian of a mature plant, showing the creeping habit, the
adventitious roots and the specialized erect branches bearing the
strobile or cones.
H, Sporophyte bearing the single sporangium on its upper surface.
J, Spore.]

Gerard, in 1597, described two kinds of lycopodium (_Herball_, p.
1373) under the names _Muscus denticulatus_ and _Muscus clavatus_ (_L.
clavatum_) as "Club Mosse or Woolfes Clawe Mosse," the names being in
Low Dutch, "Wolfs Clauwen," from the resemblance of the club-like or
claw-shaped shoots to the toes of a wolf, "whereupon we first named it
_Lycopodion_." Gerard also speaks of its emetic and many other
supposed virtues. _L. Selago_ and _L. catharticum_ (a native of the
Andes) have been said to be, at least when fresh, cathartic; but, with
the exception of the spores of _L. clavatum_ ("lycopodium powder"),
lycopodium as a drug has fallen into disuse. The powder is used for
rolling pills in, as a dusting powder for infants' sores, &c. A
_tinctura lycopodii_, containing one part of the powder to ten of
alcohol (90%), has been given, in doses of 15 to 60 minims, in cases
of irritation and spasm of the bladder. The powder is highly
inflammable, and is used in pyrotechny and for artificial lightning on
the stage. If the hand be covered with the powder it cannot be wetted
on being plunged into water. Another use of lycopodium is for dyeing;
woollen cloth boiled with species of lycopodium, as _L. clavatum_,
becomes blue when dipped in a bath of Brazil wood.

LYCOSURA (mod. _Palaeokastro_ or _Siderokastro_), a city of Arcadia,
reputed to be the most ancient city in Greece, and to have been founded
by Lycaon the son of Pelasgus. Its fame in later times was chiefly
associated with the temple of Despoena, containing the colossal group
made by Damophon of Messene, of Despoena and Demeter seated, with
Artemis and the Titan Anytus standing beside them. The temple and
considerable remains of the group of sculpture were found in 1889. The
date of both has been a matter of dispute, Damophon being placed at
dates varying from the 4th century B.C. to the age of Hadrian. But it
has now been shown that he lived in the 2nd century B.C. Remains of a
portico, altars and other structures have also been found.

See [Greek: Praktika tes Arch. Hetairias] (1896); G. Dickens, _Annual
of British School_ at Athens, xii. and xiii.

LYCURGUS (Gr. [Greek: Lykourgos]), in Greek history, the reputed founder
of the Spartan constitution. Plutarch opens his biography of Lycurgus
with these words: "About Lycurgus the lawgiver it is not possible to
make a single statement that is not called in question. His genealogy,
his travels, his death, above all, his legislative and constitutional
activity have been variously recorded, and there is the greatest
difference of opinion as to his date." Nor has modern historical
criticism arrived at any certain results. Many scholars, indeed, suppose
him to be in reality a god or hero, appealing to the existence of a
temple and cult of Lycurgus at Sparta as early as the time of Herodotus,
(i. 66), and to the words of the Delphic oracle (Herod. i. 65)--

[Greek: dixo e se theon manteusomai e anthropon.
all' eti kai mallon theon elpomai, o Lykoorge.]

If this be so, he is probably to be connected with the cult of Apollo
Lycius or with that of Zeus Lycaeus. But the majority of modern
historians agree in accepting Lycurgus as an historical person, however
widely they may differ about his work.

According to the Spartan tradition preserved by Herodotus, Lycurgus was
a member of the Agiad house, son of Agis I. and brother of Echestratus.
On the death of the latter he became regent and guardian of his nephew
Labotas (Leobotes), who was still a minor. Simonides, on the other hand,
spoke of him as a Eurypontid, son of Prytanis and brother of Eunomus,
and later the tradition prevailed which made him the son of Eunomus and
Dionassa, and half-brother of the king Polydectes, on whose death he
became guardian of the young king Charillus. According to Herodotus he
introduced his reforms immediately on becoming regent, but the story
which afterwards became generally accepted and is elaborated by Plutarch
represented him as occupying for some time the position of regent, then
spending several years in travels, and on his return to Sparta carrying
through his legislation when Charillus was king. This latter version
helped to emphasize the disinterestedness of the lawgiver, and also
supplied a motive for his travels--the jealousy of those who accused him
of trying to supplant his nephew on the throne. He is said to have
visited Crete, Egypt and Ionia, and some versions even took him to
Spain, Libya and India.

Various beliefs were held as to the source from which Lycurgus derived
his ideas of reform. Herodotus found the tradition current among the
Spartans that they were suggested to Lycurgus by the similar Cretan
institutions, but even in the 5th century there was a rival theory that
he derived them from the Delphic oracle. These two versions are united
by Ephorus, who argued that, though Lycurgus had really derived his
system from Crete, yet to give it a religious sanction he had persuaded
the Delphic priestess to express his views in oracular form.

_The Reforms._--Herodotus says that Lycurgus changed "all the customs,"
that he created the military organization of [Greek: enomotiai]
(_enomoties_), [Greek: triekades] (_triecades_) and [Greek: syssitia]
(_syssitia_), and that he instituted the ephorate and the council of
elders. To him, further, are attributed the foundation of the apella
(the citizen assembly), the prohibition of gold and silver currency, the
partition of the land ([Greek: ges anadasmos]) into equal lots, and, in
general, the characteristic Spartan training ([Greek: agoge]). Some of
these statements are certainly false. The council of elders and the
assembly are not in any sense peculiar to Sparta, but are present in the
heroic government of Greece as depicted in the Homeric poems. The
ephors, again, are almost universally held to be either an immemorial
heritage of the Dorian stock or--and this seems more probable--an
addition to the Spartan constitution made at a later date than can be
assigned to Lycurgus. Further, the tradition of the Lycurgan partition
of the land is open to grave objections. Grote pointed out (_History of
Greece_, pt. ii. ch. 6) that even from the earliest historical times we
find glaring inequalities of property at Sparta, and that the tradition
was apparently unknown to all the earlier Greek historians and
philosophers down to Plato and Aristotle: Isocrates (xii. 259) expressly
denied that a partition of land had ever taken place in the Spartan
state. Again, the tradition presupposes the conquest by the Spartans of
the whole, or at least the greater part, of Laconia, yet Lycurgus must
fall in the period when the Spartans had not yet subjugated even the
middle Eurotas plain, in which their city lay. Finally, we can point to
an adequate explanation of the genesis of the tradition in the ideals
of the reformers of the latter part of the 3rd century, led by the kings
Agis IV. and Cleomenes III. (q.v.). To them the cause of Sparta's
decline lay in the marked inequalities of wealth, and they looked upon a
redistribution of the land as the reform most urgently needed. But it
was characteristic of the Greeks to represent the ideals of the present
as the facts of the past, and so such a story as that of the Lycurgan
[Greek: ges anadasmos] may well have arisen at this time. It is at least
noteworthy that the plan of Agis to give 4500 lots to Spartans and
15,000 to perioeci suspiciously resembles that of Lycurgus, in whose
case the numbers are said to have been 9000 and 30,000 respectively.
Lastly, the prohibition of gold and silver money cannot be attributed to
Lycurgus, for at so early a period coinage was yet unknown in Greece.

Lycurgus, then, did not create any of the main elements of the Spartan
constitution, though he may have regulated their powers and defined
their position. But tradition represented him as finding Sparta the prey
of disunion, weakness and lawlessness, and leaving her united, strong
and subject to the most stable government which the Greek world had ever
seen. Probably Grote comes near to the truth when he says that Lycurgus
"is the founder of a warlike brotherhood rather than the lawgiver of a
political community." To him we may attribute the unification of the
several component parts of the state, the strict military organization
and training which soon made the Spartan hoplite the best soldier in
Greece, and above all the elaborate and rigid system of education which
rested upon, and in turn proved the strongest support of, that
subordination of the individual to the state which perhaps has had no
parallel in the history of the world.

Lycurgus's legislation is very variously dated, and it is not possible
either to harmonize the traditions or to decide with confidence between
them. B. Niese (_Hermes_, xlii. 440 sqq.) assigns him to the first half
of the 7th century B.C. Aristotle read Lycurgus's name, together with
that of Iphitus, on the discus at Olympia which bore the terms of the
sacred truce, but even if the genuineness of the document and the
identity of this Lycurgus with the Spartan reformer be granted, it is
uncertain whether the discus belongs to the so-called first Olympiad,
776 B.C., or to an earlier date. Most traditions place Lycurgus in the
9th century: Thucydides, whom Grote follows, dates his reforms shortly
before 804, Isocrates and Ephorus go back to 869, and the chronographers
are divided between 821, 828 and 834 B.C. Finally, according to a
tradition recorded by Xenophon (_Resp. Laced_. x. 8), he was
contemporary with the Heraclidae, in which case he would belong to the
10th century B.C.

AUTHORITIES.--Our chief ancient authorities, besides Plutarch's
biography, are:--Herodotus i. 65; Xenophon, _Respublica
Lacedaemoniorum_; Ephorus _ap_. Strabo x. 481, 482; Aristotle,
_Politics_, ii.; Pausanias iii. and v. 4; and scattered passages in
Plato, Isocrates, Polybius, Diodorus, Polyaenus, &c. Of modern works
the most important are: E. Meyer, "Lykurgos von Sparta," in
_Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_ (Halle, 1892), i. 211 sqq.; A.
Kopstadt, _De rerum Laconicarum constitutionis Lycurgeae origine et
indole_ (Greifswald, 1849); H. K. Stein, _Kritik der Überlieferung
über den spartanischen Gesetzgeber Lykurg_ (Glatz, 1882); S. Wide,
"Bemerkungen zur spartanischen Lykurglegende," in _Skand_. _Archiv_.
i. (1891), 90 sqq.; E. Nusselt, _Das Lykurgproblem_ (Erlangen, 1898);
H. Bazin, _De Lycurgo_ (Paris, 1885); C. Reuss, _De Lycurgea quae
fertur agrorum divisione_ (Pforzheim, 1878); A. Busson, _Lykurgos und
die grosse Rhetra_ (Innsbruck, 1887); H. Gelzer, "Lykurg und die
delphische Priesterschaft" in _Rhein_. _Mus_. xxviii. 1 sqq.; F.
Winicker, _Stand der Lykurgischen Frage_ (Graudenz, 1884); G.
Attinger, _Essai sur Lycurgue et ses institutions_ (Neuchâtel, 1892);
the general Greek histories, and the works on the Spartan constitution
cited under SPARTA. (M. N. T.)

LYCURGUS (c. 396-325 B.C.), one of the "ten" Attic orators. Through
his father, Lycophron, he belonged to the old Attic priestly family of
the Eteobutadae. He is said to have been a pupil both of Plato and of
Isocrates. His early career is unknown, but after the real character of
the struggle with Philip of Macedon became manifest he was recognized,
with Demosthenes and Hypereides, as one of the chiefs of the national
party. He left the care of external relations to his colleagues, and
devoted himself to internal organization and finance. He managed the
finances of Athens for twelve successive years (338-326), at first
directly as treasurer of the revenues ([Greek: ho hepi te dioikesei])
for four years, and in two succeeding terms, when the actual office was
forbidden him by law, through his son and a nominal official chosen from
his party. Part of one of the deeds in which he rendered account of his
term of office is still preserved in an inscription. During this time he
raised the public income from 600 to 1200 talents yearly. He increased
the navy, repaired the dockyards, and completed an arsenal, the [Greek:
skeuotheke] designed by the architect Philo. He was also appointed to
various other offices connected with the preservation and improvement of
the city. He was very strict in his superintendence of the public
morals, and passed a sumptuary law to restrain extravagance. He did much
to beautify the city; he reconstructed the great Dionysiac theatre and
the gymnasium in the Lyceum, and erected the Panathenaic stadium on the
Ilissus. He is mentioned as the proposer of five laws, of which the most
famous was that statues of the three great tragedians should be erected
in the theatre, and that their works should be carefully edited and
preserved among the state archives. For his services he was honoured
with crowns, statues and a seat in the town hall; and after his death
his friend Stratocles drew up a decree (still extant in pseudo-Plutarch,
_Vit. dec. orat._ p. 851; see also E. L. Hicks, _Greek Historical
Inscriptions_, 1st ed., No. 145), ordering the erection of a statue of
bronze to Lycurgus, and granting the honours of the Prytaneum to his
eldest son. He was one of the orators whose surrender was demanded by
Alexander the Great, but the people refused to give him up. He died
while president of the theatre of Dionysus, and was buried on the road
leading to the Academy at the expense of the state.

Lycurgus was a man of action; his orations, of which fifteen were
published, are criticized by the ancients for their awkward arrangement,
harshness of style, and the tendency to digressions about mythology and
history, although their noble spirit and lofty morality are highly
praised. The one extant example, _Against Leocrates_, fully bears out
this criticism. After the battle of Chaeroneia (338), in spite of the
decree which forbade emigration under pain of death, Leocrates had fled
from Athens. On his return (probably about 332) he was impeached by
Lycurgus, but acquitted, the votes of the judges being equally divided.

The speech has been frequently edited. Editio princeps (Aldine, 1513);
F. G. Kiessling (1847) with M. H. E. Meier's commentary on
pseudo-Plutarch's _Life of Lycurgus_ and the fragments of his
speeches; C. Rehdantz (1876); T. Thalheim (1880); C. Scheibe (1885);
F. Blass (ed. major, 1889), with bibliography of editions and articles
(ed. minor, 1902); E. Sofer (Leipzig, 1905), with notes and introd.
There is an index to Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus by L. L. Forman
(Oxford, 1897). The exhaustive treatise of F. Dürrbach, _L'Orateur
Lycurgue_ (1890), contains a list of the most important review
articles on the financial and naval administration of Lycurgus and on
his public works; see also C. Droege, _De Lycurgo publicarum
pecuniarum administratore_ (Minden, 1880). Several fragments of his
various laws have been preserved in inscriptions (_Corpus
inscriptionum atticarum_, ii. 162, 163, 173, 176, 180). On the history
of the period see authorities under DEMOSTHENES.

LYCURGUS, "THE LOGOTHETE" (1772-1851), Greek leader in the War of
Independence, was born in the island of Samos. He was educated at
Constantinople, received the usual training, and followed the customary
career of a Phanariot Greek. He accompanied Constantine Ypsilanti when
he was appointed hospodar of Walachia, as secretary, and served
Ypsilanti's successor, Alexander Soutzos, as treasurer and chancellor
(Logothete). In 1802 he returned to Samos, and having become suspected
by the Turkish government was imprisoned. He fled to Smyrna, when he was
pardoned and released by the Turks. When the War of Independence began
he induced his countrymen to declare Samos independent, and was chosen
ruler. His share in the War of Independence is chiefly memorable because
he provoked the massacre of Chios in 1822. Lycurgus conducted an
expedition of 2500 to that island, which was held by a Turkish garrison
under Velna Pasha. His force was insufficient, the time was ill-chosen,
for a strong Turkish fleet was at sea, and Lycurgus displayed utter
incapacity as a military leader. After these events, he was deposed by
the Samians, but recovered some influence and had a share in the defence
of Samos against the Turks in 1824. When the island was left under the
authority of Turkey by the protocol of the 3rd of February 1830, he
helped to obtain autonomy for the Samians. He retired to Greece and died
on the 22nd of May 1851.

See G. Finlay, _History of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1861).

LYDD, a market town and municipal borough in the southern parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 71½ m. S.E. by E. of London by a branch of
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 2675. It lies in the
open lowland of Dunge Marsh. To the south-east are the bare shingle
banks of the promontory of Dungeness. Its church of All Saints has a
beautiful Perpendicular tower with rich vaulting within. The
neighbourhood affords pasture for large flocks of sheep. On the land
known as the Rypes, in the neighbourhood, there is a military camp, with
artillery and rifle ranges; hence the name given to the explosive
"lyddite." The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 12,043 acres.

The first settlement at Lydd (Hlide, Lide, Lyde) was probably due to its
convenience as a fishing-station. After the Conquest it became a seaport
of some consequence and although now, owing to the alteration of the
coast, it stands nearly 3 m. inland a number of its inhabitants are
still fishermen. In 774 land in Lydd was granted by Offa to the monks of
Christ Church, Canterbury, and the archbishop of Canterbury evidently
held the lordship of the town from an early date. At some time before
the reign of Edward I. Lydd was made a member of the Cinque Port of
Romney, and in 1290 was granted the same liberties and free customs as
the Cinque Ports on condition of aiding the service of its head-port to
the crown with one ship. This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in
1365. The corporation also possesses documents of 1154, 1399 and 1413,
granting to the archbishop's men of Lydd the privileges enjoyed by the
Cinque Ports and confirming all former privileges. Lydd is called a
borough in the Hundred Rolls. Its incorporation under a bailiff, of
which there is evidence in the 15th century, may have been due to the
archbishop or to the court of Shepway, but it was not incorporated by
the crown until 1885, when, by a charter under the Municipal Acts, the
last bailiff was elected the first mayor. In 1494 a grant was made to
the bailiff, jurats and commonalty of a yearly fair on the 12th of July
and two days following. A fair was held under this grant until 1874.

LYDENBURG, a town and district of the Transvaal, South Africa. The town
is 60 m. by rail N.N.E. of Belfast on the Pretoria-Delagoa Bay railway.
Pop. (1904) 1523. It is picturesquely situated on the Spekboom tributary
of the Olifants river at an altitude of 4900 ft. Some 15 m. E. is the
Mauchberg (8725 ft.), the highest point in the Transvaal. The town is
the chief centre for the Lydenburg goldfields. Next to Lydenburg the
most important settlement in these goldfields is Pilgrim's Rest, pop.
(1904) 1188, 23 m. N.E. of Lydenburg. Lydenburg (the town of suffering)
was founded in 1846 by Boers who two years previously had established
themselves farther north at Ohrigstad, which they abandoned on account
of the fever endemic there. Lydenburg at once became the capital of a
district (of the same name) which then embraced all the eastern part of
the Transvaal. In 1856 the Boers of Lydenburg separated from their
brethren and proclaimed an independent republic, which was, however,
incorporated with the South African Republic in 1860. The discovery of
gold near the town was made in 1869, and in 1873 the first successful
goldfield in the Transvaal was opened here. It was not until 1910,
however, that Lydenburg was placed in railway communication with the
rest of the country. The present district of Lydenburg consists of the
north-east and central parts of the original district. In the Lulu
Mountains, a spur of the Drakensberg, and some 40 m. N.W. of Lydenburg,
was the stronghold of the Kaffir chief Sikukuni, whose conflict with the
Boers in 1876 was one of the causes which led to the annexation of the
Transvaal by Great Britain in 1877. (See TRANSVAAL: _History_.)

LYDFORD, or LIDFORD, a village, once an important town, in the western
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, near the western confines
of Dartmoor, 27 m. N. of Plymouth by the London & South-Western railway.
From its Perpendicular church of St Petrock fine views of the Dartmoor
tors are seen. The village stands on the small river Lyd, which
traverses a deep narrow chasm, crossed by a bridge of single span; and
at a little distance a tributary stream forms a cascade in an exquisite
glen. Close to the church are slight remains of the castle of Lydford.

Lydford (_Lideford_) was one of the four Saxon boroughs of Devon, and
possessed a mint in the days of Aethelred the Unready. It first appears
in recorded history in 997, when the Danes made a plundering expedition
up the Tamar and Tavy as far as "Hlidaforda." In the reign of Edward the
Confessor it was the most populous centre in Devonshire after Exeter,
but the Domesday Survey relates that forty houses had been laid waste
since the Conquest, and the town never recovered its former prosperity;
the history from the 13th century centres round the castle, which is
first mentioned in 1216, when it was granted to William Briwere, and was
shortly afterwards fixed as the prison of the stannaries and the
meeting-place of the Forest Courts of Dartmoor. A gild at Lideford is
mentioned in 1180, and the pipe roll of 1195 records a grant for the
reestablishment of the market. In 1238 the borough, which had hitherto
been crown demesne, was bestowed by Henry III. on Richard, earl of
Cornwall, who in 1268 obtained a grant of a Wednesday market and a three
days' fair at the feast of St Petrock. The borough had a separate
coroner and bailiff in 1275, but it was never incorporated by charter,
and only once, in 1300, returned members to parliament. Lydford prison
is described in 1512 as "one of the most hainous, contagious and
detestable places in the realm," and "Lydford Law" was a by-word for
injustice. At the time of the Commonwealth the castle was entirely in
ruins, but in the 18th century it was restored and again used as a
prison and as the meeting-place of the manor and borough courts.

LYDGATE, JOHN (c. 1370-c. 1451), English poet, was born at the village
of Lydgate, some 6 or 7 m. from Newmarket. It is, however, with the
Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds that he is chiefly associated.
Probably he was educated at the school attached to the monastery, and in
his _Testament_ he has drawn a lively picture of himself as a typical
orchard-robbing boy, who had scant relish for matins, fought, and threw
creed and paternoster at the cock. He was ordained sub-deacon in 1389,
deacon in 1393, and priest in 1397. These dates are valuable as enabling
us to fix approximately the date of his birth, which must have occurred
somewhere about 1370. Lydgate passed as a portent of learning, and,
according to Bale, he pursued his studies not only at both the English
universities but in France and Italy. Koeppel (see _Laurents de
Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von Boccaccios De Casibus_,
Munich, 1885) has thrown much doubt on this statement as regards Italy,
but Lydgate knew France and visited Paris in an official capacity in
1426. Bale is also the authority for another assertion that figures in
what has been aptly termed the poet's "traditional biography," viz. that
Lydgate, on completing his own education, kept school for the sons of
noblemen and gentlemen. This "traditional biography" prolongs his life
to the year 1461, but it is quite improbable that he lived many years
after 1446, when Abbot Curteys died and John Baret, treasurer of Bury,
signed an extant receipt for a pension which he shared with Lydgate, and
which continued to be paid till 1449. If it be true, as Bishop Alcock of
Ely affirms, that Lydgate wrote a poem on the loss of France and
Gascony, it seems necessary to suppose that he lived two years longer,
and thus indications point to the year 1451, or thereabouts, as the date
of his death.

Lydgate had a consuming passion for literature, and it was probably that
he might indulge this taste more fully that in 1434 he retired from the
priorate of Hatfield Broadoak (or Hatfield Regis), to which he had been
appointed in June 1423. After 1390--but whilst he was still a young
man--he made the acquaintance of Geoffrey Chaucer, with whose son
Thomas he was on terms of considerable intimacy. This friendship appears
to have decided Lydgate's career, and in his _Troy-book_ and elsewhere
are reverent and touching tributes to his "master." The passages in
question do not exaggerate his obligations to the "well of English." The
themes of all his more ambitious poems can be traced to Chaucerian
sources. _The Story of Thebes_, for instance, was doubtless suggested by
the "romance" which Cressida and her companions are represented as
reading when interrupted by Pandarus (_Troilus and Cressida_, II.
xii.-xvi.). The _Falls of Princes_, again, is merely the _Monk's Tale_
"writ large."

Lydgate is a most voluminous writer. The _Falls of Princes_ alone
comprises 7000 stanzas; and his authentic compositions reach the
enormous total of 150,000 lines. Cursed with such immoderate fluency
Lydgate could not sustain himself at the highest level of artistic
excellence; and, though imbued with a sense of the essentials of poetry,
and eager to prove himself in its various manifestations, he stinted
himself of the self-discipline necessary to perfection of form. As the
result the bulk of his composition is wholly or comparatively
rough-hewn. That he was capable of better work than is suggested by his
average accomplishment is shown by two allegorical poems--the _Complaint
of the Black Knight_ and the _Temple of Glass_ (once attributed to
Hawes). In these he reveals himself as a not unworthy successor of
Chaucer, and the pity of it is that he should have squandered his powers
in a futile attempt to create an entire literature. For a couple of
centuries Lydgate's reputation equalled, if it did not surpass, that of
his master. This was in a sense only natural, since he was the real
founder of the school of which Stephen Hawes was a distinguished
ornament, and which "held the field" in English letters during the long
and dreary interval between Chaucer and Spenser. One of the most obvious
defects of this school is excessive attachment to polysyllabic terms.
Lydgate is not quite so great a sinner in this respect as are some of
his successors, but his tendency cannot be mistaken, and John Metham is
amply justified in his censure--

Eke John Lydgate, sometime monk of Bury,
His books indited with terms of rhetoric
And half-changed Latin, with conceits of poetry.

Pedantry was an inevitable effect of the early Renaissance. French
literature passed through the same phase, from which indeed it was later
in emerging; and the ultimate consequence was the enrichment of both
languages. It must be conceded as no small merit in Lydgate that, in an
age of experiment he should have succeeded so often in hitting the right
word. Thomas Warton remarks on his lucidity. Since his writings are read
more easily than Chaucer's, the inference is plain--that he was more
effectual as a maker of our present English. In spite of that, Lydgate
is characteristically medieval--medieval in his prolixity, his
platitude, his want of judgment and his want of taste; medieval also in
his pessimism, his Mariolatry and his horror of death. These attributes
jarred on the sensitive Ritson, who racked his brains for contumelious
epithets such as "stupid and disgusting," "cart-loads of rubbish," &c.;
and during the greater part of the 18th and 19th centuries Lydgate's
reputation was at its lowest ebb. Recent criticism has been far more
impartial, and almost too much respect has been paid to his attainments,
especially in the matter of metre, though Lydgate himself, with
offensive lightheartedness, admits his poor craftsmanship.

Lydgate's most doughty and learned apologist is Dr Schick, whose
preface to the _Temple of Glass_ embodies practically all that is known
or conjectured concerning this author, including the chronological
order of his works. With the exception of the _Damage and Destruction
in Realms_--an account of Julius Caesar, his wars and his death--they
are all in verse and extremely multifarious--narrative, devotional
hagiological, philosophical and scientific, allegorical and moral,
historical, satirical and occasional. The _Troy-book_, undertaken at
the command of Henry V., then prince of Wales, dates from 1412-1420;
the _Story of Thebes_ from 1420-1422; and the _Falls of Princes_
towards 1430. His latest work was _Secreta Secretorum_ or _Secrets of
Old Philosophers_, rhymed extracts from a pseudo-Aristotelian treatise.
Lydgate certainly possessed extraordinary versatility, which enabled
him to turn from elaborate epics to quite popular poems like the
_Mumming at Hertford_, _A Ditty of Women's Horns_ and _London
Lickpenny_. The humour of this last is especially bright and effective,
but, unluckily for the author, the piece is believed to have been
retouched by some other hand. The longer efforts partake of the nature
of translations from sundry medieval compilations like those of Guido
di Colonna and Boccaccio, which are in Latin.

See publications of the Early English Text Society, especially the
_Temple of Glass_, edited by Dr Schick; Koeppel's _Lydgate's Story of
Thebes, eine Quellenuntersuchung_ (Munich, 1884), and the same
scholar's _Laurents de Premierfait und John Lydgates Bearbeitungen von
Boccaccios De Casibus Illustrium Virorum_ (Munich, 1885); Warton's
_History of English Poetry_; Ritson's _Bibliotheca Anglo-Poética_;
Furnivall's _Political Poems_ (E. E. T. S.); and Sidney Lee's article
in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._ (F. J. S.)

LYDIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor, the boundaries of
which it is difficult to fix, partly because they varied at different
epochs. The name is first found under the form of _Luddi_ in the
inscriptions of the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal, who received tribute
from Gyges about 660 B.C. In Homer we read only of Maeonians (_Il_. ii.
865, v. 43, x. 431), and the place of the Lydian capital Sardis is taken
by Hyde (_Il_. xx. 385), unless this was the name of the district in
which Sardis stood (see Strabo xiii. p. 626).[1] The earliest Greek
writer who mentions the name is Mimnermus of Colophon, in the 37th
Olympiad. According to Herodotus (i. 7), the Meiones (called Maeones by
other writers) were named Lydians after Lydus, the son of Attis, in the
mythical epoch which preceded the rise of the Heraclid dynasty. In
historical times the Maeones were a tribe inhabiting the district of the
upper Hermus, where a town called Maeonia existed (Pliny, _N.H._ v. 30;
Hierocles, p. 670). The Lydians must originally have been an allied
tribe which bordered upon them to the north-west, and occupied the plain
of Sardis or Magnesia at the foot of Tmolus and Sipylus. They were cut
off from the sea by the Greeks, who were in possession, not only of the
Bay of Smyrna, but also of the country north of Sipylus as far as Temnus
in the pass (_boghaz_), through which the Hermus forces its way from the
plain of Magnesia into its lower valley.[2] In a Homeric epigram the
ridge north of the Hermus, on which the ruins of Temnus lie, is called
Sardene. Northward the Lydians extended at least as far as the Gygaean
Lake (Lake Coloe, mod. Mermereh), and the Sardene range (mod. Dumanli
Dagh). The plateau of the Bin Bir Tepe, on the southern shore of the
Gygaean Lake, was the chief burial-place of the inhabitants of Sardis,
and is still thickly studded with tumuli, among which is the "tomb of
Alyattes" (260 ft. high). Next to Sardis the chief city was Magnesia ad
Sipylum (q.v.), in the neighbourhood of which is the famous seated
figure of "Niobe" (_Il_. xxiv. 614-617), cut out of the rock, and
probably intended to represent the goddess Cybele, to which the Greeks
attached their legend of Niobe. According to Pliny (v. 31), Tantalis,
afterwards swallowed up by earthquake in the pool Sale or Saloe, was the
ancient name of Sipylus and "the capital of Maeonia" (Paus. vii. 24;
Strabo xii. 579). Under the Heraclid dynasty the limits of Lydia must
have been already extended, since according to Strabo (xiii. 590), the
authority of Gyges reached as far as the Troad. Under the Mermnads Lydia
became a maritime as well as an inland power. The Greek cities were
conquered, and the coast of Ionia included within the Lydian kingdom.
The successes of Alyattes and of Croesus finally changed the Lydian
kingdom into a Lydian empire, and all Asia Minor westward of the Halys,
except Lycia, owned the supremacy of Sardis. Lydia never again shrank
back into its original dimensions. After the Persian conquest the
Maeander was regarded as its southern boundary, and in the Roman period
it comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and
Phrygia and the Aegean on the other.

Lydia proper was exceedingly fertile. The hill-sides were clothed with
vine and fir, and the rich broad plain of Hermus produced large
quantities of corn and saffron. The climate of the plain was soft but
healthy, though the country was subject to frequent earthquakes. The
Pactolus, which flowed from the fountain of Tarne in the Tmolus
mountains, through the centre of Sardis, into the Hermus, was believed
to be full of golden sand; and gold mines were worked in Tmolus itself,
though by the time of Strabo the proceeds had become so small as hardly
to pay for the expense of working them (Strabo xiii. 591). Maeonia on
the east contained the curious barren plateau known to the Greeks as the
Katakekaumene ("Burnt country"), once a centre of volcanic disturbance.
The Gygaean lake (where remains of pile dwellings have been found) still
abounds with carp.

Herodotus (i. 171) tells us that Lydus was a brother of Mysus and Car.
The statement is on the whole borne out by the few Lydian, Mysian and
Carian words that have been preserved, as well as by the general
character of the civilization prevailing among the three nations. The
race was probably a mixed one, consisting of aborigines and Aryan
immigrants. It was characterized by industry and a commercial spirit,
and, before the Persian conquest, by bravery. The religion of the
Lydians resembled that of the other civilized nations of Asia Minor. It
was a nature worship, which at times became wild and sensuous. By the
side of the supreme god Medeus stood the sun-god Attis, as in Phrygia
the chief object of the popular cult. He was at once the son and
bridegroom of Cybele (q.v.) or Cybebe, the mother of the gods, whose
image carved by Broteas, son of Tantalus, was adored on the cliffs of
Sipylus (Paus. iii. 22). The cult may have been brought westward by the
Hittites who have left memorials of themselves in the pseudo-Sesostris
figures of Kara-bel (between Sardis and Ephesus) as well as in the
figure of the Mother-goddess, the so-called Niobe. At Ephesus, where she
was adored under the form of a meteoric stone, she was identified with
the Greek Artemis (see also GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS). Her mural crown
is first seen in the Hittite sculptures of Boghaz Keui (see PTERIA and
HITTITES) on the Halys. The priestesses by whom she was served are
depicted in early art as armed with the double-headed axe, and the
dances they performed in her honour with shield and bow gave rise to the
myths which saw in them the Amazons, a nation of woman-warriors. The
pre-Hellenic cities of the coast--Smyrna, Samorna (Ephesus), Myrina,
Cyme, Priene and Pitane--were all of Amazonian origin, and the first
three of them have the same name as the Amazon Myrina, whose tomb was
pointed out in the Troad. The prostitution whereby the Lydian girls
gained their dowries (Herod, i. 93) was a religious exercise, as among
the Semites, which marked their devotion to the goddess Cybele. In the
legend of Heracles, Omphale takes the place of Cybele, and was perhaps
her Lydian title. Heracles is here the sun-god Attis in a new form; his
Lydian name is unknown, since E. Meyer has shown (_Zeitschr. d. Morg.
Gesell._ xxxi. 4) that Sandon belongs not to Lydia but to Cilicia. By
the side of Attis stood Manes or Men, identified later with the
Moon-god.

According to the native historian Xanthus (460 B.C.) three dynasties
ruled in succession over Lydia. The first, that of the Attiads, is
mythical. It was headed by a god, and included geographical personages
like Lydus, Asies and Meies, or such heroes of folk-lore as Cambletes,
who devoured his wife. To this mythical age belongs the colony which,
according to Herodotus (i. 94), Tyrsenus, the son of Attis, led to
Etruria. Xanthus, however, puts Torrhebus in the place of Tyrsenus, and
makes him the eponym of a district in Lydia. It is doubtful whether
Xanthus recognized the Greek legends which brought Pelops from Lydia, or
rather Maeonia, and made him the son of Tantalus. The second dynasty was
also of divine origin, but the names which head it prove its connexion
with the distant East. Its founder, a descendant of Heracles and
Omphale, was, Herodotus tells us (i. 7), a son of Ninus and grandson of
Belus. The Assyrian inscriptions have shown that the Assyrians had never
crossed the Halys, much less known the name of Lydia, before the age of
Assur-bani-pal, and consequently the theory which brought the Heraclids
from Nineveh must be given up. But the Hittites, another Oriental
people, deeply imbued with the elements of Babylonian culture, had
overrun Asia Minor and established themselves on the shores of the
Aegean before the reign of the Egyptian king Rameses II.

The subject allies who then fight under their banners include the Masu
or Mysians and the Dardani of the Troad, while the Hittites have left
memorials in Lydia. G. Dennis discovered an inscription in Hittite
hieroglyphics attached to the figure of "Niobe" on Sipylus, and a
similar inscription accompanies the figure (in which Herodotus, ii. 106,
wished to see Sesostris or Rameses II.) in the pass of Karabel. We learn
from Eusebius that Sardis was first captured by the Cimmerii 1078 B.C.;
and since it was four centuries later before the real Cimmerii (q.v.)
appeared on the horizon of history, we may perhaps find in the statement
a tradition of the Hittite conquest. As the authority of the Hittite
satraps at Sardis began to decay the Heraclid dynasty arose. According
to Xanthus, Sadyattes and Lixus were the successors of Tylon the son of
Omphale. After lasting five hundred and five years, the dynasty came to
an end in the person of Sadyattes, as he is called by Nicolas of
Damascus, whose account is doubtless derived from Xanthus. The name
Candaules, given him by Herodotus, meant "dog strangler" and was a title
of the Lydian Hermes. Gyges (q.v.) put him to death and established the
dynasty of the Mermnads, 687 B.C. Gyges initiated a new policy, that of
making Lydia a maritime power; but towards the middle of his reign the
kingdom was overrun by the Cimmerii. The lower town of Sardis was taken,
and Gyges sent tribute to Assur-bani-pal, as well as two Cimmerian
chieftains he had himself captured in battle. A few years later Gyges
joined in the revolt against Assyria, and the Ionic and Carian
mercenaries he despatched to Egypt enabled Psammetichus to make himself
independent. Assyria, however, was soon avenged. The Cimmerian hordes
returned, Gyges was slain in battle (652 B.C.), and Ardys his son and
successor returned to his allegiance to Nineveh. The second capture of
Sardis on this occasion was alluded to by Callisthenes (Strabo xiii.
627). Alyattes, the grandson of Ardys, finally succeeded in extirpating
the Cimmerii, as well as in taking Smyrna, and thus providing his
kingdom with a port. The trade and wealth of Lydia rapidly increased,
and the Greek towns fell one after the other before the attacks of the
Lydian kings. Alyattes's long reign of fifty-seven years saw the
foundation of the Lydian empire. All Asia Minor west of the Halys
acknowledged his sway, and the six years' contest he carried on with the
Medes was closed by the marriage of his daughter Aryenis to Astyages.
The Greek cities were allowed to retain their own institutions and
government on condition of paying taxes and dues to the Lydian monarch,
and the proceeds of their commerce thus flowed into the imperial
exchequer. The result was that the king of Lydia became the richest
prince of his age. Alyattes was succeeded by Croesus (q.v.), who had
probably already for some years shared the royal power with his father,
or perhaps grandfather, as V. Floigl thinks (_Geschichte des semitischen
Alterthums_, p. 20). He reigned alone only fifteen years, Cyrus the
Persian, after an indecisive battle on the Halys, marching upon Sardis,
and capturing both acropolis and monarch (546 B.C.). The place where the
acropolis was entered was believed to have been overlooked by the
mythical Meles when he carried the lion round his fortress to make it
invulnerable; it was really a path opened by one of the landslips, which
have reduced the sandstone cliff of the acropolis to a mere shell, and
threaten to carry it altogether into the plain below. The revolt of the
Lydians under Pactyas, whom Cyrus had appointed to collect the taxes,
caused the Persian king to disarm them, though we can hardly credit the
statement that by this measure their warlike spirit was crushed. Sardis
now became the western capital of the Persian empire, and its burning by
the Athenians was the indirect cause of the Persian War. After Alexander
the Great's death, Lydia passed to Antigonus; then Achaeus made himself
king at Sardis, but was defeated and put to death by Antiochus. The
country was presented by the Romans to Eumenes, and subsequently formed
part of the proconsular province of Asia. By the time of Strabo (xiii.
631) its old language was entirely supplanted by Greek.

The Lydian empire may be described as the industrial power of the
ancient world. The Lydians were credited with being the inventors, not
only of games such as dice, huckle-bones and ball (Herod, i. 94), but
also of coined money. The oldest known coins are the electrum coins of
the earlier Mermnads (Madden, _Coins of the Jews_, pp. 19-21), stamped
on one side with a lion's head or the figure of a king with bow and
quiver; these were replaced by Croesus with a coinage of pure gold and
silver. To the latter monarch were probably due the earliest gold
coins of Ephesus (Head, _Coinage of Ephesus_, p. 16). The electrum
coins of Lydia were of two kinds, one weighing 168.4 grains for the
inland trade, and another of 224 grains for the trade with Ionia. The
standard was the silver mina of Carchemish (as the Assyrians called
it) which contained 8656 grains. Originally derived by the Hittites
from Babylonia, but modified by themselves, this standard was passed
on to the nations of Asia Minor during the period of Hittite conquest,
but was eventually superseded by the Phoenician mina of 11,225 grains,
and continued to survive only in Cyprus and Cilicia (see also
NUMISMATICS). The inns, which the Lydians were said to have been the
first to establish (Herod. i. 94), were connected with their attention
to commercial pursuits. Their literature has wholly perished. They
were celebrated for their music and gymnastic exercises, and their art
formed a link between that of Asia Minor and that of Greece. R.
Heberdey's excavations at Ephesus since 1896, like those of D. G.
Hogarth in 1905, belong to the history of Greek and not native art.
The ivory figures, however, found by Hogarth on the level of the
earliest temple of Artemis show Asiatic influence, and resemble the
so-called "Phoenician" ivories from the palace of Sargon at Calah
(Nimrud). For a description of a pectoral of white gold, ornamented
with the heads of animals, human faces and the figure of a goddess,
discovered in a tomb on Tmolus, see _Academy_, January 15, 1881, p.
45. Lydian sculpture was probably similar to that of the Phrygians.
Phallic emblems, for averting evil, were plentiful; the summit of the
tomb of Alyattes is crowned with an enormous one of stone, about 9 ft.
in diameter. The tumulus itself is 281 yds. in diameter and about half
a mile in circumference. It has been partially excavated by G.
Spiegelthal and G. Dennis, and a sepulchral chamber discovered in the
middle, composed of large well-cut and highly polished blocks of
marble, the chamber being 11 ft. long, nearly 8 ft. broad and 7 ft.
high. Nothing was found in it except a few ashes and a broken vase of
Egyptian alabaster. The stone basement which, according to Herodotus,
formerly surrounded the mound has disappeared.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. von Ölfers, _Über die lydischen Königsgräber bei
Sardes_ (1858); H. Gelzer in the _Rheinisches Museum_ (1874); R.
Schubert, _Geschichte der Könige von Lydien_ (1884); G. Perrot and C.
Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, v. (1890); O. Radet,
_La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des Mermnades_ (1893); G. Maspero,
_Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 232-301 (1892) and _Passing of the
Empires_, pp. 339, 388, 603-621 (1900); J. Keil and A. von
Premerstein, _Bericht über eine Reise in Lydien_ (1908). (A. H. S.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Pliny (v. 30) makes it the Maeonian name.

[2] See Sir W. M. Ramsay in the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ii. 2.

LYDUS ("THE LYDIAN"), JOANNES LAURENTIUS, Byzantine writer on
antiquarian subjects, was born at Philadelphia in Lydia about A.D. 490.
At an early age he set out to seek his fortune in Constantinople, and
held high court and state offices under Anastasius and Justinian. In 552
he lost favour, and was dismissed. The date of his death is not known,
but he was probably alive during the early years of Justin II. (reigned
565-578). During his retirement he occupied himself in the compilation
of works on the antiquities of Rome, three of which have been preserved:
(1) _De Ostentis_ ([Greek: Peri diosemeion]), on the origin and progress
of the art of divination; (2) _De Magistratibus reipublicae Romanae_
([Greek: Peri archon tes Rhomaion politeias]), especially valuable for
the administrative details of the time of Justinian; (3) _De Mensibus_
([Greek: Peri menon]), a history of the different festivals of the year.
The chief value of these books consists in the fact that the author made
use of the works (now lost) of old Roman writers on similar subjects.
Lydus was also commissioned by Justinian to compose a panegyric on the
emperor, and a history of his successful campaign against Persia; but
these, as well as some poetical compositions, are lost.

Editions of (1) by C. Wachsmuth (1897), with full account of the
authorities in the prolegomena; of (2) and (3) by R. Wünsch
(1898-1903); see also the essay by C. B. Hase (the first editor of the
_De Ostentis_) prefixed to I. Bekker's edition of Lydus (1837) in the
Bonn _Corpus scriptorum hist. Byzantinae_.

LYE (O. Eng. _leag_, cf. Dutch _loog_, Ger. _Lauge_, from the root
meaning to wash, see in Lat. _lavare_, and Eng. "lather," froth of soap
and water, and "laundry"), the name given to the solution of alkaline
salts obtained by leaching or lixiviating wood ashes with water, and
sometimes to a solution of a caustic alkali. Lixiviation (Lat.
_lixivium_, lye, _lix_, ashes) is the action of separating, by the
percolation of water, a soluble from an insoluble substance. "Leaching,"
the native English term for this process, is from "leach," to water, the
root probably being the same as in "lake."

LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875), British geologist, was the eldest son of
Charles Lyell of Kinnordy, Forfarshire, and was born on the 14th of
November 1797, on the family estate in Scotland. His father (1767-1849)
was known both as a botanist and as the translator of the _Vita Nuova_
and the _Convito_ of Dante: the plant _Lyellia_ was named after him.
From his boyhood Lyell had a strong inclination for natural history,
especially entomology, a taste which he cultivated at Bartley Lodge in
the New Forest, to which his family had removed soon after his birth. In
1816 he entered Exeter College, Oxford, where the lectures of Dr
Buckland first drew his attention to geological study. After taking his
degree of B.A. in 1819 (M.A. in 1821) he entered Lincoln's Inn, and in
1825, after a delay caused by chronic weakness of the eyes, he was
called to the bar, and went on the western circuit for two years. During
this time he was slowly gravitating towards the life of a student of
science. In 1819 he had been elected a fellow of the Linnean and
Geological Societies, communicating his first paper, "On a Recent
Formation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire," to the latter society
in 1822, and acting as one of the honorary secretaries in 1823. In that
year he went to France, with introductions to Cuvier, Humboldt and other
men of science, and in 1824 made a geological tour in Scotland in
company with Dr Buckland. In 1826 he was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, from which in later years he received both the Copley and Royal
medals; and in 1827 he finally abandoned the legal profession, and
devoted himself to geology.

At this time he had already begun to plan his chief work, _The
Principles of Geology_. The subsidiary title, "An Attempt to Explain the
Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference to Causes now in
Operation," gives the keynote of the task to which Lyell devoted his
life. A journey with Murchison in 1828 gave rise to joint papers on the
volcanic district of Auvergne and the Tertiary formations of
Aix-en-Provence. After parting with Murchison he studied the marine
remains of the Italian Tertiary Strata and then conceived the idea of
dividing this geological system into three or four groups, characterized
by the proportion of recent to extinct species of shells. To these
groups, after consulting Dr Whewell as to the best nomenclature, he gave
the names now universally adopted--Eocene (_dawn of recent_), Miocene
(_less of recent_), and Pliocene (_more of recent_); and with the
assistance of G. P. Deshayes he drew up a table of shells in
illustration of this classification. The first volume of the _Principles
of Geology_ appeared in 1830, and the second in January 1832. Received
at first with some opposition, so far as its leading theory was
concerned, the work had ultimately a great success, and the two volumes
had already reached a second edition in 1833 when the third, dealing
with the successive formations of the earth's crust, was added. Between
1830 and 1872 eleven editions of this work were published, each so much
enriched with new material and the results of riper thought as to form a
complete history of the progress of geology during that interval. Only a
few days before his death Sir Charles finished revising the first volume
of the 12th edition; the revision of the second volume was completed by
his nephew Mr (afterwards Sir) Leonard Lyell; and the work appeared in
1876.

In August 1838 Lyell published the _Elements of Geology_, which, from
being originally an expansion of one section of the _Principles_, became
a standard work on stratigraphical and palaeontological geology. This
book went through six editions in Lyell's lifetime (some intermediate
editions being styled _Manual of Elementary Geology_), and in 1871 a
smaller work, the _Student's Elements of Geology_, was based upon it.
His third great work, _The Antiquity of Man_, appeared in 1863, and ran
through three editions in one year. In this he gave a general survey of
the arguments for man's early appearance on the earth, derived from the
discoveries of flint implements in post-Pliocene strata in the Somme
valley and elsewhere; he discussed also the deposits of the Glacial
epoch, and in the same volume he first gave in his adhesion to Darwin's
theory of the origin of species. A fourth edition appeared in 1873.

In 1831-1833 Lyell was professor of geology at King's College, London,
and delivered while there a course of lectures, which became the
foundation of the _Elements of Geology_. In 1832 he married Mary
(1809-1873) eldest daughter of Leonard Horner (q.v.), and she became
thenceforward associated with him in all his work, and by her social
qualities making his home a centre of attraction. In 1834 he made an
excursion to Denmark and Sweden, the result of which was his Bakerian
lecture to the Royal Society "On the Proofs of the gradual Rising of
Land in certain Parts of Sweden." He also brought before the Geological
Society a paper "On the Cretaceous and Tertiary Strata of Seeland and
Möen." In 1835 he became president of the Geological Society. In 1837 he
was again in Norway and Denmark, and in 1841 he spent a year in
travelling through the United States, Canada and Nova Scotia. This last
journey, together with a second one to America in 1845, resulted not
only in papers, but also in two works not exclusively geological,
_Travels in North America_ (1845) and _A Second Visit to the United
States_ (1849). During these journeys he estimated the rate of recession
of the falls of Niagara, the annual average accumulation of alluvial
matter in the delta of the Mississippi, and studied those vegetable
accumulations in the "Great Dismal Swamp" of Virginia, which he
afterwards used in illustrating the formation of beds of coal. He also
studied the coal-formations in Nova Scotia, and discovered in company
with Dr (afterwards Sir J. W.) Dawson (q.v.) of Montreal, the earliest
known landshell, _Pupa vetusta_, in the hollow stem of a Sigillaria. In
bringing a knowledge of European geology to bear upon the extended
formations of North America Lyell rendered immense service. Having
visited Madeira and Teneriffe in company with G. Hartung, he accumulated
much valuable evidence on the age and deposition of lava-beds and the
formation of volcanic cones. He also revisited Sicily in 1858, when he
made such observations upon the structure of Etna as refuted the theory
of "craters of elevation" upheld by Von Buch and Élie de Beaumont (see
_Phil. Trans._, 1859).

Lyell was knighted in 1848, and was created a baronet in 1864, in which
year he was president of the British Association at Bath. He was elected
corresponding member of the French Institute and of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Berlin, and was created a knight of the Prussian Order of
Merit.

During the later years of his life his sight, always weak, failed him
altogether. He died on the 22nd of February 1875, and was buried in
Westminster Abbey. Among his characteristics were his great thirst for
knowledge, his perfect fairness and sound judgment; while the extreme
freshness of his mind enabled him to accept and appreciate the work of
younger men.

The LYELL MEDAL, established in 1875 under the will of Sir Charles
Lyell, is cast in bronze and is to be awarded annually (or from time
to time) by the Council of the Geological Society. The medallist may
be of any country or either sex. Not less than one-third of the annual
interest of a sum of £2000 is to be awarded with the medal; the
remaining interest, known as the LYELL GEOLOGICAL FUND, is to be given
in one or more portions at the discretion of the Council for the
encouragement of geological science.

See _Life, Letters and Journals of Sir Charles Lyell, Bart._, edited
by his sister-in-law, Mrs Lyell (2 vols., 1881); _Charles Lyell and
Modern Geology_, by T. G. Bonney (1895). (H. B. Wo.)

LYLY (LILLY, or LYLIE), JOHN (1553-1606), English writer, the famous
author of _Euphues_, was born in Kent in 1553 or 1554. At the age of
sixteen, according to Wood, he became a student of Magdalen College,
Oxford, where in due time he proceeded to his bachelor's and master's
degrees (1573 and 1575), and from whence we find him in 1574 applying to
Lord Burghley "for the queen's letters to Magdalen College to admit him
fellow." The fellowship, however, was not granted, and Lyly shortly
after left the university. He complains of what seems to have been a
sentence of rustication passed upon him at some period in his academical
career, in his address to the gentlemen scholars of Oxford affixed to
the second edition of the first part of _Euphues_, but in the absence of
any further evidence it is impossible to fix either its date or its
cause. If we are to believe Wood, he never took kindly to the proper
studies of the university. "For so it was that his genius being
naturally bent to the pleasant paths of poetry (as if Apollo had given
to him a wreath of his own bays without snatching or struggling) did in
a manner neglect academical studies, yet not so much but that he took
the degrees in arts, that of master being compleated 1575." After he
left Oxford, where he had already the reputation of "a noted wit," Lyly
seems to have attached himself to Lord Burghley. "This noble man," he
writes in the "Glasse for Europe," in the second part of _Euphues_
(1580), "I found so ready being but a straunger to do me good, that
neyther I ought to forget him, neyther cease to pray for him, that as he
hath the wisdom of Nestor, so he may have the age, that having the
policies of Ulysses he may have his honor, worthy to lyve long, by whom
so many lyve in quiet, and not unworthy to be advaunced by whose care so
many have been preferred." Two years later we possess a letter of Lyly
to the treasurer, dated July 1582, in which the writer protests against
some accusation of dishonesty which had brought him into trouble with
his patron, and demands a personal interview for the purpose of clearing
his character. What the further relations between them were we have no
means of knowing, but it is clear that neither from Burghley nor from
the queen did Lyly ever receive any substantial patronage. In 1578 he
began his literary career by the composition of _Euphues, or the Anatomy
of Wit_, which was licensed to Gabriel Cawood on the 2nd of December,
1578, and published in the spring of 1579. In the same year the author
was incorporated M.A. at Cambridge, and possibly saw his hopes of court
advancement dashed by the appointment in July of Edmund Tylney to the
office of master of the revels, a post at which, as he reminds the queen
some years later, he had all along been encouraged to "aim his courses."
_Euphues and his England_ appeared in 1580, and, like the first part of
the book, won immediate popularity. For a time Lyly was the most
successful and fashionable of English writers. He was hailed as the
author of "a new English," as a "raffineur de l'Anglois"; and, as Edmund
Blount, the editor of his plays, tells us in 1632, "that beautie in
court which could not parley Euphuism was as little regarded as she
which nowe there speakes not French." After the publication of
_Euphues_, however, Lyly seems to have entirely deserted the novel form
himself, which passed into the hands of his imitators, and to have
thrown himself almost exclusively into play-writing, probably with a
view to the mastership of revels whenever a vacancy should occur. Eight
plays by him were probably acted before the queen by the children of the
Chapel Royal and the children of St Paul's between the years 1584 and
1589, one or two of them being repeated before a popular audience at the
Blackfriars Theatre. Their brisk lively dialogue, classical colour and
frequent allusions to persons and events of the day maintained that
popularity with the court which _Euphues_ had won. Lyly sat in
parliament as member for Hindon in 1589, for Aylesbury in 1593, for
Appleby in 1597 and for Aylesbury a second time in 1601. In 1589 Lyly
published a tract in the Martin Marprelate controversy, called _Pappe
with an hatchet, alias a figge for my Godsonne; Or Crack me this nut; Or
a Countrie Cuffe, &c._[1] About the same time we may probably date his
first petition to Queen Elizabeth. The two petitions, transcripts of
which are extant among the Harleian MSS., are undated, but in the first
of them he speaks of having been ten years hanging about the court in
hope of preferment, and in the second he extends the period to thirteen
years. It may be conjectured with great probability that the ten years
date from 1579, when Edmund Tylney was appointed master of the revels
with a tacit understanding that Lyly was to have the next reversion of
the post. "I was entertained your Majestie's servaunt by your own
gratious favor," he says, "strengthened with condicions that I should
ayme all my courses at the Revells (I dare not say with a promise, but
with a hopeful Item to the Revercion) for which these ten yeres I have
attended with an unwearyed patience." But in 1589 or 1590 the mastership
of the revels was as far off as ever--Tylney in fact held the post for
thirty-one years--and that Lyly's petition brought him no compensation
in other directions may be inferred from the second petition of 1593.
"Thirteen yeres your highnes servant but yet nothing. Twenty freinds
that though they saye they will be sure, I finde them sure to be slowe.
A thousand hopes, but all nothing; a hundred promises but yet nothing.
Thus casting up the inventory of my friends, hopes, promises and tymes,
the _summa totalis_ amounteth to just nothing." What may have been
Lyly's subsequent fortunes at court we do not know. Edmund Blount says
vaguely that Elizabeth "graced and rewarded" him, but of this there is
no other evidence. After 1590 his works steadily declined in influence
and reputation; other stars were in possession of the horizon; and so
far as we know he died poor and neglected in the early part of James
I.'s reign. He was buried in London at St Bartholomew the Less on the
20th of November, 1606. He was married, and we hear of two sons and a
daughter.

_Comedies._--In 1632 Edmund Blount published "Six Court Comedies,"
including _Endymion_ (1591), _Sappho and Phao_ (1584), _Alexander and
Campaspe_ (1584), _Midas_ (1592), _Mother Bombie_ (1594) and _Gallathea_
(1592). To these should be added the _Woman in the Moone_ (Lyly's
earliest play, to judge from a passage in the prologue and therefore
earlier than 1584, the date of _Alexander and Campaspe_), and _Love's
Metamorphosis_, first printed in 1601. Of these, all but the last are in
prose. A _Warning for Faire Women_ (1599) and _The Maid's Metamorphosis_
(1600) have been attributed to Lyly, but on altogether insufficient
grounds. The first editions of all these plays were issued between 1584
and 1601, and the majority of them between 1584 and 1592, in what were
Lyly's most successful and popular years. His importance as a dramatist
has been very differently estimated. Lyly's dialogue is still a long way
removed from the dialogue of Shakespeare. But at the same time it is a
great advance in rapidity and resource upon anything which had gone
before it; it represents an important step in English dramatic art. His
nimbleness, and the wit which struggles with his pedantry, found their
full development in the dialogue of _Twelfth Night_ and _Much Ado about
Nothing_, just as "Marlowe's mighty line" led up to and was eclipsed by
the majesty and music of Shakespearian passion. One or two of the songs
introduced into his plays are justly famous and show a real lyrical
gift. Nor in estimating his dramatic position and his effect upon his
time must it be forgotten that his classical and mythological plots,
flavourless and dull as they would be to a modern audience, were charged
with interest to those courtly hearers who saw in Midas Philip II.,
Elizabeth in Cynthia and perhaps Leicester's unwelcome marriage with
Lady Sheffield in the love affair between Endymion and Tellus which
brings the former under Cynthia's displeasure. As a matter of fact his
reputation and popularity as a play-writer were considerable. Gabriel
Harvey dreaded lest Lyly should make a play upon their quarrel; Meres,
as is well known, places him among "the best for comedy"; and Ben Jonson
names him among those foremost rivals who were "outshone" and outsung by
Shakespeare.

_Euphues._--It was not, however, as a dramatist, but as the author of
_Euphues_, that Lyly made most mark upon the Elizabethan world. His
plays amused the court circle, but the "new English" of his novel
threatened to permanently change the course of English style. The plot
of _Euphues_ is extremely simple. The hero, whose name may very possibly
have been suggested by a passage in Ascham's _Schoolmaster_, is
introduced to us as still in bondage to the follies of youth,
"preferring fancy before friends, and this present humour before honour
to come." His travels bring him to Naples, where he falls in love with
Lucilla, the governor's light-minded daughter. Lucilla is already
pledged to Euphues's friend Philautus, but Euphues's passion betrays his
friendship, and the old lover finds himself thrown over by both friend
and mistress. Euphues himself, however, is very soon forsaken for a more
attractive suitor. He and Philautus make up their quarrel, and Euphues
writes his friend "a cooling card," to be "applied to all lovers," which
is so severe upon the fair sex that Lyly feels it necessary to balance
it by a sort of apology addressed "to the grave matrons and honest
maidens of Italy." Euphues then leaves Naples for his native Athens,
where he gives himself up to study, of which the first fruits are two
long treatises--the first, "Euphues and his Ephoebus," a disquisition on
the art of education addressed to parents, and the second, "Euphues and
Atheos," a discussion of the first principles of religion. The remainder
of the book is filled up with correspondence between Euphues and his
friends. We have letters from Euphues to Philautus on the death of
Lucilla, to another friend on the death of his daughter, to one Botonio
"to take his exile patiently," and to the youth Alcius, remonstrating
with him on his bad behaviour at the university. Finally a pair of
letters, the first from Livia "at the emperour's court to Euphues at
Athens," answered by "Euphues to Livia," wind up the first part, and
announce to us Euphues's intention of visiting England. An address from
Lyly to Lord Delawarr is affixed, to which was added in the second
edition "An Address to the Gentlemen Scholars of England."

_Euphues and his England_ is rather longer than the first part. Euphues
and Philautus travel from Naples to England. They arrive at Dover, halt
for the night at Fidus's house at Canterbury, and then proceed to
London, where they make acquaintance with Surius, a young English
gentleman of great birth and noble blood; Psellus, an Italian nobleman
reputed "great in magick"; Martius, an elderly Englishman; Camilla, a
beautiful English girl of insignificant family; Lady Flavia and her
niece Fraunces. After endless correspondence and conversation on all
kinds of topics, Euphues is recalled to Athens, and from there
corresponds with his friends. "Euphues' Glasse for Europe" is a
flattering description of England sent to Livia at Naples. It is the
most interesting portion of the book, and throws light upon one or two
points of Lyly's own biography. The author naturally seized the
opportunity for paying his inevitable tribute to the queen, and pays it
in his most exalted style. "O fortunate England that hath such a queene,
ungratefull if thou praye not for hir, wicked if thou do not love hir,
miserable if thou lose hir!"--and so on. The book ends with Philautus's
announcement of his marriage to Fraunces, upon which Euphues sends
characteristic congratulations and retires, "tormented in body and
grieved in mind," to the Mount of Silexedra, "where I leave him to his
musing or Muses."

Such is a brief outline of the book which for a time set the fashion for
English prose. Two editions of each part appeared within the first year
after publication, and thirteen editions of both are enumerated up to
1636, after which, with the exception of a modernized version in 1718,
_Euphues_ was never reprinted until 1868, when Dr Arber took it in hand.
The reasons for its popularity are not far to seek. As far as matter was
concerned it fell in with all the prevailing literary fashions. Its long
disquisitions on love, religion, exile, women or education, on court
life and country pleasures, handled all the most favourite topics in the
secularized speculation of the time; its foreign background and travel
talk pleased a society of which Lyly himself said "trafic and travel
hath woven the nature of all nations into ours and made this land like
arras full of device which was broadcloth full of workmanship"; and,
although Lyly steered clear in it of the worst classical pedantries of
the day, the book was more than sufficiently steeped in classical
learning, and based upon classical material, to attract a literary
circle which was nothing if not humanist. A large proportion of its
matter indeed was drawn from classical sources. The general tone of
sententious moralizing may be traced to Plutarch, from whom the treatise
on education, "Euphues and his Ephoebus," and that on exile, "Letter to
Botonio to take his exile patiently," are literally translated, as well
as a number of other shorter passages either taken direct from the Latin
versions or from some of the numerous English translations of Plutarch
then current. The innumerable illustrations based upon a kind of pseudo
natural history are largely taken from Pliny, while the mythology is
that of Virgil and Ovid.

It was not the matter of _Euphues_, however, so much as the style which
made it famous (see EUPHUISM). The source of Lyly's peculiar style has
been traced by Dr Landmann (_Der Euphuismus_, _sein Wesen_, _seine
Quelle_, _seine Geschichte_, &c. Giessen, 1881) to the influence of Don
Antonio de Guevara, whose _Libro Aureo de Marco Aurelio_ (1529)--a sort
of historical romance based upon Plutarch and upon Marcus Aurelius's
_Meditations_, the object of which was to produce a "mirror for
princes," of the kind so popular throughout the Renaissance--became
almost immediately popular in England. The first edition, or rather a
French version of it, was translated into English by Lord Berners in
1531, and published in 1534. Before 1560 twelve editions of Lord
Berners's translation had been printed, and before 1578 six different
translators of this and later works of Guevara had appeared. The
translation, however, which had most influence upon English literature
was that by North, the well-known translator of Plutarch, in 1557,
called _The Dial for Princes, Compiled by the Reverend Father in God Don
Antony of Guevara, Byshop of Guadix, &c., Englished out of the Frenche
by Th. North_. The sententious and antithetical style of the _Dial for
Princes_ is substantially that of _Euphues_, though Guevara on the whole
handles it better than his imitator, and has many passages of real force
and dignity. The general plan of the two books is also much the same. In
both the biography is merely a peg on which to hang moral disquisitions
and treatises. The use made of letters is the same in both. Even the
names of some of the characters are similar. Thus Guevara's Lucilla is
the flighty daughter of Marcus Aurelius. Lyly's Lucilla is the flighty
daughter of Ferardo, governor of Naples; Guevara's Livia is a lady at
the court of Marcus Aurelius, Lyly's Livia is a lady at the court "of
the emperor," of whom no further description is given. The 9th, 10th,
11th and 12th chapters of the _Dial for Princes_ suggested the
discussion between Euphues and Atheos. The letter from Euphues to Alcius
is substantially the same in subject and treatment as that from Marcus
Aurelius to his nephew Epesipo. Both Guevara and Lyly translated
Plutarch's work _De educatione liberorum_, Lyly, however, keeping closer
than the Spanish author to the original. The use made by Lyly of the
university of Athens was an anachronism in a novel intended to describe
his own time. He borrowed it, however, from Guevara, in whose book a
university of Athens was of course entirely in place. The "cooling card
for all fond lovers" and the address to the ladies and gentlemen of
Italy have their counterparts among the miscellaneous letters by Guevara
affixed by North to the _Dial for Princes_; and other instances of
Lyly's use of these letters, and of two other treatises by Guevara on
court and country life, could be pointed out.

Lyly was not the first to appropriate and develop the Guevaristic style.
The earliest book in which it was fully adopted was _A petite Pallace of
Pettie his Pleasure_, by George Pettie, which appeared in 1576, a
production so closely akin to _Euphues_ in tone and style that it is
difficult to believe it was not by Lyly. Lyly, however, carried the
style to its highest point, and made it the dominant literary fashion.
His principal followers in it were Greene, Lodge and Nash, his principal
opponent Sir Philip Sidney; the _Arcadia_ in fact supplanted _Euphues_,
and the Euphuistic taste proper may be said to have died out about 1590
after a reign of some twelve years. According to Landmann, Shakespeare's
_Love's Labour Lost_ is a caricature of the Italianate and pedantic
fashions of the day, not of the peculiar style of _Euphues_. The only
certain allusion in Shakespeare to the characteristics of Lyly's famous
book is to be found in _Henry IV._, where Falstaff, playing the part of
the king, says to Prince Hal, "Harry, I do not only marvel where thou
spendest thy time, but also how thou art accompanied; for, though the
camomile the more it is trodden on the faster it grows, yet youth the
more it is wasted the sooner it wears." Here the pompous antithesis is
evidently meant to caricature the peculiar Euphuistic sentence of court
parlance. (M. A. W.)

See Lyly's _Complete Works_, ed. R. W. Bond (3 vols., 1902);
_Euphues_, from early editions, by Edward Arber (1868); A. W. Ward,
_English Dramatic Literature_, i. 151; J. P. Collier, _History of
Dramatis Poetry_, iii. 172; "John Lilly and Shakespeare," by C. C.
Hense in the _Jahrbuch der deutschen Shakesp. Gesellschaft_, vols.
vii. and viii. (1872, 1873); F. W. Fairholt, _Dramatic Works of John
Lilly_ (2 vols., 1858); _Shakespeare's Euphuism_, by W. L. Rushton;
H. Morley, "Euphuism" in the _Quarterly Review_ (1861); R. W. Bond,
"John Lyly, Novelist and Dramatist," in the _Quarterly Review_ (Jan.
1896); J. A. Symonds, _Shakespeare's Predecessors_ (1883); J. D.
Wilson, _John Lyly_ (Cambridge, 1905); A. Ainger, "Euphuism," in
_Lectures and Essays_ (1905); and Albert Feuillerat, _John Lyly.
Contribution à l'histoire de la Renaissance en Angleterre_ (1910).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The evidence for his authorship may be found in Gabriel Harvey's
_Pierce's Supererogation_ (written November 1589, published 1593), in
Nash's _Have with you to Saffron Walden_ (1596), and in various
allusions in Lyly's own plays. See Fairholt's _Dramatic Works of John
Lilly_, i. 20.

LYME REGIS, a market town and municipal borough and watering-place in
the western parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 151 m.
W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway, the terminus of
a light railway from Axminster. Pop. (1901) 2095. It is situated at the
mouth of a narrow combe or valley opening upon a fine precipitous
coast-line; there is a sandy shore affording excellent bathing, and the
country inland is beautiful. The church of St Michael and All Angels is
mainly Perpendicular, but the tower (formerly central) and the portion
west of it are Norman. A guildhall and assembly rooms are the chief
public buildings. The principal industries are stone-quarrying and the
manufacture of cement. There is a curved pier of ancient foundation
known as the Cobb. The harbour, with a small coasting trade, is under
the authority of the corporation. The borough is under a mayor, 4
aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1237 acres.

No evidence of settlement on the site of Lyme Regis exists before that
afforded by a grant, dated 774, purporting to be by Cynewulf, king of
the West-Saxons, of land here to the church of Sherborne, and a similar
grant by King Aethelstan to the church of Glastonbury. In 1086 three
manors of Lyme are mentioned: that belonging to Sherborne abbey, which
was granted at the dissolution to Thomas Goodwin, who alienated it in
the following year; that belonging to Glastonbury, which seems to have
passed into lay lands during the middle ages, and that belonging to
William Belet. The last was acquired by the family of Bayeux, from whom
it passed by marriage to Elias de Rabayne, whose nephew, Peter Baudrat,
surrendered it to the crown in 1315-1316 when the king became lord of
one moiety of the borough, henceforth known as Lyme Regis. Lyme ranked
as a port in 1234, and Edward I. in 1284 granted to the town a charter
making it a free borough, with a merchant gild, and in the same year the
mayor and bailiffs are mentioned. In the following January the bailiffs
were given freedom from pleading without the borough, freedom from toll
and privileges implying considerable foreign trade; the importance of
the port is also evident from the demand of two ships for the king's
service in 1311. In 1332-1333 Edward III. granted Lyme to the burgesses
at a fee-farm of 32 marks; on the petition of the inhabitants, who were
impoverished by tempests and high tides, this was reduced to 100
shillings in 1410 and to 5 marks in 1481. In 1591 Elizabeth incorporated
Lyme, and further charters were obtained from James I., Charles II. and
William III. Lyme returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1832
when the representation was reduced to one. The borough was
disfranchised in 1867. The fairs granted in 1553 for the 1st of February
and the 20th of September are now held on altered dates. Trade with
France in wine and cloth was carried on as early as 1284, but was
probably much increased on the erection of the Cobb, first mentioned in
1328 as built of timber and rock. Its medieval importance as the only
shelter between Portland Roads and the river Exe caused the burgesses to
receive grants of quayage for its maintenance in 1335 and many
subsequent years, while its convenience probably did much to bring upon
Lyme the unsuccessful siege by Prince Maurice in 1644. In 1685 Lyme was
the scene of the landing of James, duke of Monmouth, in his attempt upon
the throne.

LYMINGTON, a municipal borough and seaport in the New Forest
parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 98 m. S.W. from London by
the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4165. It lies on the
estuary of the Lymington, which opens into the Solent. The church of St
Thomas à Becket is an irregular structure, dating from the reign of
Henry VI., but frequently restored. There is some coasting trade, and
yacht-building is carried on. Regular passenger steamers serve Yarmouth
in the Isle of Wight. In summer the town is frequented for sea-bathing.
It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1515
acres.

There was a Roman camp near Lymington (_Lentune_, _Lementon_), and Roman
relics have been found, but there is no evidence that a town existed
here until after the Conquest. Lymington dates its importance from the
grant of the town to Richard de Redvers, earl of Devon, in the reign of
Henry I. No charter has been found, but a judgment given under a writ of
_quo warranto_ in 1578 confirms to the burgesses freedom from toll,
passage and pontage, the tolls and stallage of the quay and the right to
hold two fairs--privileges which they claimed under charters of Baldwin
de Redvers and Isabel de Fortibus, countess of Albemarle, in the 13th
century, and Edward Courtenay, earl of Devon, in 1405. The town was
governed by the mayor and burgesses until the corporation was reformed
in 1835. A writ for the election of a member to parliament was issued in
the reign of Edward III., but no return was made. From 1585 two members
were regularly returned; the number was reduced to one in 1867, and in
1885 the representation was merged in that of the county. Fairs on the
13th and 14th of May and the 2nd and 3rd of October, dating from the
13th century, are still held. The Saturday market probably dates from
the same century. Lymington was made a port in the reign of Henry I.,
and its large shipping trade led to frequent disputes with Southampton
as to the levying of duties. The case was tried in 1329 and decided
against Lymington, but in 1750 the judgment was reversed, and since then
the petty customs have been regularly paid. From an early date and for
many centuries salt was the staple manufacture of Lymington. The rise of
the mineral saltworks of Cheshire led to its decline in the 18th
century, and later the renewed importance of Southampton completed its
decay.

See E. King, _Borough and Parish of Lymington_ (London, 1879).

LYMPH and LYMPH FORMATION. Lying close to the blood-vessels of a limb or
organ a further set of vessels may be observed. They are very pale in
colour, often almost transparent and very thin-walled. Hence they are
frequently difficult to find and dissect. These are the lymphatic
vessels, and they are found to be returning a fluid from the tissues to
the bloodstream. When traced back to the tissues they are seen to divide
and ultimately to form minute anastomosing tubules, the _lymph
capillaries_. The capillaries finally terminate in the spaces between
the structures of the tissue, but whether their free ends are closed or
are in open communication with the tissue spaces is still undecided. The
study of their development shows that they grow into the tissue as a
closed system of minute tubes, which indicates that in all probability
they remain permanently closed. If we trace the lymphatic vessels
towards the thorax we find that in some part of their course they
terminate in structures known as lymphatic glands. From these again
fresh lymphatic vessels arise which carry the fluid towards the main
lymph-vessel, the _thoracic duct_. This runs up the posterior wall of
the thorax close to the aorta, and finally opens into the junction of
the internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The lymph-vessels from
the right side of the head and neck and from the right arm open,
however, into the right subclavian vein (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM below).

_Chemical Constitution of Lymph._--The lymph collected from the thoracic
duct during hunger is almost water clear and yellowish in colour. Its
specific gravity varies from 1015 to 1025. It tastes salt and has a
faint odour. It is alkaline in reaction, but is much less alkaline than
blood-serum. Like blood it clots, but clots badly, only forming a soft
clot which quickly contracts. The lymph collected from a lymphatic
before it has passed through a lymph gland contains a few leucocytes,
and though the number of lymphocytes is greater in the lymph after it
has flowed through a gland it is never very great. In normal states
there are no red blood corpuscles.

The total solids amount to 3.6 to 5.7%, the variations depending upon
the amount of protein present. The lymph during hunger contains only a
minute quantity of fat. Sugar (dextrose) is present in the same
concentration as in the blood. The inorganic constituents are the same
as in blood, but apparently the amounts of Ca, Mg and P2O5 are rather
less than in serum. Urea is present to the same amount as in blood. If
the lymph be collected after a meal, one important alteration is to be
found. It now contains an abundance of fat in a very fine state of
subdivision, if fat be present in the food. The concentrations of
protein and dextrose are not altered during the absorption of these
substances.

_The Significance of Lymph._--In considering the significance and use of
lymph we must note in the first place that it forms an alternative
medium for the removal of water, dissolved materials, formed elements or
particles away from the tissues. All materials supplied to a tissue are
brought to it by the blood, and are discharged from the blood through
the capillary wall. They thus come to lie in the tissue spaces between
the cells, and from this supply of material in a dissolved state the
cells take up the food they require. In the opposite direction the cell
discharges its waste products into this same tissue fluid. The removal
of material from the tissue fluid may be effected either by its being
absorbed through the capillary wall into the bloodstream, or by sending
it into the lymphatic vessels and thus away from the tissue. From this
point of view the lymphatics may be looked upon in a sense as a drainage
system of the tissues. Again, besides discharging fluid and dissolved
material into the tissue spaces, the blood may also discharge
leucocytes, and under many conditions this emigration of leucocytes may
be very extensive. These also may leave the tissue space by the path of
the lymph channels. Moreover, the tissues are at any time liable to be
injured, and the injury as well as damaging many cells may cause rupture
of capillaries (as in bruising) with escape of red blood-cells into the
tissue spaces. If this occurs we know that the damaged cells are
destroyed and their débris removed either by digestion by leucocytes or
by disintegration and solution. The damage of a tissue also commonly
involves an infection of the damaged area with living micro-organisms,
and these are at once admitted to the tissue spaces. Hence we see that
the lymphatics may be provided as channels by which a variety of
substances can be removed from the tissue spaces. The question at once
arises, is the lymph channel at all times open to receive the materials
present in the tissue space? If such be the case, lymph is simply tissue
fluid, and anything that modifies the constitution or amount of the
tissue fluid should in like proportion lead to a variation in the amount
and constitution of the lymph. But if the lymph capillary is a closed
tubule at its commencement this does not follow.

From these considerations we see that in the first instance the whole
problem of lymph formation is intimately bound up with the study of the
interchanges of material between the blood and the various tissue cells.
The exchange of material between blood and tissue cell may possibly be
determined in one or both of two ways. Either it may result from changes
taking place within the tissue cell, or the tissue cell remaining
passive material may be sent to or withdrawn from it owing to a change
occurring either in the composition of the blood or to a change in the
circulation through the tissue. Let us take first the results following
increased activity of a tissue. We know that increased activity of a
tissue means increased chemical change within the tissue and the
production of new chemical bodies of small molecular size (e.g. water,
carbonic acid, &c.). The production of these metabolites means the
destruction of some of the tissue substance, and to make good this loss
the tissue must take a further amount of material from the blood. We
know that this takes place, and moreover that the waste products
resulting from activity are ultimately removed. The question then
becomes: When does this restoration take place, and what is the
intermediate state of the tissue? We know that increased activity is
always accompanied by an increase in the blood-supply, indicating a
greater supply of nutritive material, though it may be that, the
increased supply required at the actual time of activity is oxygen only.
Simultaneously the opportunity for a more rapid removal of the waste
products is provided. We have to inquire then: Does this increased
vascularity necessarily mean an increased outpouring of water and
dissolved material into the tissues, for this might follow directly
from the greater filling of the capillaries, or from the increased
attracting power of the tissues to water (osmotic effect) due to the
sudden production of substances of small molecular size within the
tissue? The other possibility is that the increased volume of blood sent
to the tissue is for the sole purpose of giving it a more rapid supply
of oxygen, and that the ordinary normal blood-supply would amply suffice
for renewing the chemical material used up during activity. Tissues
undoubtedly vary among themselves in the amount of water and other
materials they take from the blood when thrown into activity, and their
behaviour in this respect depends upon the work they are called upon to
perform. We must discriminate between the substance required by and
consumed by the tissue, the chemical food which on combustion yields the
energy by which the tissue performs work, and, on the other hand, the
substance taken from the blood and either with or without further
elaboration discharged from the tissue (as, for instance, in the process
of secretion). The tissue contains in itself a store of food amply
sufficient to enable it to continue working for a long time after its
blood-supply has been stopped, and everything indicates that the supply
of chemical energy to the tissue may be slow or even withheld for a
considerable time. Hence we are led to conclude that the increased flow
of blood sent to a tissue when it is thrown into activity is first and
foremost to give that tissue an increased oxygen supply; secondly, to
remove waste carbonic acid; thirdly, and only in the case of some
tissues, to provide water salts and other materials for the outpouring
of a secretion, as an instance of which we may take the kidney as a
type. Hence there is no need to suppose that an extensive accumulation
of fluid and dissolved substances takes place within a tissue when it
becomes active. This must be an accumulation which would lead to an
engorgement of the tissue spaces and then to a discharge of fluid along
the lymph channels. To enable us to determine the various points just
raised we must know whether an increased blood-supply to a tissue
necessarily means an increased exudation of fluid into the tissue
spaces, and moreover we must study the exchange of fluid between a
tissue and the blood under as varied a series of conditions as possible,
subsequently examining whether exchange of fluid and other substances
between the tissue and the blood necessarily determines quantitatively
the amount of lymph flowing from the tissue. Hence we will first study
the exchanges between the blood and a tissue, and then turn our
attention to the lymph-flow from the tissues.

_The Exchanges of Fluids and dissolved Substances between the Blood and
the Tissues._--Numerous experiments have been performed in studying the
conditions under which fluid passes into the tissues and tissue
spaces--or in the reverse direction into the blood. We may group them
into (1) conditions during which the total volume of circulating fluid
is increased or decreased; (2) conditions in which the character of the
blood is altered, e.g. it is made more watery or its saline
concentration is altered; (3) conditions in which the blood-supply to
the part is altered; (4) conditions in which the physical character of
the capillary wall is altered.

1. The total volume of blood in an animal has been increased among other
ways by the transfusion of the blood of one animal directly into the
veins of a second of the same species. It is found that within a very
short time a large percentage of the plasma has been discharged from the
blood-vessels. It has been sent into the tissues, notably the muscles,
and it may be noted in passing without producing any increase in the
lymph-flow from these vessels. An analogous experiment, but one which
avoids the fallacy introduced by injecting a second animal's blood, has
been performed by driving all the blood out of one hind limb by applying
a rubber bandage tightly round it from the foot upwards. This increases
the volume of blood circulating in the rest of the body, and again a
rapid disappearance of the fluid part of the blood from the vessels was
observed--the fluid being mainly sent into the muscles, as was indicated
by showing that the specific gravity of the muscles fell during the
experiment. The experiments converse to these have also been studied.
Bleeding is very rapidly followed by a large inflow of fluid into the
circulating blood--this fluid being derived from all the tissues, and
especially again from the muscles. Or again, when the bandage from the
limb in the above-cited experiment was removed, the total capacity of
the circulatory system was thereby suddenly increased, and it was found
that the total volume of blood increased correspondingly, the increased
volume of fluid being drawn from the tissues and especially again from
the muscles. The rapidity with which this movement of fluid into or out
of the blood takes place is very striking. The explanation usually
offered is that the movement is effected by changes in the capillary
pressure due to the alteration in the volume of blood circulating. While
this seems feasible when the volume of blood is increased, it does not
offer a satisfactory explanation of the rapid movement of fluid from the
tissues when the volume of the blood is decreased. One must therefore
look for yet further factors in this instance.

2. Let us next turn attention to the second of our three main
variations, viz. that in which the composition of the blood is altered.
It has long been known that the injection of water, or of solutions of
soluble bodies such as salts, urea, sugar, &c., leads to a very rapid
exchange of water and salts between the blood and the tissues. Thus if a
solution less concentrated than the blood be injected, the blood is
thereby diluted, but with very great rapidity water leaves the blood and
is taken up by the tissues. Again, if a strong sugar or salt solution be
injected, the first effect is a big discharge of water from the tissues
into the blood and the movement of fluid is effected with great
rapidity. In these instances a new physical factor is brought into play,
viz. that of osmosis. When a solution of lower osmotic pressure than the
blood is injected the osmotic pressure of the blood falls temporarily
below that of the tissues, and water is therefore attracted to the
tissues. The converse is the case when a solution of osmotic pressure
higher than the blood is injected. This at first sight seems to be an
all-sufficient explanation of the results recorded, but difficulties
arise when we find that the tissues are not equally active in producing
the effects. Thus it is found that the muscles and skin act as the chief
water dépôt, while such tissues as the liver, intestines or pancreas
take a relatively small share in the exchange. Again, when a strong
sodium chloride solution is injected a considerable part of the sodium
chloride is soon found to have left the blood, and it has been shown
that the chloride dépôt is not identical with the water dépôt. The lung,
for instance, is found to take up relatively far more of the salt than
other tissues. Simultaneously with the passage of the salt into the
tissue an exchange of water from the tissue into the blood can be
observed, both processes being carried out very rapidly. The result is
that the blood very quickly returns to a state in which its osmotic
pressure is only slightly raised; the tissue, on the other hand, loses
water and gains salt, and its osmotic pressure and specific gravity
therefore rises. Again, the tissues do not participate equally in
producing the final result, nor is the tissue which gives up the largest
amount of water necessarily that which gains the largest amount of salt.
The results following the injection of solutions of other bodies of
small molecular size, e.g. urea or sugar, are quite analogous to those
above described in the case of the non-toxic salt solutions. Hence we
see that the rate of exchange of fluid and dissolved substance between a
tissue and the blood can be extremely rapid and that the exchange can
take place in either direction. We may also conclude that the main cause
of the exchange, and possibly the only one, is the osmotic action set up
by the solution injected, and that muscle tissue is particularly active
in the process.

Seeing that a very considerable amount of water or of dissolved
substance can be taken up from the blood into a tissue, the question
next arises: Where is this material held, in the tissue cell or in the
tissue space? Immediately the water or salt leaves the blood it reaches
the tissue space, but unless the process be extreme in amount it
probably passes at once into the tissue cell itself and is stored there.
If the process is excessive oedema is set up and fluid accumulates in
the tissue space.

These, taken quite briefly, are some of the more important conditions
under which fluid exchanges, take place. They are selected here because
of the extent and rapidity of the changes effected.

3. The third factor which may bring about a change in the amount of
fluid sent to a tissue is a variation in the capillary pressure. A rise
in capillary pressure will, if filtration can occur through the
capillary wall, cause an increased exudation of fluid from the blood.
Thus the rise in general blood-pressure following the injection of a
salt solution could cause an increased filtration into the tissues. Or
again, the hydraemia following a salt injection would favour an
increased exudation because the blood would be more readily filtrable.
We, however, know very little of the effect of changes in capillary
pressure upon movement of fluid into the tissue spaces and tissues, most
of such observations being confined to a study of their effect upon
lymph-flow. We will therefore return to them in this connexion.

4. The remaining factor to be mentioned is a change in the character of
the capillary wall. It is well known that many poisons can excite an
increased exudation from the blood and the tissue may become oedematous.
Of such bodies we may mention cantharidin and the lymphogogues of Class
I (see later). A like change is also probably the cause of the oedema of
nephritis and of heart disease. It has also been suggested that the
capillaries of different organs show varying degrees of permeability, a
suggestion to which we will return later.

_Lymph Formation._--There are two theories current at the present day
offering explanations of the manner in which lymph is formed. The first,
which owes its inception to Ludwig, explains lymph formation upon
physical grounds. Thus according to this theory the lymphatics are open
capillary vessels at their origin in the tissues along which the tissue
fluid is driven. The tissue fluid is discharged from the blood by
filtration, and therefore its amount varies directly with the capillary
pressure. The amount of fluid movement also is further determined by
osmotic actions and by the permeability of the capillary wall.

The second theory first actively enunciated by Heidenhain regards lymph
formation as a secretory process of the capillary wall, i.e. one in the
discharge of which these cells perform work and are not merely passive
as in the former theory. As we shall see, it is now probable that
neither theory is completely correct.

In considering lymph formation we have to examine both the total amount
of lymph formed in the body and the variations in amount leaving each
separate organ under different conditions. In most investigations the
lymph was collected from the thoracic duct, i.e. it was the lymph
returned from all parts of the body with the exception of the right arm
and right side of the head and neck. The collection of the lymph from
organs is much more difficult to effect, and hence has not, to the
present, been so extensively studied. We will consider first variations
in the amount of the thoracic duct lymph. Lymph is always flowing along
the thoracic duct, and if the body is at rest, it has been shown that
this lymph is coming practically entirely from the intestines and liver,
chiefly, moreover, from the liver. The variations in the amount flowing
under various conditions has been extensively studied. We will discuss
them under the following headings: Changes brought about (a) by altered
circulatory conditions, (b) by the injection of various substances, and
(c) as a result of throwing an organ into activity.

Ligature of the portal vein leads to an increased flow of duct lymph.
Ligature of the inferior vena cava above the diaphragm also leads to a
large increase in the flow of duct lymph. Ligature of the aorta may
result in either an increased or decreased flow of direct lymph. One
explanation of these results has been offered from a study of the
changes in capillary pressure set up in the main organs involved. Thus,
after ligature of the portal vein the capillary pressure in the
intestines rises, and it was proved that the increase in thoracic duct
lymph came from the intestines. Ligaturing the inferior vena cava causes
a big rise in the pressure in the liver capillaries, the intestinal
capillary pressure remaining practically unaltered. Here it was proved
that the increase in lymph-flow came from the liver and was more
copious in amount than in the former instance. A further difference is
that this lymph is more concentrated, a feature which always
characterizes liver lymph. Ligature of the aorta may or may not cause a
rise in the liver capillary pressure, and it has been shown that if the
pressure rises there is an increased lymph-flow from the liver and
conversely. The increase of lymph comes entirely in this instance also
from the liver. It is in fact but a special instance of the former
experiment. From these results it has been argued that lymph formation
is simply a filtration fundamentally, and the lymph-flow is determined
mainly by the capillary pressure. Variations in the quantity of lymph
issuing from different organs have been on this theory ascribed to
differences in the permeability of the capillaries of the organs. Thus
as liver lymph is richest in protein content and is produced in greatest
amount, it has been concluded that the liver capillaries possess the
highest permeability. The intestines stand next in producing a
concentrated lymph, and their capillaries are therefore assumed to stand
second as regards permeability. Lastly, the lymph coming from limbs and
other organs is much poorer in solids and much less copious in amount.
Hence it is argued that their capillaries show the least permeability.
It is, however, very unsafe to compare the liver capillaries with those
of other organs, since they are not in reality capillaries but rather
venous sinuses, and their relation to the liver cells is
characteristically different from that of ordinary capillaries. If an
animal is at rest, no lymph flows from the hind limbs. To obtain a
sample of limb lymph it is necessary to massage the limb. If, however,
the veins to the limb be ligatured, we obtain a flow of lymph. The
ligature of course causes a rise of the capillary pressure, and it has
been argued that this rise of pressure starts a filtration through the
capillary wall and hence a flow of lymph. But the stoppage of the
blood-flow also damages the capillary wall and tissue cells by
asphyxiation, and the resulting lymph-flow is in all probability the
resultant of many complex processes. This case is analogous to the
production of oedema in cases of heart disease where the circulation is
feeble and the oxygen supply to the parts deficient. The results of
these experiments form the main evidence in support of the filtration
theory of lymph formation. They were first systematically studied by
Heidenhain, to whom we owe so much of our knowledge of lymph formation.
He did not, however, conclude that they established the filtration
theory.

In continuing his observations Heidenhain next studied the results
following the injection of a number of substances into the blood. He
found many which on injection gave rise to an increased lymph-flow from
the thoracic duct, and arranged them in two classes. As instances of
lymphogogues of the first class we may mention extract of mussels, leech
extract, peptone, extract of crayfish muscle, extract of strawberries,
of raspberries and many other like substances. Lymphogogues of the
second class comprise neutral salt solutions, urea, sugar, &c.
Considering the latter class first we may take as a type a solution of
sodium chloride. Injection of such a solution causes a large increase in
the lymph-flow, and it has been proved that the lymph comes from the
liver and intestines only--chiefly from the former. It is especially to
be noted that there is no lymph-flow from the limbs, and the same is
true for all lymphogogues of this class. As indicated above, the
injection of a saline solution leads to a large and rapidly effected
transport of fluid from the blood into muscle tissue, but though there
is this large increase in tissue fluid, no lymph flows from the tissue.
This result very powerfully disfavours the filtration theory of lymph
formation. It practically refutes the idea that lymph formation is
solely dependent upon such processes as filtration, osmosis and
capillary permeability only. It brings out quite clearly that the
exchange of fluid and dissolved salts, &c., between the blood and a
tissue, and the flow of lymph from that tissue, are two separate and
distinct processes, and especially that the first does not determine the
second. Also it is to be noted that the injection of a strong salt
solution also excites a flow of duct lymph, again arising from the liver
and intestines, but none from the limbs. In this instance, as previously
stated, the muscles of the limbs are losing water, and so presumably
are the liver and intestinal cells. This independence of tissue-blood
exchange and lymph-flow is distinctly in favour of the view, which is
rapidly gaining ground from histological observations, that in all
instances the lymphatics commence in a tissue as closed capillary
vessels.

Turning, in the next place, to the lymphogogues of the first class, it
has been proved that the origin of this increase of flow is again from
the liver. Very many of the substances of this class are bodies which
may when taken cause urticarial (nettle-rash) eruptions, a state which
is generally regarded as being due to an action upon the capillary
endothelium. Their action as lymphogogues is also generally ascribed to
an effect upon the capillary wall rendering it according to some more
permeable, according to others leading to a direct secretory action on
the part of the endothelium. We also know that many of the bodies of
this class act upon the liver in other directions than in exciting an
increased lymph production. Thus they may cause an increase in bile
secretion, or, as in the case of peptone, the liver cells may be excited
to produce a new chemical material, in this instance an antithrombin.

We have now to consider the effect of throwing an organ into activity
upon the lymph-flow from the organ. In all cases in which it has been
examined it is found that increased activity is accompanied by increased
lymph-flow. Thus, to take the instance of the submaxillary gland, which
at rest does not discharge any lymph, stimulation of the chorda tympani
is followed by a flow of lymph accompanying the flow of saliva
simultaneously excited. The stimulation of the nerve also produces
dilatation of the blood-vessels and therefore a rise in capillary
pressure. But that this vascular change is not the factor determining
the lymph-flow is proved by the administration of a small dose of
atropine, which arrests the secretion without influencing the vascular
reaction following chorda stimulation. After the atropine no lymph-flow
occurs on stimulating the nerve. Many other instances of a similar kind
might be adduced. Thus, we have seen that peptone specifically excites
the liver cells and also causes an increased lymph-flow from the liver;
or, as a last instance, the injection of bile salt excites a flow of
bile and also excites a flow of lymph from the liver. The supporters of
the filtration theory have argued that as activity of a tissue is
necessarily accompanied by the discharge of metabolites from the active
tissue cells, and as these are of small molecular size, they must set up
an osmotic effect. Water is therefore drawn into the tissue spaces, and
this rise in fluid content results mechanically in a flow of lymph from
the organ. The lymph simply drains away along the open lymphatics. This
argument, however, loses all its force when we recall the fact that we
may set up an enormous flow of fluid and salt into a tissue and its
tissue spaces without causing the least flow of lymph. Further, there is
no reason to suppose that the metabolites discharged from a tissue
during activity are produced in large quantities. The chief metabolite
is undoubtedly carbonic acid, and this diffuses very rapidly and is
quickly carried away by the blood. If, moreover, as is probably the
case, the lymphatics commence as closed capillaries, we have a further
difficulty in explaining how the fluid is driven through the lymphatic
wall. Either we must imagine the wall to be porous or there must be a
greater pressure outside than inside, and it is very difficult to
conceive how this is possible. As a general conclusion, then, it seems
much more probable that we are here dealing with a secretory process,
and that the active tissue produces some substance or substances--it may
be carbonic acid--which throws the lymphatic capillary cells into
activity.

To sum up in a few words the present state of our knowledge as to lymph
formation we may say that the exchange of water and salts between the
blood and the tissues is probably entirely determined by processes of
filtration and osmosis. Further, that the physical condition of the
capillary cells is frequently altered by many chemical substances, and
that in consequence it may permit exudation into the tissue spaces much
more freely. In the next place, the flow of lymph from a tissue is not
solely determined by the amount of the tissue fluids. The lymph
capillaries start as closed tubules, and the endothelial walls of these
tubules play an active part (secretory) in determining when water and
other substances shall be admitted into the capillary and further
determine the quantity of such discharge. Apparently, too, these cells
are specifically excited when the tissue is thrown into activity, the
exciting substance being a metabolite from the active tissue. Leucocytes
also are capable of passing through or between the endothelial cells of
the lymph capillary. (T. G. Br.)

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. In anatomy, the lymphatic system (Lat. _lympha_, clear
water) comprises the _lymphoid_ or _adenoid_ tissue so plentifully
distributed about the body, especially in the course of the alimentary
canal (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES), _lymph spaces_, _lymphatic vessels_ of
which the lacteals are modifications, _lymphatic glands_, _haemolymph
glands_, and the _thoracic_ and _right lymphatic ducts_ by which the
lymph (q.v.) finally reaches the veins.

_Lymph spaces_ are mere spaces in the connective tissue, which usually
have no special lining, though sometimes there is a layer of endothelial
cells like those of the lymphatic and blood vessels. Most of these
spaces are very small, but sometimes, as in the case of the
_sub-epicranial space_ of the scalp, the _capsule of Tenon_ in the
orbit, and the _retropharyngeal space_ in the neck, they are large and
are adaptations to allow free movement. Opening from these spaces, and
also communicating with the serous membranes by small openings called
stomata,[1] are the _lymph capillaries_ (see VASCULAR SYSTEM), which
converge to the _lymphatic vessels_. These resemble veins in having an
internal layer of endothelium, a middle unstriped muscular coat, and an
external coat of fibrous tissue, though in the smaller vessels the
middle coat is wanting. They have numerous endothelial valves, formed of
two crescentic segments allowing the lymph to pass toward the root of
the neck. When the vessels are engorged these valves are marked by a
constriction, and so the lymphatics have a beaded appearance. The
vessels divide and anastomose very freely, and for this reason they do
not, like the veins, increase in calibre as they approach their
destination. It is usual to divide the lymphatic vessels into a
superficial and a deep set; speaking generally, the superficial ones are
found near the course of the superficial veins, while the deeper ones
accompany the arteries. Probably any single drop of lymph passes sooner
or later through one or more lymphatic glands, and so those vessels
which are approaching a gland are called _afferent_, while those leaving
are spoken of as _efferent lymphatics_. The _lacteals_ are special
lymphatic vessels which carry the chyle from the intestine; they begin
in lymphatic spaces in the villi and round the solitary and agminated
glands, and pass into the mesentery, where they come in contact with a
large number of _mesenteric glands_ before reaching the _receptaculum
chyli_.

The _lymphatic glands_ are pink bodies situated in the course of the
lymphatic vessels, to which they act as filters. They are generally oval
in shape and about the size of a bean, but sometimes, especially in the
groin, they form irregular flattened masses 2 in. long, while, at other
times, they are so small as almost to escape notice. They are usually
found in groups.

Each gland has a fibrous capsule from which trabeculae pass toward the
centre, where they break up and interlace, forming a network, and in
this way a cortical and medullary region for each gland is
distinguished; the intervals are nearly filled by lymphoid tissue, but
close to the trabeculae is a lymph path or sinus, which is only
crossed by the reticular stroma of the lymphoid tissue, and this
probably acts as a mechanical sieve, entangling foreign particles; as
an example of this the bronchial glands are black from carbon strained
off in its passage from the lungs, while the axillary glands in a
tattooed arm are blue. The blood-vessels enter at one spot, the
_hilum_, and are distributed along the trabeculae. In addition to
their function as filters the lymphatic glands are probably one of the
sources from which the leucocytes are derived.

The exact position of the various groups of glands is very important
from a medical point of view, but here it is only possible to give a
brief sketch which will be helped by reference to the accompanying
diagram. In the head are found _occipital_ and _mastoid glands_ (fig.
1, [beta]), which drain the back of the scalp; _internal maxillary_
_glands_, in the zygomatic fossa, draining the orbit, palate, nose
and membranes of the brain; _preauricular glands_ (fig. 1, [alpha]),
embedded in the parotid, draining the side of the scalp, pinna,
tympanum and lower eyelid; and _buccal glands_, draining the cheek
region. In the neck are the _superficial cervical glands_ (fig. 1,
[gamma]), along the course of the external jugular vein, draining the
surface of the neck; the _submaxillary glands_ (fig. 1, [delta]),
lying just above the salivary gland of the same name and draining the
front of the face and scalp; the _submental glands_ (fig. 1,
[epsilon]), beneath the chin, draining the lower lip, as well as
sometimes the upper, and the front of the tongue; the _retropharyngeal
glands_, draining the naso-pharynx and tympanum; the _pretracheal
glands_, draining the trachea and lower part of the thyroid body; and
the _deep cervical glands_, which are by far the most important and
form a great mass close to the internal jugular vein; they receive
afferent vessels from most of the glands already mentioned and so are
liable to be affected in any trouble of the head or neck, especially
of the deeper parts. Into them the lymphatics of the brain pass
directly. The lower part of this mass is sometimes distinguished as a
separate group called the _supra-clavicular glands_, which drain the
back of the neck and receive afferents from the occipital and axillary
glands. The efferents from the deep cervical glands join to form a
common vessel known as the _jugular lymphatic trunk_, and this usually
opens into the thoracic duct on the left side and the right lymphatic
duct on the right.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Superficial Lymphatic Vessels and Glands.

[alpha], Preauricular.
[beta], Mastoid.
[gamma], Superficial cervical.
[delta], Submaxillary.
[epsilon], Submental.
[zeta], Infraclavicular.
[eta], Anterior axillary.
[theta], Supratrochlear.
[iota], Antecubital.
[kappa], Inguinal.
[lambda], Superficial femoral.]

In the thorax are found _intercostal glands_ (fig. 2, I.), near the
vertebral column draining the back of the thoracic walls and pleura;
_internal mammary glands_, draining the front of the same parts as
well as the inner part of the breast and the upper part of the
abdominal wall; _diaphragmatic glands_, draining that structure and
the convex surface of the liver; _anterior, middle, posterior and
superior mediastinal glands_, draining the contents of those cavities.
The _bronchial glands_, draining the lungs, have already been referred
to.

In the abdomen and pelvis the glands are usually grouped round the
large arteries and are divided into visceral and parietal. Among the
visceral are the _gastric glands_, draining the stomach (these are
divided into _coronary_, _subpyloric_ and _retropyloric_ groups); the
_splenic glands_ at the hilum of the spleen, draining that organ, the
tail of the pancreas and the fundus of the stomach; the _hepatic
glands_ in the small omentum, draining the lower surface and deep
parts of the liver; the _pancreatic glands_, behind the lesser sac of
the peritoneum, draining the head and body of the pancreas, the
_superior mesenteric glands_; from one to two hundred in number, lying
in the mesentery and receiving the lacteals; the _ileo-caecal glands_,
draining the caecum, one of which is known as the _appendicular_ gland
and drains the vermiform appendix and right ovary; the _colic glands_
along the right and middle colic arteries, draining the ascending and
transverse colon; the _inferior mesenteric glands_ in the course of
that artery, draining the descending iliac and pelvic colons; the
_rectal_ glands, behind the rectum, draining its upper part.

Among the parietal glands are the _external iliac glands_, divided
into a lateral and mesial set (see fig. 2, E.I.), and receiving the
inguinal efferent vessels and lymphatics from the bladder, prostate,
cervix uteri, upper part of the vagina, glans penis vel clitoridis and
urethra. The _supra_ and _infra-umbilical glands_ receive the deep
lymphatics of the abdominal wall, the former communicating with the
liver, the latter with the bladder. From the latter, vessels pass to
the epigastric gland lying in front of the termination of the external
iliac artery. The _internal iliac glands_ (fig. 2, I. I.) are situated
close to the branches of this artery and drain the rectum, vagina,
prostate, urethra, buttock and perinaeum. _Common iliac glands_ (fig.
2, C.I.) lie around that artery and receive afferents from the
external and internal iliac glands as well as a few from the pelvic
viscera.[2] The _aortic glands_ are grouped all round the length of
the aorta, and are divided into _pre_-, _retro_- and _lateral aortic_
groups (fig. 2 P.A. and L), all of which communicate freely. The upper
preaortic glands are massed round the coeliac axis, and receive
afferents from the gastric, hepatic, splenic and pancreatic glands;
they are known as _coeliac glands_. The _lateral aortic glands_ drain
the kidney, adrenal, testis, ovary, fundus of uterus and lateral
abdominal walls. In the upper extremity a few small glands are
sometimes found near the deep arteries of the forearm. At the bend of
the elbow are the _ante-cubital_ glands (fig. 1 [lambda]) and just
above the internal condyle, one or two _supra-trochlear glands_ (fig.
1, [theta]). The _axillary glands_ (fig. 1, [eta]) are perhaps the
most practically important in the body. They are divided into four
sets: (1) _external_, along the axillary vessels, draining the greater
part of the arm; (2) _anterior_, behind the lower border of the
pectoralis major muscle, draining the surface of the thorax including
the breast and upper part of the abdomen; (3) _posterior_ along the
subscapular artery, draining the back and side of the trunk as low as
the umbilical zone; (4) superior or _infra-clavicular glands_ (fig. 1,
[zeta]), receiving the efferents of the former groups as well as
lymphatics accompanying the cephalic vein. In the lower limb all the
superficial lymphatics pass up to the groin, where there are two sets
of glands arranged like a T. The _superficial femoral_ glands (fig. 1,
[lambda]) are the vertical ones, and are grouped round the internal
saphenous vein; they are very large, drain the surface of the leg, and
are usually in two parallel rows. The _inguinal glands_ form the
cross bar of the T (fig. 1, [kappa]), and drain part of the buttock,
the surface of the abdomen below the umbilicus and the surface of the
genital organs. The deep lymphatics of the leg drain into the
_anterior tibial gland_ on that artery, the _popliteal glands_ in that
space, and the _deep femoral glands_ surrounding the common femoral
vein.

[Illustration: From A. M. Paterson, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.

FIG. 2.--Deep Lymphatic Glands and Vessels of the Thorax and Abdomen
(diagrammatic). Afferent vessels are represented by continuous lines and
efferent and interglandular vessels by dotted lines.

C. Common iliac glands.
C.I. Common intestinal trunk.
D.C. Deep cervical glands.
E.I. External iliac glands.
I. Intercostal glands and vessels.
I.I. Internal iliac glands.
L. Lateral aortic glands.
M. Mediastinal glands and vessels.
P.A. Pre-aortic glands and vessels.
R.C. Receptaculum chylii.
R.L.D. Right lymphatic duct.
S. Sacral glands.
S.A. Scalenus anticus muscle.
T.D. Thoracic duct.]

The _thoracic duct_ begins as an irregular dilatation known as the
_receptaculum chyli_, opposite the first and second lumbar vertebrae,
which receives all the abdominal lymphatics as well as those of the
lower intercostal spaces. The duct runs up on the right of the aorta
through the posterior mediastinum and then traverses the superior
mediastinum to the left of the oesophagus. At the root of the neck it
receives the lymphatics of the left arm and left side of the neck and
opens into the beginning of the left innominate vein, usually by more
than one opening.

The _right lymphatic duct_ collects the lymphatics from the right side
of the neck and thorax, the right arm, right lung, right side of the
heart and upper surface of the liver; it is often represented by several
ducts which open separately into the right innominate vein.

_Haemolymph glands_ are structures which have only been noticed since
1884. They differ from lymphatic glands in their much greater
vascularity. They assist the spleen in the destruction of red blood
corpuscles, and probably explain or help to explain the fact that the
spleen can be removed without ill effects. In man they extend along the
vertebral column from the coeliac axis to the pelvis, but are specially
numerous close to the renal arteries.

T. Lewis suggests that lymphatic and haemolymph glands should be
classified in the following way:--

Details and references will be found in papers by T. Lewis, _J. Anat.
& Phys._ vol. xxxviii. p. 312; W. B. Drummond, _Journ. Anat. and
Phys._ vol. xxxiv. p. 198; A. S. Warthin, _Journ. Med. Research_,
1901, p. 3, and H. Dayton, _Am. Journ. of Med. Sciences_, 1904, p.
448. For further details of man's lymphatic system see _The
Lymphatics_ by Delamere, Poirier and Cuneo, translated by C. H. Leaf
(London, 1903).

_Embryology._--The lymphatic vessels are possibly developed by the
hollowing out of mesenchyme cells in the same way that the arteries
are; these cells subsequently coalesce and form tubes (see VASCULAR
SYSTEM). There is, however, a good deal of evidence to show that they
are originally offshoots of the venous system, and that their
permanent openings into the veins are either their primary points of
communication or are secondarily acquired. The lymphatic and
haemolymph glands are probably formed by the proliferation of
lymphocytes around networks of lymphatic vessels; the dividing
lymphocytes form the lymphoid tissue, and eventually the network
breaks up to form distinct glands into which blood vessels penetrate.
If the blood vessels enlarge more than the lymphatic, haemolymph
glands result, but if the lymphatic vessels become predominant
ordinary lymphatic glands are formed. At an early stage in the embryo
pig two thoracic ducts are formed, one on either side of the aorta,
and the incomplete fusion of these may account for the division often
found in man's duct. In the embryo pig too there have been found two
pairs of lymph hearts for a short period.

See A. S. Warthin, _Journ. Med. Research_, vol. vii. p. 435; F. R.
Sabin, _Am. Journ. of Anat._ i., 1902; and, for literature,
_Development of the Human Body_, by J. P. McMurrich (London, 1906),
and Quain's _Anatomy_ (vol. i., London, 1908).

_Comparative Anatomy._--A lymphatic system is recognized in all the
Craniata, and in the lower forms (fishes and Amphibia) it consists
chiefly of lymph spaces and sinuses in communication with the coelom.
In fishes, for instance, there is a large _subvertebral lymph sinus_
surrounding the aorta and another within the spinal canal. In Amphibia
the subvertebral sinus is also found, and in the Anura (frogs and
toads) there is a great _subcutaneous lymph sinus_. _Lymph hearts_ are
muscular dilatations of vessels and are found in fishes, amphibians,
reptiles and bird embryos, and drive the lymph into the veins; they
are not known in adult mammals.

In birds the thoracic duct is first recognized, and opens into both
right and left precaval veins, as it always does in some mammals. In
birds, however, some of the lymphatics open into the sacral veins, and
it is doubtful whether true lymphatic glands ever occur. In birds and
mammals lymphatic vessels become more definite and numerous and are
provided with valves.

Haemolymph glands are present in mammals and birds, but have not been
seen lower in the scale, though S. Vincent and S. Harrison point out
the resemblance of the structure of the head kidney of certain
Teleostean fishes to them (_Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxxi. p.
176).

For further details see _Comparative Anat. of Vertebrates_, by R.
Wiedersheim (London, 1907). (F. G. P.)

_Diseases of the Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands._

_Lymphadenitis_ or inflammatory infection of the lymphatic glands, is
a condition characterized by hyperaemia of and exudation into the
gland, which becomes reader, firmer and larger than usual. Three
varieties may be distinguished: simple, suppurative and tuberculous.
The cause is always the absorption of some toxic or infective material
from the periphery. This may take place in several of the acute
infectious diseases, notably in scarlet fever, mumps, diphtheria and
German measles, or may be the result of poisoned wounds. The lymphatic
glands are also affected in constitutional diseases such as syphilis.
Simple lymphadenitis usually subsides of its own accord, but if toxins
are produced in the inflamed area the enlargement is obvious and
painful, while if pyogenic organisms are absorbed the inflammation
progresses to suppuration.

_Tuberculous lymphadenitis_ (scrofula) is due to the infection of the
lymph glands by Koch's tubercle bacillus. This was formerly known as
"King's Evil," as it was believed that the touch of the royal hand had
power to cure it. It occurs most commonly in children and young adults
whose surroundings are unhealthy, and who are liable to develop
tuberculous disease from want of sufficient food and fresh air. Some
local focus of irritation is usually present. The ways in which the
tubercle bacillus enters the body are much disputed, but catarrh of
the mucous membranes is regarded as a predisposing factor, and the
tonsils as a probable channel of infection. Any lymphoid tissue in the
body may be the seat of tuberculous disease, but the glands of the
neck are the most commonly involved. The course of the disease is slow
and may extend over a period of years. The earliest manifestation is
an enlargement of the gland. It is possible in this stage for
spontaneous healing to take place, but usually the disease progresses
to caseation, in which tuberculous nodules are found diffused
throughout the gland. Occasionally this stage may end in calcification
of the caseous matter, the gland shrinking and becoming hard; but
frequently suppuration follows from liquefaction of the caseating
material. Foci of pus occur throughout the gland, causing destruction
of the tissue, so that the gland may become a single abscess cavity.
If left to itself the abscess sooner or later bursts at one or several
points, leaving ulcerated openings through which a variable amount of
pus escapes. Temporary healing may take place, to be again followed by
further breaking down of the gland. This condition, if untreated, may
persist for years and may finally give rise to a general tuberculosis.
The treatment consists mainly in improving the general health with
good diet, fresh air (particularly sea air), cod-liver oil and iron,
and the removal of all sources of local irritation such as enlarged
tonsils, adenoids, &c. Vaccination with tuberculin (TR) may be useful.
Suppuration and extension of the disease require operative measures,
and removal of the glands _en masse_ can now be done through so small
an opening as to leave only a very slight scar.

In _Tabes mesenterica_ (tuberculosis of the mesenteric glands),
usually occurring in children, the glands of the mesentery and
retroperitonaeum become enlarged, and either caseate or occasionally
suppurate. The disease may be primary or may be secondary to
tuberculous disease of the intestines or to pulmonary phthisis. The
patients are pale, wasted and anaemic, and the abdomen may be
enormously enlarged. There is usually moderate fever, and thin watery
diarrhoea. The caseating glands may liquefy and give rise to an
inflammatory attack which may simulate appendicitis. Limited masses
are amenable to surgical treatment and may be removed, while in the
earlier stages constitutional treatment gives good results.
Tuberculous peritonitis frequently supervenes on this condition.

_Lymphadenoma_ (Hodgkin's Disease), a disease which was first fully
described by Hodgkin in 1832, is characterized by a progressive
enlargement of the lymphatic glands all over the body, and generally
starts in the glands of the neck. The majority of cases occur in young
adults, and preponderate in the male sex. The first symptom is usually
enlargement of a gland in the neck, with generally progressive growth
of the glands in the submaxillary region and axilla. The inguinal
glands are early involved, and after a time the internal lymph glands
follow. The enlargements are at first painless, but in the later
stages symptoms are caused by pressure on the surrounding organs, and
when the disease starts in the deeper structures the first symptoms
may be pain in the chest and cough, pain in the abdomen, pain and
oedema in the legs. The glands may increase until they are as large as
eggs, and later may become firmly adherent one to another, forming
large lobulated tumours. Increase of growth in this manner in the neck
may cause obstructive dyspnoea and even death. In the majority of
cases the spleen enlarges, and in rare instances lymphoid tumours may
be found on its surface. Anaemia is common and is secondary in
character; slight irregular fever is present, and soon a great and
progressive emaciation takes place. The cases are of two types, the
acute cases in which the enlargements take place rapidly and death may
occur in two to three months, and the chronic cases in which the
disease may remain apparently stationary. In acute lymphadenoma the
prognosis is very unfavourable. Recovery sometimes takes place in the
chronic type of the disease. Early surgical intervention has in some
cases been followed by success. The application of X-rays is a
valuable method of treatment, superficial glands undergoing a rapid
diminution in size. Of drugs arsenic is of the most service, and
mercurial inunction has been recommended by Dreschfeld. Organic
extracts have of late been used in the treatment of lymphadenoma.

_Glandular Fever_ is an acute infectious fever, generally occurring in
epidemics, and was first described by E. Pfeiffer in 1889. It usually
affects children and has a tendency to run through all the children of
a family. The incubation period is said to be about 7 days. The onset
is sudden, with pain in the neck and limbs, headache, vomiting,
difficulty in swallowing and high temperature. On the second day, or
sometimes on the first, swelling of the cervical glands is noticed,
and later the posterior cervical, axillary and inguinal glands become
enlarged and tender. In about half the cases the spleen and liver are
enlarged and there is abdominal tenderness. West found the mesenteric
nodes enlarged in 37 cases. Nephritis is an occasional complication,
and constipation is very usual. The disease tends to subside of
itself, and the fever usually disappears after a few days; the
glandular swellings may, however, persist from one to three weeks.
Considerable anaemia has been noticed to follow the illness. Rest in
bed while the glands are enlarged, and cod-liver oil and iron to meet
the anaemia, are the usual treatment.

_Status lymphaticus_ (lymphatism) is a condition found in children and
some adults, characterized by an enlargement of the lymphoid tissues
throughout the body and more particularly by enlargement of the thymus
gland. There is a special lowering of the patient's powers of
resistance, and it has been said to account for a number of cases of
sudden death. In all cases of status lymphaticus the thymus has been
found enlarged. At birth the gland (according to Bovaird and Nicoll)
weighs about 6 grammes, and does not increase after birth. In
lymphatism it may weigh from 10 to 50 grammes. The clinical features
are indefinite, and the condition frequently passes unrecognized
during life. In most cases there is no hint of danger until the fatal
syncope sets in, which may be after any slight exertion or shock, the
patient becoming suddenly faint, gasping and cyanosed, and the heart
stopping altogether before the respirations have ceased. The most
trifling causes have brought on fatal issues, such as a wet pack
(Escherich) or a hypodermic injection, or even a sudden plunge into
water though the head is not immersed. The greater number of deaths
occur during the administration of anaesthetics, which seem peculiarly
dangerous to these subjects. When an attack of syncope takes place no
treatment is of any avail.

Virchow, West and Goodhardt have described a form of asthma in adults
which they ascribe to a hypertrophied thymus gland and term "thymic
asthma."

_Diseases of the Spleen._--Physiological variations and abnormalities
and absence of the spleen are so rare as to require no comment. The
most usual pathological condition which gives rise to symptoms is that
of _wandering spleen_, which may or may not be secondary to a
wandering left kidney. It may produce symptoms of dragging and
discomfort, dyspepsia, vomiting and abdominal pain, and sometimes
jaundice (Treves), or the pedicle may become twisted, producing
extremely severe symptoms. The treatment is entirely surgical. Abscess
in the spleen occasionally occurs, usually in association with
infective endocarditis or with general pyaemia. The spleen may be the
seat of primary _new growths_, but these are rare, and only in a small
portion of cases does it share in the metastatic reproduction of
carcinoma. Infection of the spleen plays a prominent part in many
diseases, such as malaria, typhoid fever, lymphadenoma and leucaemia.

Diseases of the thyroid gland (see GOITRE) and _Addison's disease_ (of
the suprarenal glands) are treated separately. (H. L. H.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It has recently been stated that stomata do not exist in the
peritoneum.

[2] For further details of the pelvic glands see "Seventh Report of
the Committee of Collective Investigation," _Journ. Anat. and Phys._
xxxii. 164.

LYNCH, PATRICIO (1825-1886) Chilean naval officer, was born in
Valparaiso on the 18th of December 1825, his father being a wealthy
Irish merchant resident in Chile, and his mother, Carmen Solo de
Saldiva, a descendant of one of the best-known families in the country.
Entering the navy in 1837, he took part in the operations which led to
the fall of the dictator, Santa Cruz. Next, he sought a wider field, and
saw active service in the China War on board the British frigate
"Calliope." He was mentioned in despatches for bravery, and received the
grade of midshipman in the British service. Returning to Chile in 1847
he became lieutenant, and seven years later he received the command of a
frigate, but was deprived of his command for refusing to receive on
board his ship political suspects under arrest. The Spanish War saw him
again employed, and he was successively maritime prefect of Valparaiso,
colonel of National Guards, and, finally, captain and minister of marine
in 1872. In the Chile-Peruvian War a brilliant and destructive naval
raid, led by him, was followed by the final campaign of Chorrillos and
Miraflores (1880), in which he led at first a brigade (as colonel) and
afterwards a division under Baquedano. His services at the battle of
Chorrillos led to his appointment to command the Army of Occupation in
Peru. This difficult post he filled with success, but his action in
putting the Peruvian president, Garcia Calderon, under arrest excited
considerable comment. His last act was to invest Iglesias with supreme
power in Peru, and he returned to his own country in 1883. Promoted
rear-admiral, he served as Chilean Minister at Madrid for two years, and
died at sea in 1886. Lynch is remembered as one of the foremost of
Chile's naval heroes.

LYNCHBURG, a city of Campbell county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the James
river, about 125 m. W. by S. of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 18,891, of whom
8254 were negroes; (1910) 29,494. It is served by the Southern, the
Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways. Its terraced hills
command fine views of mountain, valley and river scenery, extending
westward to the noble Peaks of Otter and lesser spurs of the Blue Ridge
about 20 m. distant. On an elevation between Rivermont Avenue and the
James river are the buildings of Randolph-Macon Woman's college (opened
in 1893), which is conducted by a self-perpetuating board under the
auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and is one of the
Randolph-Macon system of collèges and academies (see ASHLAND, VA.). In
Lynchburg, too, are the Virginia Christian college (co-educational,
1903), and the Virginia collegiate and industrial school for negroes.
The city has a public library, well-equipped hospitals, public parks and
the Rivermont Viaduct, 1100 ft. long and 140 ft. high. Lynchburg is the
see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Tobacco of a superior quality and
large quantities of coal, iron ore and granite are produced in the
neighbourhood. Good water power is furnished by the James river, and
Lynchburg is one of the principal manufacturing cities of the state. The
boot and shoe industry was established in 1900, and is much the most
important. In 1905 the city was the largest southern manufacturer of
these articles and one of the largest distributors in the country. The
factory products increased in value from $2,993,551 in 1900 to
$4,905,435 in 1905, or 65.9%.

Lynchburg, named in honour of John Lynch, who inherited a large tract of
land here and in 1757 established a ferry across the James, was
established as a village by Act of Assembly in 1786, was incorporated as
a town in 1805, and became a city in 1852. During the Civil War it was
an important base of supplies for the Confederates; on the 16th of June
1864 it was invested by Major-General David Hunter (1802-1886), but
three days later he was driven away by General Jubal A. Early. In 1908
the city's corporate limits were extended.

LYNCH LAW, a term loosely applied to various forms of executing rough
popular justice, or what is thought to be justice, for the punishment of
offenders by a summary procedure, ignoring, or even contrary to, the
strict forms of law. The word _lynching_ "originally signified a
whipping for reformatory purposes with more or less disregard for its
legality" (Cutler), or the infliction of minor punishments without
recourse to law; but during and after the Reconstruction Period in the
United States, it came to mean, generally, the summary infliction of
capital punishment. Lynch law is frequently prevalent in sparsely
settled or frontier districts where government is weak and officers of
the law too few and too powerless to enforce law and preserve order. The
practice has been common in all countries when unsettled frontier
conditions existed, or in periods of threatened anarchy. In what are
considered civilized countries it is now found mainly in Russia,
south-eastern Europe and in America, but it is essentially and almost
peculiarly an American institution. The origin of the name is obscure;
different writers have attempted to trace it to Ireland, to England, to
South Carolina, to Pennsylvania and to Virginia. It is certain that the
name was first used in America, but it is not certain whether it came
from Lynch's Creek, South Carolina, where summary justice was
administered to outlaws, or from Virginia and Pennsylvania, where men
named Lynch were noted for dealing out summary punishment to
offenders.[1] In Europe early examples of a similar phenomenon are found
in the proceedings of the Vehmgerichte in medieval Germany, and of
Lydford law, gibbet law or Halifax law, Cowper justice and Jeddart
justice in the thinly settled and border districts of Great Britain; and
since the term "lynch law" came into colloquial use, it is loosely
employed to cover any case in which a portion of the community takes the
execution of its ideas of justice into its own hands, irrespective of
the legal authorities.

In America during the 18th and 19th centuries the population expanded
westward faster than well-developed civil institutions could follow, and
on the western frontier were always desperadoes who lived by preying on
the better classes. To suppress these desperadoes, in the absence of
strong legal institutions, resort was continually made to lynch law.
There was little necessity for it until the settlement crossed the
Alleghany Mountains, but the following instances of lynching in the East
may be mentioned: (1) the mistreatment of Indians in New England and the
Middle Colonies in disregard of laws protecting them; (2) the custom
found in various colonies of administering summary justice to
wife-beaters, idlers and other obnoxious persons; (3) the acts of the
Regulators of North Carolina, 1767-1771; (4) the popular tribunals of
the Revolutionary period, when the disaffection toward Great Britain
weakened the authority of the civil governments and the war replaced
them by popular governments, at a time when the hostilities between
"Patriots" and "Tories" were an incentive to extra-legal violence. In
the South, lynching methods were long employed in dealing with
agitators, white and black, who were charged with endeavouring to excite
the slaves to insurrection or to crime against their masters, and in
dealing with anti-slavery agitators generally.

In the West, from the Alleghanies to the Golden Gate, the pioneer
settlers resorted to popular justice to get rid of bands of outlaws, and
to regulate society during that period when laws were weak or confused,
when the laws made in the East did not suit western conditions, and when
courts and officials were scarce and distant. The Watauga settlements
and the "State" of Franklin furnished examples of lynch law procedure
almost reduced to organization. Men trained in the rough school of the
wilderness came to have more regard for quick, ready-made, personal
justice than for abstract justice and statutes; they were educated to
defend themselves, to look to no law for protection or regulation;
consequently they became impatient of legal forms and lawyers'
technicalities; an appeal to statute law was looked upon with suspicion,
and, if some personal matter was involved, was likely to result in
deadly private feuds. Thus were formed the habits of thought and action
of the western pioneers. Lynch law, not civil law, cleared the western
forests, valleys and mountain passes of horse and cattle thieves, and
other robbers and outlaws, gamblers and murderers. This was especially
true of California and the states of the far West. H. H. Bancroft, the
historian of _Popular Tribunals_, wrote in 1887 that "thus far in the
history of these Pacific States far more has been done toward righting
wrongs and administering justice outside the pale of law than within
it." However, the lack of regard for law fostered by the conditions
described led to a survival of the lynching habit after the necessity
for it passed away. In parts of the Southern states, where the whites
are few and greatly outnumbered by the blacks, certain of the conditions
of the West have prevailed, and since emancipation released the blacks
from restraint many of the latter have been lawless and turbulent. The
Reconstruction, by giving to the blacks temporary political supremacy,
increased the friction between the races, and greatly deepened
prejudice. The numerous protective societies of whites, 1865-1876,
culminating in the Ku Klux movement, may be described as an application
of lynch law. With the increase of negro crimes came an increase of
lynchings, due to prejudice, to the fact that for some time after
Reconstruction the governments were relatively weak, especially in the
districts where the blacks outnumber the whites, to the fact that
negroes nearly always shield criminals of their own race against the
whites, and to the frequent occurrence of the crime of rape by negro men
upon white women.

Since 1882 the Chicago _Tribune_ has collected statistics of lynching,
and some interesting facts may be deduced from these tables.[2] During
the twenty-two years from 1882 to 1903 inclusive, the total number of
persons lynched in the United States was 3337, the number decreasing
during the last decade; of these 2385 were in the South and 752 in the
North; of those lynched in the East and West 602 were white and 75
black, and of those in the South 567 were white and 1985 black.[3]
Lynchings occur mostly during periods of idleness of the lower classes;
in the summer more are lynched for crimes against the person and in the
winter (in the West) for crimes against property; the principal causes
of lynching in the South are murder and rape, in the North and West,
murder and offences against property; more blacks than whites were
lynched between 1882 and 1903, the numbers being 2060 negroes, of whom
40 were women, and 1169 whites, of whom 23 were women; of the 707 blacks
lynched for rape 675 were in the South; 783 blacks were lynched for
murder, and 753 of these were in the South; most of the lynchings of
whites were in the West; the lynching of negroes increased somewhat
outside of the South and decreased somewhat in the South. Lynching
decreases and disappears in a community as the population grows denser
and civil institutions grow stronger; as better communications and good
police make it harder to commit crime; and as public sentiment is
educated to demand legal rather than illegal and irregular infliction of
punishment for even the most horrible of crimes.

See James E. Cutler, _Lynch Law_ (New York, 1905), an admirable and
unbiased discussion of the subject; H. H. Bancroft, _Popular
Tribunals_ (2 vols., San Francisco, 1887); C. H. Shinn, _Mining Camps:
A Study in American Frontier Government_ (New York, 1885); and J. C.
Lester and D. L. Wilson, _Ku Klux Klan_ (New York, 1905).
(W. L. F.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The usual explanation is that the name was derived from Charles
Lynch (1736-1796), a justice of the peace in Virginia after 1774, who
in 1780, toward the close of the War of Independence, greatly
exceeded his powers in the punishment of Tories or Loyalists detected
in a conspiracy in the neighbourhood of his home in Bedford county,
Va. Lynch was a man of influence in his community, was for many years
a member of the Virginia legislature, was a member of the famous
Virginia Convention of 1776 and was later (in 1781) an officer in the
American army. See an article, "The Real Judge Lynch," in the
_Atlantic Monthly_, vol. lxxxviii. (Boston, 1901).

[2] They have been corrected and somewhat modified by Dr. J. E.
Cutler, from whose book the figures above have been taken. Lynching
as used in this connexion applies exclusively to the illegal
infliction of capital punishment.

[3] For present purposes the former slave states (of 1860) constitute
the South; the West is composed of the territory west of the
Mississippi river, excluding Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and
Oklahoma; the East includes those states east of the Mississippi
river not included in the Southern group; the East and the West make
up the North as here used--that is, the former free states of 1860.

LYNDHURST, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY, BARON (1772-1863), lord chancellor of
England, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, in 1772. He was the son of
John Singleton Copley, the painter. He was educated at a private school
and Cambridge university, where he was second wrangler and fellow of
Trinity. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1804, he gained a
considerable practice. In 1817 he was one of the counsel for Dr J.
Watson, tried for his share in the Spa Fields riot. On this occasion
Copley so distinguished himself as to attract the attention of
Castlereagh and other Tory leaders, under whose patronage he entered
parliament as member for Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight. He afterwards
sat for Ashburton, 1818-1826, and for Cambridge university 1826-1827. He
was solicitor-general in 1819, attorney-general in 1824, master of the
rolls in 1826 and lord chancellor in 1827, with the title of Lord
Lyndhurst. Before being taken up by the Tories, Copley was a man of the
most advanced views, a republican and Jacobin; and his accession to the
Tories excited a good deal of comment, which he bore with the greatest
good humour. He gave a brilliant and eloquent but by no means rancorous
support to all the reactionary measures of his chief. The same year that
he became solicitor-general he married the beautiful and clever widow
of Lieut.-Colonel Charles Thomas of the Coldstream Guards, and began to
take a conspicuous place in society, in which his noble figure, his
ready wit and his never-failing _bonhomie_ made him a distinguished
favourite.

As solicitor-general he took a prominent part in the trial of Queen
Caroline. To the great Liberal measures which marked the end of the
reign of George IV. and the beginning of that of William IV. he gave a
vigorous opposition. He was lord chief baron of the exchequer from 1831
to 1834. During the Melbourne administration from 1835 to 1841 he
figured conspicuously as an obstructionist in the House of Lords. In
these years it was a frequent practice with him, before each prorogation
of parliament, to entertain the House with a "review of the session," in
which he mercilessly attacked the Whig government. His former adversary
Lord Brougham, disgusted at his treatment by the Whig leaders, soon
became his most powerful ally in opposition; and the two dominated the
House of Lords. Throughout all the Tory governments from 1827 Lyndhurst
held the chancellorship (1827-1830 and 1834-1835); and in the Peel
administration (1841-1846) he resumed that office for the last time. As
Peel never had much confidence in Lyndhurst, the latter did not exert so
great an influence in the cabinet as his position and experience
entitled him to do. But he continued a loyal member of the party. As in
regard to Catholic emancipation, so in the agitation against the corn
laws, he opposed reform till his chief gave the signal for concession,
and then he cheerfully obeyed. After 1846 and the disintegration of the
Tory party consequent on Peel's adoption of free trade, Lord Lyndhurst
was not so assiduous in his attendance in parliament. Yet he continued
to an extreme old age to take a lively interest in public affairs, and
occasionally to astonish the country by the power and brilliancy of his
speeches. That which he made in the House of Lords on the 19th of June
1854, on the war with Russia, made a sensation in Europe; and throughout
the Crimean War he was a strong advocate of the energetic prosecution of
hostilities. In 1859 he denounced with his old energy the restless
ambition of Napoleon III. When released from office he came forward
somewhat as the advocate of liberal measures. His first wife had died in
1834, and in August 1837 he had married Georgina, daughter of Lewis
Goldsmith. She was a Jewess; and it was therefore natural that he
strenuously supported the admission of Jews into parliament. He also
advocated women's rights in questions of divorce. At the age of
eighty-four he passed the autumn at Dieppe, "helping to fly paper kites,
and amusing himself by turns with the writings of the Greek and Latin
fathers on divorce and the amorous novels of Eugene Sue." His last
speech, marked by "his wonted brilliancy and vigour," was delivered in
the House of Lords at the age of eighty-nine. He died in London on the
12th of October 1863. He left no male issue and the title became
extinct.

See _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of England_, vol. viii. (Lords
Lyndhurst and Brougham), by Lord Campbell (1869). Campbell was a
personal friend, but a political opponent. Brougham's _Memoirs_;
_Greville Memoirs_; _Life of Lord Lyndhurst_ (1883) by Sir Theodore
Martin; J. B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1906).

LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID (c. 1490-c. 1555), Scottish poet, was the son of
David Lyndsay of the Mount, near Cupar-Fife, and of Garmylton, near
Haddington. His place of birth and his school are undetermined. It is
probable that his college life was spent at St Andrews university, on
the books of which appears an entry "Da Lindesay" for the session
1508-1509. He was engaged at court, first as an equerry, then as an
"usher" to the young Prince James, afterwards James V. In 1522 he
married Janet Douglas, a court seamstress, and seven years later was
appointed Lyon King of Arms, and knighted. He was several times engaged
in diplomatic business (twice on embassies abroad--to the Netherlands
and France), and he was, in virtue of his heraldic office, a general
master of ceremonies. After the death of James V., in 1542, he continued
to sit in parliament as commissioner for Cupar-Fife; and in 1548 he was
member of a mission to Denmark which obtained certain privileges for
Scottish merchants. There is reason to believe that he died in or about
1555.

Most of Lyndsay's literary work, by which he secured great reputation in
his own day and by which he still lives, was written during the period
of prosperity at court. In this respect he is unlike his predecessor
Gavin Douglas (q.v.), who forsook literature when he became a
politician. The explanation of the difference is partly to be found in
the fact that Lyndsay's muse was more occasional and satirical, and that
the time was suitable to the exercise of his special gifts. It is more
difficult to explain how he enjoyed a freedom of speech which is without
parallel even in more secure times. He chastised all classes, from his
royal master to the most simple. There is no evidence that he abjured
Catholicism; yet his leading purpose was the exposure of its errors and
abuses. His aid was readily accepted by the reforming party, and by
their use of his work he shared with their leaders throughout many
generations a reputation which is almost exclusively political and
ecclesiastical.

Lyndsay's longer poems are _The Dreme_ (1134 lines), _The Testament and
Complaynt of the Papynago_ (1190 lines), _The Testament of Squyer
Meldrum_ (1859 lines), _Ane Dialog betwix Experience and ane Courteour
of the Miserabyll Estait of the World_ (6333 lines), and _Ane Pleasant
Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis_ (over 4000 lines). These represent, with
reasonable completeness, the range of Lyndsay's literary talent. No
single poem can give him a chief place, though here and there,
especially in the last, he gives hints of the highest competence. Yet
the corporate effect of these pieces is to secure for him the allowance
of more than mere intellectual vigour and common sense. There is in his
craftsmanship, in his readiness to apply the traditional methods to
contemporary requirements, something of that accomplishment which makes
even the second-rate man of letters interesting.

Lyndsay, the last of the Makars, is not behind his fellow-poets in
acknowledgment to Chaucer. As piously as they, he reproduces the
master's forms; but in him the sentiment and outlook have suffered
change. His nearest approach to Chaucer is in _The Testament of Squyer
Meldrum_, which recalls the sketch of the "young squire"; but the
reminiscence is verbal rather than spiritual. Elsewhere his memory
serves him less happily, as when he describes the array of the lamented
Queen Magdalene in the words which Chaucer had applied to the eyes of
his wanton Friar. So too, in the _Dreme_, the allegorical tradition
survives only in the form. "Remembrance" conducts the poet over the
old-world itinerary, but only to lead him to speculation on Scotland's
woes and to an "Exhortatioun to the Kingis Grace" to bring relief. The
tenor is well expressed in the motto from the Vulgate--"_Prophetias
nolite spernere. Omnia autem probate: quod bonum est tenete._" This
didactic habit is freely exercised in the long _Dialog_ (sometimes
called the _Monarche_), a universal history of the medieval type, in
which the falls of princes by corruption supply an object lesson to the
unreformed church of his day. The _Satyre_ is more direct in its attack
on ecclesiastical abuse; and its dramatic form permits more lively
treatment. This piece is of great historical interest, being the only
extant example of a complete Scottish morality. It is in respect of
literary quality Lyndsay's best work, and in dramatic construction and
delineation of character it holds a high place in this _genre_. The
farcical interludes (in places too coarse for modern taste) supply many
touches of genuine comedy; and throughout the play there are passages,
as in the speeches of Veritie in the First Part and of Dame Chastitie in
the "Interlude of the Sowtar and the Taylor," in which word and line are
happily conceived. The _Testament of the Papyngo_ (popinjay), drawn in
the familiar medieval manner, is another tract for the time, full of
admonition to court and clergy. Of his shorter pieces, _The Complaynt
and Publict Confessions of the Kingis Auld Hound, callit Bagsche,
directit to Bawtie, the Kingis best belovit Dog, and his companyeonis_,
and the _Answer to the Kingis Flyting_ have a like pulpit resonance. The
former is interesting as a forerunner of Burns's device in the "Twa
Dogs." The _Deploratioun of the_ _Deith of Queen Magdalene_ is in the
extravagant style of commemoration illustrated in Dunbar's Elegy on the
Lord Aubigny. The _Justing betwix James Watsoun and Jhone Barbour_ is a
contribution to the popular taste for boisterous fun, in spirit, if not
in form, akin to the _Christis Kirk on the Grene_ series; and
indirectly, with Dunbar's _Turnament_ and _Of ane Blak-Moir_, a
burlesque of the courtly tourney. Lyndsay approaches Dunbar in his
satire _The Supplicatioun in contemptioun of syde taillis_ ("wide"
trains of the ladies), which recalls the older poet's realistic lines on
the filthy condition of the city streets. In Lyndsay's _Descriptioun of
Pedder Coffeis_ (pedlars) we have an early example of the studies in
vulgar life which are so plentiful in later Scottish literature. In
_Kitteis Confessioun_ he returns, but in more sprightly mood, to his
attack on the church.

In Lyndsay we have the first literary expression in Scotland of the
Renaissance. His interest lies on the theological side of the revival;
he is in no sense a humanist, and he is indifferent to the artistic
claims of the movement. Still he appeals to the principle which is
fundamental to all. He demands first-hand impression. He feels that men
must get their lesson direct, not from intermediaries who understand the
originals no more "than they do the ravyng of the rukis." Hence his
persistent plea for the vernacular, nowhere more directly put than in
the _Dialog_, in the "Exclamatioun to the Redar, toucheyng the wrytting
of the vulgare and maternall language." Though he is concerned only in
the theological and ecclesiastical application of this, he undoubtedly
stimulated the use of the vernacular in a Scotland which in all literary
matters beyond the concern of the irresponsible poet still used the
_lingua franca_ of Europe.

A complete edition of Lyndsay's poetical works was published by David
Laing in 3 vols. in 1879. This was anticipated during the process of
preparation by a cheaper edition (slightly expurgated) by the same
editor in 1871 (2 vols.). The E.E.T.S. issued the first part of a
complete edition in 1865 (ed. F. Hall). Five parts have appeared, four
edited by F. Hall, the fifth by J. A. H. Murray. For the bibliography
see Laing's 3 vol. edition, _u.s._ iii. pp. 222 et seq., and the
E.E.T.S. edition _passim_. See also the editions by Pinkerton (1792),
Sibbald (1803), and Chalmers (1806); and the critical accounts in
Henderson's _Scottish Vernacular Literature_ (1898), Gregory Smith's
_Transition Period_ (1900), and J. H. Millar's _Literary History of
Scotland_ (1903). A professional work prepared by Lyndsay in the Lyon
Office, entitled the _Register of Scottish Arms_ (now preserved in MS.
in the Advocates' Library), was printed in 1821 and reprinted in 1878.
It remains the most authoritative document on Scottish heraldry.
(G. G. S.)

LYNEDOCH, THOMAS GRAHAM, 1ST BARON (1748-1843), British general, was the
son of Thomas Graeme, laird of Balgowan, and was born on the 19th of
October 1748. He was educated by private tutors, among whom was James
Macpherson (q.v.), and was a gentleman commoner of Christ Church,
Oxford, between 1766 and 1768. He then travelled on the continent of
Europe, and in 1772 unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary seat in
Perthshire. In 1774 he married a daughter of the ninth Lord Cathcart,
and took a house in the Leicestershire hunting country. After a few
years, owing to the state of his wife's health, Graham was compelled to
live mainly in the south of Europe, though while at home he was a
prominent sportsman and agriculturist. In 1787 he bought the small
estate of Lynedoch or Lednock, a few miles from Perth. In 1791 his wife
died in the Mediterranean, off Hyères. Graham tried to find distraction
in renewed travels, and during his wanderings fell in with Lord Hood's
fleet on its way to Toulon. He joined it as a volunteer, served on Lord
Mulgrave's staff during the British occupation of Toulon, and returned,
after the failure of the expedition, to Scotland, where he organized a
regiment of infantry, the 90th Foot, Perthshire Volunteers (now 2nd
Battalion Scottish Rifles). Graham's men were the first regiment in the
army to be equipped and trained wholly as light infantry, though they
were not officially recognized as such for many years. In the same year
(1794) Graham became member of parliament, in the Whig interest, for the
county of Perth. He saw some active service in 1795 in "conjunct
expeditions" of the army and navy, and in 1796, being then a brevet
colonel, he was appointed British commissioner at the headquarters of
the Austrian army in Italy. He took part in the operations against
Napoleon Bonaparte, was shut up in Mantua with Würmser's army, escaped
in disguise, and after many adventures reached the relieving army of
Alvinzi just before the battle of Rivoli. On returning to his regiment
he served in more "conjunct" expeditions, in one of which, at Messina,
he co-operated with Nelson, and in 1799 he was sent as brigadier-general
to invest the fortress of Valetta, Malta. He blockaded the place for two
years, and though Major-General Pigot arrived shortly before the close
of the blockade and assumed command, the conquest of Malta stands almost
wholly to the credit of Graham and his naval colleague Sir Alexander
Ball. In 1801 Graham proceeded to Egypt, where his regiment was engaged
in Abercromby's expedition, but arrived too late to take part in any
fighting. He took the opportunity afforded by the peace of Amiens to
visit Turkey, Austria, Germany and France, and only resumed command of
his regiment in 1804. When the latter was ordered to the West Indies he
devoted himself to his duties as a member of parliament. He sat for
Perthshire until 1807, when he was defeated, as he was again in 1812.
Graham was with Moore in Sweden in 1808 and in Spain 1808-1809, and was
present at his death at the battle of Corunna. In 1809 he became a
major-general, and after taking part in the disastrous Walcheren
expedition he was promoted lieutenant-general and sent to Cadiz (1810).

In 1811, acting in conjunction with the Spanish army under General la
Peña (see PENINSULAR WAR), he took the offensive, and won the brilliant
action of Barossa (5th of March). The victory was made barren of result
by the timidity of the Spanish generals. The latter nevertheless claimed
more than their share of the credit, and Graham answered them with
spirit. One of the Spanish officers he called out, fought and disarmed,
and after refusing with contempt the offer of a Spanish dukedom, he
resigned his command in the south and joined Wellington in Portugal. His
seniority as lieutenant-general made him second in command of
Wellington's army. He took part in the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, and
commanded a wing of the army in the siege of Badajoz and the advance to
Salamanca. In July 1812, his eyesight becoming seriously impaired, he
went home, but rejoined in time to lead the detached wing of the army in
the wide-ranging manoeuvre which culminated in the battle of Vittoria.
Graham was next entrusted with the investment and siege of San
Sebastian, which after a desperate defence fell on the 9th of September
1813. He then went home, but in 1814 accepted the command of a corps to
be despatched against Antwerp. His assault on Bergen op Zoom was,
however, disastrously repulsed (3rd of February 1814).

At the peace Graham retired from active military employment. He was
created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in the peerage of the United Kingdom,
but refused the offered pension of £2000 a year. In 1813 he proposed the
formation of a military club in London, and though Lord St Vincent
considered such an assemblage of officers to be unconstitutional,
Wellington supported it and the officers of the army and navy at large
received the idea with enthusiasm. Lynedoch's portrait, by Sir T.
Lawrence, is in possession of this club, the (Senior) United Service. In
his latter years he resumed the habits of his youth, travelling all over
Europe, hunting with the Pytchley so long as he was able to sit his
horse, actively concerned in politics and voting consistently for
liberal measures. At the age of ninety-two he hastened from Switzerland
to Edinburgh to receive Queen Victoria when she visited Scotland after
her marriage. He died in London on the 18th of December 1843. He had
been made a full general in 1821, and at the time of his death was a
G.C.B., Colonel of the 1st (Royal Scots) regiment, and governor of
Dumbarton Castle.

See biographies by John Murray Graham (2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1877) and
Captain A. M. Delavoye (London, 1880); also the latter's _History of
the 90th_ (_Perthshire Volunteers_) (London, 1880), _Philipparts'
Royal Military Calendar_ (1820), ii. 147, and _Gentleman's Magazine_,
new series, xxi. 197.

LYNN, a city and seaport of Essex county, Massachusetts, 9 m. N.E. of
Boston, on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay. Pop. (1900) 68,513, of
whom 17,742 were foreign-born (6609 being English Canadians, 5306
Irish, 1527 English and 1280 French Canadians), and 784 were negroes;
(1910 census) 89,336. It is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston,
Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by an interurban electric railway, and
has an area of 10.85 sq. m. The business part is built near the shore on
low, level ground, and the residential sections are on the higher
levels. Lynn Woods, a beautiful park, covers more than 2000 acres. On
the shore, which has a fine boulevard, is a state bath house. The city
has a handsome city hall, a free public library, founded in 1862, a
soldiers' monument and two hospitals. Lynn is primarily a manufacturing
city. The first smelting works in New England were established here in
1643. More important and earlier was the manufacture of boots and shoes,
an industry introduced in 1636 by Philip Kertland, a Buckingham man; a
corporation of shoemakers existed here in 1651, whose papers were lost
in 1765. There were many court orders in the seventeenth century to
butchers, tanners, bootmakers and cordwainers; and the business was made
more important by John Adam Dagyr (d. 1808), a Welshman who came here in
1750 and whose work was equal to the best in England. In 1767 the output
was 80,000 pairs; in 1795 about 300,000 pairs of women's shoes were made
by 600 journeymen and 200 master workmen. The product of women's shoes
had become famous in 1764, and about 1783 the use of morocco had been
introduced by Ebenezer Breed. In 1900 and 1905 Lynn was second only to
Brockton among the cities of the United States in the value of boots and
shoes manufactured, and outranked Brockton in the three allied
industries, the manufacture of boots and shoes, of cut stock and of
findings. In the value of its total manufactured product Lynn ranked
second to Boston in the state in 1905, having been fifth in 1900; the
total number of factories in 1905 was 431; their capital was
$23,139,185; their employees numbered 21,540; and their product was
valued at $55,003,023 (as compared with $39,347,493 in 1900). Patent
medicines and compounds and the manufacture of electrical machinery are
prominent industries. The Lynn factories of the General Electric Company
had in 1906 an annual product worth between $15,000,000 and $20,000,000.
The foreign export of manufactured products is estimated at $5,000,000 a
year.

Lynn was founded in 1629 and was called Saugus until 1637, when the
present name was adopted, from Lynn Regis, Norfolk, the home of the Rev.
Samuel Whiting (1597-1679), pastor at Lynn from 1636 until his death.
From Lynn Reading was separated in 1644, Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in
1815, and, after the incorporation of the city of Lynn in 1850,
Swampscott in 1852, and in 1853 Nahant, S. of Lynn, on a picturesque
peninsula and now a fashionable summer resort.

See James R, Newhall, _History of Lynn_ (Lynn, 1883), and H. K.
Sanderson, _Lynn in the Revolution_ (1910).

LYNTON and LYNMOUTH, two seaside villages in the Barnstaple
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Bristol Channel;
17 m. E. of Ilfracombe, served by the Lynton light railway, which joins
the South Western and Great Western lines at Barnstaple. Both are
favoured as summer resorts. Lynmouth stands where two small streams, the
East Lyn and West Lyn, flow down deep and well-wooded valleys to the
sea. Lynton is on the cliff-edge, 430 ft. above. A lift connects the
villages. The industries are fishing and a small coasting trade. Not far
off are the Doone Valley, part of the vale of the East Lyn, here called
Badgeworthy water, once the stronghold of a notorious band of robbers
and famous through R. D. Blackmore's novel _Lorna Doone_; Watersmeet,
where two streams, the Tavy and Walkham, join amid wild and beautiful
scenery; and the Valley of Rocks, a narrow glen strewn with immense
boulders. Lynton is an urban district, with a population (1901) of 1641.

LYNX (Lat. _Lynx_, Gr. [Greek: lynx], probably connected with [Greek:
leuosein], to see), a genus of mammals of the family _Felidae_, by some
naturalists regarded only as a subgenus or section of the typical genus
_Felis_ (see CARNIVORA). As an English word (lynx) the name is used of
any animal of this group. It is not certain to which of these, if to any
of them, the Greek name [Greek: lynx] was especially applied, though it
was more probably the caracal (q.v.) than any of the northern species.
The so-called lynxes of Bacchus were generally represented as resembling
leopards rather than any of the species now known by the name. Various
fabulous properties were attributed to the animal, whatever it was, by
the ancients, that of extraordinary powers of vision, including ability
to see through opaque substances, being one; whence the epithet
"lynx-eyed," which has survived to the present day.

Lynxes are found in the northern and temperate regions of both the Old
and New World; they are smaller than leopards, and larger than true wild
cats, with long limbs, short stumpy tail, ears tufted at the tip, and
pupil of the eye linear when contracted. Their fur is generally long and
soft, and always longish upon the cheeks. Their colour is light brown or
grey, and generally spotted with a darker shade. The naked pads of the
feet are more or less covered by the hair that grows between them. The
skull and skeleton do not differ markedly from those of the other cats.
Their habits are exactly those of the other wild cats. Their food
consists of any mammals or birds which they can overpower. They commit
extensive ravages upon sheep and poultry. They generally frequent rocky
places and forests, being active climbers, and passing much of their
time among the branches of the trees. Their skins are of considerable
value in the fur trade. The northern lynx (_L. lynx_ or _L. borealis_)
of Scandinavia, Russia, northern Asia, and till lately the forest
regions of central Europe, has not inhabited Britain during the historic
period, but its remains have been found in cave deposits of Pleistocene
age. Dr W. T. Blanford says that the characters on which E. Blyth relied
in separating the Tibetan lynx (_L. isabellinus_) from the European
species are probably due to the nature of its habitat among rocks, and
that he himself could find no constant character justifying separation.
The pardine lynx (_L. pardinus_) from southern Europe is a very handsome
species; its fur is rufous above and white beneath.

[Illustration: From a drawing by Wolf in Elliot's _Monograph of the
Felidae_.

European Lynx.]

Several lynxes are found in North America; the most northerly has been
described as the Canadian lynx (_L. canadensis_); the bay lynx (_L.
rufus_), with a rufous coat in summer, ranges south to Mexico, with
spotted and streaked varieties--_L. maculatus_ in Texas and southern
California, and _L. fasciatus_ in Washington and Oregon. The first three
were regarded by St George Mivart as local races of the northern lynx. A
fifth form, the plateau lynx (_L. baileyi_), was described by Dr C. H.
Merriam in 1890, but the differences between it and the bay lynx are
slight and unimportant.

LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849), American educationalist, was born on the
28th of February 1797 on a farm near Buckland, Franklin county,
Massachusetts. She began to teach when she was seventeen, and in 1817,
with the earnings from her spinning and weaving, she went to Sanderson
Academy, Ashfield. She supported herself there, at Amherst Academy,
where she spent one term, and at the girls' school in Byfield,
established in 1819 by Joseph Emerson (1777-1833), where she went in
1821, by teaching in district schools and by conducting informal normal
schools. In 1822-1824 she was assistant principal of Sanderson Academy,
and then taught in Miss Zilpah P. Grant's Adams Female Academy, in
Londonderry (now Derry), N.H. This school had only summer sessions, and
Miss Lyon spent her winters in teaching, especially at Buckland and at
Ashfield, and in studying chemistry and natural science with Edward
Hitchcock, the geologist. In 1828-1834 she taught in Miss Grant's
school, which in 1828 had been removed to Ipswich, and for two years
managed the school in Miss Grant's absence. In 1828-1830 she had kept up
her winter "normal" school at Buckland, and this was the beginning of
her greater plan, "a permanent institution consecrated to the training
of young women for usefulness ... designed to furnish every advantage
which the state of education in this country will allow ... to put
within reach of students of moderate means such opportunities that none
can find better." She was assisted by Dr Hitchcock, and her own mystical
enthusiasm and practical common sense secured for her plan ready
financial support. In 1835 a site was selected near the village of South
Hadley and Mount Holyoke; in 1836 the school was incorporated as Mount
Holyoke Female Seminary; and on the 8th of November 1837 it opened with
Mary Lyon as principal, and, as assistant, Miss Eunice Caldwell,
afterwards well known as Mrs J. P. Cowles of Ipswich Academy. Miss Lyon
died at Mount Holyoke on the 5th of March 1849, having served nearly
twelve years as principal of the seminary, on a salary of $200 a year.
From her work at Holyoke sprang modern higher education for women in
America.

See Edward Hitchcock, _Life and Labors of Mary Lyon_ (1851); B. B.
Gilchrist, _Life of Mary Lyon_ (Boston, 1910).

LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861), American soldier, was born in Ashford,
Connecticut, on the 14th of July 1818, and graduated at West Point in
1841. He was engaged in the Seminole War and the war with Mexico, won
the brevet of captain for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, and
was wounded in the assault on the city of Mexico. In 1850, while serving
in California, he conducted a successful expedition against the Indians.
He was promoted captain in 1851, and two years later was ordered to the
East, when he became an ardent opponent of "States' Rights" and slavery.
He was stationed in Kansas and in Missouri on the eve of the Civil War.
In Missouri not only was sentiment divided, but the two factions were
eager to resort to force long before they were in the other border
states. Lyon took an active part in organizing the Union party in
Missouri, though greatly hampered, at first by the Federal government
which feared to provoke hostilities, and afterwards by the military
commander of the department, General W. S. Harney. On Harney's removal
in April 1861, Lyon promptly assumed the command, called upon Illinois
to send him troops, and mustered the Missouri contingent into the United
States' service. He broke up the militia camp at St Louis established by
the secessionist governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, and but for
the express prohibition of Harney, who had resumed the command, would
have proceeded at once to active hostilities. In all this Lyon had
co-operated closely with Francis P. Blair, Jr., who now obtained from
President Lincoln the definitive removal of Harney and the assignment of
Lyon to command the Department of the West, with the rank of
brigadier-general. On Lyon's refusal to accede to the Secessionists'
proposal that the state should be neutral, hostilities opened in
earnest, and Lyon, having cleared Missouri of small hostile bands in the
central part of the state, turned to the southern districts, where a
Confederate army was advancing from the Arkansas border. The two forces
came to action at Wilson's Creek on the 10th of August 1861. The Union
forces, heavily outnumbered, were defeated, and Lyon himself was killed
while striving to rally his troops. He bequeathed almost all he
possessed, some $30,000, to the war funds of the national government.

See A. Woodward, _Memoir of General Nathaniel Lyon_ (Hartford, 1862);
James Peckham, _Life of Lyon_ (New York, 1866); and T. L. Snead, _The
Fight for Missouri_ (New York, 1886). Also _Last Political Writings of
General Nathaniel Lyon_ (New York, 1862).

LYONNESSE, LYONESSE, LEONNOYS or LEONAIS, a legendary country off the
south coast of Cornwall, England. Lyonnesse is the scene of many
incidents in the Arthurian romances, and especially in the romances of
Tristram and Iseult. It also plays an important part in purely Cornish
tradition and folk-lore. Early English chronicles, such as the
_Chronicon e chronicis_ of Florence of Worcester, who died in 1118,
described minutely and without a suggestion of disbelief the flourishing
state of Lyonnesse, and its sudden disappearance beneath the sea. The
legend may be a greatly exaggerated version of some actual subsidence of
inhabited land. There is also a very ancient local tradition, apparently
independent of the story of Lyonnesse, that the Scilly Islands formed
part of the Cornish mainland within historical times.

See _Florentii Wigorniensis monachi Chronicon ex chronicis_, &c., ed.
B. Thorpe (London, 1848-1849).

LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858), British admiral, was born at
Burton, near Christchurch, Hampshire, on the 21st of November 1790. He
entered the navy, and served in the Mediterranean, and afterwards in the
East Indies, where in 1810 he won promotion by distinguished bravery. He
became post-captain in 1814, and in 1826 commanded the "Blonde" frigate
at the blockade of Navarino, and took part with the French in the
capture of Kasteo Morea. Shortly before his ship was paid off in 1835 he
was knighted. From 1840 till 1853 Lyons was employed on the diplomatic
service, being successively minister to Greece, Switzerland and Sweden.
On the outbreak of the war with Russia he was appointed second in
command of the British fleet in the Black Sea under Admiral Dundas, whom
he succeeded in the chief command in 1854. As admiral of the inshore
squadron he had the direction of the landing of the troops in the
Crimea, which he conducted with marvellous energy and despatch.
According to Kinglake, Lyons shared the "intimate counsels" of Lord
Raglan in regard to the most momentous questions of the war, and toiled,
with a "painful consuming passion," to achieve the object of the
campaign. His principal actual achievements in battle were two--the
support he rendered with his guns to the French at the Alma in attacking
the left flank of the Russians, and the bold and brilliant part he took
with his ship the "Agamemnon" in the first bombardment of the forts of
Sebastopol; but his constant vigilance, his multifarious activity, and
his suggestions and counsels were much more advantageous to the allied
cause than his specific exploits. In 1855 he was created vice-admiral;
in June 1856 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Lyons
of Christchurch. He died on the 23rd of November 1858.

See Adam S. Eardley-Wilmot, R.N., _Life of Lord Lyons_ (1898).

LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817-1887), British
diplomatist, son of the preceding, was born at Lymington on the 26th of
April 1817. He entered the diplomatic service, and in 1859-1864 was
British minister at Washington, where, after the outbreak of the Civil
War, the extremely important negotiations connected with the arrest of
the Confederate envoys on board the British mail-steamer "Trent"
devolved upon him. After a brief service at Constantinople, he succeeded
Lord Cowley at the Paris embassy in 1867. In the war of 1870 he used his
best efforts as a mediator, and accompanied the provisional government
to Tours. He continued to hold his post with universal acceptance until
November 1887. He died on the 5th of December 1887, when the title
became extinct.

LYONS (Fr. _Lyon_), a city of eastern France, capital of the department
of Rhône, 315 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 218 m. N. by W. of Marseilles on
the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 430,186; commune, 472,114.
Lyons, which in France is second only to Paris in commercial and
military importance, is situated at the confluence of the Rhône and the
Saône at an altitude of 540 to 1000 ft. above sea-level. The rivers,
both flowing south, are separated on the north by the hill on which lies
the populous working quarter of Croix-Rousse, then by the narrow tongue
of land ending in the Perrache Quarter. The peninsula thus formed is
over 3 m. long and from 650 to 1000 yds. broad. It is traversed
lengthwise by the finest streets of the city, the rue de la République,
the rue de l'Hôtel de Ville, and the rue Victor Hugo. Where it enters
Lyons the Saône has on its right the faubourg of Vaise and on its left
that of Serin, whence the ascent is made to the top of the hill of
Croix-Rousse. Farther on, its right bank is bordered by the scarped
heights of Fourvière, St Irénée, Ste Foy, and St Just, leaving room only
for the quays and one or two narrow streets; this is the oldest part of
the city. The river sweeps in a semicircle around this eminence (410 ft.
above it), which is occupied by convents, hospitals and seminaries, and
has at its summit the famous church of Nôtre-Dame de Fourvière, the
resort of many thousands of pilgrims annually.

On the peninsula between the rivers, at the foot of the hill of
Croix-Rousse, are the principal quarters of the town: the Terreaux,
containing the hotel de ville, and the chief commercial establishments;
the wealthy residential quarter, centring round the Place Bellecour, one
of the finest squares in France; and the Perrache. The Rhône and Saône
formerly met on the site of this quarter, till, in the 18th century, the
sculptor Perrache reclaimed it; on the peninsula thus formed stands the
principal railway station, the Gare de Perrache with the Cours du Midi,
the most extensive promenade in Lyons, stretching in front of it. Here,
too, are the docks of the Saône, factories, the arsenal, gas-works and
prisons. The Rhône, less confined than the Saône, flows swiftly in a
wide channel, broken when the water is low in spring by pebbly islets.
On the right hand it skirts first St Clair, sloping upwards to
Croix-Rousse, and then the districts of Terreaux, Bellecour and
Perrache; on the left it has a low-lying plain, occupied by the Parc de
la Tête d'Or and the quarters of Brotteaux and Guillotière. The park,
together with its lake, comprises some 285 acres, and contains a
zoological collection, botanical and pharmaceutical gardens, and the
finest greenhouses in France, with unique collections of orchids,
palm-trees and _Cycadaceae_. It is defended from the Rhône by the Quai
de la Tête d'Or, while on the east the railway line to Geneva separates
it from the race-course. Brotteaux is a modern residential quarter.
Guillotière to the south consists largely of workmen's dwellings,
bordering wide, airy thoroughfares. To the east extend the manufacturing
suburbs of Villeurbanne and Montchat. The population, displaced by the
demolition of the lofty old houses and the widening of the streets on
the peninsula, migrates to the left bank of the Rhône, the extension of
the city into the plain of Dauphiné being unhindered.

The Rhône and the Saône are bordered by fine quays and crossed by 24
bridges--11 over the Rhône, 12 over the Saône, and 1 at the confluence.
Of these the Pont du Change over the Saône and the Pont de la
Guillotière over the Rhône have replaced medieval bridges, the latter of
the two preserving a portion of the old structure.

Public Buildings.

Of the ancient buildings Nôtre-Dame de Fourvière is the most celebrated.
The name originally applied to a small chapel built in the 9th century
on the site of the old forum (_forum vetus_) from which it takes its
name. It has been often rebuilt, the chief feature being a modern
Romanesque tower surmounted by a cupola and statue of the Virgin. In
1872 a basilica was begun at its side in token of the gratitude of the
city for having escaped occupation by the German troops. The building,
finished in 1894, consists of a nave without aisles flanked at each
exterior corner by a turret and terminating in an apse. The façade, the
lower half of which is a lofty portico supported on four granite
columns, is richly decorated on its upper half with statuary and
sculpture. Marble and mosaic have been lavishly used in the
ornamentation of the interior and of the crypt. Round the apse runs a
gallery from which, according to an old custom, a benediction is
pronounced upon the town annually on the 8th of September. From this
gallery a magnificent view of the city and the surrounding country can
be obtained. At the foot of the hill of Fourvière rises the cathedral of
St Jean, one of the finest examples of early Gothic architecture in
France. Begun in the 12th century, to the end of which the transept and
choir belong, it was not finished till the 15th century, the gable and
flanking towers of the west front being completed in 1480. A triple
portal surmounted by a line of arcades and a rose window gives entrance
to the church. Two additional towers, that to the north containing one
of the largest bells in France, rise at the extremities of the transept.
The nave and choir contain fine stained glass of the 13th and 14th
centuries as well as good modern glass. The chapel of St Louis or of
Bourbon, to the right of the nave, is a masterpiece of Flamboyant
Gothic. To the right and left of the altar stand two crosses preserved
since the council of 1274 as a symbol of the union then agreed upon
between the Greek and Latin churches. Adjoining St Jean is the ancient
Manecanterie or singers' house, much mutilated and frequently restored,
but still preserving graceful Romanesque arcades along its front. St
Martin d'Ainay, on the peninsula, is the oldest church in Lyons, dating
from the beginning of the 6th century and subsequently attached to a
Benedictine abbey. It was rebuilt in the 10th and 11th centuries and
restored in modern times, and is composed of a nave with four aisles, a
transept and choir terminating in three semicircular apses ornamented
with paintings by Hippolyte Flandrin, a native of Lyons. The church is
surmounted by two towers, one in the middle of the west front, the other
at the crossing; the four columns supporting the latter are said to have
come from an altar to Augustus. A mosaic of the 12th century, a high
altar decorated with mosaic work and a beautifully carved confessional
are among the works of art in the interior. St Nizier, in the heart of
the city, was the first cathedral of Lyons; and the crypt in which St
Pothinus officiated still exists. The present church is a Gothic edifice
of the 15th century, with the exception of the porch, constructed by
Philibert Delorme, a native of Lyons, in the 16th century. The Church of
St Paul (12th and 15th centuries), situated on the right bank of the
Saône, preserves an octagonal central tower and other portions of
Romanesque architecture; that of St Bonaventure, originally a chapel of
the Cordeliers, was rebuilt in the 15th and 19th centuries. With the
exception of the imposing prefecture, the vast buildings of the
faculties, which are in the Guillotière quarter, and the law court, the
colonnade of which overlooks the Saône from its right bank, the chief
civil buildings are in the vicinity of the Place des Terreaux. The east
side of this square (so called from the _terreaux_ or earth with which
the canal formerly connecting the Rhône and the Saône hereabouts was
filled) is formed by the hotel de ville (17th century), the east façade
of which, towards the Grand Theatre, is the more pleasing. The south
side of the square is occupied by the Palais des Arts, built in the 17th
century as a Benedictine convent and now accommodating the school of
fine arts, the museums of painting and sculpture, archaeology and
natural history, and the library of science, arts and industry. The
museums are second in importance only to those of Paris. The collection
of antiquities, rich in Gallo-Roman inscriptions, contains the bronze
tablets discovered in 1528, on which is engraved a portion of a speech
delivered in A.D. 48, by the emperor Claudius, advocating the admission
of citizens of Gallia Comata to the Roman senate. The "Ascension," a
masterpiece of Perugino, is the chief treasure of the art collection, in
which are works by nearly all the great masters. A special gallery
contains the works of artists of Lyons, among whom are numbered Antoine
Berjon, Meissonier, Paul Chenavard, Puvis de Chavannes. In the Rue de la
République, between the Place de la Bourse and the Place des Cordeliers,
each of which contains one of its highly ornamented fronts, stands the
Palais du Commerce et de la Bourse, the finest of the modern buildings
of Lyons. The Bourse (exchange) has its offices on the ground floor
round the central glass-roofed hall; the upper storeys accommodate the
commercial tribunal, the council of trade arbitration, the chamber of
commerce and the _Musée historique des Tissus_, in which the history of
the weaving industry is illustrated by nearly 400,000 examples. In the
buildings of the lycée on the right bank of the Rhône are the municipal
library and a collection of globes, among them the great terrestrial
globe made at Lyons in 1701, indicating the great African lakes.

The Hôtel Dieu, instituted according to tradition in the beginning of
the 6th century by King Childebert, is still one of the chief charitable
establishments in the city. The present building dates from the 18th
century; its façade, fronting the west quay of the Rhône for over 1000
ft., was begun according to the designs of Soufflot, architect of the
Pantheon at Paris. The Hospice de la Charité and the military hospital
are on the same bank slightly farther down stream. The Hospice de
l'Antiquaille, at Fourvière, occupies the site of the palace of the
praetorian prefects, in which Germanicus, Claudius and Caracalla were
born. Each of these hospitals contains more than 1000 beds. Lyons has
many other benevolent institutions, and is also the centre of the
operations of the Société de la Propagation de la Foi. The chief
monuments are the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. in the Place
Bellecour, the monuments of President Carnot, Marshal Suchet, the
physicist André-Marie Ampère, and those in honour of the Republic and in
memory of the citizens of the department who fell in the war of 1870-71.
The most noteworthy fountain is that in the Place des Terreaux with the
leaden group by Bartholdi representing the rivers on their way to the
ocean.

There are Roman remains--baths, tombs and the relics of a theatre--in
the St Just quarter on the right bank of the Saône. Three ancient
aqueducts on the Fourvière level, from Montromant, Mont d'Or and Mont
Pilat, can still be traced. Magnificent remains of the latter work may
be seen at St Irénée and Chaponost. Traces also exist along the Rhône of
a subterranean canal conveying the water of the river to a _naumachia_
(lake for mimic sea-fights). Agrippa made Lyons the starting-point of
the principal Roman roads throughout Gaul; and it remains an important
centre in the general system of communication owing to its position on
the natural highway from north to south-eastern France. The Saône above
the town and the Rhône below have large barge and steamboat traffic. The
main line of the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway runs first through the
station at Vaise, on the right bank of the Saône, and thence to that of
Perrache, the chief station in the city. The line next in importance,
that to Geneva, has its station in the Brotteaux quarter, and the line
of the eastern Lyonnais to St Genix d'Aoste has a terminus at
Guillotière; both these lines link up with the Paris-Lyon main line. The
railway to Montbrison starts from the terminus of St Paul in Fourvière
and that to Bourg, Trevoux and the Dombes region from the station of
Croix-Rousse. A less important line to Vaugneray and Mornant has a
terminus at St Just. Besides the extensive system of street tramways,
cable tramways (_ficelles_) run to the summits of the eminences cf
Croix-Rousse, Fourvière and St Just.

Defence.

Lyons is, next to Paris, the principal fortress of the interior of
France, and, like the capital, possesses a military governor. The
immediate protection of the city is provided for on the east side by a
modern enceinte, of simple trace, in the plain (subsidiary to this is
a group of fairly modern detached forts forming an advanced position
at the village of Bron), and on the west by a line of detached forts,
not of recent design, along the high ground on the right bank of the
Saône. Some older forts and a portion of the old enceinte are still
kept up in the city itself, and two of these forts, Montessuy and
Caluire, situated on the peninsula, serve with their annexes to
connect the northern extremities of the two lines above mentioned. The
main line of defence is as usual the outer fort-ring, the perimeter of
which is more than 40 m., and the mean distance from the centre of the
city 6½ m. This naturally divides into four sections. In the eastern
plain, well in advance of the enceinte, eight principal sites have
been fortified, Feyzin, Corbas, St Priest, Genas, Azieu, Meyzieux,
Decines and Chaurant. These form a semicircle from the lower to the
upper reaches of the Rhône. The northern (or north eastern) section,
between the Rhône and the Saône, has forts Neyron and Vancia as its
principal defences; these and their subsidiary batteries derive some
additional support from the forts Montessuy and Caluire mentioned
above. On the north-west side there is a strong group of works
disposed like a redan, of which the salient, fort Verdun and annexes,
is on the high plateau of Mont d'Or pointing northward, and the faces,
represented by forts Freta and Paillet, are lower down on the spurs of
the ridge, facing north-east and north-west respectively. The
south-western section comprises three principal groups, Bruisson,
Côte-Lorette and Montcorin-Champvillard, the last-named crossing its
fire over the Lower Rhône with Fort Feyzin. Lastly a connecting
battery was built near Chapoly in 1895 to close the gap between the
north-western and south-western sections and to command the westward
approaches by the valley of Charbonnieres.

Lyons is the headquarters of the XIV. army-corps, the seat of an
archbishop who holds the title of primate of the Gauls and also that
of archbishop of Vienne, and of a prefect, a court of appeal, a court
of assizes, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and of two
boards of trade arbitration (_conseils de prud'hommes_). It is the
centre of an _academie_ (educational division) and has a university
with faculties of law, letters, science and medicine and pharmacy.
There are also Catholic faculties (_facultés libres_) of law,
theology, science and letters, three _lycées_, training collèges for
teachers and numerous minor educational establishments. There are
besides many special schools at Lyons, the more important being the
school of fine arts which was founded in the 18th century to train
competent designers for the textile manufactures, but has also done
much for painting and sculpture; an army medical school, schools of
drawing, agriculture, music, commerce (_école supérieure de
commerce_), weaving, tanning, watch-making and applied chemistry, and
the écoles La Martiniere for free instruction in science and art as
applied to industry. The veterinary school, instituted in 1761, was
the first of its kind in Europe; its laboratory for the study of
comparative physiology is admirably equipped. Besides the _Académie
des Sciences, Belles Lettres et Arts_ (founded in 1700), Lyons
possesses societies of agriculture, natural history, geography,
horticulture, &c.

Industry and trade.

Its trade in silk and silk goods has formed the basis of the
prosperity of Lyons for several centuries. Derived from Italy, this
industry rapidly developed, thanks to the monopoly granted to the city
in 1450 by Charles VII. and to the patronage of Francis I., Henry II.
and Henry IV. From time to time new kinds of fabrics were
invented--silk stuffs woofed with wool or with gold and silver
threads, shawls, watered silks, poplins, velvets, satinades, moires,
&c. In the beginning of the 19th century J. M. Jacquard introduced his
famous loom by which a single workman was enabled to produce elaborate
fabrics as easily as the plainest web, and by changing the "cartoons"
to make the most different textures on the same looms. In the 17th
century the silk manufacture employed at Lyons, 9000 to 12,000 looms.
After the revocation of the edict of Nantes the number sank to 3000 or
4000; but after the Reign of Terror was past it rose again about 1801
to 12,000. Towards the middle of the 19th century the weaving branch
of the industry began to desert Lyons for the surrounding districts.
The city remains the business centre for the trade and carries on
dyeing, printing and other accessory processes. Lyons disputes with
Milan the position of the leading silk market of Europe. In 1905 the
special office (_la Condition des soies_) which determines the weight
of the silk examined over 4700 tons of silk. France furnished barely
one-tenth of this quantity, two-thirds came from China and Japan, the
rest from Italy and the Levant. The traders of Lyons re-export
seven-twelfths of these silks, the industries of the town employing
the remainder. An almost equal quantity of cotton, wool and waste-silk
threads is mixed with the silk. A few thousand hand-looms are still
worked in the town, more especially producing the richest materials,
50,000 or 55,000 in the surrounding districts, and some 33,000 machine
looms in the suburbs and neighbouring departments. Allied industries
such as dyeing, finishing and printing, employ 12,000 workers.
Altogether 300,000 workpeople depend upon the silk industry. In 1905
the total value of the manufacture was £15,710,000, the chief items
being pure silk textures (plain) £3,336,000; textures of silk mixed
with other materials £3,180,000; silk and foulards £1,152,000; muslins
£3,800,000, this product having increased from £100,000 in 1894.
Speaking roughly the raw material represents half the value, and the
value of the labour the remaining half. About 30% of the silk goods of
Lyons finds a market in France. Great Britain imported them to the
value of over £6,000,000, and the United States to the value of over
£1,600,000, notwithstanding the heavy duty. The dyeing industry and
the manufacture of chemicals have both developed considerably to meet
the requirements of the silk trade. Large quantities of mineral and
vegetable colouring matters are produced and there is besides a large
output of glue, gelatine, superphosphates and phosphorus, all made
from bones and hides, of picric, tartaric, sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids, sulphates of iron and copper, and pharmaceutical and other
chemical products.

Lyons does a large trade in metals, iron, steel and copper, and
utilizes them in the manufacture of iron buildings, framework,
bridges, machinery, railway material, scales, metal cables, pins and
needles, copper-founding and the making of clocks and bronzes. Gold
and silver-working is of importance, especially for embroidery and
articles used in religious ceremonies. Other industries are those of
printing, the manufacture of glass goods, of tobacco (by the state),
the preparation of hides and skins (occupying 20,000 workmen), those
connected with the miller's trade, the manufacture of various forms of
dried flour-paste (macaroni, vermicelli, &c.), brewing, hat-making,
the manufacture of chocolate, and the pork-butcher's industry. Apart
from the dealings in silk and silk goods, trade is in cloth, coal and
charcoal, metals and metal goods, wine and spirits, cheese and
chestnuts. Four miles south-west of Lyons is Oullins (pop. 9859) which
has the important works of the Paris-Lyon railway.

Lyons is the seat of important financial companies; of the Credit
Lyonnais, which does business to the amount of £200,000,000 annually
in Lyons alone; also of coal and metallurgical companies and gas
companies, the former extending their operations as far as Russia, the
latter lighting numerous towns in France and foreign countries.

_History._--The earliest Gallic occupants of the territory at the
confluence of the Rhône and the Saône were the Segusians. In 59 B.C.
some Greek refugees from the banks of the Hérault, having obtained
permission of the natives to establish themselves beside the
Croix-Rousse, called their new town by the Gallic name Lugudunum (q.v.)
or Lugdunum; and in 43 B.C. Lucius Munatius Plancus brought a Roman
colony to Fourvières from Vienne. This settlement soon acquired
importance, and was made by Agrippa the starting-point of four great
roads. Augustus, besides building aqueducts, temples and a theatre, gave
it a senate and made it the seat of an annual assembly of deputies from
the sixty cities of Gallia Comata. At the same time the place became the
Gallic centre for the worship of Rome and the emperor. Under the
emperors the colony of Forum Vetus and the municipium of Lugdunum were
united, receiving the _jus senatus_. The town was burnt in A.D. 59 and
afterwards rebuilt in a much finer style with money given by Nero; it
was also adorned by Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus. The martyrdom of
Pothinus and Blandina occurred under Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 177), and
some years later a still more savage persecution of the Christians took
place under Septimius Severus, in which Irenaeus, according to some
authors, perished.

After having been ravaged by the barbarians and abandoned by the empire,
Lyons in 478 became capital of the kingdom of the Burgundians. It
afterwards fell into the hands of the Franks, and suffered severely from
the Saracens, but revived under Charlemagne, and after the death of
Charles the Bald became part of the kingdom of Provence. From 1032 it
was a fief of the emperor of Germany. Subsequently the authority over
the town was a subject of dispute between the archbishops of Lyons and
the counts of Forez; but the supremacy of the French kings was
established under Philip the Fair in 1312. The citizens were constituted
into a commune ruled by freely elected consuls (1320). In the 13th
century two ecclesiastical councils were held at Lyons--one in 1245,
presided over by Innocent IV., at which the emperor Frederick II. was
deposed; the second, the oecumenical, under the presidency of Gregory
X., in 1274, at which five hundred bishops met. Pope Clement V. was
crowned here in 1305, and his successor, John XXII., elected in 1316.
The Protestants obtained possession of the place in 1562; their acts of
violence were fiercely avenged in 1572 after the St Bartholomew
massacre. Under Henry III. Lyons sided with the League; but it
pronounced in favour of Henry IV. The executions of Henri d'Effiat,
marquis of Cinq-Mars, and of François de Thou, who had plotted to
overthrow Richelieu, took place on the Place des Terreaux in 1642. In
1793 the Royalists and Girondists, powerful in the city, rose against
the Convention, but were compelled to yield to the army of the republic
under General Kellermann after enduring a siege of seven weeks (October
10). Terrible chastisement ensued: the name of Lyons was changed to that
of Ville-affranchie; the demolition of its buildings was set about on a
wholesale scale; and vast numbers of the proscribed, whom the scaffold
had spared, were butchered with grape shot. The town resumed its old
name after the fall of Robespierre, and the terrorists in their turn
were drowned in large numbers in the Rhône. Napoleon rebuilt the Place
Bellecour, reopened the churches, and made the bridge of Tilsit over the
Saône between Bellecour and the cathedral. In 1814 and 1815 Lyons was
occupied by the Austrians. In 1831, 1834, 1849, 1870 and 1871 it was the
scene of violent industrial or political disturbances. In 1840 and 1856
disastrous floods laid waste portions of the city. International
exhibitions were held here in 1872 and 1894, the latter occasion being
marked by the assassination of President Carnot.

See S. Charléty, _Histoire de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1903); J. Godart,
_L'Ouvrier en soie. Monographie du tisseur lyonnais_ (Lyon, 1899); A.
Vachet, _A travers les rues de Lyon_ (Lyon, 1902); A. Steyert,
_Nouvelle Histoire de Lyon et des provinces de Lyonnais Forez,
Beaujolais_ (3 vols., Lyon, 1895-1899).

LYONS, COUNCILS OF. The first Council of Lyons (the thirteenth general
council) met at the summons of Pope Innocent IV. in June and July of
1245, to deliberate on the conflict between Church and emperor, on the
assistance to be granted to the Holy Land and the Eastern empire, on
measures of protection against the Tatars, and on the suppression of
heresy. Among the tasks of the council mentioned in the writs of
convocation, the most important, in the eyes of the pope, was that it
should lend him effectual aid in his labours to overthrow the emperor
Frederick II.; and, with this object in view, he had described the synod
as a general council. Since its numbers were not far in excess of 150
bishops and archbishops, and the great majority of these came from
France, Italy and Spain; while the schismatic Greeks and the other
countries--especially Germany, whose interests were so deeply
involved--were but weakly represented; the ambassador of Frederick,
Thaddaeus of Suessa, contested its oecumenicity in the assembly itself.
The condemnation of the emperor was a foregone conclusion. The articles
of indictment described him as the "prince of tyranny, the destroyer of
ecclesiastical dogma, the annihilator of the faith, the master of
cruelty," and so forth; while the grossest calumnies were treated as
approved facts. The objections of the ambassador, that the accused had
not been regularly cited, that the pope was plaintiff and judge in one,
and that therefore the whole process was anomalous, achieved as little
success as his appeal to the future pontiff and to a truly oecumenical
council. The representatives of the kings of England and France were
equally unfortunate in their claim for a prorogation of the decision. On
the 17th of July the verdict was pronounced by Innocent IV.,
excommunicating Frederick and dethroning him on the grounds of perjury,
sacrilege, heresy and felony. All oaths of fealty sworn to him were
pronounced null and void, and the German princes were commanded to
proceed with the election of a new sovereign. In addition the council
enacted decrees against the growing irregularities in the Church, and
passed resolutions designed to support the Crusaders and revive the
struggle for the Holy Land.

See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom, xxiii.; Huillard-Breholles,
_Historia diplomatica Frederici II_., 6 tom. (Paris, 1852-1861);
Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, ed. 2, vol. v. (1886), pp. 1105-1126;
Fr. W. Schirrmacher, _Kaiser Friederich der Zweite_ (4 vols.,
Göttingen, 1859-1865); H. Schulz, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_,
ed. 3, vol. ix. (1901), p. 122 sqq., s.v. "Innocenz IV."; A. Folz,
_Kaiser Friedrich II. u. Papst Innocenz IV_. (Strassburg, 1905).

The second Council of Lyons (the fourteenth general council) met from
the 7th of May to the 17th of July 1274, under the presidency of Pope
Gregory X., and was designed to resolve three problems: to terminate the
Greek schism, to decree a new Crusade, and to counteract the moral
corruption among clerics and laity. The council entered on its third
task at a very late period, with the result that the requisite time for
an adequate deliberation was not available. Nevertheless, on the 1st of
November, Gregory was enabled to publish thirty-one constitutions, which
may be taken to represent the fruits of the synod and its labours. The
most important of the enactments passed is that regulating the papal
election. It prescribed that the new election conducted by the college
of cardinals should be held in conclave (q.v.), and its duration
abridged by progressive simplification of the cardinal's diet. The
motive for this decision, which has maintained its ground in
ecclesiastical law, was given by the circumstances which followed the
death of Clement IV. (1268). The pope felt a peculiar interest in the
Holy Land, from which he was recalled by his elevation to the pontifical
throne. He succeeded in bringing influential interests to work in the
cause; but his scheme of a great enterprise backed by the whole force of
the West came to nothing, for the day of the Crusades was past. His
projected Crusade was interwoven with his endeavours to end the schism;
and the political straits of the emperor Michael Palaeologus in
Constantinople came to the aid of these aspirations. To ensure his
safety against the attacks of King Charles of Sicily, who had pledged
himself to assist the ex-emperor Baldwin in his reconquest of the Latin
empire, Michael was required to own the supremacy of the pope in the
spiritual domain; while Gregory, in return, would restrain the Sicilian
monarch from his bellicose policy with regard to the Eastern empire.
The ambassadors of the emperor appeared at the council with letters
acknowledging the Roman pontiff and the confession of faith previously
dispatched from the eternal city, and submitted similarly-worded
declarations from the heads of the Byzantine Church. One member of the
embassy, the Logothete Georgius Acropolites, was authorized by the
emperor to take an oath in his name, renouncing the schism. In short,
the subjection of the East to the Roman see was completed in the most
binding forms, and the long-desired union seemed at last assured.
Gregory himself did not live to discover its illusory character. The
Council of Lyons was, moreover, of importance for the German dynastic
struggle: for Gregory took the first public step in favour of Count
Rudolph of Habsburg, the king-elect, by receiving his deputy and denying
an audience to the delegate of the rival claimant, King Alphonso of
Castile.

See Mansi, _Collectio conciliorum_, tom. xxiv.; Hefele,
_Conciliengeschichte_, vol. vi. ed. 2 (1890), p. 119 sqq. Also C.
Mirbt, in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklop. f. protestantische Theologie_,
vol. vii. (1899), p. 122, s.v. "Gregor X." (C. M.)

LYRA ("The Harp"), in astronomy, a constellation in the northern
hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued 10 stars in this constellation; Tycho
Brahe 11 and Hevelius 17. [alpha] _Lyrae_ or Vega, is the second
brightest star in the northern hemisphere, and notable for the whiteness
of its light, which is about 100 times that of the sun. The name "vega"
is a remnant of an Arabic phrase meaning "falling eagle," "Altair," or
[alpha] _Aquilae_, is the similar remnant of "flying eagle." [epsilon]
_Lyrae_ is a multiple star, separated by the naked eye or by a small
telescope into two stars; these are each resolved into two stars by a
3" telescope, while a more powerful instrument (4") reveals three
smaller stars between the two pairs, [beta] _Lyrae_ and _R. Lyrae_ are
short period variables. There is the famous ring or annular nebula, _M.
57 Lyrae_, in the middle of which is a very faint star, which is readily
revealed by photography; and also the meteoric swarm named the _Lyrids_,
which appear in April and have their radiant in this constellation (see
METEOR).

LYRE (Gr. [Greek: lyra]), an ancient stringed musical instrument. The
recitations of the Greeks were accompanied by it. Yet the lyre was not
of Greek origin; no root in the language has been discovered for [Greek:
lyra], although the special names bestowed upon varieties of the
instrument are Hellenic. We have to seek in Asia the birthplace of the
genus, and to infer its introduction into Greece through Thrace or
Lydia. The historic heroes and improvers of the lyre were of the Aeolian
or Ionian colonies, or the adjacent coast bordering on the Lydian
empire, while the mythic masters, Orpheus, Musaeus and Thamyris, were
Thracians. Notwithstanding the Hermes tradition of the invention of the
lyre in Egypt, the Egyptians seem to have adopted it from Assyria or
Babylonia.

To define the lyre, it is necessary clearly to separate it from the
allied harp and guitar. In its primal form the lyre differs from the
harp, of which the earliest, simplest notion is found in the bow and
bowstring. While the guitar (and lute) can be traced back to the typical
"nefer" of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, the fretted finger-board of
which, permitting the production of different notes by the shortening of
the string, is as different in conception from the lyre and harp as the
flute with holes to shorten the column of air is from the syrinx or
Pandean pipes. The frame of a lyre consists of a hollow body or
sound-chest ([Greek: echeion]). From this sound-chest are raised two
arms ([Greek: pecheis]), which are sometimes hollow, and are bent both
outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or
yoke ([Greek: zygon, zygoma], or, from its having once been a reed,
[Greek: kalamos]). Another crossbar ([Greek: malas, hypolyrion]), fixed
on the sound-chest, forms the bridge which transmits the vibrations of
the strings. The deepest note was the farthest from the player; but, as
the strings did not differ much in length, more weight may have been
gained for the deeper notes by thicker strings, as in the violin and
similar modern instruments, or they were turned with slacker tension.
The strings were of gut ([Greek: chorde], whence chord). They were
stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the
bridge. There were two ways of tuning: one was to fasten the strings to
pegs which might be turned ([Greek: kollaboi, kollopes]); the other was
to change the place of the string upon the crossbar; probably both
expedients were simultaneously employed. It is doubtful whether [Greek:
he chordotonos] meant the tuning key or the part of the instrument where
the pegs were inserted. The extensions of the arms above the yoke were
known as [Greek: kerata], horns.

The number of strings varied at different epochs, and possibly in
different localities--four, seven and ten having been favourite numbers.
They were used without a finger-board, no Greek description or
representation having ever been met with that can be construed as
referring to one. Nor was a bow possible, the flat sound-board being an
insuperable impediment. The plectrum, however ([Greek: plektron]), was
in constant use. It was held in the right hand to set the upper strings
in vibration ([Greek: krekein, krouein to plektro]); at other times it
hung from the lyre by a ribbon. The fingers of the left hand touched the
lower strings ([Greek: psallein]).

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Chelys or Lyre from a vase in the British
Museum, where also are fragments of such an instrument, the back of
which is of shell.]

[Illustration: Gerhard, _Auserl. griech. Vasenbilder._

FIG. 2.--Tortoise-shell Lyre from a Greek vase in Munich.]

With Greek authors the lyre has several distinct names; but we are
unable to connect these with anything like certainty to the varieties of
the instrument. Chelys ([Greek: chelys], "tortoise") may mean the
smallest lyre, which, borne by one arm or supported by the knees,
offered in the sound-chest a decided resemblance to that familiar
animal. That there was a difference between lyre and cithara ([Greek:
kithara]) is certain, Plato and other writers separating them. Hermes
and Apollo had an altar at Olympia in common because the former had
invented the lyre and the latter the cithara. The lyre and chelys on the
one hand, and the cithara and phorminx on the other, were similar or
nearly identical. Apollo is said to have carried a golden phorminx.
(A. J. H.)

There are three lines of evidence that establish the difference between
the lyre and cithara: (1) There are certain vase paintings in which the
name [Greek: lyra] accompanies the drawing of the instrument, as, for
instance, in fig. 2 where the tortoise-shell lyre is obviously
represented.[1] (2) In all legends accounting for the invention of the
lyre, the shell or body of the tortoise is invariably mentioned as
forming the back of the instrument, whereas the tortoise has never been
connected with the cithara. (3) The lyre is emphatically distinguished
as the most suitable instrument for the musical training of young men
and maidens and as the instrument of the amateur, whereas the cithara
was the instrument of _citharoedus_ or _citharista_, professional
performers at the Pythian Games, at ceremonies and festivals, the former
using his instrument to accompany epic recitations and odes, the latter
for purely instrumental music. The costume worn by citharoedus and
citharista was exceedingly rich and quite distinct from any other.[2]

We find the lyre represented among scenes of domestic life, in lessons,
receptions, at banquets and in mythological scenes; it is found in the
hands of women no less than men, and the costume of the performer is
invariably that of an ordinary citizen. Lyres were of many sizes and
varied in outline according to period and nationality.

We therefore possess irrefutable evidence of identification in both
cases, all of which tallies exactly. Examination of the construction of
the instruments thus identified reveals the fact that both possessed
characteristics which have persisted throughout the middle ages to the
present day in various instruments evolved from these two archetypes.
The principal feature of both lyre and cithara was the peculiar method
of construction adopted in the sound-chest, which may be said to have
been almost independent of the outline. In the lyre the sound-chest
consisted of a vaulted back, in imitation of the tortoise, over which
was directly glued a flat sound-board of wood or parchment. In the
cithara (q.v.) the sound-chest was shallower, and the back and front
were invariably connected by sides or ribs. These two methods of
constructing the sound-chests of stringed instruments were typical, and
to one or the other may be referred every stringed instrument with a
neck which can be traced during the middle ages in miniatures, early
printed books, on monuments and other works of art. (K. S.)

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Egyptian Cithara now at Berlin.]

Passing by the story of the discovery of the lyre from a vibrating
tortoise-shell by Hermes, we will glance at the real lyres of Egypt
and Semitic Asia. The Egyptian lyre is unmistakably Semitic. The
oldest representation that has been discovered is in one of the tombs
of Beni Hassan, the date of the painting being in the XIIth Dynasty,
that is, shortly before the invasion of "the shepherd kings" (the
Hyksos). In this painting, which both Rosellini and Lepsius have
reproduced, an undoubted Semite carries a seven or eight-stringed
lyre, or rather cithara in transition, similar to the _rotta_ of the
middle ages. The instrument has a four-cornered body and an irregular
four-cornered frame above it, and the player carries it horizontally
from his breast, just as a modern Nubian would his kissar. He plays as
he walks, using both hands, a plectrum being in the right. Practical
knowledge of these ancient instruments may be gained through two
remarkable specimens preserved in the museums of Berlin (fig. 3) and
Leiden (see CITHARA). During the rule of the Hyksos the lyre became
naturalized in Egypt, and in the 18th dynasty it is frequently
depicted, and with finer grace of form. In the 19th and 20th dynasties
the lyre is sometimes still more slender, or is quite unsymmetrical
and very strong, the horns surmounted by heads of animals as in the
Berlin one, which has horses' heads at those extremities. Prokesch
copied one in the ruins of Wadi Halfa, splendid in blue and gold, with
a serpent wound round it. The Egyptians always strung their lyres
fan-shaped, like the modern Nubian kissar. Their paintings show three
to eight or nine strings, but the painters' accuracy may not be
unimpeachable; the Berlin instrument had fifteen. The three-stringed
lyre typified the three seasons of the Egyptian year--the water, the
green and the harvest; the seven, the planetary system from the moon
to Saturn. The Greeks had the same notion of the harmony of the
spheres.

There is no evidence as to what the stringing of the Greek lyre was in
the heroic age. Plutarch says that Olympus and Terpander used but
three strings to accompany their recitation. As the four strings led
to seven and eight by doubling the tetrachord, so the trichord is
connected with the hexachord or six-stringed lyre depicted on so many
archaic Greek vases. We cannot insist on the accuracy of this
representation, the vase painters being little mindful of the complete
expression of details; yet we may suppose their tendency would be
rather to imitate than to invent a number. It was their constant
practice to represent the strings as being damped by the fingers of
the left hand of the player, after having been struck by the plectrum
which he held in the right hand. Before the Greek civilization had
assumed its historic form, there was likely to be great freedom and
independence of different localities in the matter of lyre stringing,
which is corroborated by the antique use of the chromatic (half-tone)
and enharmonic (quarter-tone) tunings, pointing to an early
exuberance, and perhaps also to an Asiatic bias towards refinements of
intonation, from which came the [Greek: chroai], the hues of tuning,
old Greek modifications of tetrachords entirely disused in the classic
period. The common scale of Olympus remained, a double trichord which
had served as the scaffolding for the enharmonic varieties.