The Submarine in War and Peace - Its Development and its Possibilities

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Title: The Submarine in War and Peace - Its Development and its Possibilities
Author: Lake, Simon
Language: English
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THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE

[Illustration: (Frontispiece; Simon Lake)]

THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE

ITS DEVELOPMENTS AND ITS POSSIBILITIES

BY
SIMON LAKE, M.I.N.A.

_WITH 71 ILLUSTRATIONS
AND A CHART_

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
1918

PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS
PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

DEDICATED
TO
LEBBEUS B. MILLER
OF ELIZABETH, NEW JERSEY

An honest and patriotic man, who took up a poor young man, and
who, through his thorough grasp of things mechanical, was among
the first to see practical possibilities in the dreams of a young
inventor. With his financial means he was able to assist materially
in the development and perfection of an important weapon for the
defence of his country, thus rendering a valuable service to the
nation.

Without his assistance much of the development work described in
this volume would have been impossible of accomplishment.

No greater tribute can be paid to him than to remark of him that
he is one--and there are but few of whom this may be said--who has
steadfastly refused to take advantage of conditions which offered
him the opportunity to increase his personal fortune at the expense
of other individuals or of the welfare of his country.

FOREWORD

Some twenty years ago the author began to collect data with the idea
of publishing a book on the submarine at a future time. There was very
little information concerning submarines available at that date, as the
early experiments in this field of navigation were generally conducted
in secrecy. There had been constructed, up to that time, no submarine
vessel which was entirely successful, and for this reason inventors and
designers were disinclined to reveal the features of the vessels upon
which they were experimenting.

Since then there has been considerable dissemination of facts about
the submarine; much of this knowledge has found its way into print,
some in short historical sketches published by the author and other
designers. However, most of the publications on this subject have come
from the hands of professional writers and newspaper men, some of whom
have not had the engineering knowledge to sift the practical from the
impractical, and who have not had any actual first-hand acquaintance
with the facts. They have not understood the mechanical details of the
submarine and the principles governing its operation well enough to
comprehend or to elucidate the various phases of the development of
this type of vessel. The result has been that many inaccuracies have
been published, both in respect to the history of the development of
the submarine and in regard to the practical operation of such vessels.

There have been published one or two good works dealing with this
subject in a very complete and intelligible manner, but intended for
those engaged in engineering pursuits. One of the best of these was
"The Evolution of the Submarine Boat, Mine and Torpedo, from the
Sixteenth Century to the Present Time," by Commander Murray F. Sueter,
of the Royal British Navy, published in 1907.

When this book first appeared the present writer felt that the subject
had been so fully covered that there was no need for him to publish
his own information. However, since the beginning of the world-war
the prominent part played by the submarine has led to a demand for
more knowledge about the workings of this weapon of mystery, and for
information concerning its future possibilities.

The aim of this work, therefore, is to present to the reader in a
simple, interesting way the facts relating to the submarine; its
mechanical principles; the history of its development; its actual
operation; the difficulty of combating it; and its industrial
possibilities. These facts are presented, together with descriptions of
the experience of the author and other inventors, in order to clarify
in the reader's mind the difficulties, the trials and tribulations
of both the submarine operator and the inventor. Furthermore, the
narrative is not restricted to a discussion of the submarine question
from a mechanical standpoint. The submarine to-day is a factor in the
political and industrial life of the world. The submarine problem
transcends a mere matter of mechanical detail, and a book upon this
topic must, of necessity, deal with it in its broadest aspects.

SIMON LAKE

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. WHAT THE MODERN SUBMARINE IS 6

II. COMEDY AND TRAGEDY IN SUBMARINE DEVELOPMENT 36

III. EXPERIENCES OF PIONEER INVENTORS OF THE SUBMARINE 77

IV. THE EVOLUTION OF THE SUBMARINE 149

V. USE OF THE SUBMARINE IN WAR 196

VI. THE POSSIBILITY OF DEFEATING THE SUBMARINE 228

VII. THE SUBMARINE IN TIMES OF PEACE 259

VIII. THE DESTINY OF THE SUBMARINE 289

ILLUSTRATIONS

DOUBLETONES

PAGE

Simon Lake _Frontispiece_

The Pigmy Conquerer of the Sea 2

Storage Battery Cell 14

A Submarine Cell Completely Assembled Ready for Installation 14

On Picket Duty 20

The Lower Portion of Galileo Periscope 22

The Voice and Ear of the Submarine 26

Torpedo Tubes Assembled Ready for Installation in a Submarine Boat 27

A Whitehead Torpedo 28

Rear End of the Whitehead Torpedo 29

Rapid-firing Guns 30

A Modern Submarine Cruiser, or Fleet Submarine (Lake Type) 32

The Launching of the "Protector" 62

The "Delphine" 66

The "Fenian Ram" 96

"Argonaut, Jr.," 1894 128

Sketch of the Confederate Submarine "Hunley" 150

The New Orleans Submarine 152

The "Intelligent Whale" 153

"Argonaut" as Originally Built. Launched in August, 1897 176

Submarine with Cushioned Bottom Wheels 178

The "Argonaut" after being Lengthened and Rebuilt, in 1898,
Showing Ship-shaped, Watertight, Buoyant Superstructure 182

The "Holland" Running on the Surface 190

"Amphibious" Submarine 202

The "Protector" (Lake Type, 1901-1902) 210

Official Drawing of the Captured German Mine-planting Submarine,
U C-5 214

A Bottom-Creeping Submarine Passing Through a Mine Field 216

A Mine and Net Evading Submarine Under-running a Net 217

Mines Placed Under Ships at Anchor 220

Submarine Supply Station 221

Submarine "Seal"--Lake Type U.S. 226

British Submarine B-1 (Holland type) 227

British Submarine C-2 Arriving at Portsmouth in a Gale 230

Germany's U-9 and Some of Her Sister Submarines.--Aeroplane
and Submarine 234

Russian Cruiser-Lake Type Submarine in Shed Built by Peter
the Great--1905 236

A Group of German U-boats 238

Russian-Lake Type Cruising Submarine "Kaiman" making a Surface
Run in Rough Weather in the Gulf of Finland 239

The U-65 242

Russian-Lake Type 243

C-1, One of the Later Type French Submarines 248

Cargo-Carrying Submarines of the Author's Design 249

The "Deutschland" 252

Torpedo being Fired from the Deck Tubes of the Submarine "Seal" 256

British Submarine No. 3 Passing Nelson's Old Flagship "Victory" 257

Under-ice Navigation 260

A Submarine Garden at the Bottom of the Sea 266

Submarines for Hydrographic Work and Wreck Finding 267

The "Argonaut" Submerged 276

Experimental Cargo-Recovering Submarine 278

Sketch Drawing Illustrating a Method of Transferring Cargoes from
Sunken Vessels to Submerged Freight Cargo-Carrying Submarines 278

Semi-submergible Wrecking Apparatus 280

Submarine Oyster-Gathering Vessel 286

The "Argosy and Argonaut III" 290

Diagram of the "Argosy and Argonaut III" 291

LINE CUTS

Method of Control in Diving Type Boats 17

Method of Controlling Hydroplane Boats 18

How Hydroplanes Control Depth of Submersion 19

Showing Various Conditions in Which a Submarine of the Level Keel
Type Fitted with Bottom Wheels, May Navigate 21

The Periscope is the Eye of the Submarine 23

Diving Compartment 31

Bushnell's Submarine, the "American Turtle" 79

Robert Fulton's Submarine 82

Tuck's "Peacemaker" 84

Longitudinal Section of the French Submarine "Le Plongeur" 153

The "Plunger" (Holland Type Submarine), Launched in August, 1897 167

Lake Design as Submitted to the U. S. Navy Department in 1893 170

The "Argonaut" after Lengthening and Addition of Buoyant,
Ship-shaped Superstructure, Increasing the Surface Buoyancy
over 40 Per Cent 178

The "Holland" 190

Various Types of Modern Foreign Submarines 194

An Amphibious Submarine being Hauled out of the Water 204

The "Caviar Map" of Shipping's Greatest Grave-yard 283

CHART

Diagram to Illustrate the Comparative Visibility and Consequently
the Comparative Safety of Surface Ships and Cargo-Carrying
Submarines 254

THE SUBMARINE IN WAR AND PEACE

INTRODUCTION

Jules Verne, in 1898, cabled to a New York publication: "While my book,
'Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea,' is entirely a work of the
imagination, my conviction is that all I said in it will come to pass.
A thousand-mile voyage in the Baltimore submarine boat (the _Argonaut_)
is evidence of this. This conspicuous success of submarine navigation
in the United States will push on under-water navigation all over the
world. If such a successful test had come a few months earlier it might
have played a great part in the war just closed (Spanish-American war).
The next war may be largely a contest between submarine boats. Before
the United States gains her full development she is likely to have
mighty navies, not only on the bosom of the Atlantic and Pacific, but
in the upper air and beneath the waters of the surface."

The fantasy of Verne is the fact of to-day.

Admiral Farragut, in 1864, entered Mobile Bay while saying: "Damn the
torpedoes--four bells; Captain Drayton, go ahead; Jouett, full speed!"

An admiral, in 1917, damns the torpedoes and orders full speed ahead,
but _not_ toward those points guarded by submarine torpedo boats.

While the British Admiralty once held that the submarine "is the weapon
of the weaker power and not our concern," to-day the British naval
officers in the North Sea operations somewhat discredit the former
official Admiralty stand that "we know all about submarines; they are
weapons of the weaker power; they are very poor fighting machines and
can be of no possible use to the mistress of the seas."

Even as late as 1904 the submarine was not considered by naval
authorities as a weapon of much value. A British admiral expressed his
views on the submarine at that time in these words: "In my opinion,
the British Admiralty is doing the right thing in building submarines,
as in habituating our men and officers to them we shall more clearly
realize their weaknesses when used against us. Even the weapon they
carry (the Whitehead torpedo) is, to all intents and purposes, of
unknown value for sea fighting."

However, from the very outbreak of the war now being carried on in
Europe, the submarine has made its presence felt as a most effective
weapon. German submarines have translated into actuality the prophecies
of Verne, and have altered the views not only of the English but of the
world as to the efficacy of the submarine as a naval weapon.

[Illustration: THE PIGMY CONQUERER OF THE SEA.

A drawing made by the author in 1893 to illustrate the possibilities of
his submarine boat, and called "The Pigmy Conquerer of the Sea."]

On March 10, 1915, a former chief constructor in the French Navy,
M. Lauboeuf, stated: "An English fleet blockades the German coast,
but at such a distance that a German division was able to go out and
bombard Scarborough. When the English tried a close blockade at the
beginning of the war, the German submarines made them pay dearly
by torpedoing the _Pathfinder_, _Cressy_, _Hogue_, and _Aboukir_.
Similarly the French fleet in the Adriatic was compelled to
blockade Austrian ports from a great distance, and the battleships
_Jules Ferry_, _Waldeck Rousseau_, and _Jean Bart_ had fortunate
escapes from the Austrian fleet."

As I write, the submarines of Germany are holding the navies of the
Allied Powers in check. The British fleet dares not invade German
waters or attempt a close blockade of German ports. In spite of the
mighty English navy, the German U-boats--the invisible destroyers--are
venturing forth daily into the open Atlantic and are raising such havoc
with merchant shipping that the world is terrified at the prospect.
It is the German U-boat which to-day encourages the Central Powers to
battle almost single-handedly against the rest of the world's great
nations.

So it is in this surprising manner that the submarine torpedo boat has
emerged from its swaddling clothes and has begun to speak for itself.
Its progress and development have been retarded for many years by the
lack of appreciation of its possibilities on the part of those who have
had the planning of naval programs. These have been, for the most part,
men of ripe years and experience, and perhaps because of these years of
experience they have become ultra-conservative and have been inclined
to scoff and doubt the capabilities of any new device until it has been
tried out by the fire of actual experience. Notwithstanding the fact
that the problem of submarine navigation has been successfully solved
for the past fifteen years, it has been only within the past four years
that any great naval authority has unqualifiedly endorsed submarines as
being of paramount importance in naval affairs.

Admiral Sir Percy Scott, in a strong letter to the _London Times_
shortly previous to the beginning of the present war, stated: "The
introduction of the vessels that swim under water has, in my opinion,
entirely done away with the utility of the ships that swim on top of
the water."

He stated further: "If we go to war with a country that is within
striking distance of submarines, I am of the opinion that the country
will at once lock up their dreadnoughts in some safe harbor and we
shall do the same. I do not think the importance of submarines has
been fully recognized, neither do I think that it has been realized
how completely their advent has revolutionized naval warfare. In my
opinion, as the motor has driven the horse from the road, so the
submarine has driven the battleship from the sea."

Sir Percy Scott, however, is an inventor, being the man who devised the
"spot" method of gun firing, and has, therefore, the type of mind which
is able to foresee and to grasp the value of new devices.

Sir A. Conan Doyle, another man of great vision and imagination, was
so impressed with the potentialities of the submarine that he wrote a
story which prophesied, with such accuracy as to make his tale almost
uncanny, the events which are actually taking place to-day around the
coast of England in the prosecution of Germany's submarine blockade.

In these pages, therefore, I may make claims for submarines which have
not yet been publicly proved by actual performance, and such claims
may impress many as being as visionary as the destructive capabilities
of submarines appeared to be until Lieutenant Weddingen, of the German
Navy, shocked the conservatives and put the submarine on the map as a
naval weapon by sinking, single-handed, three cruisers within one hour
of each other.

I shall be careful, however, not to make any claim for submarines which
is not warranted by experiments actually made during my twenty-two
years' continual study and experience in designing and building
submarine boats and submarine appliances in the United States and
abroad.

To men of imagination and of inventive faculties these claims will not
appear preposterous. The achievements of the submarine, in the face
of all the ridicule, scepticism, and opposition which surrounded its
development, will, I hope, commend these advanced ideas of mine to the
attention, if not the respect, of the more conservative.

CHAPTER I

WHAT THE MODERN SUBMARINE IS

What is a modern submarine boat? A modern submarine vessel is a complex
mechanism capable of being navigated on the surface of the water just
as is any boat, but with the added faculty of disappearing at will
beneath the surface, and of being operated beneath the surface in
any desired direction at any desired depth. Some submarines are able
to wheel along the bottom itself, and are also provided with diving
compartments from which members of the crew, encased in diving suits,
may readily leave and re-enter the vessel during its submergence.

The principal use to which the submarine vessel has thus far been
turned has been that of a naval weapon, for scouting and for firing
explosive automobile torpedoes, either for defensive or offensive
purposes. Its full capacity has by no means been realized up to the
present time.

All submarines, regardless of their design, have certain essential
features which will be described in the order of their importance.

=The Hull.=--This must be watertight and capable of withstanding a
pressure corresponding to the depth at which the vessel is designed
to operate. The hull in most submarines is circular in cross-section;
the circular form is best adapted for withstanding pressure. In some
cases this circular hull is surrounded by another hull or is fitted
with other appendages which will both increase the stability and
seaworthiness of the submarine and add to its speed.

=Superstructure.=--Most of the early military submarines built for
the French, Spanish, United States, and English governments were
circular in cross-section and of cigar-or spindle-shaped form in their
longitudinal profile view. It is difficult, in vessels of this form,
to secure sufficient stability to make them seaworthy. They are apt to
roll like a barrel when light, due to a diminishing water plane, and
when under way the water is forced up over their bows, making a large
"bow wave" which absorbs power and causes such vessels to dive at times
when least expected. In some instances this tendency to dive has caused
loss of the vessel, and, in some cases, of the lives of the crew as
well.

They are also very wet for surface navigation, as the seas break over
their inclined sides like breakers on a beach. These difficulties
led to the invention of the buoyant superstructure, first used on
the _Argonaut_. This is a watertight structure built of light-weight
plating--in some cases it has been built of wood--with valves which
admit free water to the interior of the superstructure before
submerging.

By the admission of the water, danger of collapse is prevented. By this
expedient the pressure upon these light plates is equalized when the
vessel is submerged. This combination of a circular pressure-resisting
inner structure, surmounted by a non-pressure-resisting outer structure
of ship-shaped form, is now common to all modern submarines of all
navies of the world. This superstructure adds to the seaworthiness and
habitability of submarine vessels and increases their speed, both in
the light and submerged conditions, as it admits of better stream lines.

=Stability.=--The stability of a vessel refers to its ability to
keep upright and on a level keel. It is desirable to have great
stability in a submarine in order that it may not assume excessive
angles when submerged. The measure of stability is expressed in
inches of metacentric height. The metacentric height of a vessel when
submerged is the distance between the centre of buoyancy--or submerged
volume--of the vessel and the centre of all the weights of hull,
machinery, stores, and equipment contained within the vessel. This
distance between the centre of buoyancy and the centre of gravity must
be determined very accurately in order to obtain conditions of ideal
stability in a submarine.

The metacentric height of a vessel is a term used in naval architecture
to express the stability of the ship. In surface ships the term may
be used to express either the longitudinal or transverse stability of
the vessel, and varies according to the load line and trim or heel of
the ship. On the other hand, in submarine boats _when submerged_ the
metacentric height is constant and expresses the distance between the
centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy of the vessel, and is the
same either in the transverse or longitudinal plane of the vessel. In
other words, the centre of buoyancy of the vessel when submerged must
be directly over the centre of gravity of the vessel to cause her to
submerge on a level keel.

We then get the effect of a pendulum, the length of the pendulum arm
being the distance between the two points, and the weight of the
pendulum equalling the weight of the ship. Therefore, if a submarine
has a submerged displacement of five hundred tons, with a metacentric
height of twelve inches, her stability, or ability to remain upright,
is equal to a pendulum of five hundred tons hung by an arm twelve
inches long, and it would require the same force to incline the ship
as it would to incline the pendulum. Therefore it is evident that the
greater the metacentric height the more stable the ship, and the less
likely she is to make eccentric dives to the bottom or "broach" to the
surface.

=Ballast Tanks.=--All submarines are fitted with tanks which may be
filled with water so that the vessel will submerge; these are called
ballast tanks. When the vessel is navigating on the surface she has
what is called "reserve of buoyancy," the same as any surface vessel.
It is this reserve of buoyancy which causes the vessel to rise with the
seas in rough weather. It means the volume of the watertight portion
of the vessel above the water line. In surface cruising a vessel with
great buoyancy will rise to the seas, while if the "reserve" is small
the vessel is termed "loggy" and will not rise to the sea. In the
latter case the seas will break over the vessel just as they break over
a partially submerged rock in a storm. On such a vessel the men cannot
go on deck in a storm; in a sea-going submarine a large reserve of
buoyancy is therefore essential.

Now in a modern submarine, of five hundred tons submerged displacement,
for instance, this reserve should be about one hundred and twenty-five
tons, according to the best practice. This means that before the vessel
could sink beneath the surface the ballast tanks must be filled with
one hundred and twenty-five tons of water. On the surface these tanks
are filled with air. The water is permitted to enter by the opening of
valves for that purpose. These ballast tanks are located within the
main hull and in the superstructure.

=Propelling Machinery.=--When on the surface the submarine may be
propelled by steam, internal-combustion engines, or any other kind
of motive power adapted to the propulsion of surface ships. For
propulsion when submerged many types of engine have been tried:
compressed air engines; steam engines drawing the steam from boilers
in which water has been stored at high temperatures; carbonic acid
gas engines, and the internal-combustion engines receiving their
air supply from compressed-air tanks. Most modern submarines use
internal-combustion engines for surface navigation and storage
batteries delivering current to electric motors for submerged
propulsion. The internal-combustion engine is best suited for surface
work because it can be started or stopped instantly, which is a
desirable feature in submarine work. It is not fitted for submerged
operation because of its great noisiness, and also because its spent
gases must be discharged from the boat, in which case these gases
ascend to the surface in the form of bubbles and thus betray the
presence and position of the submarine. The storage battery, on the
contrary, permits the use of practically noiseless machinery and does
not require any outboard discharge of gases, as the battery gives off
no material quantity of gases when delivering its stored-up power.

I was the first to use successfully an internal-combustion engine in
a submarine boat, the _Argonaut_. This first engine was a heavy-duty
engine of rugged construction, and gave but little trouble. This
type of engine, with but slight modifications, was installed in six
other boats built subsequent to the _Argonaut_. They also worked
satisfactorily for several years, and so long as I had knowledge of
them they always gave satisfactory and reliable service.

The first gasolene (petrol) internal-combustion engines installed in
the Holland boats were also of rugged construction, and I have been
informed by various officers in our submarine service that they were
reliable and gave but little trouble. It is known that, after twelve
years' service, some of them are still doing good work. The boats in
which these engines were installed were slow-speed boats, making only
from eight to nine knots on the surface.

A natural desire on the part of the governments of various nations was
to secure increased speed. They sent out requirements to submarine boat
builders calling for increased speeds within certain limits of cost.
The submarine boat builders said: "Certainly we can give you increased
speed if the engine builders can give us engines of the necessary
power to go into the available space, and within a certain weight, to
thus enable us to get the power plant within a certain size vessel
possessing the fine lines necessary to give the required speed." The
engine builders said _they could do it_.

The first, as I remember, to break away from the slow-speed, heavy-duty
type was a celebrated Italian firm. Then two large and well-known
German firms followed; then a celebrated English firm, and certain
American firms claimed that they could build reliable, compact,
high-speed engines on very much less weight than we had been using.
I remember one American firm which offered engines as low in weight
as twenty pounds per horsepower. Fortunately, we had sense enough to
refuse to accept an engine so light as that, but we, as well as all
other submarine boat builders both in this country and abroad, did
accept contracts which required engines very much less in weight than
the old, slow, heavy-duty type first used, and there has been "wailing
and gnashing of teeth" both by the submarine boat builders and by the
engine-room forces in the world's submarine navies ever since.

The first light-weight engines built by the Italian firm "smashed
up" in short order. The German engines followed suit, and the losses
to this firm, or to the shipbuilders, must have been enormous, as a
large number of engines were built by them before a set was tested
out in actual service. The test of an engine in the shop, on a heavy
foundation, open to inspection on all sides, and with expert mechanics
in constant touch with the engine, does not mean that this same
engine will prove satisfactory in the restricted space available in a
submarine boat when run by other than expert engine-building mechanics.
I was present at a shop test of one of the German engines referred to,
and under shop conditions it appeared to work very well--so well, in
fact, that I took an option for my firm to build from the same designs
in America. When the engine was tried out, however, in one of the
German submarines it rapidly deteriorated and pounded itself into junk
in a few weeks. Cylinders and cylinder heads cracked, bed-plates were
broken, and crank-shafts twisted or broken. It was evident that the
design was too light all the way through.

There are some destructive actions in connection with large,
high-speed, light-weight internal-combustion engines which practically
all designing engineers have failed to grasp. Otherwise, engineers of
all nationalities would not have failed to the extent they have; and I
do not believe that there is a submarine engine in service to-day which
has fully met the expectations of its designers and builders.

It is unfortunate for the engineering profession that government policy
will not permit of a full disclosure of the defects of engines and
other equipment in government-owned vessels. Were a frank disclosure
made, other inventors and engineers would, in all probability, take up
the problems and they might the sooner be solved.

All the earlier submarines were equipped with engines which used
gasolene (petrol) as a fuel, but the gas from this fuel, when mixed
with a proper proportion of air, is highly explosive. A number of
serious explosions occurred in submarines due to this gas escaping from
leaky tanks, pipings, or valves. Some of them were accompanied by loss
of life. The most disastrous was that on board the Italian submarine
_Foca_, in which it is reported that twenty-three men were killed.
Therefore, several years ago, all governments demanded the installation
of engines using a non-explosive fuel; and builders then turned to the
"Diesel" engine as offering a solution of the problem.

As early as 1905 I had anticipated that such a demand would ultimately
be made, so during that year I built, in Berlin, Germany, an
experimental double-acting heavy-oil engine; but unfortunately the
engineer in charge of the work was taken ill and eventually died. This
engine was later completed and showed great flexibility in its control
and in reversing. It, however, has never been put on a manufacturing
basis.

In the meantime, others took up the work of developing the heavy oil
Diesel engine for submarines. The first of the Diesel type engines to
be installed in a submarine were built by a well-known French firm of
engine builders. As we were then in the market for heavy-oil submarine
engines, plans of these engines were submitted to me, but I found it
impossible to install them in any boat we then had under construction,
owing to their size and weight. I have been advised that engines of
this design were installed in some of the French submarine boats. I
have also been informed that the shock and vibrations produced by them
were such as to cause the rivets in the boats to loosen, and this
started the vessels to leaking so badly that it was found necessary to
take them out. These engines differed only slightly from the vertical
Diesel land engine.

The engine is the most important element in the submarine. Without this
it is impossible to make long surface runs, and in the event of its
disablement it is impossible to charge the storage batteries to enable
the submarine to function submerged, which is, of course, what she is
built for doing.

I think the demand for increased speed has come too rapidly. It is
more important to have reliability than speed. The criticisms which
have been made regarding United States submarines, if traced to
their source, may be found to be justified so far as they apply to
the engines, but the Navy Department cannot be held responsible, and
neither can the designers of submarines. They have both searched the
world's markets and secured the best that could be purchased. All naval
departments were undoubtedly right when they decided to abandon the
gasolene (petrol) engine and substitute therefor the heavy-oil engine.
Eventually a successful heavy-oil engine will be produced.

[Illustration: STORAGE BATTERY CELL]

[Illustration: A SUBMARINE CELL COMPLETELY ASSEMBLED READY FOR
INSTALLATION

Storage batteries as used in modern submarines have been especially
developed to meet the special needs of submarine-boat service. The
requirements for this service are much more severe than those for
any other service to which the storage battery has been applied. The
batteries as first introduced in submarines were entirely too frail to
stand up to their work, and the gases given off from them while being
charged were the cause of much distress and danger to the crew, and
have been in some cases responsible for the loss of both vessel and
crew.]

The Diesel engine, weighing practically five hundred pounds or more
per horsepower, has functioned satisfactorily in land installations
and has come into very general use, especially in Germany, but when
the attempt was made to change this slow-speed engine of five hundred
pounds per horsepower into high-speed engines of approximately
fifty pounds per horsepower, all designers "fell down." It was but
natural that naval authorities throughout the world should call for
increased speed; they cannot be criticised for that, as it is a
desirable thing, but experience has shown that they called for it too
early in the game.

The expense of the development of a new type of motive power, such as
the high-speed, heavy-oil-burning engine, for use in vessels whose
prime purpose is to preserve the autonomy of the country, should
be borne by the government rather than by individuals or private
corporations. Millions of dollars have been expended in the development
work of engines, but, although vast improvements are now in progress,
the successful engine is not yet on the market.

Dr. Diesel has stated that he worked seven years before he succeeded in
getting his first engine to make one complete revolution. Governments
and the people must therefore content themselves to accept what they
can get in a heavy-oil engine, imperfect though it may be, until such
time as a satisfactory engine is evolved, built, and tested out under
service conditions.

=Storage Batteries.=--It is impossible in a book of this character to
go into much detail regarding the development of the storage battery.
There have been two types in general use. They are both lead batteries,
one known as the Planté type, in which metallic lead is used to form
both the positive and negative plates. The other type employs what
is commonly known as pasted plates, in which various compositions of
materials are worked up into a paste and forced into metallic grids to
form the positive and negative plates. The pasted type has greater
capacity per pound of material used, but much shorter life.

In both of these batteries sulphuric acid solutions are used as the
excitant between the elements. In charging, hydrogen gas is given off
in the form of bubbles, the skin of the bubbles being composed of
sulphuric acid solution. These bubbles, when taken in one's lungs, are
very irritating, and if they collect in any quantity, or break up and
allow the hydrogen gas to mix with the air, there is always danger of
creating an explosive mixture within the hull of the vessel or in the
battery tanks, which a spark would set off at any time.

The best method of installing batteries on a submarine boat is to
have them isolated from the living quarters of the vessel in separate
watertight compartments. The elements of the battery should be
contained in non-metallic containers and sealed to prevent spilling
of the electrolyte under excessive rolling or pitching of the vessel.
Means should be provided to discharge the hydrogen gases from the boat
as rapidly as formed. Special care should be taken to prevent leakages
between the adjacent cells. Circulation of air to keep the cells dry is
the best means of preventing this.

Mr. Edison has been working for a number of years on a storage battery
suitable for submarine work, and it has recently been stated that he
has finally solved the problem of producing a battery that will stand
up longer than the lead type of battery, and that it has the further
advantage in that it will not give off chlorine gas in case salt water
should get into the cells. It should, however, be contained in a
separate compartment, which should be ventilated during the charging
period, as I understand the Edison battery gives off hydrogen gas the
same as the lead batteries. Chlorine gas, as given off from the lead
battery when salt water has got into it, has undoubtedly caused the
loss of some lives. Mr. Edison claims that his battery, when immersed,
will not give off poisonous gases of any kind.

[Illustration: METHOD OF CONTROL IN DIVING TYPE BOATS

Horizontal rudder set down aft inclines the vessel down by the bow,
in which condition, with only a small reserve of buoyancy, she will
"dive." When she reaches the desired depth a lesser inclination of
the diving rudder is supposed to reduce her angle of inclination
sufficiently so that the pressure on the top of her hull will offset
the tendency to rise due to her positive buoyancy. To be successful
there must be no movable ballast, and variable stream line effect
requires expert manipulation of the diving rudder.]

=Depth Control.=--Practically all modern submarines use hydroplanes
with a horizontal rudder for the control of depth when under way.
Hydroplanes might be said to correspond to the side fins of a fish.
They are substantially flat vanes that extend from either side of
the vessel. They are set on shafts that may be partially rotated by
mechanism in control of a man within the vessel. They readily control
the depth of the vessel with a certain amount of either positive or
negative buoyancy. For instance, submarines are usually submerged
with a small amount of positive buoyancy. If a vessel has positive
buoyancy she will float. We have seen that in a surface condition the
five-hundred-ton submarine has about one hundred and twenty-five tons
of positive buoyancy.

[Illustration: METHOD OF CONTROLLING HYDROPLANE BOATS

Showing a proper arrangement of hydroplanes and horizontal rudders. C
B represents the centre of buoyancy of the vessel when submerged. G
represents centre of gravity, which lies directly beneath centre of
buoyancy. Now if hydroplanes are located at equal distances fore and
aft their up or down pull is always balanced and does not cause the
vessel to dive or broach, but holds her to a level keel. If stream line
pull tends to upset this level keel, horizontal rudders may be used to
correct it.]

Now to prepare the vessel for a submerged run, we admit, say, one
hundred and twenty-four tons of water; the positive buoyancy is then
reduced to one ton. Now if the forward edges of the hydroplanes are
inclined downward (see diagram), and the vessel is given headway, the
pressure of the water on top of the inclined hydroplanes, combined
with the tendency for a vacuum to form under the planes, will overcome
the one ton of positive buoyancy and will pull the vessel bodily under
the water. When the desired depth is reached the operator sets the
inclination of the hydroplanes so as to just balance the upward pull
of the one ton of positive buoyancy, and the vessel proceeds at the
desired depth. On modern boats the control of depth is most remarkable;
it is very common for submarines to make continuous runs of several
hours' duration without varying their depth more than a couple of feet.
When the headway or motive force of the submarine is stopped, if she
has reserved some positive buoyancy she will come to the surface. If
she has negative buoyancy she will sink, but while under way with as
much as a ton of positive or negative buoyancy the hydroplanes will
absolutely control the depth of the vessel.

[Illustration: HOW HYDROPLANES CONTROL DEPTH OF SUBMERSION

The vessel being "under way" in the course of the arrow, the water
contacting against the upper surface of the hydroplanes, as in the
upper view, its course is thus diverted and adds weight to the upper
surface of the planes. There is also a tendency to form a vacuum under
the plane. Both these forces tend to overcome the positive buoyancy of
the boat and force her under water and on a level keel if these forces
are properly distributed fore and aft of the centre of buoyancy and
gravity of the vessel.]

=Action of the Hydroplanes=.--The diagrams are intended to demonstrate
how it is that the Lake and other hydroplane boats can be so easily
held at a predetermined depth and controlled vertically on an even
keel.

The hydroplanes are symmetrically disposed on two sides of the vessel.
They should be equal distance forward and aft of amidships. This
symmetrical disposition, with equal forces acting on each hydroplane,
compels the boat either to rise or sink on an even keel, depending upon
which face of the hydroplanes is presented to the passing water during
the boat's progress.

In the upper diagram the entering edges of the hydroplanes are inclined
downward, and the force of the passing stream lines strikes upon the
upper face of the blades. This exerts a downward force which causes the
boat to sink, as indicated by the arrows marked "A, A." The opposite
of this takes place when the forward ends of the hydroplanes are
lifted. This brings the force of the stream lines against the under
side of the hydroplanes, and the resultant is a lifting impulse in the
direction of the line of least resistance, which is here indicated by
the arrows marked "B, B." It is the lifting force so applied that makes
it possible to raise hydroplane boats from the bottom even when having
considerable negative buoyancy.

[Illustration: ON PICKET DUTY

This is a field of service to which the anchoring weights and the
diving compartment of the Lake boats lend themselves conjointly with
especial fitness. The illustration represents a submarine doing picket
duty on an offshore station. A junction box is placed in a known
locality with telephone or telegraph cables leading therefrom to the
shore. The submarine, having taken her position on the surface, lowers
her anchoring weights, reduces her reserve buoyancy to the desired
extent, and then draws herself down to the bottom by winding in again
on the cables connecting with the anchoring weights. Having reached the
bottom, the diving door is opened and a diver passes out and makes the
necessary connections between that junction box and the instruments in
the boat.]

=Holding Depth When Not Under Way.=--If it is desired to bring the
boat to rest while submerged, but when no motive force is being used,
other methods must be used than that just described. One method is to
have an anchor or anchors to hold the vessel at the desired depth.
If it is desired to lie at rest off the entrance of the enemy's
harbor to wait for her ships to come out, the submarine proceeds to
her station submerged with a small amount of buoyancy,--which is
the usual method of navigating submerged. When she arrives at the
desired station the speed is reduced and an additional amount of
water is gradually admitted to give her a small amount of negative
buoyancy. At the same time her anchoring weights are paid out until
they touch bottom. As soon as they do so water is forced out of the
ballast tanks by compressed air until positive buoyancy is restored
and the vessel stops sinking and remains at rest anchored between the
surface and the bottom, like an anchored buoyant mine. By winding in
on the anchor cables a submarine may then be hauled down nearer the
bottom, and by paying out the cables she may rise nearer the surface.
On picket duty off harbor entrances she remains sufficiently near the
surface to project her telescoping periscope occasionally above the
crest of the waves to keep watch and see that an enemy ship does not
enter or clear. In this condition there is no necessity to have any
machinery running on board the submarine, therefore she can remain
for weeks at a time on station without exhausting her fuel supply.
It is only necessary for her to renew the air supply now and then,
which can be done at night. Another method for holding a vessel at
rest is by taking in and forcing out alternately small quantities of
water so as to keep her in equilibrium between positive and negative
buoyancy. Another method is to use vertical propellers operating in
wells extended from the sides, and by running these it is possible
to exert an upward or downward pressure and so hold her at a depth.
Neither of these methods is as satisfactory, however, as the anchor
weights, because the vessel will not hold a definite position on
station, but will drift off with the current. They also make a drain
on the storage battery and require constant attention on the part of
the members of the crew. By the anchor weights scheme the vessel may
stay on station as long as the food and fuel supply holds out.

[Illustration: SHOWING VARIOUS CONDITIONS IN WHICH A SUBMARINE OF THE
LEVEL KEEL TYPE FITTED WITH BOTTOM WHEELS, MAY NAVIGATE

1, running light on surface; 2, awash, ready for submergence; 3,
submerged, depth controlled by hydroplanes; 4, running on bottom.]

The above facts set forth simply the outstanding mechanical principles
upon which the operation of the submarine is based. The submarine of
to-day, however, has many auxiliaries, to describe which in detail
would require several volumes of technical description.

I will briefly enumerate a few of the more important of these devices
and describe their function as applied to the war submarine.

[Illustration: THE LOWER PORTION OF GALILEO PERISCOPE]

[Illustration: THE PERISCOPE IS THE EYE OF THE SUBMARINE.

(See description.)]

=The Periscope.=--The periscope is the eye of the submarine. In its
simpler form it consists of a stiff metallic tube, from fifteen to
twenty feet in length and about four inches in diameter. Referring to
Figure 1, on page 23, it is made up of an object glass, _A_, which
"views" or takes an impression of all objects within its range or
field of vision, and transmits an image of such object through the
right-angle prism, _B_, which turns the image so that it appears some
distance down the tube, say, for purposes of description, at _C_. If
a piece of ground glass were held at the focus of the objective lens
at _C_, the image could be seen. The lens _D_, located farther down
the tube, in turn now "views" the image and transmits it still
farther down the tube, where it is turned through the right-angle
prism, _E_, and where the image is again turned into an erect
position. A piece of ground glass located at _F_ would show the
image in the same manner as an image is shown on the ground glass of
a camera. The magnifying eyepiece _G_ magnifies the image so that
distant objects appear of natural size.

Other figures show a periscope as made by the Officina Galileo in
Florence, Italy. This firm makes periscopes with binocular eyepieces.
The success of any periscope depends upon the character of the material
used in the lenses and prisms and the accuracy of the workmanship.
This firm, which is probably the oldest optical manufacturing house
in the world, said to have been founded by Galileo himself, turns
out instruments of the most beautiful workmanship. The flange of
the instrument is bolted to the top of the conning tower, or deck,
and a gate valve is arranged between the deck and the eyepiece so
that in case the tube should be carried away the gate valve can be
closed and thus prevent water from entering the vessel. A hand wheel
arranged below the binocular eyepiece permits of easy rotation of the
instrument. Provision is made for introducing dry air; this prevents
condensation forming on the lenses or prisms within the tube.

Owing to the fact that there is a certain loss of light in transmitting
the image through the various prisms and lenses, it is customary to
magnify the image so that it appears to be about one-quarter larger
than when viewed by the natural eye. This has been found by experience
to give, when viewed through the periscope alone from a submerged
vessel, the impression of correct distance.

Previous to 1900 there was no instrument which would give through a
long tube normal vision and a correct idea as to distance. At this
time I took up with various opticians the question of producing such
an instrument. They all contended that it was impossible to produce
an instrument that would give through a long tube a field of vision
equal to the natural eye or that would convey a correct idea as to
the distance of an object when viewed through a long tube. The camera
lucida which Mr. Holland and others had used in the earlier submarines
simply threw a picture of the object on a bit of white paper, usually
located on a table. This did not give to the observer any more idea of
the correct distance of an object than a photograph would. Believing,
however, that a solution could be found, I then purchased a variety of
lenses and started making experiments.

Without any special knowledge of optical science, one day quite by
accident I secured the desired result and found that it was possible
to secure practically normal vision through a tube of considerable
length. About the same time, Sir Howard Grubb, of England, brought
out an instrument in which he accomplished the same result. I then
continued in my experimental work and brought out an instrument which
was designed to give a simultaneous view of the entire horizon.

This instrument was called an "omniscope." It was first called a
"skalomniscope," which was a word coined with the idea of describing
the function of the instrument and which, translated, means "to view
and measure everything." A scale was used in connection with this
instrument which would convert it into a range finder by measuring the
image of an abject of known dimensions, such as the length of a ship or
the height of its smokestack, and give simultaneous reading as to its
distance.

For a time it was necessary for us to manufacture our own sighting
instruments, but later, when the optical houses understood the
principle of the periscope, they took up the matter of manufacture
and have so greatly improved them that it is now possible to secure
instruments of great accuracy and fine definition.

The periscope, however, is faulty, in that it is only an instrument for
day use. As soon as dusk comes on the periscope becomes useless. The
passing of the image down the tube and through the various lenses and
prisms reduces the brilliancy of the image to such an extent that, even
though it is finally magnified to above normal, the image is so thin
at night that it cannot be seen. This forces the submarine to become
vulnerable in making an attack at night, as it is necessary for the
conning tower to be brought a sufficient distance above the surface of
the water to permit the commanding officer to secure natural vision.

With the powerful searchlights and rapid-fire guns, the submarine would
have little opportunity to approach a surface war vessel at night
without great danger of being discovered and destroyed.

[Illustration: THE VOICE AND EAR OF THE SUBMARINE

A Fessenden oscillator, before being installed. The flange of the
oscillator is riveted to the shell of the ship and its diaphragm is
caused to vibrate by the sound waves, which pass through water more
distinctly than they do through the air. To send out signals it is
caused to vibrate mechanically by electrical apparatus.]

=Invisible Conning Tower.=--For night observation it has been
proposed to use transparent conning towers built of clear glass,
in which the commander takes his station and just sticks his head
above the crest of the waves in order to direct his vessel against
the enemy. This has not as yet come into general use because of the
difficulty of securing sufficiently clear glass in the desired form.
Experiments have been made, however, which show that quite a large
transparent conning tower cannot be seen on a submarine at rest even
when within a couple of hundred yards; the application of these
conning towers will greatly increase the submarine's efficiency for
night work.

=Submarine Sound Receivers.=--All modern submarines are fitted with
devices which enable the commanders of submarines to communicate with
each other when running under water even when considerable distances
apart. One of these outfits consists of a signal bell and a powerful
receiver with which sounds may be transmitted and heard. Conversations
may be carried on by the Morse and other codes for distances of ten or
twelve miles.

[Illustration: TORPEDO TUBES ASSEMBLED READY FOR INSTALLATION IN A
SUBMARINE BOAT

Left view, the breech end of the tube. Right view, the outboard doors,
which must first be opened before the torpedo is expelled from the
tube by compressed air. When the torpedo is expelled it starts a
compressed-air engine supplied with air stored at high pressure within
the torpedo, and will run several thousand yards under its own power.]

A later device, called the Fessenden oscillator, will transmit
or receive sounds a distance of twenty miles. The principle of
its operation is that of setting up wave vibrations by very large
transmitters; these vibrations are carried by the water and taken up
by receivers on other submarines. It has been found that the human
voice will set up vibrations in the Fessenden transmitter so clearly
that wireless conversation may be carried on under water for several
hundred yards. I discovered in my earlier experiments that when a
submarine was lying submerged, with all machinery shut down, the
noise of the machinery in an approaching ship could be detected quite
a distance off without the use of any special kind of receivers. In
this way the commander of a submarine can always note the approach of
an enemy simply by shutting down his own machinery. The warning thus
given him comes long before he could sight the enemy ship were he on
the surface. After a little experience one can tell the type of ship
approaching from the sound, as every type of ship has sounds peculiar
to her class. The smash of paddle wheels, the deep, slow pound of the
heavy merchant ships or battleships, the clack and the whir of the
higher speed machinery on destroyers or torpedo boats, are all easily
recognizable when one becomes familiar with them. At the present time
all the larger submarines are fitted with wireless outfits on their
decks which they may use when on the surface to communicate with other
submarines or with their base.

=Torpedo Tubes.=--These are used to start the automobile torpedo on its
course toward the enemy. In simple form they are tubes about eighteen
inches in diameter and seventeen feet long, placed in line with the
axis of the vessel. They are fitted with doors both internal and
external to the submarine. The inboard door of the tube opens into the
interior of the vessel and permits the loading of the torpedo. When the
torpedo is to be discharged the inboard door is closed and securely
fastened. The outer door is then opened, and through the operation of
quick-opening valves compressed air is admitted back of the torpedo
and the torpedo is driven out of the tube in the same manner that the
bullet is driven out of an air rifle or the cork out of a pop-gun.
Some of the larger modern submarines carry several torpedo tubes
firing in line with the axis of the vessel both forward and aft. Some
carry torpedo tubes on their decks which may be made to train to fire
broadside on either side of the vessel.

[Illustration: A WHITEHEAD TORPEDO

Courtesy of the Scientific American

The forward end of the torpedo is the war head filled with guncotton
or trinitrotoluol. A detonator is screwed into the end of the war head
to set off the main charge on contact. An air flask forms the middle
portion of the torpedo. Aft of this is the depth-control mechanism, in
which a diaphragm controls the diving rudder by the pressure of the
water against a spring set for the desired depth. A pendulum controls
the levelling mechanism and a gyroscope its direction in the horizontal
plane, tending to keep it on the course by its control of the vertical
rudder.]

[Illustration: REAR END OF THE WHITEHEAD TORPEDO

Courtesy of the Scientific American

Showing compressed air engine and twin propeller with their control
gear.]

=Automobile Torpedoes.=--These are the projectiles which are used
to destroy the enemy's ship. They are called automobile torpedoes
because they will, on being ejected from the torpedo tubes, continue
running in the direction in which they are aimed, from power and
mechanism contained within themselves. They are wonderful pieces of
mechanism and cost several thousand dollars each. They are virtually
miniature submarine boats. The essential features of the automobile
torpedo are the airflask, the warhead, the depth control, and steering
and propelling machinery. The airflask forms the central section, which
is a steel tank containing compressed air stored at high pressure;
about twenty-five hundred pounds per square inch is the present
practice. When the torpedo is expelled from the torpedo tube this
air is automatically turned on to run the engines. It passes through
reducing valves and heaters to drive either a multiple cylinder or a
turbine engine, and revolves two propellers, running one clockwise and
the other counterclockwise, set in tandem at the stern of the torpedo.
The propellers, running in opposite directions, thus enable the torpedo
to be more easily steered by the delicate automatic steering machinery.
A diaphragm operated by the pressure of the water operates control
mechanism which regulates the depth. An instrument called the "Obry
gear" steers it in the horizontal plane. The essential feature of the
"Obry gear" is a gyroscope which is started when the torpedo is ejected
from the tube. It is instantly speeded up either by a powerful spring
or an air turbine to about fifteen thousand revolutions per minute.
The peculiarity of the gyroscope is that it has a tendency to hold
the direction in which it is started. Hence, if the torpedo starts
swerving either to the right or left from the direction in which it
is aimed, the gyroscope causes certain valves to function which will
automatically set the steering rudder to bring the torpedo back into
its original course. The "Gyro" will continue this control until the
torpedo has completed its course, which in some of the latest types is
said to be about five miles.

The warhead is the forward portion of the torpedo and contains usually
wet gun-cotton, which is a safe high explosive and can be exploded
only by a detonating charge of the more sensitive explosives. This
detonating charge is placed in a tube screwed into the forward end of
the torpedo. Extending out from the forward end of the tube is a small
propeller, the purpose of which is to set the firing mechanism after
the torpedo has run a certain distance from the vessel from which it
has been fired. This is a safety device to prevent the torpedo from
being exploded near its own ship. The torpedo running through the water
causes the propeller to revolve, which turns a shaft. After the shaft
makes a certain number of revolutions it sets a firing pin, and then
if it hits an object it will explode. Many modern torpedoes are loaded
with trinitrotoluol. This is a much more powerful explosive. According
to experts, the explosion of two hundred and fifty pounds of T-N-T, as
it is called, will destroy any battleship ever built.

[Illustration: RAPID-FIRING GUNS

Courtesy of the Scientific American

Rapid-fire disappearing guns may be quickly elevated above armored
turret when the submarine rises to the surface.]

=Divers' Compartment.=--Some submarines are fitted with a divers'
compartment, from which compartment mines may be planted, either when
on the surface or when submerged. This compartment is fitted with a
door which opens outwardly in the bottom of the boat. It is shut off
from the living and machinery rooms of the vessel by an air lock and
heavy pressure-resisting doors. The divers' door may be opened when the
vessel is submerged and navigating on the bottom, and _no water will
come into the vessel when the door is opened_. This is accomplished in
the following manner: The members of the crew who wish to go outside
the vessel first go into the diving compartment. They close the door
which shuts them off from other parts of the vessel. They then turn
compressed air gradually into the compartment until the air pressure
in the compartment equals the water pressure outside. If the depth is
one hundred feet the air pressure in the compartment would need to be
43.4 pounds per square inch; if the depth is two hundred feet, twice
that, or 86.8 pounds per square inch, etc. When the air pressure in the
compartment equals the water pressure outside, at any depth, the door
in the bottom may be opened and the water will not rise up into the
compartment, because the air pressure keeps it out. Tests have been
made which show that it is safe for divers to go out from compartments
of this kind in depths up to two hundred and seventy-five feet.

[Illustration: DIVING COMPARTMENT

This view shows the diving compartment being used for the purpose of
grappling for the electric cables controlling fields of submarine
mines. Operating in this manner, the diving compartment becomes a
veritable travelling diving-bell, and when the air pressure in the
diving chamber is made to balance with the water pressure outside the
diving door may be opened and yet the water will not enter the working
chamber.]

=Dangers.=--Years of painstaking development work have eliminated most
of the dangers connected with the operation of submarines in times of
peace. The experienced designers have learned the importance of having
great submerged stability, so that no modern craft is likely to make
an unexpected headfirst dive into the mud, hard sand, or rocks on
the bottom. This was a common occurrence not many years ago. Another
danger to be avoided is that of asphyxiation by the escape of noxious
gases from the engines. The blowing up of the vessel by the ignition
of hydrogen fumes from the battery is another risk to be guarded
against. In the latest vessels the noxious gases from the engine are
not permitted to escape into the engine-room; gasolene is rapidly
giving place to heavy-oil engines which do not use an explosive fuel,
and the hydrogen gas given off during the charging of batteries is
pumped overboard as rapidly as it is generated. Consequently modern
submarines, when navigating on the surface, are as safe as any surface
ship. In fact, they are safer, from the fact that they are so much
more strongly built and that they are divided into compartments. Any
one of these compartments could be filled by water in an accident and
the remaining compartments would keep the ship afloat. In submerged
peace-time navigation the dangers are those of collisions with surface
vessels, uncharted rocks, or sunken ships. The danger of collisions
with surface ships may be avoided by keeping below the depth of keel
of the deepest draft surface ship, when long under-water runs are being
made, and always stopping machinery to listen for the sound of surface
ships before rising to the surface. If running near the surface where
periscopic vision is possible, constant vigilance must be maintained,
as there are no rules of the road or right of way which may be claimed
by the submarine commander, owing to the fact that the lookout on the
surface craft, in all probability, cannot see his little periscope in
time to avoid collision.

[Illustration: A MODERN SUBMARINE CRUISER, OR FLEET SUBMARINE (LAKE
TYPE)

The parts indicated by numbers in this illustration are as follows:
1, main ballast tanks; 2, fuel tanks; 3, keel; 4, safety drop keel;
5, habitable superstructure; 6, escape and safety chambers; 7,
disappearing anti-aircraft guns; 8, rapid-fire gun; 9, torpedo tubes;
10 torpedoes; 11, twin deck torpedo tubes; 12, torpedo firing tank;
13, anchor; 14, periscopes; 15, wireless; 16, crew's quarters; 17,
officers' quarters; 18, warhead stowage; 19, torpedo hatch; 20, diving
chamber; 21, electric storage battery; 22, galley; 23, steering gear;
24, binnacle; 25, searchlight; 26, conning tower; 27, diving station;
28, control tank; 29, compressed-air flasks; 30, forward engine
room and engines; 31, after engine room and engines; 32, central
control compartment; 33, torpedo room; 34, electric motor room; 35,
switchboard; 36, ballast pump; 37, auxiliary machinery room; 38,
hydroplane; 39, vertical rudders; 40, signal masts.]

=How the Submarine Works.=--Reference to the diagrammatic view of a
modern submarine will probably make clear the following explanation of
the operation of a submarine. We will assume that our submarine leaves
her own harbor with fuel, stores, and torpedoes on board, wireless
and signal masts erected. She is bound to a station farther down the
coast, but receives word by wireless that an enemy fleet has been seen
approaching the coast in such a direction as to indicate an attack on
New York. She receives instructions to return and take up a station
fifteen miles off Sandy Hook, the entrance to New York Harbor, and also
that she is to coöperate with the smaller harbor-defense submarines
that are permanently located in New York. She therefore puts back to
the station designated. All deck fittings and lines are stowed except
the ventilators and the deck wireless outfit; the latter is left
standing so as to keep in touch with the scout ships and destroyers
which are reporting the approach of the enemy. Shortly after arriving
at her station, the commander notes smoke on the horizon and orders are
given to "prepare to submerge." Each member of the crew then proceeds
to his particular task; the wireless masts and ventilators are quickly
housed, and all hatches are closed and secured. The quartermaster
and submerged-control man who controls the steering and hydroplane
operating gear take their stations in the control department. The
engines are uncoupled by means of the rapid operating clutch, the
electric motor is coupled, the hydroplanes are unfolded, the valves
are opened, and the word is passed to the commander, "All ready for
submergence!" All this is done in a modern vessel in less than two
minutes.

The command is then given: "Fill main ballast!" Quick-opening
valves are opened and the water rushes into the ballast tanks and
superstructure at the rate of fifty or sixty tons per minute. The
order is then given: "Trim for submergence!" Sufficient water is then
admitted into the final adjustment and trim tank to give the desired
buoyancy and trim, and the vessel is now ready to submerge on signal
from the commander, who now takes his station at the periscope. The
gunners have also taken their stations at the torpedo tubes to prepare
to load the tubes as soon as the torpedoes already in the tubes are
discharged. The whole time consumed from the time word to "prepare to
submerge" until the vessel is running under water has probably not been
over two or three minutes. In the meantime the enemy has been rapidly
approaching and her superstructure is already above the horizon. The
commander of the submarine notes that if the enemy holds its course it
will be advantageous to change his position to intercept the oncoming
fleet. He therefore gives word to submerge to the desired depth and
gives the quartermaster the course, and the vessel proceeds, entirely
submerged, to get nearer the enemy's line of approach. The commander
then brings his submarine to rest before extending his periscope above
the surface. As soon as the enemy is found to be coming within range he
manoeuvres his ship so that his torpedoes will bear the proper distance
in advance of the ship he selects to destroy. To make a hit it is
necessary to fire in advance of the oncoming ship to allow for the time
the torpedo takes to reach the point where the enemy will be. Range
finders, torpedo directors, and rapid calculators enable the commander
to calculate this to a nicety. If the distance is only a thousand or
fifteen hundred yards, a hit is pretty certain to be made, but the
greater the distance the less the chance of success and the greater the
opportunity for error.

CHAPTER II

COMEDY AND TRAGEDY IN SUBMARINE DEVELOPMENT

One of the first queries which laymen usually direct at the submarine
navigator is, "Are you not afraid that the boat will never come up?"
and other variants on the same theme. Most people are surprised and
many are very sceptical when they are informed that there is no
sensation at all connected with the act of going under water in a boat
except that due to one's own imagination. The fact is that if one were
going down inside the vessel in some of the modern submarines he could
not readily tell whether the vessel was running on the surface or
navigating in a submerged condition.

I remember the time when it was first decided to give a public
exhibition of the _Argonaut_ in 1897. Various newspapers were permitted
to send their representatives to make a submerged trip in the vessel.
Quite a large number of newspaper men were present, and among the
reporters was one young lady representing a New York newspaper. This
being the first time that the newspaper fraternity had been given the
opportunity to make a submarine trip, speculation ran rife as to the
outcome of the venture. So great a number of reporters came that all
could not be permitted to board the vessel. Lots were therefore cast
as to who should go. The lady claimed the privilege of her sex, and
all agreed that she should be one of the party. When the lots were
drawn, one of those who had drawn a lucky number suddenly recalled
that he was afflicted with a very diseased heart, and he did not feel
it wise to go. Another discovered that his life insurance had just
expired, and he gave up his opportunity to a friend. Finally the party
was made up and the boat started away from the dock. They were all
invited down into the cabin, where a general conversation ensued as to
the possibilities of submarine navigation proving a success, upon the
sensation of going under water, and other related subjects; I had given
the signal to submerge, in the meantime, several minutes before they
had finished visiting with each other. Soon one of them asked me when I
expected to submerge. They were all greatly surprised when I informed
them that we had already been under water for several minutes, and they
would hardly believe it until I took them into the conning tower, where
they could see the dark green of the water through the glass of the
eye-ports. Two of the party promptly discovered that they had each a
bottle of champagne concealed about their persons. It was their opinion
that it was time to drink to the health of the lady and to the success
of the _Argonaut_. After we had rummaged around and finally found an
old rusty tin cup, this was done.

All first experiences, however, have not been so pleasant as that of
the _Argonaut's_ trial. The submarine _Hunley_ (page 150) suffocated
and drowned four different crews during her brief career. Twice she was
found standing on end with her bow stuck in the mud in the bottom of
the river, with a crew of nine men dead in her fore part, where they
had been thrown when she dived to the bottom. In these two instances
the men were suffocated, due to lack of air, as no water was found in
the boat when she was raised. The gradual exhaustion of the air and
final unconsciousness which overtook these brave volunteers can only be
left to the imagination.

When experimenting with the _Argonaut_, I received a visit from the
late Col. Charles H. Hasker, of Richmond, Va. He had volunteered as one
of the party to try the _Hunley_ after she had suffocated her second
crew. On the trial, for which Mr. Hasker volunteered, she started away
from the dock in tow of the gunboat _Ettawan_ by a line thrown over the
hatch combing. She had been trimmed down so that she had very little
freeboard, and as she gained headway she started to "shear," due to her
peculiar flatiron-shaped bow. Lieutenant Payne, who was in command,
attempted to throw the towline off the hatch combing, but got caught
in the bight of the line. On his struggle to free himself he knocked
a prop from under the tiller of the horizontal diving rudder, which
had been set to hold the bow up. As soon as the prop was knocked out
the tiller dropped down and inclined the horizontal rudder to dive,
and the vessel dove with her hatches open. Lieutenant Payne freed
himself, and Colonel Hasker managed to get partly out of one of the
hatches before the vessel sank, but the inrushing force of the water
closed the hatch door, which caught him by the calf of his leg, and he
was carried with the vessel to the bottom in forty-two feet of water.
However, he maintained his presence of mind, and when the vessel became
full it balanced the pressure so that he could release himself from the
hatch cover. He was a good swimmer and escaped to the surface. Two men
escaped from the other hatch. The other five members of the crew were
drowned in the vessel.

Notwithstanding that this was the third time she had sunk and killed a
number of men, she was again raised and a crew of nine other brave men
was found to man her. Under command of Lieutenant Dixon, on the night
of February 17, 1864, she was brought alongside of the United States
battleship _Housatonic_ and sank her, but Lieutenant Dixon and his crew
went down with the _Hunley_ at the same time. Thus, in the various
attempts to operate this vessel in a submerged condition, a total of
thirty-two lives were lost.

The New Orleans submarine boat was also built by the Confederates
during the Civil War. A friend who took the photograph of this vessel
told me the following story as related to him by a Southern gentleman
who was familiar with the history of the boat. It appears that this
submarine was the conception of a wealthy planter who owned a number
of slaves. He thought that it would add considerable interest to the
occasion of her launching if, when the vessel left the ways, she should
disappear beneath the waves and make a short run beneath the surface
before coming up. So he took two of his most intelligent slaves and
instructed them how to hold the tiller when the vessel slid down the
ways, and in which way to turn the propeller for a time after she began
to lose her launched speed. He told them when they got ready to come
up they should push the tiller down and the vessel would come to the
surface to be towed ashore.

A great crowd assembled to see this novel launching. "When things
were all ready," said the old Southern gentleman, "sure enough, them
two niggers got into the boat and shut down the hatches; and do you
know, suh, that at that time them niggers was worth a thousand
dollars apiece." Well, it seems that the boat slid down the ways and
disappeared under the water just as had been planned. The crowd waited
expectantly, but the vessel did not reappear. Eventually they got into
boats and put out hooks and grappling lines, but she could not be
found. The designer of the craft stated as his opinion that "he might
have known better than to trust them pesky niggers anyway," and he was
willing to bet that they had taken the opportunity to steal the vessel
and run away. He asserted that very likely they would take the boat up
North and give it to the Yankees, and that they could expect to hear of
the "Yanks" using it to blow up some of their own (Confederate) ships.

Her disappearance remained a mystery for a great many years--until long
after the war closed, in fact, and the incident had been forgotten.
Years afterward, during some dredging operations to deepen the harbor,
the dredge buckets one day got hold of something they could not lift. A
diver was sent down to investigate, and he reported that there was some
metal object buried in the mud which looked like a steam boiler. They
set to work to raise this, and putting chains around it they lifted it
on to the wharf. The old gentleman, in closing the narrative, remarked,
"And do you know, suh, when they opened the hatch them two blamed
niggers was still in thar, but they warn't wuth a damned cent."

One amusing experience that I had occurred in the Chesapeake Bay in
1898, a few miles below the Potomac River. We were bound from Baltimore
to Hampton Roads, and a part of the journey was made on the bottom
of the bay. We found this exceedingly interesting, as we could sit
in the divers' compartment and view, through the open divers' door,
the various kinds of bottom we were passing over, rake up oysters and
clams, catch crabs with a crab net, and amuse ourselves in trying to
spear fish.

The _Argonaut_ at this time had a double pipe mast fifty feet in
height, through one of which we got air to run our engines. The other
was to provide for the exhaust. We carried a red flag on top of this
mast as a warning to surface vessels to keep clear. One afternoon we
had been submerged about four hours, running on the bottom in depths
varying from twenty-five to forty-five feet; night coming on, we
decided to come up and seek a harbor. When we came to the surface we
noticed a "bugeye" (a small schooner) "hove to" about fifty yards to
the leeward. I blew the centre tank, which brought our conning tower
up out of the water, opened the hatch, and hailed the skipper of the
bugeye to ask our location and the nearest harbor. He did not wait to
answer, but as soon as I yelled he squared away "wing and wing" for
the shore. As there was a stiff breeze blowing, it did not take him
long to make it, and he ran his vessel right up on the sandy beach,
where we saw him and another man--who composed the crew--clamber out
over the bow and start to run inland as fast as they could go, leaving
their boat without so much as lowering their sails. We finally located
ourselves as just north of the mouth of the Rappahannock River, and
saw that there was a good harbor very near, so we put in there for the
night. After supper, as we were in need of fresh provisions, we went
ashore and learned that there was a store a couple of miles down the
peninsula. We walked down there and found the store full of natives who
were obviously curious as to our identity and business. Finally the
storekeeper gathered up his courage and asked us who we were. When he
learned that we were down on an experimental cruise in the submarine
boat _Argonaut_, he burst into laughter and told us that we had solved
a mystery which had stirred up the entire community. He then explained
that just about dark one of his neighbors, who never had been known
to drink and whose reputation for veracity was excellent, had rushed
into the store, followed by his mate. Both were pale from fright, and
sank on the porch completely exhausted. They then related a weird tale
of seeing a red flag moving down the bay _against the current_ on a
buoy. When they went alongside of it they heard a "puff-puff" like
a locomotive--that was the exhaust from our engine coming up out of
the pipe--and, furthermore, they stated that they had smelt sulphur
distinctly. Just then, they claimed, the buoy commenced to rise up and
a smokestack--our conning tower--came up out of the water and "out
stepped the devil"--myself, who at that time had on a rather brilliant
red cap. Then they had "moseyed" for shore as fast as they could go.
The storekeeper said that they had put the honorable captain to bed,
and implied that he would be "right smart mad" when he learned how
he had deceived himself. We went back to our boat and got an early
start in the morning, as we did not know but that the "guying" of his
neighbors might "rile" the captain considerably--and these Virginians
are usually pretty good rifle shots.

One of the greatest dangers in submarine navigation is that of being
run down by surface vessels when the submarine comes to the surface
after a deep submergence. I mean by a deep submergence when the vessel
goes down so far that the water covers the top of her periscope and
the commander gets out of touch with surface vessels. All submarine
commanders have probably had narrow escapes from this danger; it is one
of the chances that go with the business. I myself have had several
very close calls. The first was with the _Protector_ manoeuvring in
rough weather in Long Island Sound off Bridgeport in 1903. The weather
was exceedingly rough, the wind blowing a halfgale and blowing the
spume from the white-caps into spray. Some of our directors were in
a large towboat at anchor and we were manoeuvring in their vicinity,
running back and forth, submerging, etc., so that they might observe
how steadily she could run in a rough sea. Finally, upon submerging,
we observed a sloop in distress; part of her rigging had been carried
away, and she was half full of water. The sea had broken the cabin
windows and she was on the verge of sinking. We observed this through
the periscope, so we came up and got a line to her and took her into
Bridgeport. There were several young men aboard her, and when they
first saw us standing on our conning tower they thought we also had
been wrecked and were on top of a buoy.

As the _Protector_ had functioned beautifully and we had in addition
saved a shipwrecked crew, I felt quite proud of the day's performance,
and was greatly surprised, therefore, when I reported to the directors,
who had preceded us into the harbor, to have one of them "call me down"
for taking such a foolhardy chance in submerging just in front of the
steamer _Bridgeport_. He was astonished when I told him that I had
never seen the steamer, and then he informed me that I had submerged
just under her bow, and as she was going very fast they all expected
us to be hit. The white-caps and spray had prevented us from seeing the
steamer, as our periscope was a short one and only gave us intermittent
views in the rough water. I was curious to learn whether the captain
of the steamer had seen us, but I was told by him that he had not.
The rough water had prevented the captain from seeing the wake of our
periscope, just as it had made it impossible for us to catch a sight of
his vessel.

At another time of close escape I was in the channel leading from the
Gulf of Finland into Cronstadt, Russia.

We were requested to conduct some manoeuvres for the purpose of
familiarizing the Russian officers and crew with the method of handling
the boat. Admiral Rodjevensky's fleet was outfitting off Cronstadt,
preparing to start for the Orient. As the officers of the battle
squadron had never seen a submarine in operation, we were requested
to conduct our manoeuvres in their vicinity. One of the high Russian
admirals, whom I afterward met at the officers' club in Cronstadt, said
to me: "Mr. Lake, I do not like your submarine boat. One can never tell
where it is going to bob up, and I think if you were my enemy I should
slip my anchor and run." After manoeuvring around the fleet at anchor
we took a run out in the channel. Captain Alexander Gadd, the officer
who was to command the _Protector_, was in the sighting hood. Our
periscope had gone "blind" because one of the crew did not make up a
joint properly. Water had entered and dropped on the lower prism, which
destroyed our ability to see. We were anxious, however, to continue
our manoeuvres, and Captain Gadd had volunteered to "con" the vessel
from the sighting hood and give us our steering directions. We were
thus able to make submergences of short duration. In leaving the port
we appeared to have a clear passageway down the channel. After running
for a few minutes we brought the sighting hood above the surface,
upon which Captain Gadd became very much excited and cried out in
German--which I had no difficulty in understanding--that a big ship was
coming right toward us. I was puzzled to know what to do, so I pulled
the commander away from the sighting hood, got a look myself, and
discovered a big white ship headed directly for us. The only thing to
do under the circumstances was to blow the centre tank, give the signal
to back up, and to blow our whistle, as there was hardly sufficient
time to turn out of our course. Blowing the centre tank relieved us
very quickly of sufficient water to bring the conning tower above the
surface. Fortunately we were observed, and both vessels reversed and
went full speed astern, thus preventing a collision which only could
have been disastrous to us, because, as there was not sufficient depth
of water in the channel to permit the large ship to pass over us, the
small boat would have been crushed like an egg-shell. By looking at the
chart I saw that we had sufficient water on either side of the main
channel to carry on our work of instructing the crew, so I instructed
the quartermaster, in English, to change his course. Captain Gadd, not
understanding English, was not aware that I had changed the course, and
I did not know that mines had been planted for the defense of Cronstadt
and Admiral Rodjevensky's fleet, so the next time we came to the
surface Captain Gadd once more became very much excited, finally making
me understand that we were in a mine field. It seems that the Russians
feared the Japanese might by hook or crook, during the night or at
a time of fog, which at that time of the year occurred frequently,
get hold of some vessel, equip her with torpedoes, and make a raid
on the fleet at anchor. Consequently they had mined all except the
principal channel, which could be watched. We immediately stopped the
_Protector_, blew tanks, and proceeded with caution back to the main
channel and returned to Cronstadt. I felt that we had had sufficient
manoeuvres for that day at least.

Another experience which came very close to a tragedy was brought
about by the spirit of mischief of one of the trial officers while
conducting the official trials of the _Protector_ in the Gulf of
Finland. One of the trial conditions set by the Russian Government
was that we were to be able to run the _Protector_ under her engine
with her decks submerged and conning tower awash, I standing in the
open hatchway with the _Protector_ running under these conditions,
ready for instant submergence, her conning tower being held above the
surface by setting her hydroplanes up. By pulling the hatch cover down
and inclining the hydroplanes downward the vessel could be almost
instantly submerged--submergence not occupying over fifteen seconds. I
had so much confidence in the safety of the _Protector_ running in this
condition that I did not hesitate to leave the depth-control mechanism
for considerable periods of time.

During this official trial in the Gulf of Finland we ran through a
school of small fish, and, leaving the hydroplane control gear, I went
out upon the deck of the conning tower and watched the fish, which
could be plainly seen as the _Protector_ passed through them. At this
time there was about three feet of water over the decks, and the
deck of the conning tower was about a foot or eighteen inches out of
the water. All at once the _Protector_ started to go down. I jumped
down inside the conning tower, pulling the hatch after me, and I am
free to confess that my hair stood on end. I then observed that the
_Protector_ had gone back to her normal condition, and saw at the
same time that the senior Russian officer, a very tall man who had to
stand in a stooping position in the conning tower, was shaking with
laughter. Captain Gadd then explained to me that the other officer--I
shall not mention his name, because he is now a high admiral--had "set"
the hydroplanes a little down for the purpose of seeing if he could
frighten me. He frightened me all right, and I assure you that I never
ran the _Protector_ afterward in that condition, because I came to
the conclusion that, while it might be possible to make a submarine
fool-proof, one could never make reasonable calculations which would
eliminate danger from the actions of the practical joker. It was only
a few weeks after this incident that I read the account of the A-8,
one of the diving type of boats in the British Navy, making the fatal
dive when running on the surface with the hatch open, even though she
had, according to the testimony of the officer, who was standing on the
top of the conning tower at the time she went down--and drowned her
crew--as much as six or eight tons reserve of buoyancy.

Some of the early boats of the diving type were fitted with fixed
periscopes through which one could see in one direction only, and
that straight ahead, and with a limited field of vision. In order to
get a complete view of the horizon it was therefore necessary for the
commander of a vessel equipped in this way to turn the boat completely
around. This was the cause of the first serious accident and loss of
life in the British submarines of the A type. The A-1, running in the
English Channel with her periscope extended above the surface, did
not see a steamer following her at a speed exceeding her own; the
lookout of the steamer did not see the periscope, and ran the A-1
down, drowning her entire crew. The foolishness of having a periscope
that could see in one direction only was demonstrated by some of the
officers in the Austrian Navy. Our company had built the first two
boats for the Austrian Government, U-1 and U-2. Another type of boat
had been built later which had only a fixed periscope of the type
described. One day, when this submarine was running along with her
periscope above the surface, which gave her commander no vision back of
him, some officers approached in a speedy little launch and left their
cards tied to the periscope without the knowledge of the commander of
the submerged vessel. This demonstrated perfectly that it is essential,
both in war and peace times, for the commander of the submarine to know
what is going on in his vicinity on the surface. With the noise of
machinery running it was difficult in the early boats for the commander
to tell whether there was any other power boat in the vicinity of the
submarine. That fact led to the practice of running mostly with the
periscope above the surface, and eventually to the introduction of two
periscopes, one to con the course of the ship and the other to keep
watch of the surrounding water to see that other ships do not approach
the submarine unawares. That is now the usual practice in peace-time
manoeuvres.

At Hampton Roads, on one occasion, after a submarine run, we came up
under a small launch and picked her up bodily on the deck. We had not
seen the boat until we heard her bump against the conning tower and
heard some of the ladies scream. We submerged quickly and lowered them
into the water again. Another time we came up under a large barge,
but all the damage incurred was a broken flagstaff. The best mode of
procedure at such times is to bring the vessel to rest while submerged
and stop all machinery, then listen for the sound of the machinery of
surface vessels. These noises can be heard for a considerable distance
under water. If no sound is heard it is then safe to come up. Even
in this case there is some possibility of coming up under or just in
front of a sailing vessel. One has to take some chances, and I do not
consider this taking any greater chance than is taken by the navigator
of a surface vessel in running in a fog or in a snow storm.

The question of air supply was at one time one of the most difficult
problems to solve on paper with which early experimenters with
submarines had to contend. There was no exception in my case. I thought
it would be possible to remain submerged only a short time unless I
provided some sort of apparatus to extract the carbonic acid gas and
restore oxygen to the air after breathing and exhaling the air in an
enclosed space like a submerged vessel. I took up the question with
various physicians and with a professor of physiology at Johns Hopkins
University, and, according to their information and text-books, it
would be a very difficult matter to carry sufficient air to remain
submerged without change of air except for a very short time. Their
text-books stated the quantity of free air that should be allowed per
individual. This varied from fifteen hundred to three thousand cubic
feet of air per individual per hour. It would be impossible to provide
this amount of air in a submarine. What it was essential to discover
was _how little_ air a man could live on without suffering ill effects.
I then built a box containing twenty-seven cubic feet of air space. I
entered this and was hermetically sealed within it. At fifteen-minute
intervals I lighted matches to note how freely they would burn. At
the expiration of three-quarters of an hour the matches still burned
brilliantly at the top of the box, but went out when lowered to about
the level of my waist. This indicated that about one-half of the oxygen
had been consumed and converted into carbonic acid gas. I was surprised
to find how distinctly the line was drawn between the air containing
oxygen and that containing the heavier carbonic acid gas. I concluded
from this experiment that from fifteen to twenty cubic feet of air per
individual per hour was sufficient to maintain life for short periods
of time without injury.

On completing the _Argonaut_ in 1897 we amplified these experiments,
five men remaining hermetically sealed in the _Argonaut_ for a period
of five hours without admitting any air from our air storage tanks,
and later on in the _Protector_ eight men remained submerged for
twenty-four hours, no fresh air being admitted during the first twenty
hours. As the volume of air space in the _Protector_ was about three
thousand cubic feet, this averaged about eighteen cubic feet per man
per hour. Without the definite knowledge of my previous box experiment
it is very doubtful if the crew would have consented to remain
submerged so long without renewing the air supply, so great is the
effect of imagination.

In our first test to determine a practical time of submergence in
1897 we had been submerged for nearly two hours when I noticed some
members of the crew showing signs of distress. After a time they got
together in the after part of the boat and appointed a spokesman, who
came to me and asked if I had not noticed that breathing had become
very difficult. They urged that we should go up immediately. By this
time two of the men were breathing with evident exertion, and beads
of perspiration were on their faces. I told them they were suffering
from imagination, and explained my experiment with the box. I then
took a candle and proved to them that it burned freely in all parts
of the boat. We measured the height of the candle flame at the floor
of the boat and found it one and five-eighths inches high. In the
twenty-four hours' test on the _Protector_ the men became frightened
in the same way, but after an explanation had been made and the candle
demonstration had been shown them they lost their fear and in a few
minutes all were breathing as normally as ever.

I have always had some little sympathy for the sensations or fears
which those without a knowledge of natural physics might experience on
going down into the water; but I have had little sympathy for those
who by their education should know and understand the principles of
submarine navigation, when operating with a properly designed boat with
an experienced crew.

Now, one of the features which the _Argonaut_ possessed, which was new
in its application to submarine boats at that time, was the use of a
diving compartment and air-lock connected with the main hull of the
vessel, which would permit divers to leave the vessel when submerged
by opening a door in the bottom of this diving compartment after
first filling the compartment with compressed air corresponding to the
pressure of the water outside of the vessel, which varies in accordance
with the depth of submergence.

Every schoolboy is taught the principle of the diving bell, which can
be illustrated by the use of a tumbler or glass. If a tumbler is turned
upside down and forced into water, the water will not rise to fill the
tumbler, owing to the fact that the air, being the lighter, will remain
in the tumbler and the water will simply rise, compressing the air to
the same pressure per square inch as the pressure surrounding it. Now
if you push a tumbler down into the water a distance of thirty-four
feet the tumbler would be about one-half full of water and one-half
full of air, which corresponds to one atmosphere in pressure. Now if an
additional tumbler full of air was compressed to the same pressure and
released in that tumbler it would force the water out, and there would
be a double volume, or two atmospheres of air, in the tumbler, or just
twice what there would be on the surface and under normal atmospheric
pressure. This is the principle on which the diving compartment in the
Lake type boat operates, it being only necessary to admit air into
the diving compartment until the pressure equals the outside water
pressure; then a door opening outwardly from the bottom may be opened
to permit ready egress or ingress, and so long as the air pressure is
maintained no water will rise in the boat.

A professor of physics in the University of Pennsylvania visited the
_Argonaut_ in Baltimore during some early experiments with her, and
in discussing the features of the diving compartment with which, from
his position as a professor of natural physics, he should have been
entirely familiar, expressed some doubt as to its practicability.
He said he understood the theory of it all right, but thought there
might be some difficulty in carrying it out in a practical way as I
had explained. I invited him into the diving compartment and told
him that I would submerge the boat and open the door for him for his
benefit, so that he could explain to his students that he had actually
seen it done. He turned pale and said, "Oh, no; I would not put you
to that trouble for the world"; but by that time I had the heavy iron
door closed between the diving compartment and the main hull, and had
already started to raise the pressure of the air in the compartment,
and assured him that it was not the least trouble in the world; on the
contrary, it was a great pleasure. By this time beads of perspiration
were standing on his face. When one undergoes air pressure for the
first time considerable pain is ofttimes experienced in the ears, due
to the pressure on the Eustachian tubes and ear-drums not becoming
equalized. To equalize this pressure it is necessary for divers or
those undergoing pressure to go through the movement of swallowing,
which has a tendency to relieve the unequal pressure and stop the pain.
I noticed that the professor was experiencing quite a little pain and
consequently told him to swallow, and it was really amusing to see the
rapidity with which he worked his "Adam's apple" up and down. He then
asked if there was any danger. I answered him that there was none,
except to those who were troubled with heart-disease. He immediately
put his hand up over his heart and said, "Well, my heart is quite
seriously affected," but by that time we had secured the necessary
pressure to enable me to open the diving door at the bottom, so I
released the "locking dogs" and allowed the door to open, and when he
saw the water did not come in, his face cleared and he said, "Well, you
know I never would have believed it if I had not seen it," and then he
added that he would not have missed seeing it for the world.

Another interesting incident in connection with undergoing pressure
occurred while at Hampton Roads, Va. One day I received a visit from
a professor of mathematics and his wife at the Hampton Institute,
each of whom held a professorship in the college. They stated that
the _Argonaut_ had been discussed before the faculty and that they
would like very much to go down in her and see the diving door opened,
which I was very glad to show them. Just previous to going into the
diving compartment Professor S---- explained to me that his wife was
deaf in one ear, that she had been under a physician's care for about
two years, and he wanted to know if undergoing pressure was likely to
have an injurious effect upon her. Not being a physician or knowing
what might occur, I advised against her undergoing pressure; but she
insisted on going into the compartment, promising that if she felt any
ill effect from the air pressure she would tell me and I could let
her out. I was reluctant to have her go in, and when we entered the
compartment I allowed the air to come in very slowly, in the meantime
giving a general description of the vessel, and occupying as long a
time in the procedure as possible. I noticed almost at once that she
was in pain. Although she turned her back to me, I could tell by her
clenched jaws and hands that she was probably suffering agony. I then
stopped the pressure and suggested to the professor that he had better
let his wife go out, but through clenched teeth she still protested,
"No, go ahead; I can stand it!" Finally we got the pressure on and
opened the door, but, while the professor seemed delighted, his wife
made no remark. She simply stood with her hands clenched and I was
afraid she was going to faint. Then all at once she screamed; but
immediately after her face lighted up with a smile and she exclaimed,
"It is all gone!" When she came out of the compartment, after the
experiment was over, I noticed her put her hand up to one ear, and
she said to her husband, "Do you know, I can hear as plainly out of
that ear as I ever could!" About a year afterward I saw Professor
S---- and he told me that apparently the experiment had cured his
wife of deafness where physicians had failed to help her; that to
date it had never returned, and that she could hear as well as she
had ever heard. In discussing this matter with an ear specialist some
time afterward, he explained to me that the lady had probably been
suffering with a disease which caused the small bones connected with
the ear-drum to freeze fast, so that the ear-drum did not vibrate.
He stated that it is a very common cause of deafness and can seldom
be cured; that the bringing of the uneven pressure on the Eustachian
tube or other parts had broken away the secretion which had cemented
these small bones together and permitted the ear-drum to vibrate as it
should, and probably that was the only way in which she could have been
helped. I am publishing this incident in the hope that it may lead to
the construction of scientific apparatus for the cure of deafness in
cases where the deafness is caused by trouble similar to that of the
professor's wife.

After our experiments with the _Argonaut_ in the Chesapeake Bay and on
the Atlantic coast, she was enlarged and otherwise improved and in the
winter of 1899 I brought her to Bridgeport, Connecticut, which offered
excellent harbor conveniences and deep water, as well as providing the
necessary manufacturing facilities for continuing my experimental work.

While there the request was made of me to let some of the newspaper
people and some prominent men of the town witness her trials; I
therefore invited them to take a trip out into the Sound. I remember
that we extended in all twenty-eight invitations to the Mayor, to the
press, and to some other prominent citizens, expecting that perhaps
three or four of the number would accept. Very much to my surprise,
twenty-nine appeared, and only one of those who had received the
invitation failed to come, while two others brought their friends with
them. Among the number was John J. Fisher, at that time quite a noted
singer for the American Graphophone Company. I had planned to cook and
serve a dinner for the party on board, and we intended to be back about
two o'clock in the afternoon, but when we got out on the bottom of the
Sound all the different members of the party wanted to see the bottom,
so we travelled out over some oyster beds and clam beds and I opened
the diving door and let the party all see the bottom of the Sound and
pick up clams and "jingle" shells, in depths varying from twenty-four
to thirty-odd feet, while running along the bottom. The air-lock was
small and we could take only two at a time through it into the diving
compartment. In the meantime a meal had been cooked for the others and
served. Mr. Fisher amused the company by singing "Rocked in the Cradle
of the Deep" and other songs appropriate to the occasion.

We did not arrive at Bridgeport until after four o'clock, and then
found the wharf black with an excited populace, largely composed of
friends of those who had taken the trip. Tugboats had been engaged,
and the editor of one of the afternoon papers gave me a very severe
"dressing down" for having kept the party out so long, as the whole
city was excited and every one feared that we had been lost. The
afternoon editions of the papers had all been held up awaiting our
return, and the editor of the paper in question informed me that they
were just telegraphing New York for a wrecking outfit to come and raise
us, as they had sent a tugboat out and the captain had reported that we
were submerged off Stratford Point Light and that our red flag, which
extended from the top of the mast, was above water, but that we were
not moving at that time and hence they thought that all hands must have
perished.

Working under water from a submarine boat is very interesting work. The
_Argonaut_ was built with the idea of demonstrating the practicability
of conducting explorations under water, locating and recovering beds
of shellfish, in addition to locating and recovering wrecks and their
cargoes. This line of work is the most interesting of the submarine
work in which I have been engaged, and offers, in my judgment, great
opportunities for the benefit of the human race. A submarine boat is
a rather expensive craft, however, for conducting such operations,
and there are certain disadvantages in operating around wrecks in
a submarine without any surface connections, as there is always a
possibility of the vessel becoming entangled in the wreckage of the
sunken ship. I remember in one case we had located a sunken wreck and
had gone down alongside of her with the _Argonaut_. This sunken wreck
had an overhanging guard and was quite strongly built. The tide carried
the _Argonaut_ up against the side of the sunken wreck, and after our
divers had come in and made their report in regard to her we attempted
to come up to the surface, but the Argonaut could not come up, because
the current had carried her in under the guard, and it was necessary
for us to wait until the tide turned to enable us to get away from the
obstruction.

At another time we were operating alongside of a wreck in which we were
demonstrating the practicability of removing cargo from the sunken
wreck to a small experimental cargo or freight-carrying submarine.
This freight-carrying submarine was practically a tank, and was built
purely for demonstrating purposes. It was nine feet in diameter and
twenty-five feet long, with conical ends (see illustration, page 278).
It had wheels underneath so that it could be towed on the bottom by
the _Argonaut_. The _Argonaut_ had gone down alongside of a sunken
wreck loaded with coal, with the freight submarine alongside opposite
to the wreck. The _Argonaut_ had a centrifugal wrecking pump mounted
on her deck, driven by a shaft extending through a stuffing box, and
to fill the little cargo-carrying submarine it was necessary for the
diver only to place the suction pipe connected with the wrecking pump
into the sunken coal barge and the discharge pipe into the hatch of the
cargo submarine, start the pump, and transfer the coal from the sunken
wreck to the cargo-carrying submarine. We made several successful
demonstrations of this, and actually transferred fifteen tons of coal
from the sunken wreck to the cargo submarine with a six-inch pump in
nine minutes. It was then necessary for the diver only to close the
hatch of the freight-carrying submarine, admitting compressed air
into the interior which blew the water out through check valves in
the bottom of the freight submarine, and then the freight submarine
would come to the surface with her cargo, which could be towed into
port on the surface by surface tugboats. One day, when down on the
bottom repeating this experiment, the diver came back into the diving
compartment and said that he wanted the _Argonaut_ moved ahead about
twenty feet. The divers, having become familiar with the operation at
this time, were a little careless. There were three of us in the diving
compartment at the time, and it was "up to me" to go back into the
machinery compartment and move the boat forward twenty feet; we could
tell the distance by the revolutions of her wheels over the bottom. I
told them to close the bottom diving door, and when I left the diving
compartment they were in the act of doing so. As I looked back through
the lookout window in the air-lock door I saw that the diver had taken
off his helmet and was smoking his pipe--this being the first thing a
diver always wants to do when coming out of the water. I then started
to move the boat, assuming that the diving door was closed, but the
boat did not move. Having been at rest there for some time, I assumed
that she had probably taken in through a leaky valve some additional
water, and I decided that it was necessary to lighten her somewhat, so
I called on the telephone and asked them if everything was all right
in the diving compartment and they replied that it was. I then pumped
and tried her again; still she did not move, so I pumped out a little
more from the forward end of the boat for the purpose of lightening her
burden some more. All at once she left the bottom with a rapid rush and
ascended to the surface. There was something which held her down, I do
not know what it was, but it was not released until we had given her a
partial buoyancy of perhaps two or three tons. I submerged her again
quickly and went back through the air-lock into the diving compartment
and then observed that the diver was taking off his diving suit; he
was pale and appeared to be very much excited. I asked his helper, who
was laughing, what the matter was. To this question the diver himself
replied, "I will tell you a funny story when we get ashore." The tender
then explained to me that they had not closed the door entirely, but
had left it open about four inches, and when the boat rose, the air,
rushing out of the compartment with a noise like a thousand locomotive
whistles, had scared Captain S---- half to death. The tender had
been with me in the diving compartment once before when a similar
accident occurred and consequently he was used to it. As soon as we got
alongside of the dock the diver referred to jumped ashore and said,
"The funny story I am going to tell you is this: I will never set foot
in your d---- boat again."

Another amusing situation occurred on the _Argonaut_ which might
have proved very serious. After we had completed our experiments
with the _Argonaut_ and started to build the _Protector_, not having
any immediate use for her, the _Argonaut_ was anchored in the river
off the place where we were conducting our building operations. Our
engineer, W----, received a visit one day from a friend of his who
had visited Bridgeport on his wedding trip and had left his wife in
the depot between trains while he ran up to see his old friend, our
chief engineer. The chief took him out on board the _Argonaut_ to show
him through, and in explaining the boat to him the two men went into
the diving compartment. Now the Argonaut had been shut up for some
months, but the chief found that there was still sufficient air in the
air tanks to enable him to admit the air into the diving compartment
and show his friend how the door could be opened. The door, which
opened downward, was quite heavy, weighing something over four hundred
pounds, and was raised by block and tackle. He got the air pressure
on all right and opened the door; the boat was near the bottom, and
when the door opened downward the lower end of it settled into the
mud. In attempting to lift it again the rope, which had become rotten,
due to dampness, broke, and consequently he could not lift the door.
In the meantime the tide was falling and the diving door was forced
farther into the mud. As no one at the works knew that the chief had
gone on board the _Argonaut_, when night came everybody went home and
it was not until eleven o'clock that night that the watchman went down
to the end of the pier and heard some one tapping on the _Argonaut_.
Thinking this somewhat strange, he got into a boat and rowed out
alongside. He still heard the tapping at regular intervals, and was
astonished to see a small boat alongside; then he struck the _Argonaut_
with his oar and immediately got a rapid tattoo in response. Feeling
sure now that somebody in distress must be down in the _Argonaut_, he
got a lantern, went down inside the boat and forward to the diving
compartment. There, on the other side of the lookout window, he saw
the face of the engineer. The chief had made the mistake of closing
the forward air-lock door, so that when he got the pressure on in the
diving compartment and the diving door open he could not close it
again. There was no way for him to relieve the pressure and open the
air-lock door without flooding the whole boat; while, had he closed
the first or inner door he could have gone through into the air-lock,
closing and securing the forward door behind him. He could then have
released the air from the air-lock and escaped, in the meantime leaving
the pressure on in the diver's compartment and the divers' door open.
When the watchman appeared the chief wrote a note and put it up to the
window, instructing the watchman to close the inner air-lock door. This
was done, and then he and his friend got out. It was nearly midnight
when they were released; and, feeling a natural curiosity in the
circumstances, I asked the chief if his friend found his bride still
waiting for him at the station. He replied that after they had managed
to get out his visitor would not even speak to him, and that he had
never heard from him since the occurrence.

I have described above how I ran grave risks while navigating in
Russian waters, and it was in connection with the construction and
delivery of these same boats for the Russian Government that I met with
still other interesting experiences.

[Illustration: THE LAUNCHING OF THE "PROTECTOR"

Built in Bridgeport, Connecticut, in 1901-1902. Sent to Vladivostock,
Russia, during the Russian-Japanese war, and was the only Russian
submarine in full commission during that war. She was the forerunner
of the German U type of boat, with her large flat deck, light-weight
watertight superstructure and hydroplane control.]

At the time of the Russo-Japanese War the _Protector_ was being tried
out in Long Island Sound, and representatives of both warring countries
sent officers to witness her perform and to make propositions for her
purchase. Russia secured her, however, and it then became a problem
to get her out of the country without evading the neutrality laws. We
discovered that we were being watched by spies, and had reason to
believe that if it became known that Russia had purchased her, and
that we were planning to take her out of the country, an injunction
would be secured against us. We had secured high legal advice that
if she were shipped incomplete we would not be evading the United
States laws, but that she might, notwithstanding this precaution, be
captured on the high seas or held in this country by injunction as
contraband. We therefore removed her battery and sent it to New York,
ostensibly for repairs; from there it was later shipped to Russia
_via_ steamer. The agents of the Russian Government then chartered the
steamer _Fortuna_ to carry a cargo of coal from Norfolk, Va., to Libau,
Russia. While loading coal, heavy timbers to form a cradle on the deck
were also shipped on board, and while coming up the coast this cradle
was assembled and the _Fortuna's_ decks strengthened sufficiently
to carry the _Protector_, which had been stripped down to about one
hundred and thirty tons by the removal of her battery. The plan was
that the _Fortuna_ should come into Sandy Hook at midnight on Saturday
and proceed to Prince's Bay, a cove back of Staten Island. There the
_Protector_ was to be picked up by the powerful floating derrick,
the _Monarch_, and the _Fortuna_, with the _Protector_ on her deck,
was then to get outside of Sandy Hook before daylight and pass the
three-mile limit on Sunday morning. None of my crew was in the secret
that an effort was to be made to get the _Protector_ out of the country
before legal proceedings could be taken to prevent her going; and, as
she had no batteries on board, they were much surprised to be informed
on Saturday--the morning of the day set to make the attempt--that they
were to bring their suitcases and a change of clothing with them, as
I was going to give the _Protector_ a trial under her engines alone
and we might be away a day or two. When we left Bridgeport I headed
the _Protector_ away from New York, and our men thought we were bound
for Newport, but as soon as we got out of sight of the shore, in which
we were assisted by a fog, I ran over under the Long Island shore
and headed for New York. We remained in hiding during the day and
passed through Hell Gate, the entrance into the East River, at about
nine o'clock, and reached Prince's Bay according to schedule; but
the _Fortuna_ did not appear until eight o'clock on Sunday morning.
Fortunately for the enterprise, a very heavy rainstorm came up and
shut out all view of us from the shore until the _Protector_ had been
loaded and was out to sea. Before she sailed I called my crew together
and told them that the _Protector_ had been sold to a foreign country,
and that, although I could not tell them to whom or to what port she
was bound, I should like some of them to go with me to assist me in
training the foreign crew to operate her. Every man volunteered and
was anxious to go, so I selected those I wanted and they took their
suitcases on board the _Fortuna_. It was seven years before some of
these men returned to America.

The _Protector_ was covered with canvas and she was sighted but once on
her way across. To prevent suspicion I returned to Bridgeport for a few
days and then took the fast steamer _Kaiser Wilhelm II_ to Cherbourg
and was met by the Russian Ambassador in Paris, who gave me Russian
passports under the assumed name of Elwood Simons, as the Russian
Government did not wish it to become known that it had purchased the
_Protector_ or that the builder was coming to Russia to instruct their
officers and men in the use of submarines. This travelling about
under an assumed name brought about some amusing complications and
experiences later.

I arrived at Libau by train the morning the _Fortuna_ and _Protector_
arrived off that port, but the government had decided to send her on to
Cronstadt, the principal naval station and defense of St. Petersburg,
now called Petrograd, so orders were given accordingly. On the way up
the Baltic the coverings over the _Protector_ had been removed, and
a Russian torpedo boat, seeing her, made off at full speed, soon to
return with another torpedo boat and a larger gunboat and beginning
to fire blank shots for the _Fortuna_ to stop. The captain did not
stop quickly enough, and then they fired solid shot just in front of
the _Fortuna's_ bow and she was forced to stop. It developed that one
of the officers had recognized the _Protector_ from having seen the
pictures of her, but, not knowing that she had been bought by his own
government, suspected that the Japanese Government had purchased her,
and that she would probably be launched somewhere in the Baltic and
attack the Russian fleet. He then sent an armed prize crew on board the
_Fortuna_ to take her into Cronstadt as a prize--which incidentally was
where she was bound, anyhow.

On arriving at Cronstadt we were met by a number of officers of
the Russian Navy, among whom were Captain Becklemechief and Chief
Constructor Bubonoff, who were the joint designers of the Russian
submarine _Delphine_, which had recently been completed. While
sitting in the _Fortuna's_ cabin exchanging congratulations upon the
safe arrival of the _Protector_ a telegram was brought in to Captain
Becklemechief which, I noticed, caused his hitherto cheerful face to
assume a grave aspect. He handed it to Constructor Bubonoff with a word
in Russian which I could not understand. A little later, on our way
to Petrograd, he informed me that the _Delphine_ had sunk and drowned
twenty-three officers and men, a number of whom were in training to be
transferred to the _Protector_ to make up her crew upon her arrival. We
passed her on our way into Petrograd. She lay just off the Baltic works
dock, and divers were then recovering the bodies.

[Illustration: THE "DELPHINE"

Russian submarine, which drowned 23 of her crew the day the author
arrived at Cronstadt.]

It appears that thirty-five men, all told, were on board, and that her
conning tower hatch was closed by a lever arm connected to a nut which
travelled on a threaded shaft operated from down inside the vessel,
and it is believed that the officer in command gave the order to fill
certain tanks which were usually filled previous to closing the hatch,
not taking into consideration the fact that there was so much more
weight on board than usual, due to so many more men--eight being the
usual crew--and at the same time giving the order to close the hatch.
Just then a steamer came by and a sea broke into the hatch, which
frightened one of the men so that he tried to get out, and succeeded in
getting one shoulder and his head out of the hatch. His body prevented
the man down below from closing the hatch before the vessel had sunk
with all hands; but after she sank either the man at the closing
mechanism or some one else must have had sufficient presence of mind
to open the hatch again, as twelve of the men were carried up out of
the boat, presumably by the air bubbles which must escape from any
enclosed airtight vessel before it can become entirely filled with
water. This phenomenon may be observed by taking a bottle and forcing
it down under water; the water will rush in and compress the air,
and then the compressed air will overcome the pressure of the incoming
water and rush out, carrying some of the water with it. Two of these
men and Captain Tillian, who escaped, were afterward members of the
_Protector's_ crew. Captain Tillian told me that he was in the after
part of the boat when she sank, and the last he remembered was being in
water up to his breast and that one of the sailors asked him to kiss
him good-bye. The captain was picked up on the surface unconscious.
Another of the men said that he was carried to one end of the boat
on the first inrush of water and then he felt himself being rapidly
carried back to the centre of the boat and heard a sharp hissing sound
like the rush of air. The next thing he recalled was coming to on the
dock.

The _Alligator_ was the first of the large cruising type of submarines
which we built for the Russian Government. These vessels were five
hundred and thirty-five tons submerged displacement, which was about
twice that of the displacement of any submarines which had previously
been built; and I was very anxious to get a trial of her before the
winter season came on in the fall of 1907. As the winter closes all
navigation in the Gulf of Finland for six or seven months, and as
there were a number of new features to be tried out in this boat, I
knew that unless I succeeded in getting a trial before the winter shut
down I would have several months of worry as to whether or not the
boat would function satisfactorily when submerged. Delays occurred,
so that we were not able to get our trial as early as expected. The
action of the weather indicated that navigation was likely to be
closed within a day's time, as frequently occurs in those northern
latitudes. We had not received the periscopes or lights, and the
boat was not entirely completed, but was sufficiently far advanced to
make it safe for me to try her on a submerged run. Consequently we
arranged with the commandant of Cronstadt to supply us with a sea-going
tender and went out for a trial in the open gulf, where we could get
sufficient water to navigate such a large boat. It was very rough and
stormy, and it took us some little time to get our final adjustments
to enable us to submerge completely. We found that we did not have
sufficient ballast to enable her to be submerged by filling the usual
water ballast tanks, so we had to let some additional water in her
motor-room, being careful not to let it rise high enough to saturate
the windings of our dynamo-motors. In the meantime the storm had been
increasing in velocity and a very rough sea had arisen. I had observed
through the sighting hood that the tender was making very bad weather
of it; the last I saw of her she was pitching and jumping out of the
water to such an extent that at times I could see her keel from the
stem to nearly one-half her length. When we got under water we became
so much interested in the operation, which was entirely satisfactory,
that we did not come to the surface again for about fifteen minutes.
Then we simply rose for a look around and submerged again, giving no
thought to the tender. The seas were so high that we could not see any
distance from our sighting hood, and supposed she was somewhere in the
vicinity. We continued our tests, alternately submerging and trying her
out on the turns and at different speeds of motors until our battery
was nearly run down, then we blew tanks and came to the surface just
at dusk, expecting to find the tender to lead us back to Cronstadt. We
had no lights or compass at this time, but fortunately we were able to
catch sight of one of the lightships off the entrance to the channel
leading to the harbor of Cronstadt, sufficient to set our course for
port. By this time it was blowing a gale; in fact, it was the north
storm which preceded the close of navigation, which followed a day or
two later. Finally it set in to sleet and rain, and shut off our view
of the light. We had nothing to guide us, but took a chance on the
general direction. Fortunately we had no mines to fear, as the war had
closed and they had been removed. Finally it "cleared up" sufficiently
for us to make out the lights again, and we got into Cronstadt in the
early hours of the morning. On our arrival at the dock we found the
commandant of the port and a number of officers who had been informed
of our arrival when we came through the war harbor gateway. We found
the officers and men of the tender which had escorted us, all under
arrest, and the commandant of the port asked me with very great
seriousness if I would like to have them sent to Siberia. It seems that
they had waited about an hour after they saw us disappear, and had
come to the conclusion that we were lost. The commander of the tender
said that if he had remained out any longer he thought that he himself
would have been lost, as the storm was so severe. It broke loose nearly
everything he had in the boat, washed all of his portable deck fittings
overboard, and he feared his vessel would founder. I explained to
the commandant of the port that under the circumstances, and from my
observations of the way the boat had jumped around when we submerged,
as well as from the fact that the commander of the tender could not see
us, he was justified in coming into port. I also said that I would be
very greatly obliged to him--the commandant of the port--if he would
release the captain and crew from arrest, with my compliments; and
this, I am glad to say, was done.

A number of submarine vessels with their crews have been lost in
peace-time manoeuvres. The cause of loss has not always been easy to
determine. In numerous cases it was undoubtedly due to faulty design,
especially in boats of the diving type, where they lacked sufficient
static stability and plunged headfirst into the bottom. Numerous lives
have been lost by the explosion of either gasolene fumes or hydrogen
gas given off by the batteries, and some by asphyxiation, caused by the
escape of the products of combustion from the engines, the accumulation
of carbonic acid gas or chlorine gas generated by salt water getting
into the batteries.

These accidents are usually brought about by the carelessness of some
member or members of the crew. I had been fortunate in not having any
loss of life on any of my boats up to the beginning of the war, but
ignorance and carelessness have, in several instances, caused injuries,
and might as readily have caused loss of life.

I have had a commander, after being coached as to proper procedure, to
attempt to submerge his submarine vessel without checking up to see
that hatches and ventilators were closed.

When we were enlarging the _Argonaut_ at Erie Basin, in Brooklyn, I
went down into the boat one day and found a strong odor of gasolene
and saw numerous kerosene torches burning. Upon investigation I found
that two machinists who were dismantling the engine had broken the
gasolene supply pipe and allowed the gasolene in the pipes to run out
on the floor of the engine-room--about a half-gallon, I should judge.
I ordered the men all out of the boat and blew out the torches, even
taking the precaution to pinch the wicks. Upon going up on the deck,
a sub-foreman in charge of the men declared that there was no danger
and ordered the men back to work. I objected, and went up to the main
office to report that they were doing a dangerous thing, and to see if
I could not get the superintendent to order a blower sent down to blow
the gas fumes out of the boat. But before I could get his attention I
saw the ambulance drive by, and learned that as soon as I had left the
deck a couple of the men said I must be a d---- fool to be afraid of a
little gas, and they had then gone down in the boat and struck a match
to relight one of the torches. By this time an explosive mixture had
been formed, and I can only hope that the explosion which occurred,
as well as the following weeks which they spent in hospital, have now
convinced them, as well as some of the other doubters, that a little
gasolene in an improper place is exceedingly dangerous.

Another more serious explosion occurred on one of our large cruising
submarines at the New Admiralty Works in Russia, which was due to a
combination of both carelessness and ignorance. In this instance,
gasolene had been sent down to the Admiralty dock for conducting
dock trials of the engines. When the fuel arrived, the boat was
full of workmen, carpenters, pipe-fitters, machinists, etc., but,
notwithstanding the fact that there were rules posted that all men
should leave the boat when taking on gasolene--except an inspector,
who should check up to see that the proper valves were opened and
everything tight--the quartermaster in charge of the labor crew,
without notifying anyone in charge or anyone aboard the boat,
connected up with the supply system and started pumping the gasolene
into the boat. The engine was then running and charging batteries. Now
it appears that one of the naval officers had--also without notifying
the engineer--ordered a section of the filling pipe taken down for
the purpose of having a branch pipe connection made in order to carry
some additional fuel in the centre ballast tank--something we did not
approve of; so, when the gasolene was pumped into the boat, instead
of going into the proper tanks it ran out on the floor of the conning
tower, then down through some openings for electric wires that had
not yet been sealed, over the switchboard, and collected in a large
puddle on the floor. One of the Russian electricians, who had been aft
adjusting the dynamos, finally noticed this gasolene running down over
the switchboard and cried out in Russian, "Quick, leave the boat for
your lives!" and in his excitement he pulled the switch through which
the dynamos were charging the batteries. This created a spark, which
was all that was needed to create an explosion. Fortunately, this was
a large boat and she had three exit hatches, all of which were open. A
number of men were just in the act of going through the hatches; they
were blown up into the air twenty-five or thirty feet, according to
some observers, two of them falling into the water, from which they
were rescued. Many of the men were seriously burned, but none fatally.
Those most seriously injured were those near the hatches, as the flash
of flame rose toward the hatches, the openings being the line of least
resistance for the compressed air and gases. The men in the ends of the
boat were not injured, while those midway between the hatches had about
six inches of the bottom of their trousers burned to a crisp, which
shows that the heavy gasolene fumes had not yet become thoroughly mixed
with the air.

I had been on board this vessel only a few minutes previous to this
explosion and at that time everything was in proper order, but I
had left to keep an appointment with the Minister of Marine. Before
reaching his office, however, one of our office men overtook me and
notified me of the explosion. On my return I found great excitement,
as it was reported that many men had been killed. The explosion had
set fire to a lot of shavings and the wooden deck covering over
the batteries, as well as some joiner work which was in process of
erection. Some of the yard officers had ordered the hatches battened
down, but the engines were still running, receiving sufficient air
through ventilators to supply combustion. It was reported that several
men were missing, and it was believed they had been killed by the
explosion and were still on board. In the meantime the Minister of
Marine and other officers had arrived, also a couple of fire companies,
and I requested them to open the hatches and see if they could not put
out the fire and get out the bodies if any were there. The officers
objected on the ground that if any water were put on board it probably,
upon coming in contact with the batteries, would create a lot of
hydrogen gas and cause a further and perhaps more disastrous explosion.
Finally I procured a couple of flasks of carbonic acid gas and let
that into the boat over the battery compartment where the fire was,
which smothered the flames, and then borrowed one of the firemen's
smoke helmets and went down into the vessel, expecting to find some
of the bodies of our missing men. The fire had burned the rubber
insulators off the wires and some of the asphaltum insulators around
the batteries, and the smoke was so thick that it was impossible to see
anything, even with an electric lamp which I carried, but the heat was
not very intense, as the flames had been put out by the carbonic gas
and I found no bodies, so I ordered the hatches open, blowers put in,
and a few buckets of water, which put out the embers. Our missing men
were later found in the hospital, where they had been rushed before
their names had been taken. Seventeen of the men were injured so
badly that they had to go to the hospital, but the burns were mostly
superficial, only the outer skin and hair being burned, and this was
due to the instantaneous flash of the gasolene. They all eventually
recovered.

The following day I held an investigation and learned the above facts
regarding the delivery of the gasolene on board, the breaking of the
pipe, etc. Several of the Russian workmen saw the gasolene leaking
down into the compartment; one whom I interrogated said it had been
leaking in for about five minutes before the explosion. I asked him if
he knew it was gasolene. He said, "Yes." I asked him if he knew it was
dangerous, and he said, "Yes." I asked him then why he did not report
it, and his reply was characteristic of the Russian "moujik." He said,
"I was sent down there to clean up the shavings after carpenters and
not to look after the gasolene, as to whether that was being put on
board in a proper manner or not, and I know enough to attend to my own
business and do only what I am told to do."

The evidence further shows that about a quarter of a barrel of gasolene
had been pumped into the boat before it was discovered that the pipe
had been disconnected.

From the fact that the trousers of the men standing between the
hatches were burned only about six inches up from the bottom, it shows
that the gasolene fumes were still lying close to the floor, owing to
the fact that the fumes of gasolene are heavier than atmospheric air.
Had the explosion come a few minutes later, when the gasolene fumes and
the air had been more thoroughly mixed, the explosion would have been
more powerful and would probably have killed every man on board, as it
did in the Italian submarine _Foca_, when twenty-three men were killed
by an explosion due to a leaky gasolene tank.

There have been many other explosions, resulting in fatalities, in
almost all of the navies using gasolene boats, especially where the
fuel was carried in tanks built within the main hulls of the vessel,
as it seems impossible to so "caulk" a seam in a tank that the fumes
of gasolene will not leak through. The fact that it first settles to
the floor makes it not easy to detect by the nostrils. When gasolene
fumes become sufficiently mixed with air to rise up to the height of
one's nostrils I always consider it an explosive mixture and would not
think of striking a spark, as experiments show that a proper mixture
of air and gasolene or hydrogen and air at only atmospheric pressure
in an enclosed vessel will exert an explosive force of about ninety
pounds per square inch, which will cause practically instant death.
The above case, in regard to the Russian vessel, was undoubtedly due
to carelessness or thoughtlessness of the officer who ordered the pipe
to be disconnected, and the ignorance of the "moujik" who failed to
give warning when he saw the gasolene coming into the boat; also to the
further thoughtlessness of the electrician who pulled the switch which
made the spark.

Among other accidents that have happened in peace times, causing loss
of life, are several in the British Navy in vessels of the diving type;
the _Farfadet_ and _Lutine_ in the French Navy, due to lost control in
diving; also the _Pluviose_, which was run down and cut in two as she
was coming to the surface; the _Fulton_, during an experimental cruise,
and the F-4, E-2, and F-1 in the American Navy. In war time there have
undoubtedly been many submarine vessels and entire crews lost, with
none to tell the story of their passing.

CHAPTER III

EXPERIENCES OF PIONEER INVENTORS OF THE SUBMARINE

The experiences of the pioneer inventors of the submarine, if known in
detail, would undoubtedly afford many amusing incidents as well as some
tragic ones. Some of these have been treated in the previous chapter
on the comedy and tragedy of submarine development. Cornelius Debrell
must have been either something of a joker or else he was much further
advanced in the art of revitalizing the air than are any of our modern
scientists. His experiments attracted much attention during the reign
of King James the First, and, according to the accounts published
at that time, he must have been quite a court favorite, for it is
reported that King James made a trip with him from Westminster Bridge
to Greenwich. The accounts assert that he could remain under water for
long periods of time by simply pouring out a few drops of some secret
liquid from a bottle which he carried with him. The celebrated Ben
Jonson, in one of his works, refers to Debrell and his celebrated boat
in a humorous passage from one of his plays, "The Staple of News,"
acted by "His Majesty's Servants" in 1625.

P. JUN.--Have you no news against him, on the contrary?

NATH.--Yes, sir. They write here, one Cornelius-son hath made the
Hollanders an invisible eel, to swim the haven at Dunkirk and sink
all the shipping there....

P. JUN.--But how is't done?

CYM.--I'll show you, sir. It is an automa, runs under water, with
a snug nose, and has a nimble tail, made like an auger, with which
tail she wriggles betwixt the costs (ribs) of a ship, and sinks it
straight....

P. JUN.--A most brave device, to murder their flat bottoms.

(_Act_ II, _S._ 1.)

Of course, there are no authentic plans of Debrell's boat in existence,
but from the descriptions which were published in regard to it I am
under the impression that probably he did succeed in submerging below
the surface of the water and propelling her with the tide for some
distances. The description tells of some very ingenious arrangements
for submerging the boat, in which he used goatskins sewed together in
the form of bags. The mouth of each bag was nailed over an orifice
opening from the interior of the boat into the sea. These goatskins
were placed between planks, with a sort of a Chinese windlass
arrangement for squeezing the planks together. When he wished to
submerge the boat he allowed the planks to open out, and the water,
rushing into the goatskins, increased the vessel's displacement so
that it sank. When he wished to come to the surface he simply drew
the planks together and squeezed the water out of the goatskins, thus
restoring the vessel's buoyancy. According to description, the boat was
propelled by oars extending through ports opening into the sides of the
boat. Goatskins sewed in the form of cones prevented the water from
entering the vessel, the base of the cone being nailed to the sides of
the boat, the apex of which was cut off and bound around the staff of
the oar. This gave sufficient flexibility to feather the oars and row
under water.

Nearly one hundred years after Cornelius Debrell's experiments an
Englishman by the name of Day built a small wooden submarine and
descended in it under the water. This experiment gave him sufficient
confidence to undertake the construction of a large vessel, and he
proposed to make a profit from its use by making wagers that he could
descend to a depth of one hundred yards and remain there for a period
of twenty-four hours. He built the vessel, placed his wagers, and
descended. He won his wagers but never returned to the surface to claim
them.

[Illustration: BUSHNELL'S SUBMARINE, THE "AMERICAN TURTLE"]

During the Revolutionary War Dr. David Bushnell, a resident of
Saybrook, Connecticut, devised a submarine vessel called the _American
Turtle_. He aimed to destroy the British fleet anchored off New York
during its occupation by General Washington and the Continental Army.
Thatcher's _Military Journal_ gives an account of an attempt to sink
a British frigate, the _Eagle_, of sixty-four guns, by attaching a
torpedo to the bottom of the ship by means of a screw manipulated
from the interior of this submarine boat. A sergeant who operated
the _Turtle_ succeeded in getting under the British vessel, but the
screw which was to hold the torpedo in place came in contact with
an iron strap, refused to enter, and the implement of destruction
floated down stream, where its clockwork mechanism finally caused it
to explode, throwing a column of water high in the air and creating
consternation among the shipping in the harbor. Skippers were so badly
frightened that they slipped their cables and went down to Sandy Hook.
General Washington complimented Doctor Bushnell on having so nearly
accomplished the destruction of the frigate.

If the performance of Bushnell's _Turtle_ was as successful as this,
it seems strange that our new government did not immediately take up
his ideas and make an appropriation for further experiments in the
same line. When the attack was made on the _Eagle_, Doctor Bushnell's
brother, who was to have manned the craft, was sick, and a sergeant who
undertook the task was not sufficiently acquainted with the operation
to succeed in attaching the torpedo to the bottom of the frigate. Had
he succeeded, the _Eagle_ would undoubtedly have been destroyed, and
the event would have added the name of another hero to history and
might have changed even the entire method of naval warfare. Bushnell's
plans did not receive any encouragement, however, and were bitterly
opposed by the naval authorities. His treatment was such as to compel
him to leave the country, but, after some years of wandering, under an
assumed name he settled in Georgia, where he spent his remaining days
practising his profession.

Doctor Bushnell was also the inventor of the submarine mine, with
which he blew up a schooner anchored off New London, Connecticut, and
attempted to sink some British men-of-war in the Delaware River off
Philadelphia by setting them adrift with the tide, expecting them to
float down, strike against the sides of the ship, and then explode.
Fortunately for the ships, none of them happened to strike, but the
fact becoming known that torpedoes were being set adrift in the river
caused great consternation among the British shipping people. When some
wag set a lot of kegs adrift, which floated down the river, it caused
tremendous excitement, the English crews firing at the kegs as they
came floating down the river. This has been recorded in that humorous
poem called "The Battle of the Kegs," by Francis Hopkinson, one of the
signers of the Declaration of Independence.

=Fulton's Attempt.=--Robert Fulton, the man whose genius made steam
navigation a success, was the next to turn his attention to submarine
boats, and submarine warfare by submerged mines. A large part of his
life was devoted to the solution of this problem. He went to France
with his project and interested Napoleon Bonaparte, who became his
patron and who was the means of securing sufficient funds for him to
build a boat which was called the _Nautilus_. With this vessel Fulton
made numerous descents, and it is reported that he covered fifty yards
in a submerged run of seven minutes.

In the spring of 1801 he took the _Nautilus_ to Brest, and experimented
with her for some time. He and three companions descended in the
harbor to a depth of twenty-five feet and remained one hour, but he
found the hull would not stand the pressure of a greater depth. They
were in total darkness during the whole time, but afterward he fitted
his craft with a glass window, one and a half inches in diameter,
through which he could see to count the minutes on his watch. He also
discovered during his trials that the mariner's compass pointed equally
as true under water as above it. His experiments led him to believe
that he could build a submarine vessel with which he could swim under
the surface and destroy any man-of-war afloat. When he came before the
French Admiralty, however, he was met with blunt refusal, one bluff old
French admiral saying, "Thank God, France still fights her battles on
the surface, not beneath it!"--a sentiment which apparently has changed
since those days, as France now has a large fleet of submarines.

[Illustration: ROBERT FULTON'S SUBMARINE]

After several years of unsuccessful efforts in France to get his plans
adopted, Fulton finally went over to England and interested William
Pitt, then Chancellor, in his schemes. He built a boat there and
succeeded in attaching a torpedo beneath a condemned brig provided for
the purpose, blowing her up in the presence of an immense throng. Pitt
induced Fulton to sell his boat to the English Government and not bring
it to the attention of any other nation, thus recognizing the fact that
if this type of vessel should be made entirely successful, England
would lose her supremacy as the "Mistress of the Seas," a prediction
which seems now somewhat verified, judging from the work of the enemy
submarines in the past few months.

Fulton consented to do so regarding other European countries, but
would not pledge himself regarding his own country, stating that if
his country should become engaged in war no pledge could be given that
would prevent him from offering his services in any way which would be
for its benefit.

The English Government paid him $75,000 for this concession. Fulton
then returned to New York and built the _Clermont_ and other
steamboats, but did not entirely give up his ideas on submarine
navigation, for at the time of his death he was at work on plans for a
much larger boat.

Tuck, the inventor of the _Peacemaker_, had an unhappy lot. He spent
a considerable portion of his wealth upon his experiments, and it is
reported that his relatives, thinking he would spend all of his money
in this way, and consequently leave nothing to them, had him adjudged
insane and incarcerated. Some years ago I met a diver who had been
employed by Tuck in his submarine boat experiments. This diver related
to me an incident that nearly caused them to lose their lives. It
appears that the boat had been first submerged in shallow water to
find out if it was tight, which it was under a moderate pressure. They
then took it out in the Hudson River, but on reaching a greater depth,
water started to come in around the gasket of the hatch, the hatch
not being constructed in a manner to increase its tightness as the
pressure on the same increased. The water came in so fast that they
could not rise. He said they tried to caulk the leak by stuffing their
handkerchiefs in between the hatch covering and the combing, but they
could not stop it. Finally one of the men became so hysterical that it
was necessary for the diver to take up a hammer and tap him on the head
with it and threaten to brain him unless he became quiet and did as
he was told. The diver told me that he became satisfied that the only
chance for their lives was to allow the boat to fill, then hold their
breath as it was filling, until the external pressure on the hatch
was equalized, and then open the hatch and swim to the surface. They
followed this plan and escaped safely.

[Illustration: TUCK'S "PEACEMAKER"]

=Holland's Achievements.=--While Mr. John P. Holland and I worked in
adjoining rooms at the Columbian Iron Works, in Baltimore, in the
years 1896 and 1897, at the time he was building the _Plunger_ and I
the _Argonaut_, and saw each other almost every day, we never became
sufficiently intimate to exchange personal experiences. I am therefore
indebted to his son, Mr. John P. Holland, Jr., for the loan of notes
left by his father and compiled by himself regarding his father's early
and later experiences. I quote from the notes:

On the southwest coast of Ireland, a few miles from the famous cliffs
of Mohar, and overlooking the river Shannon, stands the village of
Liscannor. Here was born on February 24, 1841, John P. Holland, later
to become famous as the inventor of the Holland submarine. He was
the second son of John and Mary Holland, who had long been residents
of the place. His father was a coast guard, and from him little John
heard the stories of the sea that inspired in him the love he had for
it in later years. His elder brother, Alfred, was a strong, healthy
boy of great intellect. When John was six years old he was sent to the
Irish Christian Brothers school at Ennistymon, in the same county. He
always credited the Irish Christian Brothers with giving him the early
education that made him capable, later, of achieving results that
scientists of to-day can hardly credit as being true.

In 1853 the family moved to Limerick, causing John to be transferred
to the schools taught by the Christian Brothers at Sexton Street,
that city. He was a very studious boy and made great progress in his
studies. He loved to tell how he was in the habit of rising early in
the morning and going into the fields, where he would climb a tree and
there study his lessons for the day. The family had not resided long
in Limerick when the father was taken from them very suddenly. He had
been suffering from some slight ailment, and mentioned the fact to a
friend. The friend advised that he take a home remedy, composed mostly
of potash. He took the prescribed dose and died within a few hours.

On the death of his father John was compelled to give up school and
seek employment in a tobacco shop. In 1858 he left the position and
became a teacher in the Christian Brothers schools. In 1860 he showed
signs of failing health; accordingly the Brothers transferred him to
one of their schools in Waterford, in the hope that the climate there
would prove more beneficial to his impaired health. However, after
residing in that town for a time it was seen that the looked-for
improvement did not materialize, and he grew worse instead of better.
During the following twelve months he was assured by the best medical
advice available that his health would not permit him to continue his
studies, and that in order that it be restored he would do well to
live in some place having a mild and dry climate, such as is found in
the Madeira Islands. For several reasons this was impracticable, so he
went to Cork to wait until he could find a suitable climate in which to
live. While staying in Cork he lived at Ashburton, at the western end
of Clanmire Hill, for about one year. While here he improved greatly in
health and strength.

The War of the Rebellion in the United States had started a few months
before he came to live in Cork. Toward the end of November, 1862, he
read in the Cork _Examiner_ an announcement of the first combat between
armored ships that had occurred about two weeks previously; that is,
the battle between the _Monitor_ and _Merrimac_ at Hampton Roads, Va.,
in which the little _Monitor_ defeated the _Merrimac_, of twice her
bulk and power, after a short contest. Just before the remarkable duel
the _Merrimac_, ignoring the guns of her opponent, the wooden ship
_Congress_, sank her by striking her with her massive iron stem. The
_Cumberland_, another ship like the _Congress_, lying in the water
near her, did not wait to be similarly rammed, but made haste to run
aground on the nearest shallow place. But this did not save her, as
the _Merrimac_ attacked her and set her on fire with her heavy guns,
while ignoring her fire, which did very little harm. This epoch-making
contest in Virginian waters astonished naval authorities the world
over, especially in England, whose main reliance for the maintenance
of their power was placed in the "wooden walls," and in the bravery
and skill of their seamen. The English nervousness was due to the
demonstration at Hampton Roads that wooden ships could be no more of a
hindrance to an armorclad than the _Cumberland_ and _Congress_ were to
the _Merrimac_, and that if the Yankees built a few more monitors and
sent them across the Atlantic quickly, they could come to London by
water absolutely unhindered and destroy London and all the English navy
within reach. All the English naval depots could, with practically no
hindrance, be treated similarly within a few months, and an end made of
English oppression from which it could never recover.

That this is no wild dreaming will be evident to everybody, when the
action of the English Parliament regarding a proposal made there by a
Lord of the Admiralty was considered and acted upon favorably in rapid
order. A certain Lord Paget, who commanded an English ship at the
bombardment of Sebastopol, proving that he was not without experience
in justifying the assertion, told them that if all the five hundred
and eighty English warships then in existence were sent into the Cork
harbor; and if the little American _Monitor_ were to get in there, too,
at the same time; and also if a suitable chain boom were fixed so as to
enclose the whole lot, that the same little _Monitor_ could send them
all to the bottom within a few hours without being compelled to fire a
single shot. Lord Paget made these assertions in support of a motion he
made before the House of Commons, proposing that the unspent part of an
appropriation of about $75,000,000 designed to build forts to defend
harbors in the South of England for the protection of their fleets
against the French and Yankees should be immediately applied to the
construction of armorclad ships. Without any delay a bill was passed
making the required change in the appropriation bill. Very shortly
after the Admiralty proposed the construction of four ironclads, which
proposal was immediately adopted.

Four large battleships were taken and razed and covered with
armor-plate. They were followed later by many much more powerful
vessels designed especially to carry armor, _until at the present
day the English Navy is competent to engage all the European navies
together_. Mr. Holland, reflecting upon the result of the duel at
Hampton Roads, foresaw this result clearly, because he knew that
England possessed the necessary materials, money, and mechanical skill
required to provide ships enough to maintain her claim to her assumed
title, "Mistress of the Seas," and to enable her to terrorize the
greatest nations of Europe that had persistently shown lack of wisdom
by their neglect to properly provide themselves with the only weapon
that could resist her; that is, a sufficiently powerful navy.

They trusted, to their undoing, to great armies, forgetting that
England had already proved her ability to cause combinations of her
former enemies against any one of them.

But, having carefully noted the development of armored ships in
the American, English, and French navies since the first duels of
armorclads at Hampton Roads, Mr. Holland conceived the notion that it
would be possible to build a vessel that would utilize water cover
as a protection against an enemy's projectiles and thus be capable
of ramming her enemy without exposing herself to attack. The study
of the possibility of designing a practicable submarine boat to
encounter English ironclads in this manner became the most interesting
problem that he had to solve for a considerable time afterward. He
further relates the physical difficulties that had to be overcome;
bad health and hard work hindered consideration of the problem for a
long time, until one day he happened to see in a newspaper an account
of the experiments made with a submarine in New York harbor.[1] The
description of its performances appeared to be incredible when he
remembered the physical difficulties that had to be overcome, as his
former study of the subject revealed them. Reflecting later that
it was foolish and unfair to ridicule and laugh at a project which
was described only by a short notice in the newspaper, and that
described only its success in overcoming the physical difficulties
in its operation, he started on a thorough study of the question in
connection with a design roughly sketched on a sheet of paper; giving
due attention to the essential points concerned in using a submarine
boat so that it would be practical to live and work while completely
submerged even in rough water; so as to propel it, first, at an even
or any required depth; second, to be able to steer it with certainty in
any required direction; third, to have an ample supply of compressed
air on board, as well as the necessary apparatus to renew it when
exhausted.

Fortunately he had sufficient engineering knowledge to determine the
thickness and weight of a spindle-shaped steel shell competent to
endure the external water pressure due to a submergence of two hundred
and fifty feet depth, which was probably the greatest pressure it would
ever be compelled to endure when in action. He was also competent
to provide for a change of trim and for regulating the degree of
submergence, as well as to provide for a slow or a rapid rise to the
surface as circumstances might require. After completing his design,
however, he found there was no one with confidence enough in the idea
to give him backing. He was regarded as a second Jules Verne; in a
word, a dreamer. He accordingly locked his plans in his trunk and for
the time being forgot all about them.

A few years later his mother came to the United States and he decided
to follow her. He landed in Boston in the winter of 1872, and in the
middle of typical New England weather as found at that time of the
year. Everything was covered with ice and snow, quite different from
the mild winters he had known in the little "Green Isle." One morning
after his arrival he was walking through one of the streets of the
"Hub," and, not being possessed of the agility of a mountain goat--so
necessary for a man to navigate one of our American streets during
an icy spell--he had not gone far before he fell and broke his leg.
Passersby helped him home, and he was assured by the physician who set
the fracture that he would not be able to move about for at least two
months. Finding himself with so much idle time on his hands, he decided
to get out his forgotten plans and study them again. The result was
that by the time his convalescence was over he had drawn a new and much
superior design.

But it was not until 1876, when he was teaching school in Paterson, New
Jersey, that he succeeded in securing financial backing for his first
boat. A friend at that time raised the necessary capital, about $6000,
and the building was done at the Albany Street Iron Works, corner of
Albany and Washington Streets, New York, in 1876, in the shop owned
by Messrs. Andrew and Ripley. To their courteous superintendent, Mr.
Dickey, he was indebted for many suggestions toward rendering the
boat practical and useful. Early in 1878 she was removed to Todd and
Rafferty's shop in Paterson, New Jersey; he, being a resident of that
city at that time, could complete her outfit more easily there. Toward
the end of July, 1878, she was taken to a point where she could be
more easily launched, about one hundred yards above the Falls Bridge,
on the right bank of the river. She was taken there late one fine
afternoon and launched from the wagon on which she was moved. Mr.
William Dunkerly, the engineer in charge of the operation, fastened a
strong line on her bow to bring her to when she was afloat; but she
did not float long, for the wagon wheels sank in the made ground where
they launched her, the greater part of the wagon being submerged, as
well as nearly one-half of the volume of the boat, leaving the boat
with the stern considerably elevated. After hard work on the part of
Messrs. Dunkerly and John Lister, the owners of a boathouse above the
bridge she was pulled off the wagon and floated for a few minutes, amid
the cheers of mill operatives who lined the banks and covered every
available spot on the bridge. But the cheering suddenly ceased when
the boat backed a little out in the river, for she settled deeper in
the water and finally sank, to the great disappointment of the crowd,
who expressed their feelings in loud yells until Messrs. Dunkerly and
Lister moved the wagon out of the way, took hold of the boat's painter,
and pulled her out of the water high and dry on the spot previously
occupied by the wagon. It is no exaggeration to say that the natives
were much astounded to see a little iron boat weighing four tons pulled
by two men from the bottom of the Passaic and left standing high and
dry on the bank.

The next day the accidental submergence was explained by the absence
of two five-eighths inch screw plugs from the bottom of the central
compartment in which the operator would be seated while the boat was
in operation. By opening a stop valve while the boat was in operation
under water a sufficient quantity of water would enter, surround the
operator in his diving suit, and render the boat and its contents
heavier than water, so that it would sink as it did after having been
launched with the plug holes open. The reason that it did not sink, and
that it was so easy a matter to pull it ashore, was because the total
weight on board on that occasion was much more than it was designed to
carry. The central space then carried water equal to the weight of the
diver and his suit of armor, as well as the additional quantity that
would fill the space around him, as well as that which would be due
to the distention of the suit by air pressure while it was in action
during diving. The actual practicability of being able to handle the
boat under these conditions was the first important point proved by
experiment on the day following the launch.

"We proved conclusively, a few weeks after, that our estimate of the
quantity of fresh compressed air required to support life comfortably
in the operator was probably a little excessive. The quantity of
compressed air, as well as the pressure required to force all water
out of the boat and to cause her to float light on the surface, was
ample. A few days after the launch, the engine having been given a
slight test, the boat was towed up the river to a point opposite the
old Pennington house. In the launch that towed her were Mr. Dunkerly,
Captain John Lister, and three men prominent in the 'Fenian' movement."

What happened when the boat reached the point for the test is best told
by Mr. Dunkerly: "We fastened ropes to the bow and stern," Mr. Dunkerly
said; "Mr. Holland climbed into the submarine, closed the hatch, and
started the engine. The bow went down first, and before we realized
the fact the boat was under twelve feet of water. The ropes were a
safeguard in case the compressed air should not prove sufficient to
expel the water from the ballast tanks. Holland was also given a hammer
with which to rap upon the shell of the boat should he find himself
in difficulties. After being submerged one hour, Holland brought the
boat to the surface, to the great relief of all who were witnessing the
test. As soon as the boat came up the turret opened and Holland bobbed
up smiling. He repeated his dive several times, and then he invited us
to try it, but we preferred to 'stick to the ropes.' About the third
trip we made up the river a stranger was seen hiding behind the rocks
on the river road. He had a powerful field glass, and it was said
that he was an agent of the British Government. His presence caused
a commotion for a time." From here we will continue in Mr. Holland,
Senior's, own words:

"Continuous submergence trials for various periods were next
undertaken. We had one serious setback that caused no greater
trouble than shortening our experiments by compelling us to omit
all running trials and to confine ourselves to testing matters of
essential importance. This was due to the failure of the misnamed
Braton engine that was installed in the boat. The builders assured
me that it was a Braton engine, but they had improved on Braton's
designs by employing two double-acting cylinders, having both
ends of each supplied with charges from one central combustion
chamber. On trial in the boat this engine failed to develop any
noticeable power, so we were compelled to employ Mr. Dunkerly's
launch, supplying her engines with steam, which was conducted from
the boiler of his launch by way of a hose to the engine of the
submarine, which was now employed as a steam engine. This entailed
a considerable loss of steam, due to condensation, but it produced
enough power to propel the submarine, having Mr. Dunkerly's launch
alongside so as to allow free vertical movement, as when diving,
so that we could test the efficiency of the boat's horizontal and
vertical rudders. The vertical rudders, those that controlled
horizontal motion, proved to be very effective, but the horizontal
rudders, placed on the level of the centre of buoyancy, proved
to be useless. We proved that the boat should move three or four
times more rapidly before they could produce a useful effect. This
experiment showed the folly of attempting to control the degree of
submergence of the boat by the employment of central horizontal
rudders, a method on which so much importance was placed by some of
my predecessors and successors, in attempts at submarining, and,
strange to say, some of them still believe in it, very evidently
because they have never tested them. A good many submarine and
other inventors are satisfied with designs on paper and do not
bother to make experiments. We determined some other very evident
matters that it was necessary to prove by actual experiment; that
is, that it is not practical to cause a boat to lie still at any
given depth without the employment of complicated machinery that
should have no place in a submarine boat. Several other important
points regarding the design, construction, and management of
submarines, which still cause difference of opinion and design,
were determined fairly well. For instance, the modern craze for
'good, big boats,' as well as for large, high conning towers, was
proved to be absurd. Even though our views on these and other
matters were exhibited to the Navy Department Ordnance Bureau,
practically no notice was taken of them. I disliked the idea common
among politicians that my failures to get a government contract was
owing to political influence or 'pull,' but, judging by my short
experience in Washington, I concluded that there was another, and
much more serious, hindrance to the adoption of my ideas.

"The history of the efforts I made to induce the government to
consider the claims of the first submarine boat proposed to them
by me in 1875, as well as the results, reflects no credit on the
officials that had anything to do with it, as can be clearly seen
from what follows.

"The first proposition was made in 1875, through a friend of the
late Secretary of the Navy Robeson, for his consideration. It was
referred by him for a report to the late Admiral Sampson, at that
time commander of the torpedo station at Newport, Rhode Island.
The Admiral reported in good time that the project was practically
impossible, owing mainly to the difficulty of finding in what
direction to steer the boat under water, and the attempt to do so
would be an aggravated case of trying to find one's way in a fog.
Very evidently he had no notion of the possibility of steering
by compass under water. The same incredulity was expressed by a
distinguished Swedish officer whom I afterward met in New York.

"After having determined the correctness of my ideas regarding
submarines, and adding a few points revealed by the experiments
made on the Passaic River, my financial supporters, the trustees of
the Fenian Skirmishing Fund, determined to build a larger boat that
could be employed for breaking blockades.[2] Toward the end of May
I started to design a new boat of about nineteen tons displacement;
in other words, one small and light enough to be carried on
ship's deck and launched overboard whenever her services would be
required. Only three men were required for her crew.

[Illustration: THE "FENIAN RAM"

The first Holland power-propelled submarine boat (built 1881).
Sketch made by the author after measuring the boat

at New Haven, Connecticut, in 1915.]

"She was built at the shops of the Delamater Iron Works, at the foot
of West Thirteenth Street, New York, and launched in May, 1881.
During her construction my curiosity was excited by the apparent
incredulity of some of the engineers in the shop regarding the
practicability of such a boat. Many objections were urged against
her, especially by men who should have known better, but the
trouble with them was almost the same as I encountered later among
the staff officers of the navy, viz., because they were, almost
without exception, of English, Welsh, or Scotch descent, experienced
in all kinds of shipbuilding. They appeared to know by intuition that
the project was absurd. They proposed many difficulties that were not
solved for them. I also noticed that many of the men appeared to take
a deep interest in the progress of the work, even though they never
made any inquiries to my knowledge, yet they observed everything,
because there was no way of preventing them. I also noticed what
appeared to be consequences of this curiosity of foreigners regarding
an American machine.

"During the following twelve months many visitors came to look over
the submarine, mostly Swedes, Russians, Italians, and Germans. I
was much pleased to meet two of them who apparently had no idea of
the jealousy with which some people guard their military secrets,
viz., Ali Ritza and Hassan Effendi. But, very clearly to me,
they had no idea of the importance of what was expected from the
machine, or, much more likely, they had been persuaded by their
acquaintances of English connections that the project would never
amount to anything because it did not originate in England. The
fact that English opinion in naval matters governed the opinion of
every American was made quite clear to me later on.

"This nineteen-ton boat was launched in 1881. She was thirty-one
feet long, six feet beam, seven feet four inches in depth, and was
propelled by a Brayton petroleum engine. Her crew consisted of
three men--the pilot, engineer, and gunner. She laid at the Morris
& Cummings Dredging Company's dock in Jersey City until July 3,
1883, during which time many interesting experiments were made with
her.

"The first run on the surface and while submerged was made in the
basin, or passage, east of the Lehigh Valley Railroad. The first
tests made were the surface runs to test the engine, clutch,
gearing, etc. These proved very successful, and the next in order
was to submerge the boat at the dock and determine whether the
seams were all right, and also to test the efficiency of the
compressed-air tanks for supplying oxygen for breathing and giving
impulses for expelling water from the ballast tanks.

"Accordingly Richards, the engineer, and myself entered the boat
and closed the hatch. This shut us off from the air, and our
breathing now depended entirely on the compressed-air reserve.
After waiting a few moments and finding no ill effects from the
compressed air, I decided to submerge. I drew back the little iron
levers on either side of my head (these operated the Kingston
valves in the bottom, through which water was admitted to the
ballast tanks). Almost immediately the boat began to settle, giving
us the suggestion of slowly descending in an elevator. I now looked
through the ports in the superstructure and observed that the bow
had entirely disappeared and the water was within a few inches of
the glass. A second or two later everything grew dark and we were
entirely submerged, and nothing could be seen through the ports
excepting a dark-green blur.

"Our next suggestion was a slight jar when the vessel struck the
bottom. It might also be mentioned here that we had no light
except the glow that came through the conning tower. This just
about sufficed to read the gauges, but was too poor to be of much
interest to the engineer. The engine was not needed at that time,
however, but we decided to carry a small lantern, to be used when
any adjustment was necessary, but not otherwise, as it consumed too
much of our precious oxygen.

"Richards having made an examination and found everything tight, I
decided to blow out the ballast and come up. Accordingly I opened
the valve admitting air to the ballast tank, and at once heard a
hiss that told me that the air was driving out the water. The green
blur on the ports in the conning tower grew lighter as I gazed
through them until suddenly the light of full day burst through,
almost dazzling me. After blinking my eyes a few times I looked out
again and saw the familiar surroundings of the 'Gap.' I now opened
the hatch and stood on the seat, thus causing my head and shoulders
to protrude from the tower. As soon as I was observed doing this
a cheer burst from the crowd of observers on the dock, among whom
opinion was equally divided as to whether we would ever emerge
alive from our dive or not. We had now demonstrated the fact that
our boat was tight, that our air was sufficient for breathing, and
that our ballasting system was perfect.

"Our next test was to prove that we could dive with our engine
running. Many were the gloomy prophecies advanced as to what would
happen when we attempted to force our exhaust outboard against
the water pressure found at eight or ten feet depth. For this
occasion Richards and I entered the boat, I taking my place in the
conning tower, while he went forward to start the engine. After a
little kicking and sputtering he succeeded in getting it started.
We then let in the clutch and the boat started forward. When we
reached the far side of the basin I turned her around and threw out
the clutch, causing the boat to slow down and stop. Closing the
hatch, we then made sure that everything was tight, and opened the
Kingston valves. When the water reached the observer's ports in the
conning tower, I closed them again. We then proceeded along awash;
that is, with only the little tower showing above the surface.
I found that from this position I could observe objects quite a
distance ahead, and my vision was obscured only occasionally when
a wave washed against the glass. I next threw forward the lever on
the right side of my seat (this was connected with the diving, or
vertical, rudder by a lever action). Immediately the nose of the
boat went down, and before I realized it our gauge showed a depth
of about ten feet. I now drew the lever back to centre, and the
boat straightened out on an even keel. There was very little or no
tendency to buck or be cranky; in a word, I had no difficulty in
preventing her nose from rising or dipping down.

"After running about one hundred yards submerged I steered the boat
up, and in a few seconds the superstructure of the boat was again
above water. I then opened the air valve and expelled my ballast,
causing the boat to rise and assume her normal position. This dive
was practised for some time in order that we might gain facility in
handling the diving and steering gear.

"Captain John Ericsson was at that time preparing to build his
_Destroyer_ in the same part of the shop in which my boat had
been built. Somebody in Delamater's described my boat to Captain
Ericsson and explained the purpose of a nine-inch tube placed in
the axis and having a breech and bow cap. The object of this
fitting was to permit the insertion of a six-foot torpedo that
could be shot out at a target while the boat was under water by
air at a heavy pressure contained in steel flasks connected with
the breech of the gun by a balanced valve. After the torpedo was
ejected the breech and muzzle were closed, and the water contents
of the tube were permitted to flow into two tanks to correct the
position of the centre of gravity.

"Not having any torpedo models ready for experiment when the boat
reached Jersey City, Captain Ericsson very kindly sent me word
that I might build a few like those he proposed to use in his
_Destroyer_. I therefore deferred building any on my own ideas,
and decided to use his, should they prove suitable. The Delamaters
built me two on his models and sent them to Jersey City for trial.
For the trials of Ericsson's torpedo models the boat was set awash
in the water, with the axis of the torpedo placed horizontally and
about three and one-half feet below the water surface. Because
there was a new floating dock lying in the water about one hundred
and fifty yards from the submarine, and in a direct line with it,
the firing pressure was reduced to about three hundred pounds on
the square inch. When the firing valve was opened the projectile
passed out and travelled about six or eight feet beyond the muzzle
of the gun, then it turned upward and arose in the air to perhaps
sixty or seventy feet; then it fell point foremost in the water
and buried itself so deeply in the mud that we could never find it
again. For the second shot the boat was depressed a few degrees and
was swung to port so as to avoid butting the floating dry dock.
It travelled about twice as far as its predecessor, then rose
fifteen feet in the air and passed over the wall limiting the
basin, striking a pile that projected above it, and frightening a
fisherman who was dozing thereon. He was in no danger, however,
as the pile and string-piece of heavy pine afforded him ample
protection.

"While the boat lay at Gorky's repair shop at the point called the
'Gap,' a test was made of the efficiency of the apparatus provided
for using the boat as a diving-bell, viz., a watertight hatch
placed over a hatchway on the bottom, with valves leading from
air-chambers, through which air under pressure was permitted to
flow and fill the space occupied by the operators.

"When employing the boat as a diving-bell everything was closed
tight and air was admitted to the central space until the external
water pressure was exactly balanced, and when the lower hatch
might be opened without any risk of water entering. The first man
to make a test was Mr. George M. Richards, of Erie, Pennsylvania,
my engineer. He sank the boat at high water while she lay at the
dock. When she rested on the bottom he opened the test valves to
make certain that the external water pressure was balanced by the
internal air pressure, admitting an excess of water equal to his
weight to hold her on the bottom. This operation did not consume
more than a minute. He did not actually go out of the boat, but
only dropped his feet on the bottom, passed his hands under the
boat, one on either side, and lifted the boat slowly and with
little exertion about one foot from the bottom. Had I provided the
boat with a diver's outfit he could have gone out and come back
again without trouble or risk. On July 3, 1883, we left the 'Gap'
in Jersey City in order to do some diving in the deep water of the
Narrows.

"The boat went out under its own power, unaccompanied by anybody
save a small colored boy who had managed to drop on the turret when
we were leaving the dock. The first intimation I had that we were
carrying a passenger was shortly after we had passed Robbins's Reef
Lighthouse. Then I found my view of Staten Island and Bay Ridge
became obscured by what seemed to be a pair of brown rags hanging
on either side of the turret and blocking the vision through the
side lights. When we passed Robbins's Reef the water became a
little rougher, so that the water passed up on the hull and washed
over the turret. After the windows had been wet a few times I heard
noises that plainly indicated that we were carrying an uninvited
and unwelcome passenger. Fearing that the waves would wash him off,
I headed the boat upstream, opened the hatch, and invited him to
come inside, as I feared running through rough water with him on
top. He politely refused my invitation, assuring me that he was
'puffectly safe' where he was, and that he would 'hold on like grim
death.' This unfortunate circumstance spoiled my chances of diving
in deep water that day, so we were compelled to abandon it. This
interruption by the young colored gentleman wasted so much time
that it was after sunset when we headed for the Bay Ridge shore,
with which I was unfamiliar, to look for a landing place. Seeing
through the twilight unmistakable signs that the shore was rocky,
I ran the boat out about one hundred yards and then headed her up
toward the Bay Ridge Ferry landing, with the intention of leaving
her there until daylight the next morning. Before starting north
we noticed two boys in a rowboat approaching us from the shore.
We stopped until they came alongside and inquired: 'What is this
thing?' They came on board and inspected her at our invitation,
and expressed great astonishment at the strange boat they had
picked up. But what was much more to the purpose was that when they
found we had no particular landing place in view they very kindly
offered us the hospitality of Mr. Vanderbilt Bergen's dock at Bay
Ridge for as long as we wished to stay there for experiments. Then
they took our 'painter' and towed us into his dock on the site of
the present Crescent Yacht Club station. The two young gentlemen,
Tunis Bergen and his cousin Harry Midgley, also contracted to take
care of our material and help us out during our stay at their dock.
What was of great importance to us was that we learned from Mr.
Vanderbilt Bergen, Tunis's brother, that the place we had happened
upon was by far the most suitable of any within miles for diving
and experiments. We left the boat there over two months, making
experiments to determine the value of our devices and to improve
them wherever possible.

"Every time we went out we took two or more dives of various
lengths, most of these quite across the Narrows, a little below
Stapleton. During these dives I always made certain that there was
no ship of twenty-five or thirty feet draught passing. Ordinarily
we ran at a depth of not less than twenty feet, so that we could
afford to ignore excursion steamers, fishing boats, and small
yachts. The paddles of excursion steamers we could hear a long
distance away, so that we never had any difficulty in avoiding them
by changing our course or running at a greater depth until they had
passed. We had a rather exciting experience on one occasion when we
started to run submerged from Stapleton to Bay Ridge. At starting
there was no large vessel in sight, but when about two hundred and
fifty yards from shore I distinctly heard the paddle of a steamer.
I instantly changed the vessel's course from directly across the
Narrows, heading her upstream and running to twenty feet depth so
as to eliminate any danger of a collision. Running along I listened
for the sound of paddles, but could hear nothing, so I concluded
that the steamer must have passed beyond the range of hearing or
else had changed her course. Therefore I thought it would be safe
to come within fifteen feet of the surface and listen again. I did
so, and, hearing no sound, brought the turret above the surface
to look around, but I could see no steamer. I then resumed my
course back to Bay Ridge. On approaching Mr. Bergen's dock I saw
three or four men jumping around and acting as if demented, so on
landing I asked Bergen the cause of their hilarity. 'Oh,' he said,
'you frightened the d---- out of the _St. Johns_, the Long Branch
steamer. You remember having come near the surface shortly after
you started across and then diving? We didn't see you again until
you rose three hundred yards out at this side.' I said that I
remembered it. 'Well, when you went down that time your propeller
shot a great mass of water out backward, just as big as, or bigger
than, any whale could blow. The _St. Johns_ was about two hundred
yards astern of you, and she stopped instantly, not being able to
tell what the trouble was ahead of her. After a while she started
up and headed into the Staten Island shore, keeping on until I
thought she would run ashore. She ported her helm and kept close
along shore until she passed the Quarantine anchorage, then she
headed straight for New York.'

"Experimental runs were made almost every day during the months of
July and August, and continued until September, when we returned
to the 'Gap' in Jersey City. During our experiments we were never
without a considerable crowd of witnesses, sometimes numbering
hundreds, especially in our runs from the 'Gap' up the Hudson and
return. One morning in July a very patronizing gentleman, who
announced himself as a reporter from the _New York Sun_, requested
permission to go into the boat and examine it, but, much to his
surprise, I was compelled to refuse him permission. The next
morning there appeared in his paper a long report describing the
performances of the _Fenian Ram_, a new name to which I had no
objection excepting its incorrectness. Because public curiosity
was aroused, the same Mr. Blakely Hall seldom missed reporting
every run or experiment we made while at Bay Ridge. He explained
to me that I was foolish in not wishing to advertise my invention,
because the Government would certainly wish to acquire boats of the
same type, as he could see by the newspaper reports that they were
already preparing to build them in France.

"Shortly after our return to the 'Gap,' an amusing incident took
place which is well worth recording. A number of friends and myself
decided to take a trip up the Hudson. There were eight or ten in
the party, and, as the submarine could accommodate only four, a
small sloop was hired to carry the overflow. When we got under way,
the submarine towing the sloop, we found the going rather hard,
owing to cakes of ice floating down the river. When we were off
Hoboken I slowed down to allow a steamer to cross our bow. This,
of course, slackened the towline, with the result that when I got
under way again said line fouled the propeller, held for a second,
and then broke, sending the sloop adrift among the cakes of ice.
The crew of the derelict bark shouted to attract my attention, but
I had the hatch closed and could not hear them. I proceeded about
a mile upstream from the point of the accident before I discovered
that my tow was missing. I turned back and found my unfortunate
mariners had been picked up by a passing boat and towed back to
Jersey City.

"In November, 1883, while returning from a run through the Narrows,
we dove to a depth of sixty feet, remained on the bottom for an
hour, and came to the surface with no more trouble or inconvenience
than if we dove only eight or ten feet. Shortly after this the
_Ram's_ career ended in a rather odd way. I have no intention of
advancing any excuses for the incident, as no official explanation
was ever made to me concerning it. As a result, I never bothered
again with my backers nor they with me, but before recording the
more solemn incident I would like to mention a rather amusing one
that has just come to mind.

"One morning, on going down to board the boat, I was surprised to
find no boat there. I was puzzled for a minute, but, on inquiry of
the bystanders, I found that my engineer, Richards, had decided
to take the boat out for a run by himself. He had proceeded down
stream, but that was about all the witnesses could tell me. I
therefore walked along the wharves until I came to a crowd of men
standing on a pier and pointing out into the river. My attention
was called to a point on the surface about two hundred yards off
the pier head. There a great deal of air was coming to the surface
in countless little bubbles. The man told me that the _Irish Ram_
had just gone down there, owing to the fact that the conning tower
was open when it passed close to a barge and tug. The wash from
the tug passed over the little boat, flooded the hatch, and came
near catching Richards below. He happened to be just below the
hatch, however, and was blown out by the escaping air when the boat
went down. He floundered around in the water for a few minutes and
was finally picked up by the crew of the tug. A few minutes later
Richards appeared, still a bit pale from his rather startling
experience. It cost my backers about $3000 to raise the boat and
put her in shape again.

"The final history of the boat is told in a few words. She was
taken one night from her slip in the 'Gap' and towed to New Haven,
Connecticut. During the trip she was in charge of Breslin, one of
the trustees of the fund. I received no notice of the contemplated
move then, nor was I notified after. I am told that when they
arrived in New Haven they attempted to make dives, but handled
the boat so awkwardly that the harbor master decided that she
constituted a 'menace to navigation' and demanded a bond if any
further trials were to be made. As a result she was hauled out
of the water on the property of Reynolds, another member of the
committee, and there she still is. There is also a rumor that they
have tried to sell her to the Russian Government, but failed, as on
investigation the prospective buyers found that title to her was
not clear.

"After the _Ram_ was taken from me, I had no means of experimenting
further or building another boat. After a time I secured a position
with the Pneumatic Gun Company as a draughtsman. While employed
there I managed to interest some members of the company and some
friends of theirs in a design that I had drawn immediately after
the loss of the _Ram_. I allowed these men to examine my plans,
and they, approving of them, set about to organize a company, known
as the Nautilus Submarine Boat Company.

"During the organizing of the company I became acquainted with
Captain Zalinski, U. S. A., an expert on heavy artillery. Through
Captain Zalinski I met many influential men, who not only helped me
with the project in hand at the time, but were largely instrumental
in having my boat adopted by the United States Navy.

"At the suggestion of Captain Zalinski the boat was built at Fort
Hamilton, as he was stationed there at the time, and, being on the
army active list, could not be away from his post of duty. During
the time of her construction everything was under his supervision.
The boat was fifty feet long, six feet beam, and the hull was
constructed of wood. In 1886 the boat was launched. The launching
ways ran down from the fort wall to the water's edge. This part of
the program was in the hands of a young engineer who had either an
insufficient knowledge of the subject or lacked the ability to put
his knowledge to practical use. The result was, that when the heavy
boat started down the launching ways they suddenly collapsed and
she crashed into some piling near the water's edge, tearing out the
greater part of her side and bottom.

"On investigation it was found that the cost of repairs would
exceed the amount of money still on hand in the company's treasury.
Accordingly the wrecked boat was broken up where she lay, the
engine and fittings removed and sold, and the proceeds used to
partly reimburse the stockholders for the money they had invested.
This accident discouraged my company from any further attempts at
submarine construction. Had this boat been successful, submarines
would have become an accepted success years before they did. This
unfortunate incident held me back at least ten years, as it was
that long before I was able to secure backing to construct another
boat.

"About this time the United States Navy Department was mildly
interested in the performances of submarines in France, where
they had attained some slight degree of success. The designs for
these boats, I am sure, were based on certain fundamental points
of my _Fenian Ram_ design. As I have said previously, there were a
number of foreign officers present at Delamater's Yard from 1879
to 1881, while the boat was in course of construction, and it is
hardly to be expected that they failed to take notes. However, the
knowledge they secured did them very little good, because, while
they secured a lot of valuable data, their inexperience caused them
to disregard the most vital points, with the result that their
boats never attained any degree of success. However, I do not wish
to convey the impression that the United States Navy Department
was at this time considering building submarines as the results of
the French experiments; far from it. Had it not been informed of
the success of my _Fenian Ram_, which was far more interesting and
wonderful than anything the French had done, and still remained
unconvinced? I was totally sick and disgusted with its actions, and
was seriously tempted to abandon all further attempts to convince
and awake it from its lethargy. About this time I wrote an article,
"Can New York be Bombarded?" with the intention of bringing before
the public the pitiable condition of our fleet and coast defences,
and showing how a few submarines would place us in a position to
ward off an enemy's attack from mostly any point on our coast as
effectively as if we had an adequate shore defence and a fleet
equal to Great Britain's."

The article referred to treats of other types of ships. This is not of
interest now, but we quote what he says concerning

"THE SUBMARINE, OR DIVING BOAT

"This boat has a speed of eight miles per hour; she can remain
under water for two days, or longer, without having any connection
with the surface. She can be steered by compass when under water,
and her course may be laid and corrected without obliging her to
remain more than a few moments on the surface. This can be done
without ever appearing over water. She can move at any required
depth, and is more thoroughly under control when completely
submerged than when on the surface. Her horizontal and vertical
motions are controlled automatically or by the pilot.

"The torpedo, carrying a one-hundred-pound charge, can be projected
in a straight line to a distance of eighty or ninety feet,
according to the power employed in expelling it. The method of
attack will probably be as follows: The diving boat, with only her
turret above water, moves toward the ship. When she gets so close
that her presence may be discovered, say half a mile, she descends
a few feet under the surface. Once or twice, after the bearing of
the ship is observed by means of a telescope projected for a few
minutes over the water, corrections are made in the course for
deviations owing to currents.

"When near the vessel she goes deeper, so as to bring her stem ten
or fifteen feet beneath the surface. Netting can thus be avoided.
She can now discharge her torpedo, to explode on contact. As soon
as this strikes, the explosion occurs and a large hole is torn in
the ship's side. The ship will now become unmanageable, and with
assistance may be captured. Experience has shown that in a seaway
she rolls or pitches very little, apparently following the wave
slope in large waves. In short, sharp ones, she seems to rise and
fall bodily with very little tendency to pitching.

"A notion seems to prevail that the proper duty of a diving boat
would be to carry a diver, who could come out and fasten a torpedo
to a ship at anchor, then retire into his boat and move away; also,
that it would be useful in placing and removing stationary mines.
It is very evident that if a diving boat can attain a speed of ten
or twelve miles per hour, fire torpedoes at ships moving at full
speed, and keep to sea for days together, her sphere of usefulness
would be greatly extended. In fact, there is no insuperable
objection to the employment of such vessels for coast defence and
operations against ships. Submarine mines are not so effective
against them as vessels on the surface, because they can pass
them unobserved. They can enter a harbor that may be thoroughly
defended, should it be necessary to destroy vessels inside the
defences. If those on the fleet become aware of their presence it
is more than probable, judging from the action of the French fleet
in 1877-78, that the moral effect of the discovery will be that
they will feel convinced of the foolishness of awaiting an attack
when the time so employed may be more wisely expended in moving to
a safe distance, and in getting there at full speed. Thus, in 1886,
did I try to show by comparison the superiority of the submarine
over the torpedo boats and gunboats, the two arms of defence on
which the Navy placed all its confidence at the time."

From the above words concerning John P. Holland's various efforts
to secure recognition of his inventions, and his years of strenuous
endeavor to devise a weapon capable of providing a means of
defence, there is no question but that it is due to his initiative,
perseverance, and success that the diving type of boat was ever brought
to be manageable and adopted by the United States and England.

Mr. Holland's health broke down in his later years, said to have been
caused by the treatment which he received from some of his associates.

The testimony which Mr. Holland leaves among his notes, and the opinion
given me by his son, would indicate that his name and services were
used to enable others to make large financial gains, and that he
himself received little, if any, benefit from his life's work. His
son is authority for the statement to me that such competence as he
was able to leave for his family was derived from his other business
outside of that of his submarine work, and that his connection with
submarine matters undoubtedly affected his mind and health in later
years and probably shortened his life.

An appeal found among his papers, addressed to the chairman of the
Committee on Naval Affairs of the House of Representatives under date
of February 8, 1906, would appear to bear out this statement. I quote:

"APPEAL OF JOHN P. HOLLAND, INVENTOR OF SUBMARINE
BOATS, TO THE COMMITTEE ON NAVAL AFFAIRS OF THE
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, NOT TO LEGISLATE IN
THE INTEREST OF THE ELECTRIC BOAT COMPANY'S
MONOPOLY, BUT TO GIVE HIM
A SQUARE DEAL"

38 Newton Street,
NEWARK, NEW JERSEY,
February 8, 1906,

HON. C. E. FOSS, _Chairman Committee on Naval Affairs, House of
Representatives_.

DEAR SIR:

I am the inventor of the Holland submarine boat, now in use in the
United States Navy and in Europe. My old patents, to the number
of about twenty, are owned by the Electric Boat Company. On June
16, 1900, I entered into a contract with that company to serve as
their engineer for five years, dating back to April 1, 1899, and
expiring April 1, 1904. Since the expiration of my contract with
the Electric Boat Company I have devoted myself to remedying the
defects in my old inventions, and perfecting designs by which the
low speed of the present Holland boats can be increased three or
four times. Having perfected these inventions until I was sure I
could obtain about 25 knots per hour submerged, and after making
numerous other alterations, greatly improving the efficiency
over my submarine boats now in use in the Navy, I procured the
organization of a company, "John P. Holland's Submarine Boat
Company," May 18, 1905, with sufficient capital to build a boat
under my new plans and inventions, and was about to start to work,
when the Electric Boat Company filed a suit against me in the Court
of Chancery of New Jersey, applying for an injunction, and claiming
substantially that I had agreed to assign to them all my inventions
and patents during the term of my natural life. Two other suits
have been started, one against my new company in the United States
Circuit Court to enjoin the use of the name "Holland"; the other
against me personally, alleging a verbal contract never to compete
with the Electric Boat Company, was commenced in the New Jersey
Court of Chancery. My contract with the Electric Boat Company to
act as their engineer, and to give them my patents and inventions,
was for the five years during which I acted as engineer, and no
longer, and expired April 1, 1904, as stated above.

These suits have had the effect of frightening off the capital that
I had enlisted, and I have not as yet been able to get the capital
to build my new boat, by reason of these suits. The only object of
these suits was to prevent me from building a boat and going into
competition before the Navy Department with the submarine boats now
being built by the Electric Boat Company under my old patents.

The Electric Boat Company makes the allegation in their last bill
of complaint that by threatening to discharge me from their employ
and break their contract with me and stop my salary, that I agreed
to a contract which prevents me from using my brains and inventive
talent in building submarine boats for the balance of my life. This
allegation is absolutely false, even though under affidavit by Mr.
Rice, and would be, if true, most inequitable on account of duress
and on account of want of consideration. This alleged agreement
was not reduced to writing; the only evidence the Court has is the
sworn statement of Mr. Rice; and when the fact is considered that
Mr. Rice, formerly a professor of law at Columbia University, and
having the assistance of Mr. Frost, also a lawyer, failed to have
such an important agreement reduced to writing and signed by me,
the whole proposition appears ridiculous and silly. The further
fact that this bill of complaint containing these allegations, has
been printed and distributed at the Capitol would seem to indicate
that the principal object of this suit is to frighten away the
capital I had enlisted, and prevent the consideration of my new
patents and claims by your honorable committee.

My attention has been called to the bill (H.R. 10070), entitled "A
Bill to Increase the Efficiency of the Navy." It must be apparent
to every member of your committee that this bill is drawn solely in
the interest of the Electric Boat Company monopoly. The clause in
it that "The Secretary of the Navy shall purchase or contract for
said submarine boats within four months of the completion of the
contract trials of the submarine boats now building for the Navy"
is against all public interest, and is something extremely unusual.
If the Electric Boat Company should not complete its contract
for a year or two years or never, the whole business of the Navy
Department in this line would be held up. The bill excludes me,
the inventor of the Holland boats and who constructed and built
the original _Holland_, which is now in the service of the Navy,
from submitting my plans and models to the Navy Department for
consideration, for it would be useless to do so if the Secretary
is deprived, by the proposed law suggested by the Electric Boat
Company, from adopting them, though considering them superior in
efficiency and economy to the plans upon which the present boats
are being built.

I have recently had my models tested in the government tanks at the
Navy Yard in Washington by the United States officers in charge,
and their official reports will show that I can get a guaranteed
speed of 22 knots per hour submerged, and the same speed on the
surface, and this speed can be obtained in vessels of the same
or greater tonnage as those now being built by the Electric Boat
Company.

I hardly think, Mr. Chairman, that your committee, in making an
appropriation for submarine boats, will exclude the Navy Department
from any consideration of the plans made by me when I say to you
that these plans have the approval of some of the most expert
officers in the Navy on the question of submarine boats, and that
the boats can be built at one-third less than is now being paid the
Electric Boat Company for boats of two-thirds less submerged and
more than fifty per cent. less surface speed.

If I am prevented by the suits filed against me by the Electric
Boat Company from obtaining capital with which to build my boats,
which will have three times the submerged speed of the present
boats, and a vast improvement in other directions, then I want the
law so framed that I can present a proposition to the Secretary
of the Navy to cause my plans and new inventions to be thoroughly
examined by a board of experts, and if favorably reported on,
that the government may build the same in its yards under my
supervision, and pay me a reasonable royalty. That is all I ask
your committee to do, and to not frame a law that will exclude
me, the inventor of the present submarine boats, from having my
improvements considered by the Secretary of the Navy, and pass one
in the interest of the Electric Boat Company under its monopoly
now of the business of the department under my old and obsolete
patents.

The title of the bill (H.R. 10070) should be: "A Bill to Prevent
the Increase of the Efficiency of the Navy, and Prevent Economy
Being Considered."

If your committee is desirous of increasing the efficiency of
submarine boats for the Navy, and at the same time reduce the cost
to the government at least one-third, if not one-half, of the
prices now being paid for submarine boats, a clause in the Naval
Appropriation Bill on the following lines would effect the object:

"The sum of _________ Dollars is hereby appropriated for submarine
boats, and the Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized to
contract for or purchase or build in a navy yard of the United
States these submarine boats, whichever in his judgment will
increase the efficiency of the Navy and will be in the interest of
economy to the department."

I consider my old patents assigned to the Electric Boat Company as
obsolete; they are ten years behind the age.

I can build in the Navy Yard at Brooklyn boats under my new
patents, designs, and inventions, in six months, and guarantee a
submerged speed of 22 knots per hour.

Admiral Bowles testified before the Senate Committee on Naval
Affairs at its hearing on submarine boats. He was at that time
chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair of the Navy
Department, and his statement at that time is entitled to the
serious consideration of your committee, because it was that of
a government expert, and is true in every respect. This hearing
before the Senate committee is printed and the hearing took place
on May 29, 1902. Admiral Bowles's testimony can be found in Senate
Document 395, 1st Session, 57th Congress, page 82. He said that
the Holland boats ought not to cost more than $89,489, and in this
sum he said he had allowed an ample profit, and in addition had
included $11,000 for experiments and tests. Admiral Bowles is now
president of the Fore River Shipbuilding Company, and is building
the submarine boats that the Navy contracted for last year, and
they are now being built under my old plans and patents, so alleged.

If your committee will call upon the present Chief of the Bureau
of Construction and Repairs, he will undoubtedly inform you that
he can build in the Brooklyn Navy Yard my submarine boats as
quickly and as expeditiously as they can be built by the Fore River
Shipbuilding Company.

I am a poor man, while the Electric Boat Company has among its
principal stockholders three or four millionaires, including August
Belmont, Isaac L. Rice, and others. The capital stock of that
company is ten million dollars. They have deprived me, by their
flimsy lawsuit, from getting capital to build a boat under my new
inventions and patents, and are now asking Congress to pass a law
which will prevent the Navy Department from adopting my new plans
and inventions, even should the entire department consider that
they are far superior in every way to the plans now being used by
that department.

I do not believe that your committee will commit itself to this
monopoly which is against the interest of the government.

I am advised by my attorneys that as soon as the suits of the
Electric Boat Company can be reached and tried the Court will
undoubtedly dismiss them, but in the meanwhile they act as an
injunction against me, as they prevent my enlisting capital which
is timid and dreads a lawsuit.

Very respectfully,

Mr. Holland and I worked on entirely different lines in the development
of our respective types of boats, he being a consistent advocate of the
diving principle. He contended for many years that a submarine boat
should be built small in size and with little statical stability, so as
to dive quickly, while I have stood for great statical stability and
for methods of submerging the vessel bodily on a level keel instead
of diving at excessive and dangerous angles. I have never refused to
accede to him the credit of having been the man who first made the
diving type of submarine practical, and to acknowledge his genius and
attention to detail which overcame the difficulties which caused the
failure of many of his predecessors who attempted to build boats of the
diving type.

He died on August 12, 1914, just at the beginning of the present
European war, and consequently did not live to see the fulfilment
of his prophecy that the submarine would prove the superior of the
battleship if they ever became opponents in actual warfare.

My own experimental work began when I was a mere schoolboy. I had
become interested in the submarine by reading Jules Verne's "Twenty
Thousand Leagues Under the Sea." Shortly afterward I took up the study
of natural physics and became interested in the use of the diving
bell. Being an excellent swimmer and fond of boats, I spent most of
my vacation times on or about the water. I remember building a canvas
canoe from a description published in _Golden Days_. This canoe was
very "cranky," being only about eighteen inches wide and the sides
eighteen inches high. The only way I could learn to sit in the canvas
canoe was by ballasting her with pig iron and gradually reducing the
ballast as I became more expert, until finally I learned how to keep
an equilibrium and maintain the canoe upright. There was only one
other boy I remember in the village of Toms River, where I lived at
that time, who could ride this canoe, consequently some of the boat
men, when they saw it one day drifting bottom side up down the river,
came to the conclusion that I had been dumped out and drowned. When
they came alongside and righted the canoe they were much surprised
to find me in it. I had turned the canoe upside down and crawled up
into it, the air pressure keeping the water from rising into it. I had
crawled in there for the purpose of finding out how long I could live
on the volume of air contained within the canoe; in the meantime it was
drifting down the river.

Strange to say, the design of the submarine boat which I made at that
time, when I was only about fourteen years of age, contained most of
the elements which are being used successfully in the Lake type of
boat to-day: the use of the hydroplanes for control of depth, bottom
wheels for navigation over the bottom, and a diving compartment with
an air-lock so that the crew could enter or leave the vessel when
submerged. These plans were shown to my father at that time, who rather
discouraged me in the matter on the ground that submarine navigation
was something that great engineers had given a lot of attention to,
and that I had better give more attention to my regular school studies
than to fooling around with experiments of that nature--which was good
advice.

Consequently I did nothing further in the matter until 1892, when
my attention was called to an advertisement of the United States
Government for inventors to submit designs of submarines to the Navy
Department. Then I prepared plans which, in my judgment, would meet the
Department's requirements. I was still a youngster, and knew nothing
about the difficulties met by outsiders in getting hearings before
government officials in Washington. On the appointed day, in June,
1893, on which the bids were to be opened I appeared in Washington with
my plans and specifications under my arm, and was directed to the room
adjoining the Secretary's office, where a large number of people were
assembled. At this time I knew nothing of anyone else's experiments
in submarines, and thought that I was the first and only one. I was
consequently much disturbed to see so many people present. I sat down
on a lounge, and a young man a little older than myself sat down on the
lounge alongside of me and said to me, "Well, I suppose you are here
on the same errand as the rest of us; I see you have some plans, and
I suppose you have designs of a submarine boat which you are going to
submit." I said, "Yes, and I guess there are going to be a good many
plans submitted, judging by the number of people who are here." The
gentleman then said, "No, I only know of two others who are going to
submit plans: there is Mr. J. P. Holland, the gentleman standing over
there, and my father, Mr. George F. Baker, of Chicago."

He then explained that he was the son of Mr. Baker, the man who had
built the Baker boat, and whose experimental work was responsible
for the appropriation of $200,000 by the government for building a
submarine. I then said to him, "Well, then, who are all these other
gentlemen present? "He knew most of them and obligingly pointed
them out to me, saying, "There is Senator So-and-so and Congressman
So-and-so, and Mr. So-and-so the great lawyer," etc. I then said
to myself, "Well, Lakey, it looks as though you were not going to
have much of a show here." I submitted my plans and specifications,
however, and returned to Baltimore and to my other business. I was
much surprised, therefore, to receive, some time afterward, a telegram
from the editor of the _New York Tribune_, a Mr. Hall, stating that
he had received information from Washington that my plans were looked
upon most favorably by the majority of the Naval Board and that they
were going to adopt my type of boat. He asked for an interview and a
description of the boat. I did not go over to Washington, expecting to
receive notice in good time that the award had been granted--which is
proof positive that I was still young and ignorant. Nothing further
was heard of the matter until I saw a notice in the paper that it had
been decided not to build any submarines at that time, and that the
matter had been postponed indefinitely. Some years afterward I met
the late Admiral Mathews, and he informed me then that he had been a
member of the board, and that four of the five members of that board
were in favor of adopting my type of boat and of having the government
start the development of a submarine on those lines, but that the
constructor of the board opposed it on the grounds that when the boat
was running on the bottom on wheels she might run off from a precipice
and go down head first, and reach so great a depth as to be crushed,
evidently not realizing that her great static stability and the use of
her hydroplanes would prevent this from happening. Anyway, they did not
arrive at a conclusion, and any action was postponed for the time being.

In the meantime Mr. George F. Baker, who had moved to Washington
in the full expectation of getting the contract, had died, and the
Holland Torpedo Boat Company had offered to build, under guarantee of
its performance, a boat to meet the department's desires. As I had no
company back of me, and, being only a youngster, was without capital
of my own, the department decided it was better for them to place a
contract under a definite guarantee of performance than to undertake to
develop a submarine themselves. I did not name any price for building
the boat at the time I submitted my plans, but expressed the desire to
coöperate with the government in any way that they wished. My youthful
hopes at that time were that if they considered my general plans worthy
of adoption I should be taken into the navy and given some sort of
a commission to work out the details of the boat. When I saw some
mention in the paper that the matter was to come up for consideration
again, I did, however, make a visit to the Navy Department, and
assuming, from my observation of the Senators, Congressmen, and
representative men who were present at the time of the first opening
of the bids, that it was necessary to have some sort of a standing, I
secured a letter of introduction from the governor of my native state,
New Jersey, who at that time was Mr. Leon Abbott, introducing me to
the gentleman who at that time was acting Secretary of the Navy, for
the purpose of finding out, if possible, whether I had any chances,
and the proper procedure to pursue in getting further consideration of
my invention. Presenting myself in the Secretary's office, I sent in
my letter of introduction, and the word came back that the Secretary
would see me in a few minutes. I waited in the ante-room for a couple
of hours, but no word came from the Secretary. Finally he appeared in
the doorway and said, "Now, gentlemen, I am going to my lunch, and will
be back at half-past two." I Went out to my lunch and was back in the
waiting room a little before half-past two, shortly after which the
Secretary came into the room, passed around, shook hands with every
one, and talked a minute or two with some of his visitors. When he
came to me he shook my hand, and I explained to him that I had sent in
a letter from Governor Abbott and had been awaiting an opportunity to
see him. His reply was, "I will see you in a few minutes." He returned
to his office; at four o'clock he appeared at the door again and said,
"Gentlemen, I will not be able to see any of you again to-day, as I
must now sign my mail."

I was on hand again the following morning, and notified the colored
man that I was still waiting for the interview which the Secretary had
promised me. The word came back that he would see me in a few minutes.
I waited all the morning; the noon hour came, and the Secretary then
stated that he was going out to lunch and would be back at half-past
two. Every one else who had appeared in the morning the day before had
been granted his interview and a new crowd was waiting. I was the only
chap who had "stood pat." By this time I was pretty much disgusted.
As I went out into the hall the Secretary came out of his door and,
putting his hand on my shoulder, said, "I am sorry to have kept you
waiting, but as soon as I have finished my lunch I will take up your
matter." You may be sure I was on hand, and after he returned he sent
for me. He called a colored man and said, "I want you to take this
young man down to Captain Sampson (afterward Admiral Sampson, who was
at that time head of the Bureau of Ordnance), and tell Captain Sampson
that Mr. Lake comes with a letter of introduction from the governor
of my state, and I want him to listen to what he has to say about
submarine boats, and report to me." This colored man, instead of taking
me to Captain Sampson, turned me over to another colored man, and did
not report the message which the Secretary had given him. This second
colored man took me to Captain Sampson's clerk, and finally I was
ushered into the Captain's presence and started to tell him about my
boat and its possibilities. He immediately assumed a bored expression,
turned his back to me, put his feet up on a chair, and said, "Well, go
ahead, but make it brief." I admit that I was pretty much tongue-tied
by this time, and I do not flatter myself that I impressed him in the
least degree, as his manner had the effect of a cold douche upon my
enthusiasm. I remember that as I walked out of the Navy Department I
vowed never to return until I was sent for, and I never did.

I now started making experiments on my own account, and built the
_Argonaut, Jr._, and later the _Argonaut_; and I did not return to
Washington until I was sent for by a telegram from the late Senator
Hale, at that time chairman of the Senate Navy Committee, asking me
to come to Washington and submit a proposition for building submarine
boats for the United States Government. I was never able to account for
my treatment in Washington until some time afterward, when I had an
office in New York. The former Acting Secretary had at this time left
the Navy Department and was practising his profession of law in New
York, where I believe he is still engaged.

Having some legal business at that time which I thought he might be
able to handle because of his experience in the Navy Department, I
called upon him in regard to it. He stated that, as he was then free,
he could handle it for me, and when I recalled my visit to him when
he was Secretary of the Navy he said he remembered it very well. He
laughingly remarked that I may have thought him a little slow in
receiving me at that time; and then explained that, previous to his
accepting the portfolio as assistant secretary of the navy, he had been
the attorney for a rival submarine boat company; that he knew all about
their boats, and the fact that they had expended large sums of money in
the development of submarines; and that, although he had resigned as
attorney for the company before he became acting secretary, perhaps his
former association with them had led him to give less consideration to
my proposition than he otherwise might have done.

As I believed the submarine to have great possibilities commercially
as well as for war, I gave up my other business and came to New York,
opened an office in the old Cheeseborough Building, and tried to secure
capital to build a commercial submarine. I advertised in the papers
and visited a number of capitalists in the effort to interest them,
but usually, after obtaining an interview, as soon as I asserted that
it was possible to navigate over the bottom of the ocean as readily
as it was over the land, and that when on the bottom I could open
a door in the boat but that no water would come in; and, further,
that divers could very readily pass in and out of this open door, I
observed in most cases a look of dread in their eyes and their hands
would slide over and push a button. An attendant immediately came to
the door and reminded Mr. "Blank," whoever he might be, that he had a
very important engagement or that some other visitor was waiting to see
him. Unfortunately for me, this was about the time that a madman had
attempted to bomb Russell Sage in his office.

The result was, that after spending six months and all of my savings
I had not raised a dollar. I then decided that it was necessary to
get some engineer of national prominence to endorse my project, so I
went to Charles H. Haswell, author of "Haswell's Handbook," and former
chief engineer of the United States Navy, and explained to him that
I wanted him to give me a professional opinion on the practicability
of my boat. I offered to submit him my plans of the boat--of which I
also had a model in the tank of water in the Cheeseborough Building
which I would like him to see, as I thus would be better able to
explain to him its method of navigating on the surface and submerging
beneath the surface and on the bottom itself. And I then asked him how
much he would charge me. He stated that he should want $1500 for the
investigation and opinion. By this time I had expended my savings and
hardly had $15--let alone $1500. I explained the situation frankly to
him, and he said, "Well, I will go down and look it over and give you
a report anyhow, and you can repay me at some future time when you are
able." He did so, and gave me a very excellent endorsement, but I found
that even his endorsement was not sufficient to induce capitalists
to invest their hard-earned money in any such crazy scheme as mine
appeared to them. I finally decided to build a small experimental boat
myself to demonstrate the two principal features over which almost
every one seemed to be sceptical. These were the ability to navigate
over the bottom of the ocean and the ability to enter and leave the
boat while submerged without any water coming in and foundering her.
I therefore gave up my office and moved down to Atlantic Highlands,
where, with the financial assistance of my uncle and aunt, Mr. and Mrs.
S. T. Champion, I was able to build the _Argonaut, Jr._ She was built
of yellow pine planking, double thick, lined with canvas laid between
the double layers of planking, the outer seams caulked and payed. She
was a flat-sided affair and would not stand great external pressure.
She was propelled when on the bottom by a man turning a crank on the
inside. Our compressed-air reservoir was a soda-water fountain tank.
The compressed-air pump was a plumber's hand-pump, by which means we
were able to compress the air in the tanks to a pressure of about one
hundred pounds per square inch.

My diving suit I built myself by shaping iron in the form of an open
helmet, which extended down as far as my breast; this I covered with
painted canvas. I used the dead-light from a yacht's cabin as my
eyeglass in front of the helmet. I tied sash weights to my legs to
hold me down on the bottom when walking in the vicinity of the boat. A
cousin, B. F. Champion, accompanied me on my first submerged run with
the _Argonaut_, which was in Blackfish Hole in the Shrewsbury River.
We submerged the boat alongside of a dock and started across stream in
the river. The first time we went under water a stream of water came
through a bolt-hole which had not been plugged and struck "Bart" on the
back of the neck. He said, "Ugh!" and made a dive. The _Argonaut_ had
a little port-hole in one end about six inches in diameter, and "Bart"
said afterward, "I made a dive for that port-hole, but came to the
conclusion that I could not get through, so I stopped." It was a simple
matter, however, to drive a plug in and stop the water from coming
in. On our first trip we ran across the river and back, and, although
there was a strong current in the river, she "backed" right back to her
starting place, having rested on the bottom firmly enough to prevent
the current from carrying her down stream.

[Illustration: "ARGONAUT, JR.," 1894

A small experimental boat built by the author to demonstrate the
practicability of wheeling over the bottom and of sending divers out
from the boat without water entering the vessel. She was propelled by
hand over the waterbed; she had an air lock and diver's compartment
which permitted egress and ingress of a diver when submerged.]

Later we took the boat up to Atlantic Highlands and had a lot of fun
running around on the bottom of New York Bay picking up clams and
oysters, etc. We finally decided to organize a company and build a
larger boat; so one day we invited the mayor of Atlantic Highlands,
the president of the bank, and a number of other prominent people
of the little community to witness our trials. A number of the
men wrote their names on a shingle, which was tied to a sash weight
and then thrown off the end of the Atlantic Highlands pier in about
sixteen feet of water. My cousin and I got into the boat, submerged
her, wheeled her forward to where the sash weight had been thrown
overboard, picked it up, and had it back on the dock again in five
minutes.

The performance of the _Argonaut, Jr._, becoming known, she received
no little newspaper notoriety. In looking over my old clippings I find
that there was a vein of scepticism and sarcasm running through most of
these early accounts of her performance. I just quote briefly from one
of the papers describing her, the _New York Herald_, of January 8, 1895:

THIS BOAT CRAWLS ALONG THE BOTTOM. AT LEAST THAT'S WHAT IT WAS TO
DO, BUT IT ESCAPES AND ASTONISHES FOLKS IN OCEANIC, N. J.

DRIFTS UP THE SHREWSBURY

IT WILL CRAWL FIVE MILES WITHOUT COMING UP TO BREATHE WHEN INVENTOR
LAKE COMPLETES IT. FUN FOR MERRY MERMEN.

"RED BANK, N. J., Jan. 8, 1895.--Strange things come in with the
tide in the ungodly hours of the night, and in the stillness of the
night strange things follow them, but the strange thing which came
up the North Shrewsbury a day or two ago, and which lies high and
dry on Barley Point, is a 'new one' on the good folk of Oceanic.
Now that they have fairly discovered it, they are sorry that it
didn't wobble ashore in the summer, when Normandie-by-the-Sea
below the Point is crowded with curious persons from the city. Any
enterprising Oceanic man might have fenced in the queer thing and
charged every one a quarter to see it."

The few substantial persons who had witnessed the _Argonaut's_
experiments provided the capital for the construction of the _Argonaut
First_ and enabled me to complete her, and she was launched on August
17, 1897. I had called the little experimental boat the _Argonaut,
Jr._, because it was born before its mother, although the mother (the
_Argonaut First_) had been conceived and designed first. I did not have
sufficient capital to go ahead with her construction, and even the
design of the _Argonaut_ itself was cut down to correspond to the size
of the subscriptions that we had been able to secure.

The raising of capital to most inventors is a serious problem; it has
always been so with me. I have always been interested in mechanical
accomplishments, but always dreaded the necessity of trying to raise
capital to carry on those experiments. I have never valued money for
itself or felt the need of it except when I did not have it. I think
this is the case with most inventors, which is the reason why so many
of them go to unscrupulous promoters who rob them of their inventions,
or else often tie them up so that they themselves are incapable of
continuing their development work.

Having made an initial success by my experiments, like most
unsophisticated inventors I also fell into the hands of a promoter
of this type. He was introduced to me by an officer of a bank, and,
after an investigation of my project, claimed that he could raise all
the money necessary to float a project of this kind, which in his
judgment had the greatest possibilities of anything he had ever learned
of. He said that his friends, the Vanderbilts, "Jack" Astor, and the
Goulds, would immediately subscribe large sums upon his submitting the
proposition to them. He secured possession of my plans, and took me
to his house, which was a handsome brownstone structure standing in
beautiful grounds. Another evidence of wealth was that he always had a
smart carriage with liveried coachman waiting for him at our various
conferences, held frequently in the directors' room of the bank. He
had himself made the general manager, myself the president, and Hon.
William T. Malster, of Baltimore, the treasurer of the company. At
his suggestion we sent out a notification to our subscribers that
twenty-five per cent. of their subscriptions was due and payable.
Mr. Malster was president of the Columbia Dry Dock and Iron Works,
Baltimore, the company with which we had placed the contract for
building the _Argonaut_, and as he was a Baltimorean he had kindly
consented to serve as treasurer of my company. Everything now looked
rosy, and I gave my attention to preparing the detailed plans of the
_Argonaut_. One day the general manager came into the room and said,
"Now I have arranged for the sale of $100,000 worth of our stock." (He
was to get a certain percentage of the stock for selling it to his
friends, the Astors, Goulds, etc.) "So," he continued, "I want you to
go to Baltimore and get Mr. Malster to sign up a lot of this stock so
that we can make immediate delivery of it and get the money, and it
would also be advisable for you to have Mr. Malster sign some checks
in blank," the checks of the company requiring the signatures of both
president and treasurer.

I visited Baltimore and explained to Mr. Malster what our general
manager told me, and he said, "Well, Simon, you are a young man, and
I think an honest one, and I am willing to trust you. I will sign
these certificates, but don't you let them go out of your hands or
sign them yourself until you have some definite written obligations
on the part of those who are going to purchase this stock that they
will pay for it." I returned to New York and told Mr. H---- that I had
the certificates, etc., signed, and asked him when he would be ready
to deliver the money and receive the stock. He stated that his friend
"Jack" Astor was then out of town and he wanted him to be on the list
first and would wait until he returned. He said, "I will see him at
the first opportunity, but in the meantime you had better sign these
certificates in blank and leave them with me, as I will have to fill
out the names as he wants them, and I have had to agree to give him
the biggest part of my commission to get it started." At the same time
he told me that he would like to have a loan of a couple of thousand
dollars for a few days (this we had on deposit there in the bank in the
company's name). He said, as I had Mr. Malster's signature, I could
easily make him the loan and he would return it soon, for he had a
large piece of property which he had arranged the sale of, but there
were some back taxes due on it which he wanted to clear off before
turning over the deed. I told him that I could not make a loan of the
company's money. He then became very angry and said, "Well, if I did
not trust him to that extent he would not go to his friends or dispose
of the stock." He was a very pompous individual, wore gold eyeglasses,
and had a large acquaintance, formerly having been a business man of
standing.

The fact that he had been introduced to me by an official of the bank
led me to investigate him no further, but when he attempted to get the
company's funds and its stock in blank I started an investigation,
and found that the house that he was living in, and the horses and
carriages, had been secured from another unsuspecting individual much
older than myself in much the same manner. This individual had been
in business for many years, nevertheless the promoter induced him to
reorganize his successful business on a much larger capitalization.
The promoter made an agreement with this man to sell the stock of the
new company, and promised he would interest his friends, the Astors,
Goulds, and Vanderbilts. As a partial consideration for this he was
to receive this mans beautiful home and a certain percentage of the
stock. The man's wife having died, he did not care to live longer
in the house, so he agreed that the house should be given as a part
consideration, and as a guarantee of his delivery of the house and
stock as a part consideration on this promoter's agreement to float
the stock of the much larger capitalized new company, he had placed
both the controlling stock of the company and the house in escrow, and
had turned the possession of the house over to this promoter, who was
now our general manager, with the deeds of same to be held in escrow
and not to be finally recorded until the Goulds, Vanderbilts, Astors,
etc., had come into the new company. Hard times occurred about this
time, so he claimed, which prevented promised capitalists from coming
in, but, as Mr. H---- held the control of the company by holding the
control of the stock, he had himself elected an officer of the company
at a handsome salary and still held possession of this most beautiful
home without ever having paid a dollar. I merely recite this as a
warning to inventors to look out for the plausible New York promoter.
I also discovered that Mr. H---- had made application for patents, my
own patents not yet having been issued, with the idea of getting me
into interference in the Patent Office, and it was necessary for us to
threaten him with arrest and bring a suit against both himself and the
cashier--whom we now learned had known of his previous experiences and
expected to share in his profits this time--in order to get a legal
release so that we could proceed with the work.

Many of the troubles of inventors can be traced originally to
certain semi-professional men who call themselves patent attorneys.
There are two classes of patent attorneys, one class consisting of
conscientious, honorable gentlemen, who consider it their duty, when
an unsophisticated inventor comes before them with an idea which the
inventor considers new, to tell him the truth about his invention and
to inform him whether it is really an original invention or not, or
merely a slight modification of some old idea on which no protection
can be secured. There is another class of attorneys who have been
more properly termed patent sharks, who will get a patent on anything
brought to them; for by juggling words they are able to get claims
which mean nothing, except that they serve the purpose of getting the
attorneys their fees. Many an inventor has an idea which is original
with him but which may be as old as Bushnell's submarine or entirely
impractical. The patent shark will get him a patent on this, and the
inventor then thinks his fortune is made. He is very likely then to
sell his farm and go to New York and advertise in the papers that
he has a valuable invention, there to fall into the hands of some
unscrupulous promoter who secures all of his money without letting him
know that the patent is worthless; or if he happens to have a valuable
invention the promoter will in all probability arrange matters so that
he himself gets the cream and leaves the inventor a mere pittance.

Since the war began, and there has been the general editorial demand
by the papers of the country for some means to destroy or offset the
submarine menace, I have received hundreds of letters asking advice,
etc., regarding various devices. I have received visits from a number
of people who have come from long distances, some from the West, others
from Canada and from the South, to ask my opinion regarding certain
attachments to be applied to submarines or on devices to capture
submarines. Many of the ideas were old and some of them pitiful in
the fact that they showed such ignorance of the laws of nature and of
mechanics on the part of their projectors. One man sends me a copy
of his allowed patent with a letter from one of these patent sharks
acknowledging the receipt of final payment of a considerable amount
for his having received an allowance of his patent. I will, without
betraying the name, quote in part from his letter:

I would kindly ask if you would take hearing from me and take
notice of my new invention, which is called the Power Transmitting
Mechanism. The machine is started by spring or batteries; the
first start is the spin of the fly-wheel; the fly-wheel pumps on
the handle of the jack: one revolution to the one pound on the
fly-wheel drives the handle of the jack back and forth. The jack
will throw the crank one revolution with ninety-seven pounds. The
jack is the result of multiplying power, and the jacks can be used
in the same position as any and all cylinders. This machine will
nicely furnish you the power for your undersea liner. No fuel is
needed....

Now anyone can see that this proposition is nothing more or less
than an impractical proposition mechanically, and that it is on the
perpetual-motion order, yet this patent shark mulcts the poor man of a
considerable sum to secure him some kind of a worthless patent. He is
likely to expend much further sums in trying to get it on the market. A
patent lawyer of that stamp should be put in jail for fraud, and should
not be permitted to practise in an honorable profession.

I have already recited my own difficulties in attracting the interest
of the United States Government to my work, and I call attention to
the fact that it required many years of persistent endeavor and the
expenditure of vast sums of money furnished by patriotic individuals,
and also the recognition of my devices by several foreign governments,
before our own government recognized any merit in my work. That has
been the experience of almost every American inventor, so far as I
am aware. We have seen how Bushnell was derided and driven from his
home; and that Robert Fulton received no recognition from his home
government, and that the only recompense he ever received for his
submarine work was from the British Government. Strangely, the money
paid him was not for the purpose of enabling him to develop his
invention, but rather to suppress his inventive genius. Ericsson could
get no recognition or assistance from the government when he presented
his design of the _Monitor_. She was built by private capital, and her
builders assumed all the risk, and it is stated that at the time she
fought the _Merrimac_ and helped to save the United States from being
divided internally, she was on a builder's trial and had not been
accepted or paid for by the government. All readers of the life of
Ericsson are familiar with the lack of consideration he received from
the naval authorities of the United States at that time, and that his
epoch-making invention was derided as a "cheese-box on a raft." It was
strange that he received such little consideration, as at the time of
his arrival in America he was an engineer of note and while still a
young man had built the wonderful canals of Sweden. I had never really
appreciated Ericsson's great engineering ability until I made a journey
over these canals, which are virtually carried up over mountains, and
offer one of the most interesting European trips a tourist can make.
Maxim had to go to England and Hotchkiss to France to get their guns
adopted. Sir Hiram Maxim told me of the heartbreaking time he spent
in his native country, America--he was born in Maine--trying to get
his inventions properly developed, and the lack of consideration he
received here by our own government officers, while in England, on the
contrary, he was received with open arms. The late King Edward visited
him, and the English took up his invention and knighted him.

The Wright Brothers' first recognition and the first dollar they ever
received as profits in their years of experimental effort came from
France. I remember well when Wilbur Wright came to France with his
flying machine and secured the recognition that the Wright Brothers had
not been able to secure in the United States, their native country. The
Wright Brothers and their and our own European representative, Mr. Hart
O. Berg, occupied for a time one of the rooms in our suite of offices
in Regent Street, London, as their headquarters, and I am therefore
familiar with some of their difficulties in getting recognition in this
country.

It has been said that Americans invent and the Europeans develop.
This statement seems to be borne out in fact, so far as our military
inventions at least are concerned. From the time the Wrights first
introduced the flying machine in Europe all the important countries
over there have been consistently assisting inventors in improving the
construction of the planes and machinery for driving them, while our
own country has stood almost at a standstill. Our government gave no
aid to foster this American invention so that it could be gradually
developed, but rather our authorities made the first requirements so
difficult to fulfil that there was no incentive to work; which is a
mistake often made by men with a theoretical rather than a practical
education. A practical man may evolve something radically new in the
arts or sciences, but to get it introduced into the government service
it must first be passed upon and approved by men who at the country's
expense have received, for the most part, a purely theoretical
education; and nine times out of ten these men get some additional
theories of their own which they insist must be incorporated in the
machine or apparatus, and thus make it impossible of operation or delay
its accomplishment. It is probably due to this cause that we are now
forced to go to France for plans of our aeroplanes and their driving
machinery to enable us to compete with the Germans' machines.

What is the reason for this lamentable state of affairs in respect to
American military inventions? I believe that I can partially explain
it. I believe it is because our army and navy officers are too busy
with the routine of their profession to give the necessary time to a
thorough investigation of devices other than those with which they
are forced to become familiar by their training. I believe that there
is not a single fundamental invention which has emanated from an army
or navy officer during his service, although it is true that such
men have made some improvements upon devices in their hands, based
upon working experience. Their education and routine require them to
be well-informed as to the _proved_ devices of which they make use
in the service. On looking over the volume of text-books, rules and
regulations covering in the most minute details all the methods of
construction, tests of strength, chemical analyses, etc., with which
officers are obliged to become familiar, I can fully appreciate the
fact that they are too highly educated in the knowledge of accepted
devices to be able to find time to look into the future.

I believe that the present Secretary of the Navy, Mr. Josephus Daniels,
in his creation of a civilian board of advisers to the navy to pass
upon new inventions of value to the navy, has taken an important
step in the protection of this country; the creation of this board I
consider one of the greatest achievements of the present administration.

The few inventions which have gained sufficient early recognition and
have received governmental aid in their development have usually been
forced on the Army or Navy by either political or financial interests.
The intrigue and lobbying conducted in Washington to secure exclusive
privileges would make volumes of interesting and spicy reading, and
it is possible that the knowledge of these well-known intrigues makes
officers very chary in recommending or taking up devices that may
appear to have merit. The usual answer to inventors of untried devices
who offer their plans to the government has been, "Well, if you try
it out and it proves successful, we will then consider it"; and in
such a case should the inventor have no means or financial backing the
invention is lost to the United States and is adopted abroad.

This policy is "penny wise and pound foolish" when it so directly
affects the safety of the nation. I was informed by Mr. Otto Exius,
the managing director of the great Krupp Works in Germany, that the
Imperial German Government has followed a far different method in
fostering inventions that might be of benefit to the state. Mr. Exius
informed me that when they undertook the development of a new invention
for the purposes of national defence the government paid them for the
cost of all material used and allowed them a sufficient percentage over
labor costs to cover their overhead, plus a fair amount of profit.
This probably accounts for the fact that Germany to-day is far ahead
of us in her development of engines for the military submarine. There
is no gainsaying the fact that the policy of our government has been
to make up an ideally perfect weapon and then invite manufacturers to
bid for the work. They have thus thrown the burden of development upon
individual firms, many of whom have been forced into bankruptcy in
their patriotic desire to furnish acceptable devices to the government.

We have the inventive genius in this country to _create and originate_
new machines and new methods of manufacture. In most commercial and
industrial lines we are able to maintain a leading position, but in
devices designed for the national defence we originate, and other
nations develop and profit. Had we supported our inventors and held
within this country as far as possible the knowledge of their devices,
and withheld the secrets of their work from foreign powers, as indeed
we should have, the United States to-day would be in a position of
military effectiveness very different from that in which we are found.
All this is due to the fact that the government does not foster and
protect our newly created devices, and to-day we are behind the
continental powers in our gunnery, our airplanes, in our dirigibles,
and in our submarine engines, as well as in many other auxiliaries
necessary to our national protection.

I feel that it lies within the province of the civilian board to
correct the mistakes in our governmental policy, provided, of course,
that Congress makes suitable appropriations to enable it to carry on
investigations in a proper manner and to protect the inventors who
submit new and original ideas. At the time Secretary Daniels created
the board I wrote him, in part, as follows:

"I notice by to-day's _New York Herald_ that you are proposing to
appoint an 'advisory board of civilian inventors for a Bureau of
Invention and Development,' to be created in the Navy Department,
and that you have asked Mr. Thomas A. Edison to be the chairman of
said board.

"I wish to congratulate you upon this conception. I believe such a
board, if its work is properly systematized, can be made of great
and permanent value to the nation.

"Many illustrations could be found in which other nations have been
the first to take up and reap the benefit from American inventions.
It is doubtful if Morse, Edison, Bell, the Wrights, or any other
pioneer American inventors have received any reward whatever from
many countries whose own citizens have grown rich and prosperous
by taking up and manufacturing American inventions without giving
consideration to them.

"When I first submitted my plans of a submarine boat to the Navy
Department in 1893 I had no company back of me and did not make
a proposition to the department to build a boat. I suggested to
them that I would coöperate with the Navy Department in a way
satisfactory to them.

"My hope was, at that time, as I was only a youngster, to receive
some sort of a commission in the United States Navy and to be
placed in charge of the development of the submarine, but the
submarine was a discredited machine in those days, and after I had
spent several days in trying to interest the authorities at that
time in my proposition I failed, and felt very much discouraged,
and did not again return to the Navy Department until called there
in 1901 by a telegram from Senator Hale, who was then chairman of
the Senate Navy Committee.

"Since that time I have been offered a splendid position with very
large financial backing if I would take charge of the development
of submarines for a foreign government. This I refused to do,
because I had a natural desire to receive some recognition in my
own country.

"The principal aim and ambition in my life has been to be able to
make sufficient money to endow an institution for the protection of
American inventors.

"I tried to interest Enoch Pratt in this scheme twenty-three years
ago in Baltimore. I have given a great deal of thought to such an
institution. It does not look now as if I should be able to carry
out my plans. If I had had sufficient financial backing in the
early days of my experiments and development of the submarine to
have protected myself fully by foreign patents, all of the European
countries to-day would be paying me royalties, as they are all
using a number of features in their boats which I originated.

"While I regret that the probabilities are that I will not be
able to carry out my ambition, your proposition would, if carried
out, go a long way toward improving the opportunities of American
inventors to secure proper recognition of their inventive genius so
far as they could be applied to the protection of the nation.

"I can, however, foresee certain oppositions to this scheme: first,
there will be opposition from the vested interests who have held
for years control of certain lines of manufactured articles and
material used in the service.

"The scheme would also fail unless it would be possible for this
board to secure the entire confidence of the American inventors.
Very few inventors have had large business experience or know how
to protect themselves from the various parasites who thrive upon
them.

"A man gets an idea--it may be an old one, but he considers it
original--and becomes obsessed with the idea that he has made a
great discovery. He may be a farmer, a mechanic, a clergyman, or
any other form of good American citizen, but not an experienced
business man. In many cases he becomes a prey to people who live
entirely upon their wits and the inexperience of others.

"First, if he is unfortunate enough to fall in the hands of an
unscrupulous patent attorney, he will get all the money he can out
of him by securing him a worthless patent. Probably 75 per cent. of
the patents issued are not worth the paper they are written upon.
After securing the patents he will then give up his farm or his
position, take his savings and go to New York or some other city,
and fall into the hands of an unscrupulous promoter, who makes the
inventor believe he can place his patents, or, if he has a good
invention and falls into the hands of an unscrupulous promoter, the
invention is taken away from him, or he is given a mere pittance
for it.

"I know of one case where an inventor of one of the most successful
typewriting machines on the market, who spent his life in
developing it, is receiving the munificent sum of eleven cents
from each machine as a royalty. There is a large number of these
machines being manufactured, and of course he is receiving a
comfortable income even at this small rate, but the promoter who
had nothing to do with its origination and who only happened to
know the capitalists to go to, and the capitalists, are receiving a
princely income.

"So many instances of inventors being deprived of a fair
remuneration for their inventions have occurred that as a class it
will be found that many of them will hesitate to submit their ideas
to the board.

"I have received many letters from inventors throughout the country
who had all sorts of schemes for improving submarine boats, for
detecting their presence under water, for destroying them, for
protecting battleships against them, etc. In some cases they were
accompanied by plans and descriptions, and they are usually old
ideas, in many cases already patented. In other instances I have
received letters stating that they had ideas which they would
submit to me if I would pass upon them or coöperate with them in
developing or introducing them to the Navy Department. My practice
has always been to refuse to consider any device or invention
unless the inventor had made application for a patent, as I did
not want to be accused of taking another man's ideas, as he might
submit to me ideas similar to my own and which I might have already
had either patents pending in the Patent Office for same, or had
made similar plans upon which I might expect to take out a patent
at some future time.

"This feeling of uncertainty may cause inventors to hesitate to
send their ideas in, but I think that could be overcome by having
certain rules of procedure; that is, any idea submitted must be
put into form, sworn to as original by the man who submitted it,
which must be attested by witnesses. It could then be sent to
examiners--first, to find out if it was an original idea; second,
to find out if it was a mechanically operative idea; and, third, to
find out if there was any need for such a device.

"I think your naming Mr. Edison as the head of such a bureau will
go a long ways toward creating confidence in the mind of the
inventors, that they would receive proper consideration. Most every
one knows of Mr. Edison's perseverance in his early days in getting
his inventions upon the market. A great many people know that
he himself has not received a fraction of the reward that he is
entitled to because of his great inventions. He is, without doubt,
the greatest inventor the United States has produced. While I have
never met Mr. Edison personally, I have always been a great admirer
of him, because he is the man most responsible for raising the
title of 'inventor' from that of crank to that of honor. I was such
an admirer of him in my youth that I named my son after him. I do
not think you could have made a better choice than he to head this
bureau.

"If the bureau is organized, permit me to suggest that there should
be some definite inducement held out to the inventors in the way
of a royalty compensation or some other form of compensation for
such ideas as the government might take up and utilize. The plan
which I had in mind for my inventors' institution was to erect
buildings, machine shops, laboratories, with a staff of patent
experts, draftsmen, and engineers, so that the crude idea could
first be investigated to see if it was original, then passed on
to the engineers, who would coöperate with the inventor, and they
would see that proper plans were made covering the proper kinds
and strength of material to accomplish the purpose, and then it
would be sent to the shops, all this work being charged up to the
invention, or to the inventor if he was in a position to pay for
it, at cost.

"The institution would, in consideration of its placing all
these facilities available to the inventor, receive a certain
percentage for its part of the work. In that way a properly endowed
institution would probably be self-supporting. It might be possible
to work that idea into your scheme. Take, as an illustration,
the submarine boats. Something new and revolutionary might be
introduced in the way of propulsive means which would enable
submarines to make very much greater speed, both on the surface and
submerged. As soon as the submarine has the speed of a battleship,
it will be able to drive the battleship from the seas. Without
battleships to cover the landing of troops from transports, no
invasion of one country by another country, from the sea, can be
made. Therefore, no more wars between maritime countries.

"Such a propulsive means, therefore, will become a great and
valuable adjunct to any nation. If the government developed such
a machine it would be only right for them to pay a royalty to the
inventor. On the other hand, this same machine would undoubtedly be
very valuable for a great many other industrial purposes. If it was
used for other purposes, it would only be right that the inventor
pay the government in return a royalty or percentage of his profits
in consideration of the government having developed it for him.

"I hope you will not think I am officious in offering these
suggestions. Having given so much thought to the matter in the line
as above referred to, I felt that you were entitled to have my
thoughts for what they were worth.

"I certainly hope you will be able to get the support of Congress,
the naval officers, and the inventors in carrying this scheme
through to a successful conclusion, which, if done, I believe
will be one of the greatest constructive pieces of legislation
accomplished in years."

A larger institution along the same lines might well be endowed by a
number of America's bright business men who have made fortunes based
upon the ideas of some poor, unsophisticated inventor who has not been
brought up to worship wealth, but who had an original idea of value to
the world and to the individuals who had the business capacity to get
the money out of it.

Original ideas are creations, and the creation of ideas may become
possible by constant study and research. In this class are all the
professional inventors; but many good ideas are spontaneous and occur
in brains not educated along mechanical or scientific lines. The
establishment of such an institution as above outlined would conserve
these spontaneous inventions for the benefit of the nation, as well as
assist the professional inventor in his research.

CHAPTER IV

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SUBMARINE

Among the many submarines which were built previous to the beginning
of the present century, very few taught lessons of positive value, for
the great majority of these experimental craft were total failures.
Knowledge of the causes of their failures is important, however,
because it teaches us what errors in construction to avoid. Practically
all of these early submarines were built secretly; when failures
resulted the vessels were abandoned and the results of such trials were
not published, consequently the succeeding designers were very apt to
make the same mistakes.

It was not until the past decade that any general description of many
of the early submarines was published and made available to students of
this problem. In looking over the published plans and descriptions of a
number of those early submarines, I have been convinced that many lives
and much capital could have been saved had the results of the various
experiments been openly disclosed for the guidance of later designers.

The desire to navigate in the depths of the sea has possessed the minds
of many men since the beginning of history, and even at very early
times several crude submarines were devised in the attempt to solve the
problem. But, as I have related in the preceding chapter, it was not
until the period of the war between England and her American colonists
that any important progress was made. Bushnell's little submarine,
called the _American Turtle_, was built at that time. It took its name
from its shape, which resembled the back shells of two turtles joined
together.

From the rather complete description of this vessel contained in one
of Dr. Bushnell's letters, it appears to have been propelled by a
screw propeller to obtain forward or reverse motion. It was ballasted
in such a manner as to give the vessel great inherent stability. It
had water ballast tanks which could be filled to give the vessel
negative buoyancy, if desired, or to reduce the positive buoyancy so
much that the vessel could be readily drawn under water by another
screw propeller which was operated by a vertical shaft extending
through a stuffing box into the vessel. This submarine carried a mine
on its back, and provision was made to enable the operator inside the
submarine to attach the mine to the bottom of a ship at anchor. This
vessel was regulated in such a way that the mine could be exploded by
a clockwork mechanism after the submarine had reached a safe distance
from the vessel.

With this submarine a mine was placed under the bottom of the English
frigate _Eagle_, anchored in New York Bay, but the mine drifted clear
before the clockwork mechanism caused it to explode, otherwise the
frigate would undoubtedly have been destroyed. General Washington
complimented Dr. Bushnell on having so nearly succeeded in his attempt
to sink the ship.

[Illustration: SKETCH OF THE CONFEDERATE SUBMARINE "HUNLEY"

Made after she was recovered and hoisted on the dock years after the
war.

(Drawing by R. S. Skerrett.)]

This submarine was unquestionably a successful model. It had one
important feature that many designers have failed to appreciate, and
that was great inherent stability. Great stability in a submarine
means the carrying out of the now popular maxim "Safety First."
Sufficient static stability is a guarantee that during all the
manoeuvring evolutions of a submarine she will always remain right
side up and not dive into the bottom unless the hull is punctured or
flooded at one end or the other.

Bushnell's model was not suited to high speed, but high speed was not
essential in the days of the sailing ship. If this design had been
developed further, so that several men could have been used to operate
the propeller, it should have given a good account of itself.

Robert Fulton's boat, to which I also have made reference in the
foregoing chapter, differed from Bushnell's in its method of submerged
control, which was by vertical and horizontal rudders at the stern. It
also carried a collapsible mast on which a sail could be spread for
surface navigation.

A Bavarian by the name of Bauer built a submarine in 1850. Its method
of control was by shifting a weight forward to dive and aft to rise.
It was a flat-sided and flat-decked vessel with comparatively thin
plating and entirely unsuited to resist the pressure of the water at
any considerable depth. It collapsed in the harbor of Kiel during one
of its trial trips. Bauer kept his presence of mind, however, and when
sufficient water had entered and raised the trapped air pressure inside
of the boat equal to the pressure outside, he opened the hatch and swam
to the surface. This vessel remained partly buried in the mud into
which it had sunk until 1887, when it was located during the deepening
of Kiel harbor and taken to Berlin, where it is now kept in the Museum
of Oceanography as an exhibit of Germany's first submarine.

No further important advance was made in the art of submarine
navigation until the period of the Civil War, when the Confederates
built several small submarines, called "Davids." One of these was
called the _Hunley_, after her designer. During her brief career she
suffocated or drowned thirty-two men, including her designer.

During my early experiments with the _Argonaut_ in 1898 I received
a visit from Col. Charles H. Hasker, of Richmond, Virginia, who
explained in detail the method of operating the _Hunley_. She was
a cylindrical-shaped craft, about thirty feet long and six feet
in diameter, with both bow and stern flattened to form a stem and
stern-post, respectively. Water-ballast compartments were located in
either end of the vessel. She was propelled by eight men, who turned
the cranked propeller shaft by hand. These men sat on benches on either
side of the shaft. She had the usual vertically hung rudder aft, and a
diving rudder forward to incline her bow down for diving, or to raise
her bow to bring her to the surface (see page 150). Unfortunately she
lacked longitudinal stability, and during her experimental trials twice
dove head first into the bottom. Of her experience I have given an
account elsewhere.

The lesson to be learned from the disastrous trials of this vessel was
that sufficient statical stability should always be secured to prevent
the vessel taking on an excessive inclination due to shifting of water
ballast or movement of crew.

[Illustration: THE NEW ORLEANS SUBMARINE

Built by the Confederates during the Civil War.]

Another submarine built by the Confederates shows a much safer design.
It is shown as the New Orleans submarine. According to the story told
by a native of New Orleans, this vessel was built during the Civil War
to destroy the Northern ships. The story of her launching has been
given in a foregoing chapter.

It is evident that the designer of this vessel miscalculated and
made his boat so much overweight that she could not be given sufficient
buoyancy to bring her to the surface by the means provided. From a
study of the form of this vessel, she should have been very stable, and
I am of the opinion that she could have been successfully navigated
submerged had she been properly ballasted.

[Illustration: THE "INTELLIGENT WHALE"

Built by O. S. Halstead of Newark, N. J., and sold to the U. S.
Government in 1870, now in Brooklyn Navy Yard.]

During the years 1863 and 1864, Messrs. Bourgois and Brun brought
out for the French Navy the largest and, in some respects, the most
completely equipped submarine that was produced during the nineteenth
century. This was _Le Plongeur_, a vessel about one hundred and forty
feet long, ten feet depth, and twenty feet beam, with a displacement of
over four hundred tons. Her motive power consisted of compressed-air
engines of eighty horsepower. The compressed air was carried in air
tanks at a pressure of one hundred and eighty pounds per square inch.
It is reported that the capacity of the air tanks exceeded one hundred
and forty cubic metres.

[Illustration: LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE FRENCH SUBMARINE "LE
PLONGEUR"

This vessel was built by Messrs. Bourgois and Brun in 1864 and was
backed by the French Government. She was the largest and the most
costly vessel built in the attempt to solve the problem of successful
submarine navigation up to about the beginning of the 20th century.
(See text.)]

Her submerged control system consisted of the usual water-ballast tanks
for reducing the vessel's surface buoyancy preparatory to submerging.
The final adjustment of displacement was to be effected by means of
cylinders which could be forced out through stuffing boxes to increase
her displacement or withdrawn to reduce her displacement. It was hoped
that by manipulating these cylinders she could be put in equilibrium
with the water she displaced, and that she could then be steered in any
desired direction by the vertical and horizontal rudders placed at her
stern.

Theoretically this is an ideal method for submerged control, but in
practice it works out badly, especially when a vessel has little
stability, for the reason that there are so many disturbing influences
to cause the vessel to take on dangerous angles in diving. If free
surfaces exist in the water-ballast tanks, the slightest change from
a level keel causes the water to flow to the lower end of the ballast
tank. This is apt to augment the inclination still further, and cause
the vessel to dive, or, _vice versa_, to broach. The density of the
water also varies, especially where freshwater rivers empty into
salt water. At times quite different densities are found at various
depths. The fresh water and salt water, instead of rapidly mixing,
seem to have a tendency to remain in strata which extend, in some
cases, considerable distances off shore. Therefore it is practically
impossible to secure and maintain a vessel in perfect equilibrium. The
movement of the crew forward and aft, or the effect of the sea, which
imparts a vertical motion to the water beneath the surface, all tend to
destroy both trim and equilibrium to such an extent that many failures
have resulted in vessels of this type.

_Le Plongeur_ was no exception to this rule, because it was found
impossible to control her depth when running submerged, and she would
either dive into the bottom or broach to the surface. One report
stated that even in depths of thirty feet she would make progress "by
alternately striking the bottom and then rebound to the surface like
an elastic india-rubber ball."

One other novel feature introduced in _Le Plongeur_ was an "escape
boat," which was carried on top of the main hull, to which it was
secured by bolts. A double hatch connected the submarine and the escape
boat together. In case the submarine became disabled or entangled in
wreckage and could not be brought to the surface, the crew could enter
through double hatches into the escape boat, secure the bottom hatch,
and by turning the securing bolts from the interior release the escape
boat and ascend to the surface.

Mr. O. S. Halstead, of Newark, New Jersey, completed, in 1866, a
submarine vessel on which the United States Government made a partial
payment. This vessel is known as the _Intelligent Whale_, and is now
installed as a permanent exhibit on the Green at the Brooklyn Navy
Yard, New York. The vessel had a vertical and horizontal rudder at the
stern for submerged control. According to official reports, she must
have functioned fairly well when submerged.

One of the features of this vessel consisted in its ability to be
converted into a diving bell when resting on the bottom. A large
trap-door was arranged in the bottom of the vessel. After filling the
whole interior of the vessel with compressed air equal in pressure to
the pressure of the water at the bottom of the vessel, the trap-door
could be opened and the air pressure would keep the water from rising,
the same as in a diving bell.

A study of this vessel shows that she must have been a very stable
craft and not likely to dive at an excessive angle or to stand on
end, as was the tendency of many of the early diving boats. A report
signed by Gen. T. W. Sweeny, U. S. A., and Col. John Michal, Col. T. R.
Tresilian, and Major R. C. Bocking, engineers, strongly endorsed this
vessel.

On the strength of the above-mentioned reports and endorsements,
the government, through the Navy Department, appointed a commission
composed of Commodore C. M. Smith, Commodore Augustus L. Chase, Chief
of Bureau of Ordnance, and Edward O. Mathews, Chief of the Torpedo
Board, "to examine, inspect, and report on the merit of said boat." As
the report of this commission confirmed the capacity and efficiency of
the boat for submarine purposes, the government made a contract for her
purchase for the sum of $50,000 (£10,250).

The contract specified certain conditions which were to be fulfilled
before the final payment was made, one of which was that Halstead
should "write out fully and describe, without reservation, all the
inventions, secrets, and contrivances necessary to enable any competent
person or persons to operate and manage said boat as contemplated,
desired, or designed, more especially the methods of furnishing,
managing, controlling, purifying, and renewing the air when and in
quantity as needed, so as to enable those in the boat to descend and
ascend or remain under water any reasonable length of time; also, to
open the doors in the bottom of the boat and keep the water from coming
therein at any reasonable and regulated depth." For this information
Halstead was to receive such further sum as a board of officers might
grant. Halstead was to have the further right to apply to Congress for
additional compensation.

In carrying out the provisions of the contract, the government, on
May 27, 1870, took over the _Intelligent Whale_ and then paid $12,050
(£2,470) on account of the contract. Shortly after this Halstead was
instantly killed. Differences then arose between Halstead's heirs and
others who claimed an interest in the contract. It does not appear that
anything further was ever done with the boat to carry out the terms of
the contract. She lay neglected for years on the old "Cob dock" in the
Brooklyn Navy Yard, but was recently erected as an exhibit on the Green.

Some years later that famous inventor, Mr. J. P. Holland, brought out a
submarine vessel called the _Fenian Ram_. This vessel was about thirty
feet long and six feet in diameter. She was navigated, when submerged,
by the use of vertical and horizontal rudders located at the stern. The
novel feature introduced in the vessel was an under-water air-gun which
was designed to fire a shell under water.

Mr. Holland was originally a school teacher in Ireland, from which
country he was exiled because of his political beliefs. On coming
to the United States he became affiliated with the Fenian movement.
Previous to his construction of the _Fenian Ram_ Mr. Holland built
experimentally a small one-man boat. The money to build the _Fenian
Ram_ was subscribed by the "Clan-na-Gael" and other Irish patriotic
societies, and an associate of Mr. Holland recently informed me that
over $200,000 (£41,000) was subscribed to enable Mr. Holland to carry
on his experiments. After the collapse of the Fenian movement the
_Fenian Ram_ was towed up to New Haven, Connecticut, and hauled out on
the banks of the Mill River, where it has lain ever since, hidden under
a pile of lumber.

One of the former leaders of the Fenians informed me that the scheme
was to build a number of submarines of about the size of the _Ram_.
They were to have been carried across the Atlantic in a special
ship with water-tight compartments extending below the water line,
into which the submarines were to have been floated and a sea door
closed. On arrival on the English coast, this special ship, which
was apparently a harmless merchantman, was to locate the British war
vessels in some one of the harbors, sail in and anchor near them; then
the little submarines were to be released from their mother ship and
proceed to sink as many of the British ships as they could by firing
explosive shells into them below the water line. The novelty of such an
attack was relied upon to spread consternation among the British fleet
and thus enable the submarines to escape.

In 1878 Mr. G. W. Garrett, of Liverpool, took out a patent and
constructed a small boat whose equilibrium was to have been maintained
by the admission of water into a cylinder and forcing it out by a
piston. In 1879, Mr. Garrett brought out a larger vessel, called the
_Resurgam_, in which his means of control were forward diving rudders
similar to those of the Confederate _Hunley_. The novel feature of
this vessel was the installation of a very large steam boiler in
which sufficient heat could be stored to enable the vessel to make a
submerged run of several miles after the fires were shut down. This
vessel was lost during her experimental trials.

Mr. Garrett then interested Mr. Nordenfelt, the inventor of the
celebrated Nordenfelt gun, in his boat. Mr. Nordenfelt improved upon
Garrett's boat and built vessels for Greece, Turkey, and Russia. His
first boat was sixty-four feet in length by nine feet beam, with a
displacement of about sixty tons. The method of submerged control,
which he devised, consisted of the use of two downhaul screws located
in sponsons on either side of the vessel. These screws were operated by
bevel gears and were run at sufficient speed to overcome the reserve
of buoyancy. The vessel was intended to be always operated with a
reserve of buoyancy. To submerge, therefore, it was necessary to run
the propellers at a speed sufficient to exert a thrust to overcome
this buoyancy and pull her bodily under water. After reaching the
desired depth, forward motion was then to be given by the usual screw
propeller, and she was expected to make progress on a level keel and in
a horizontal plane. The level keel was to have been maintained by the
use of a horizontal rudder placed in the bow.

This method of submerged control for submarine vessels of moderate
speed seems to me to be an excellent one in principle. I have been
surprised that further development has not been made along these lines.
I think the final abandonment of the Nordenfelt type of vessel was
due to failure in carrying out the details of design rather than to
faulty basic principles. A former chief engineer of Mr. Nordenfelt
informed me that the heat from the large amount of hot water stored
up in the reservoirs--for submerged power--made the interior of the
vessels almost unbearable for the crew when the hatches were shut down,
and that he did not believe the submarines ever made any submerged
runs after being delivered. I also judge, from his description of his
experiences with the vessels, that they lacked longitudinal stability
and were difficult to hold in the horizontal position, which Mr.
Nordenfelt claimed was a _sine qua non_ for a submarine boat. I concur
in this claim.

In an article on his boats, Mr. Nordenfelt stated that they were
very sensitive, and that he had purposely made them so in order that
the horizontal rudder might easily maintain the boat in a horizontal
position. My experience has led me to prefer great statical stability
rather than sensitiveness.

Mr. Nordenfelt's boats had means for discharging the smoke from
the fires under the water. This was done so as not to betray the
submarine's position to surface vessels. He also seems to have been the
first to incorporate torpedo tubes within his hull for the discharge of
the Whitehead torpedo.

The Spanish Lieut. Isaac Peral built, in 1887, a vessel in which the
motive power was supplied from electric accumulators. It was operated
by the usual vertical and horizontal rudders. Its submerged control was
bad, but its electric propulsive system worked well.

Mons. Goubet built several small boats during the period from 1885 to
1890 with a propeller which worked on a universal joint so arranged
that the direction of thrust could be changed to drive the boat under
water or to bring her to the surface when submerged. This propeller
took the place of the usual vertical and horizontal rudders.

Prof. Josiah L. Tuck built, in 1885, a vessel called the _Peacemaker_,
the novel feature of which consisted of a "caustic soda" boiler for
generating steam for submerged work.

In 1886 a Mr. Waddington, of England, brought out a small electric
accumulator boat with downhaul screws arranged in vertical tubes. He
also used side rudders to assist in control of depth. It is reported
that this vessel functioned quite successfully, but she was abandoned,
and Mr. Waddington does not seem to have developed anything further.

In 1892 George H. Baker brought out an egg-shaped vessel which he ran
submerged by the use of side propellers driven by bevel gears. These
propellers were carried in frames so that they could be inclined to
exert a thrust downward or upward, or at any desired angle so as to
pull the boat downward and drive her forward at the same time. This was
an improvement over Nordenfelt's side propellers, which ran on fixed
vertical shafts. This vessel functioned fairly satisfactorily at slow
speeds, but neither the form nor driving mechanism was suitable for the
higher speeds required by modern practice.

A number of other boats were built, but there does not appear to be
anything new in principle in them.

This brings us up to 1893, when the United States Government made
an appropriation of $200,000 (£41,000) for a submarine boat and
advertised for inventors to submit designs. This was the first time
that it was officially recognized in this country that there _might_
be possibilities in this type of boat. Most of the naval officers,
however, were very sceptical of the practicability of such craft, and,
from the conservative point of view, they were perhaps justified, as no
satisfactory boat had been built up to that time.

A program of requirements, which undoubtedly would produce a weapon
valuable for defence, was made up by the Navy Department, and these
requirements were designated in the following order of importance:

1. Safety.
2. Facility and certainty of action when submerged.
3. Speed when running on the surface.
4. Speed when submerged.
5. Endurance, both submerged and on the surface.
6. Offensive power.
7. Stability.
8. Visibility of object to be attacked.

This standard of accomplishments is as important to-day as when it was
first promulgated.

This first appropriation was brought about by a recommendation to
Congress, made by Commander Folger, Chief of Ordnance, who had been
much impressed with the possibilities of submarines after witnessing
a test of the Baker boat in Lake Michigan. Commander G. A. Converse,
president of the Torpedo Board, also made a report certifying that it
was his belief that a larger vessel operating on the Baker principles
would, with some modifications, prove valuable for defensive and
offensive purposes.

France at this date was the only other country which was giving
official encouragement to the development of the submarine. She was
conducting experiments with the _Gymnote_, a small vessel of the diving
type, and had under construction a much larger vessel to be operated
on the same principle. This vessel was afterward called the _Gustave
Zédé_, but she did not go into commission for some time, as her
submerged control was found to be bad. One report of her trials states
that, "with the committee of engineers on board, her performance in
attempting to keep an even depth line was most erratic, and frequently
a thirty-degree inclination was reached before the boat could be
brought up. On one occasion she hit the bottom in ten fathoms with
sufficient force to unseat the engineering experts."

The _Gymnote_ was five feet ten inches in diameter amidships and
fifty-nine feet ten inches in length. The _Gustave Zédé_ was ten feet
nine inches in diameter and one hundred forty-eight feet long. It is
very difficult to secure sufficient metacentric height in a boat of the
above proportions, which probably accounted largely for their erratic
behavior when submerged.

In response to the United States Government's advertisement for
designs of submarine boats, only three inventors submitted plans and
specifications. These were Mr. George C. Baker, Mr. J. P. Holland, and
myself. Mr. Baker submitted designs of a boat sixty feet in length and
of about one hundred and twenty tons displacement. This vessel was
expected to have a speed of about eight miles per hour. The method
of submerged control and known characteristics were the same as have
already been described in connection with his boat as built in 1892.
Mr. Holland proposed to build a vessel eighty-five feet in length,
eleven and one-half feet in diameter, of one hundred and sixty-eight
tons submerged displacement, and of one hundred and fifty-four tons
light displacement. This gave a surface "reserve of buoyancy" of only
fourteen tons, or less than ten per cent. The method of control was by
the use of vertical and horizontal rudders on the same principle as was
used in his _Fenian Ram_, described above.

In 1897 Mr. Holland published in _Cassier's Magazine_ an article on
submarine navigation, giving some of his experiences with the _Fenian
Ram_. This article explains very well the state of the art of submarine
navigation in 1893. One of the early difficulties encountered was how
to know the direction one was going when submerged. Referring to his
experience in the _Fenian Ram_, Mr. Holland said:

"Experience with submarine boats had been so very limited up to
1881 that more difficulty in steering a straight course by compass
while submerged than while moving on the surface was scarcely
expected. The writer had no suspicion that his boat could not be
steered perfectly until he had tried it after making about half a
dozen preliminary dives to adjust the automatic apparatus. Having
become doubtful of the reliability of the compass, he had it
carefully compensated, and then made a trial submerged run in New
York Harbor, heading the vessel toward a point which he knew was
about twelve minutes' run distant.

"The boat dived at an inclination of about fifteen degrees, and
it was noticed that when she again reached a horizontal position
the compass needle swung around a complete circle and vibrated a
good deal before coming to rest. The boat was then discovered to
be about ninety degrees off her course. It was steered again in
the proper direction, and then inclined upward at a sharp angle to
find whether the action of the compass would be as erratic while
rising as while running downward. One end of the needle dipped to
the bottom of the cup when beginning the ascent, and remained there
during the rise. When the boat approached a horizontal position, a
few feet below the surface, the needle swung around as violently as
it had done during the boat's descent, and then came to rest again
at a point that indicated the boat to be far off the true course.

"As it appeared quite clear that the run was not made in the
direction intended, and that about one mile must have been covered
from the start, ten minutes having already passed, the boat was
brought to the surface of the water just in time to prevent her
from running on rocks that lay about twenty yards straight ahead
and sixty yards down from the starting point.

"The boat had been started to run over one mile up stream, and
the mile-run ended sixty yards down stream, with the boat heading
exactly opposite to her original direction. This erratic action
of the compass was discovered to be due to heeling, or inclining
from the horizontal position, and that it could not be corrected in
that boat on account of the near proximity to the compass needle of
considerable masses of iron that were liable to have their position
changed while the vessel was submerged."

To overcome the above-mentioned difficulties, Mr. Holland invented a
device and was granted a patent (No. 492,960) for a triangular drag,
which was expected to keep the vessel on a true course when under
water. This triangular drag was the novel feature of Mr. Holland's
1893 design, and was intended automatically to steer the vessel on
a straight course when submerged. It was intended to operate on the
following ingenious principle:

While the vessel was running on the surface the steering gear was under
the control of the steersman. In this condition the compass could be
adjusted, as the vessel was on a substantially level keel and the
masses of metal remained fixed in their relation to the compass, but
when the vessel was caused to dive the masses of metal changed their
relation to the adjusting magnets and the compass was thrown out of
true. Therefore, on beginning a dive the vessel was first started on
the surface on the course it was intended to follow submerged until
the triangular drag, being drawn through the water, assumed a direction
parallel to the axial line of the boat by reason of the rush of water
against said drag, and especially against the rib thereon. As soon as
the boat was on her course the steersman was expected to disconnect his
hand steering gear and allow the drag to control the rudder to hold her
to her original course. Mr. Holland maintained that any departure from
a straight line would cause the drag to produce swinging motion of a
lever, which was expected to throw the rudder in a reverse direction,
thus returning the ship to her original course.

Another automatic steering device operated by the pressure of the
water was expected to automatically control the depth of submergence,
it being only necessary, theoretically, to move a control lever to
a point on a dial corresponding to the desired or predetermined
depth of submergence, and the horizontal diving rudder would then be
automatically manipulated to incline the bow of the boat down so as to
dive until the desired depth was reached and then to be manipulated to
throw the bow up or down to maintain that depth.

In further describing his 1893 design for the _Plunger_, for which he
received the award based on a guarantee of performance, Mr. Holland
describes her as follows:

"The boat now being built for the United States Government satisfies
all the requirements detailed earlier in this article. It will have
a length over all of eighty-five feet, and diameter of eleven and
one-half feet; total displacement, one hundred and sixty-eight tons,
and a light displacement of one hundred and fifty-four tons. The
guaranteed speed on the surface will be fifteen knots, the speed awash
fourteen knots, and submerged eight knots. At full speed the boat
will have an endurance of twelve hours and a radius of action of one
thousand miles at slower speed. The endurance, when submerged, will be
ten hours at a speed of six knots. The boat will be propelled by triple
screws, operated by three independent sets of triple-expansion steam
engines, capable of developing 1625 indicated horsepower. There will
also be electric storage batteries and a motor of 70 horsepower for
submerged running. The armament will consist of two expulsion tubes and
five Whitehead torpedoes.

[Illustration: THE PLUNGER (HOLLAND TYPE SUBMARINE), LAUNCHED IN
AUGUST, 1897

Machinery not drawn to scale. The engines of 1,600 horse-power,
with the necessary auxiliaries, nearly filled the after portion of
the vessel.]

"Steering on the horizontal plane while submerged is accomplished
by an automatic apparatus that performed very well in one of the
boat's predecessors. Steering in the vertical plane is also done
automatically, and with considerable exactness, while submerged.
Steering in both planes can also, at the same time, be controlled
manually. There will be a steel armored turret, four feet high, to
protect the pilot and smokestack, and the hull will be covered by
three feet of water while the vessel runs awash to attack.

"When engaged in harbor defence duty its position will be outside
the outer line of harbor defences; that is, beyond the reach of the
guns defending the entrance. While performing this duty it will lie
awash; that is, with only the top of its turret over the surface
of the water. On the approach of an enemy's vessel the smokestack
will be shipped and the aperture on top of the turret through which
it passed will be quickly closed watertight. She will then run in
a direction to intercept the enemy's ship, still remaining in the
awash condition, until she comes near enough to be discovered by
the lookouts on the ship, when she will go from the awash to the
entirely submerged condition. The distance from the ship at which
she will dive will depend upon the weather. In rough weather she
can come quite close without being observed. Having come within a
distance that the operator estimates at two or three hundred yards
from the ship, the diving rudders are manipulated so as to cause
the top of the turret to come for a few seconds above the surface
of the water. During this short exposure of the turret--much too
short to give the enemy a chance to find its distance and train a
gun on it capable of inflicting any injury--the pilot ascertains
the bearing of the enemy's ship, alters his course or makes another
dive if necessary. If he finds that the submarine boat is within
safe striking distance, say one hundred yards, a Whitehead torpedo
is discharged at the ship. A heavy explosion within six seconds
after the torpedo is expelled will notify the operator that his
attack has been successful, and he may then devote his attention
to the next enemy's ship that may be within reach. When the boat
is running on the surface of the water, with full steam power, and
it becomes necessary to dive quickly, the pilot gives the order,
'Prepare to dive.' The oil fuel is instantly shut off from the
furnace, the valves are opened to admit water to the water-ballast
tanks, an electric engine draws down the smokestack and air-shaft
into the superstructure, and moves a large, massive sliding valve
over the aperture on the turret through which the smokestack
passes. These operations will be completed in about thirty seconds,
when the boat is in the awash condition and prepared to dive. In
twenty seconds more it will be running horizontally at a depth of
twenty feet below the surface of the water and quite beyond reach
of the enemy's projectiles."

I submitted designs of a twin-screw vessel eighty feet long, ten feet
beam, and one hundred fifteen tons displacement, with 400-horsepower
steam engines for surface propulsion and 70-horsepower motors for
submerged work. This design introduced several new and striking
features into the art of submarine navigation which have been the cause
of considerable scientific discussion. The design called for a _double
hull_ vessel, the spaces between the inner and outer hulls forming
water-ballast tanks; the design also called for twin screws and four
torpedo tubes, two firing forward and two aft.

[Illustration: LAKE DESIGN AS SUBMITTED TO THE U. S. NAVY DEPARTMENT IN
1893

Novel features consisted in: (A) wheels for running on the bottom; (B)
rudder forming also a steering wheel when navigating on the bottom;
(C-C) propellers for holding vessel to depth when not under way; (D-D)
depth regulating vanes or hydroplanes for causing vessel to change
depth while under way and to accomplish the changes of depth on an
even keel; (E-E) horizontal rudders or "leveling vanes" designed to
automatically hold the vessel on a level keel when under way; (F) a
weight automatically controlled by a pendulum; (P) mechanism to correct
trim; (G) gun arranged in watertight revolving turret for defense
purposes or attack on unarmored surface craft; (L) propeller in tube
for swinging vessel at rest to facilitate "pointing" her torpedoes; (M)
conning tower; (N) telescoping smokestack; (O) observing instrument
arranged to turn down on deck when under way; (T-T) torpedo tubes, two
firing forward and two aft; (W-W) anchoring weights to hold the vessel
at rest at any desired depth between the surface and bottom; (X) an
"emergency keel" which would be automatically released if the vessel
reached an unsafe depth. She was a double-hull vessel, water being
admitted to the space between the inner and outer hulls and in trim
tanks forward and aft to effect submergence. A diving compartment was
also provided to enable the crew to leave or enter the vessel while
submerged.]

The novel feature which attracted the most attention and scepticism
regarding this design was--so I was later informed by a member of the
Board--in the claim made that the vessel could readily navigate over
the water-bed itself and that while navigating on the water-bed a door
could be opened in the bottom of a compartment and the water kept from
entering the vessel by means of compressed air, and that the crew
could, by donning diving suits, readily leave and enter the vessel
while submerged. Another novel feature was in the method of controlling
the depth of submergence when navigating between the surface and the
water-bed. The vessel was designed always to submerge and navigate
on a level keel rather than to be inclined down or up by the bow to
dive or rise. This maintenance of a level keel while submerged was
provided for by the installation of four depth-regulating vanes, which
I later termed "hydroplanes" to distinguish them from the forward and
aft levelling vanes or horizontal rudders. These hydroplanes were
located at equal distances forward and aft of the centre of gravity
and buoyancy of the vessel when in the submerged condition, so as not
to disturb the trim of the vessel when the planes were inclined down
or up to cause the vessel to submerge or rise when under way. I also
used, in conjunction with the hydroplanes, horizontal rudders, which I
called "levelling vanes," as their purpose was just the opposite from
that of the horizontal rudder used in the diving type of vessel. They
were operated by a pendulum-controlling device to be inclined so as
always to maintain the vessel on a level keel rather than cause her to
depart therefrom. When I came to try this combination out in practice I
found hand control of the horizontal rudders was sufficient. If vessels
with this system of control have a sufficient amount of stability,
they will run for hours and _automatically maintain both a constant
depth and a level keel_, without the depth-control man touching either
the hydroplane or horizontal rudder control gear. This automatic
maintenance of depth without manipulating the hydroplanes or rudders
was a performance not anticipated or claimed in my original patent
on the above-mentioned combination, and what caused these vessels to
function in this manner remained a mystery, which was left unsolved
until I built a model tank in 1905, in Berlin, Germany, and conducted
a series of experiments on models of submarines. I then learned that
the down pull of a hydroplane with a given degree of inclination
varied according to its depth of submergence, and the deeper the
submergence the less down pull. This works out to give automatic
maintenance of depth so long as the vessel is kept at a constant trim
on a substantially level keel, and I have known of vessels running for
a period of over two hours without variation of depth of one foot and
without once changing the inclination of either the hydroplanes or the
horizontal rudder.

The capability of this arrangement of hydroplanes and horizontal
rudders to control the depth of submergence was questioned and
doubted for many years. As late as 1902, nearly ten years after I
first submitted this method of control to the United States Navy
Department, Naval Constructor L. Y. Spear, U. S. N., testifying before
the Committee of Naval Affairs, House of Representatives, in reference
to the "Lake even-keel boat" and my use of hydroplanes, said, "As an
expert I do not think he will make his hydroplanes work"; and strongly
contended that submergence by inclining the vessel itself was the
proper method.

Several years later, in 1908, in Paris, I met Captain Lauboeuf, the
celebrated French naval constructor, who has perhaps done more toward
perfecting the French submarines than any other designer, and he
informed me that after the French Government had its sad experience
in the loss of the _Lutine_ and _Farfadet_ with their crews, it had
changed all their diving boats into even-keel boats and was now using
substantially my method of even-keel submergence with hydroplane
control. He also informed me that it had, at that time, thirty-five
new boats under construction to operate on the even-keel principle,
eighteen of which were of five hundred and fifty tons displacement.
Captain Lauboeuf was kind enough to compliment me as having been the
first to introduce this method of submerged control.

Commander Murray F. Sueter, Royal British Navy, in his most complete
work on "The Evolution of the Submarine Boat, Mine and Torpedo, from
the Sixteenth Century to the Present Time," published in 1907, said:

"After scrutinizing all the information available, I am certain
that several features of the 'Lake' design will be embodied by most
nations in the construction of future boats, the chief of which,
perhaps, are 'the even-keel method of submergence' in preference to
the 'dynamical dive' of the Holland boats; also the provision of a
safety keel and diving compartment. This latter forms a ready means
of communicating with the surface should the boat, through some
small mishap, find herself on the bottom and unable to rise."

Sir Trevor Dawson, formerly (R. N.) manager of "Vickers," in discussing
submarine boats before the Institution of Naval Architects in 1907,
said:

"Mr. Lake mentioned the question of the importance of horizontal
stability and the use of hydroplanes. I think these have been
used by the Holland Company in America in connection with the
experiments they made for the American Government. In one of
the boats I saw they gave me particulars of such experiments.
I know, too, that they have been used considerably in France
with satisfactory results, and I think his contention as to the
importance of horizontal stability, as things exist to-day, is
fully justified."

Captain Edgar Lees (R. N.), who was the officer in charge of the
British submarines, said:

"I may say, with regard to the features that Mr. Lake has brought
to our notice--the hydroplane, for instance, and getting good
freeboard and seaworthy boats--the mere fact that they have been
largely copied and that most nations build these submarine boats
is, as Mr. Lake contends, a conclusive proof that he has been
for years on the right tack. Well, I do not think at the present
moment submarine boats are being built in any country without
hydroplanes, in order to dive, if desired, almost horizontally."

One of the latest contract requirements of the United States
Government, specifying the characteristics of the new boats to be built
under the appropriation for submarines for the year 1915, stated:

"The vessel shall make also the necessary trials to demonstrate her
ability to effect initial submergence, to maintain submergence under
way, and to change depths without exceeding an angle of inclination of
one degree." This, in substance, calls for "even-keel submergence" when
one considers that it was common for early boats of the diving type to
take on an inclination of fifteen to twenty degrees, and inclinations
of as much as forty-five degrees were not unknown.

All governments and submarine builders have at present in their latest
boats adopted the method of even-keel submergence by the use of
hydroplanes, and I am gratified that this method of control has been
finally adopted as the standard, as I believe none of the latest modern
submarine boats will make the uncontrollable dives to the bottom common
in the boats of the diving type, which have been accompanied in many
cases by the loss of their crews.

I did not make a proposal to build a boat from my designs as submitted
in 1893, but offered to coöperate with the government in developing
submarines under my patents, which were then pending, on such terms
as the government might desire. Not being fortunate enough, however,
to secure the financial assistance of the government in developing my
inventions for the protection of our country, I turned my attention for
a time to applying my inventions to commercial purposes and to prove
the practicability of navigating on the bottom.

For this purpose I built, in 1894, the _Argonaut, Jr._, which I
mentioned in the preceding chapter, and will now describe more fully.
This vessel was provided with three wheels, two on either side forward
and one aft, the latter acting as a steering wheel. When on the bottom
the wheels were rotated by hand by one or two men inside the boat. Her
displacement was about seven tons, yet she could be propelled at a
moderate walking gait when on the bottom. She was also fitted with an
air-lock and diver's compartment, so arranged that by putting an air
pressure on the diver's compartment equal to the water pressure outside
a bottom door could be opened and no water could come into the vessel.
Then by putting on a pair of rubber boots the operator could walk
around on the sea bottom and push the boat along with him and pick up
objects, such as clams, oysters, etc., from the sea bottom.

Experiments with this vessel on the bottom of Sandy Hook Bay convinced
a sufficient number of people who were permitted to witness the
experiments that submarine navigation in this manner was practicable,
and I succeeded in raising sufficient capital to build a larger vessel
to continue my experiments on a broader scale. Therefore, in 1895, I
designed the _Argonaut_.

[Illustration: "ARGONAUT" AS ORIGINALLY BUILT. LAUNCHED IN AUGUST, 1897

Built to further demonstrate the possibility of navigation over the
waterbed of seas or the ocean. She covered thousands of miles in her
experimental work, testing out the practicability of the submarine for
various kinds of commercial work.]

At this time I was living in Baltimore, Md., so I made a contract
with the Columbian Iron Works and Dry Dock Company, of that city,
for her construction. This company was also building for the Holland
Torpedo Boat Company the _Plunger_, which was being constructed for the
government under the 1893 appropriation. Both vessels were completed
about the same time. They were launched in August, 1897, and went into
dry dock together.

The _Argonaut_, as originally built, was thirty-six feet long and
nine feet in diameter. She was the first submarine to be operated
successfully with an internal-combustion engine. She was propelled with
a thirty-horsepower gasolene (petrol) engine driving a single-screw
propeller. She was fitted with two toothed driving wheels forward,
which were revolved by suitable gearing when navigating on the
water-bed. They could be disconnected from this gearing and permitted
to revolve freely, propulsion being secured by the screw propeller. A
wheel in the rudder enabled her to be steered in any direction when
on the bottom. She also had a divers' compartment to enable divers to
leave or enter the vessel when submerged, so as to operate on wrecks
or to permit inspection of the bottom or to recover shellfish. She
also had a lookout compartment in the extreme bow, with a powerful
searchlight to light up a pathway in front of her as she moved along
over the water-bed. This searchlight I later found of little value
except for night work in clear water. In clear water the sunlight would
permit of as good vision without the use of the light as with it;
while, if the water was not clear, no amount of light would permit of
vision through it for any considerable distance.

[Illustration: THE "ARGONAUT" AFTER LENGTHENING AND ADDITION OF
BUOYANT, SHIP-SHAPED SUPERSTRUCTURE, INCREASING THE SURFACE BUOYANCY
OVER 40 PER CENT]

As the _Argonaut_ was principally built in order to further test out
the possibility of navigating on the water-bed in exploration and
commercial work, she was propelled, both when on the surface and
submerged, by her gasolene (petrol) engines. Storage batteries were
carried only for lighting purposes. The air to run her engines was
first drawn into the vessel through a hose extending to a buoy
floating on the surface. Later she was fitted with pipe masts, which
enabled her to navigate on the bottom in depths up to fifty feet. She
functioned satisfactorily from the start. We found we could readily
navigate over any kind of bottom, soft or hard, by regulating her
buoyancy to suit, and she would, due to her buoyancy, readily climb
over any obstruction that did not reach higher than her forefoot.

[Illustration: SUBMARINE WITH CUSHIONED BOTTOM WHEELS

Showing how such a vessel will surmount a steep declivity while a boat
of the diving type (D) will likely "bury her nose" into it or strike
with sufficient force to disarrange her machinery. If the submarine has
sufficient statical stability she will maintain substantially a level
keel even when riding over a steep declivity.]

There were three things which caused us to delay her departure on a
submarine exploration trip for a few weeks. The first was the escape of
gasolene (petrol) fumes in the boat. When first built, fuel tanks were
built in the hull itself and formed an integral part of the vessel.
Special care was given to make these fuel tanks tight. They were
tested under hydraulic pressure and found to be tight, but the fumes
from gasolene (petrol) are very searching, and, after filling the fuel
tanks and keeping them filled over night, gasolene fumes were found to
exist in the boat the next morning to such an extent that I would not
venture to make a start until a fuel tank had been built outside of the
vessel, where any escape of fumes would not form an explosive mixture.
I followed this practice in all our later gasolene-engined boats, which
largely eliminated the danger from carrying gasolene as a fuel. A
number of explosions have occurred in other types of gasolene-propelled
boats, in some cases with fatal results, from gasolene fuel being
carried in built-up tanks within the hull itself.

The next cause of delay was due to the escape of and collection
of carbon monoxide within the vessel. This developed on our first
submarine run. After we had been down about two hours some of us
commenced to experience a dull pain at the base of the brain and a
decided feeling of lassitude. On coming to the surface a couple of our
men collapsed completely, and one was very sick all night. I could not
understand the cause of this, as nothing of the kind had occurred in my
previous hand-propelled vessel, so we made another submerged run the
following day, and after about the same period of time the pain in the
head and weariness came on again. I then discovered that the engine
would occasionally backfire out into the boat and that gas was escaping
past the piston rings into the base of the engine and from there into
the boat. To overcome this difficulty I installed what I called an
induction tank, which was piped up to the air intake of the engine and
also the engine base. A check valve admitted air into this induction
tank. When the engine was started the check valve was automatically
lifted and induced a flow of air through the tank, in which a slight
vacuum was maintained, which also served to draw the gases out from
the engine base. In case of a backfire, the check valve automatically
closed and the gases from the backfire were caught in the induction
tank, from which they were drawn out on the next stroke of the engine.
This solved the difficulty, and thereafter the air was always fresh and
pure when running submerged even after a submergence of several hours'
duration.

Like Mr. Holland, I also had difficulty on our first submergence in
always knowing where we were going. Our compass was first installed in
the boat itself, where it was surrounded by steel. The compass adjuster
had searched for and found what he considered the most _neutral_ place
in the ship to install the compass, and had adjusted it by magnets in
the usual manner, but it was too "loggy" for correct navigation and
we were forced finally to install it in a bronze binnacle directly
over the conning tower, where it could be viewed by mirrors from the
steersman's station. This cut out most of the adjusting magnets, and
the compass was nearly accurate on all courses. Submarine navigation
thus became reliable.

On the completion of these changes the _Argonaut_ was taken down the
Chesapeake Bay to Hampton Roads, where several months were spent in
examining the bottom conditions in the bay and out on the ocean,
and in locating and picking up cables and in examining wrecks. The
Spanish-American War was on at this time, and an effort was made to
interest the government officials in charge of the mines at Fortress
Monroe. I tried to get some of the officers to go down in the
_Argonaut_ and see how easily observation mine cables could be located
and cut if desired, as I was making almost daily submerged runs in
their vicinity. Finally I received peremptory orders not to submerge
within a mile of the mine fields, as I might accidentally sever one of
the cables, and then, as the officer in charge said, "There would be
the devil to pay in Washington."

It was about this time that Admiral Sampson's fleet was holding
at great expense its long vigil outside of Santiago, waiting for
Cervera's fleet to come out. Our fleet was kept outside the harbor
for fear of the mines, while here in Hampton Roads all this time was
a vessel capable of clearing away the mine fields, but which was not
given serious consideration, as it was thought that the submarine was
impracticable. Experiments were also made showing the possibility
of establishing submarine telephone stations at known locations on
the bottom of the ocean. In January, 1898, while the _Argonaut_ was
submerged, telephonic conversation was held from submerged stations
with Baltimore, Washington, and New York. In 1898, also, the _Argonaut_
made the trip from Norfolk to New York under her own power and
unescorted. In her original form she was a cigar-shaped craft, with
only a small percentage of reserve buoyancy in her surface cruising
condition. We were caught out in the severe November northeast storm
of 1898 in which over two hundred vessels were lost, and we did not
succeed in reaching a harbor in the "horseshoe" back of Sandy Hook
until three o'clock in the morning. The seas were so rough, and broke
over her conning tower in such masses, that I was obliged to lash
myself fast to prevent being swept overboard. It was freezing weather,
and I was soaked and covered with ice on reaching harbor.

This experience caused me to apply to the _Argonaut_ a further
improvement, for which I had already applied for a patent. This was
to build around the usual pressure-resisting body of a submarine
a ship-shape form of light plating which would give greater
seaworthiness, better lines for surface speed, and make the vessel
more habitable for surface navigation. It would, in other words, make
a "sea-going submarine," which the usual form of cigar-shaped vessel
was not, as it did not have sufficient surface buoyancy to enable it
to rise with the seas, and the seas would sweep over it as they would
sweep over a partly submerged rock.

[Illustration: THE "ARGONAUT," AFTER BEING LENGTHENED AND REBUILT, IN
1898, SHOWING SHIP-SHAPED, WATERTIGHT, BUOYANT SUPERSTRUCTURE]

The _Argonaut_ was therefore taken to Brooklyn, twenty feet added
to her length, and a light, watertight, buoyant superstructure of
ship-shape form added. This superstructure was opened to the sea when
it was desired to submerge the vessel, and water was permitted to enter
the space between the light plating of the ship-shape form and
the heavy plating of the pressure-resisting hull. This equalized the
pressure on the light plates and prevented their becoming deformed, due
to pressure. The superstructure increased her reserve of buoyancy in
the surface cruising condition from about ten per cent. to over forty
per cent., and she would rise to the seas like any ordinary type of
surface vessel, instead of being buried by them in rough weather.

This feature of construction has been adopted by the Germans, Italians,
Russians, and in all the latest types of French boats. It is the
principal feature which distinguishes them in their surface appearance
from the earlier cigar-shaped boats of the diving type. This ship-shape
form of hull is only suited to level-keel submergence, and must be
controlled by hydroplanes.

I also departed from the cigar-shaped inner hull and was granted a
patent on a form of pressure-resisting hull with rising axes. This
improvement overcame the tendency to dive by the head common to the
cigar-shaped form, increased the surface speed on an equivalent
displacement, and gave a considerable increase in metacentric height
over a vessel of equivalent length and beam.

Some incorrectly informed writers of books and magazines have, through
their lack of complete information, given the credit of inventing
and developing this seagoing type of submersible to the Krupps of
Germany, to former Naval Constructor Lauboeuf, of France, or to former
Naval Constructor Laurenti, of Italy. For the purpose of giving a
correct history of this development, perhaps I may be pardoned and not
considered overconceited if I mention a few facts in connection with
the development of this type of boat in European countries.

On April 2, 1897, I applied for a patent on a combined surface and
submarine vessel, the specifications of which began as follows:

"This invention relates to a combined surface and submarine vessel and
may be employed either as a torpedo boat _or for freight and general
cruising purposes_, or for submarine work of all kinds. It has for
its object, first, to combine with a submarine vessel cylindrical in
cross-section a superstructure built upon the submarine vessel and
affording a large deck surface, buoyancy, and a high freeboard for
surface navigation, the space between the submarine vessel and the
superstructure adapted to being filled with water when the vessel is
submerged, and thus rendered capable of resisting the pressure of the
water, etc." A patent was granted in due course with fifty claims, and,
according to the records of patent offices throughout the world, this
is the pioneer patent covering this form of vessel.

When Krupps took up the matter of constructing submarines for the
Russian and German governments, they decided upon this type of vessel,
as they held that it offered a greater opportunity for development
than the diving type. A contract was drawn with their directors for
the construction of the "Lake" type of boat, which they accepted by
wire. This contract covered the erection of a plant in Russia for the
manufacture of "Lake" submarines on a division of profits and also the
construction of ships in Germany on a royalty basis. It also covered my
employment by them in an advisory capacity. I was living abroad at the
time, and the papers were sent to my directors in America for their
approval.

In the meantime I had submitted to them various plans of submarines,
copies of my patents, and even my secret data, including copies of
patents pending, all to enable them to go ahead, as I considered the
agreement settled by their wire of acceptance. I had also advised them
how to overcome certain difficulties in boats which they then had
under construction for the Russian Government at their Kiel plant, the
Germania Werft.

Before I succeeded in getting the power of attorney from my directors
in America authorizing me to sign up the agreement, the great
industrial revolution started in Russia, immediately after the
Russo-Japanese war, and the Krupps informed me that, owing to that
fact, they had reconsidered their idea of going into Russia and
withdrew from the arrangement. Their attorney in Berlin informed me
that on looking up the patent situation they had found that "I had not
protected myself in Germany and that they were free to build 'Lake'
type boats in Germany and expected to continue to do so." This was
true, for, like most pioneer inventors, I had not succeeded in securing
sufficient capital to finance and protect my fundamental inventions in
all countries, which would have involved very large amounts in taking
them out and paying the yearly tax.

So much for Germany.

In 1905, while residing in Berlin, Germany, I was called to Rome and
sat three days with a commission appointed by Admiral Mirabello, at
that time Italian Minister of Marine, regarding their construction of
submarines. I then learned that the Italian Government had started on
a plan of building submarines of substantially my type, that they had
several under construction at their Venice Arsenal after the design of
Major Laurenti, a naval constructor; that certain difficulties which
they explained to me had arisen, and that they had not succeeded in
getting any of their boats to function satisfactorily submerged. I came
to the conclusion that their trouble was due to lack of longitudinal
stability, and advised the Commission how to increase this. Shortly
afterward I was advised that they had corrected their trouble and that
the boats then worked satisfactorily.

Major Laurenti, at this time, resigned from the Italian Navy and
became affiliated with the Fiat Company, and has designed quite a
large number of successful submarine boats, all of which have buoyant
superstructures and are designed to operate on a level keel by the use
of hydroplanes. These boats are of the "Lake" type, so far as invention
goes.

There is a difference, however, between invention and design.
Invention introduces a new method, a new principle, or a new form
of construction, to accomplish a certain purpose in a new way. Many
modifications of design may be made which do not involve invention.

As an illustration, on August 14, 1907, Major Laurenti applied for a
United States patent on a submarine or submersible boat in which the
attempt was made to secure a patent on slight variations of design over
the "Lake" type. The patent office records show that many amendments
were made and hearings held in the endeavor to evade the foundation
patent of Lake, No. 650,758, which was applied for April 2, 1897, over
ten years before Laurenti applied for a patent. The patent office
consistently and persistently held that the slight difference in design
did not involve invention over "Lake." After arguments and hearings,
extending over a period of over three years, Major Laurenti was finally
obliged to accept a patent restricted to details of construction, most
of which were in themselves not new to me, as they had already been
used in various modifications of my inventions and consisted in such
changes as would naturally be worked out by any good hull or engine
draftsmen while developing the designs of a vessel.

Our patent laws are too free in allowing the granting of patents on
modifications of design while fundamental patents are still in force.
This works great hardship on original inventors, forcing them to
take out a great many patents on features of design rather than on
invention. I have taken out nearly one hundred United States patents
with over one thousand one hundred claims covering a few fundamental
inventions, some of which cover details of construction for which I
should not have been forced to seek protection.

All original inventors complain of this system. I know of several
instances where patents on modifications of design have been granted,
which modifications have been in common use for several years by
others, but were only considered as a design and not as an invention.
Then some designer hits on the same arrangement and considers he has
made an invention, and applies for and takes out a patent which has
already been in common use but has been looked upon purely as a design
by its originator rather than an invention. Then the original designer
may be hauled up before the courts and put to great expense to prove
that it was in prior use as a design.

While Captain Lauboeuf and the Krupps have taken out several patents on
detail mechanisms for use on submarine boats, they have never--so far
as I am aware or the patent records show--attempted to claim to be the
original inventors of the type of submarine with buoyant ship-shaped
form of hull consisting of a pressure-resisting body surmounted by a
watertight, non-pressure-resisting body which gives suitable form for
surface speed and seaworthiness, which is the principal characteristic
of vessels built by them. I feel, therefore, that certain misinformed
authors should, in the interests of the truth, correct their statements
if they issue new editions of their work or write further on the
development of the submarine.

During the years of practical experimental work with the _Argonaut_,
Mr. Holland continued in his efforts to get the _Plunger_--building
under the 1893 appropriation--in shape for submerged trials, but
without success.

The large steam installation, sixteen hundred horsepower, was largely
responsible for this. As I remember, there was only about eighteen
inches between the main engines, with large steam supply and exhaust
pipes overhead and under foot. These engines were designed to run at
over four hundred revolutions per minute. The boiler was located nearly
in the centre of the vessel and so nearly filled the ship that there
was barely room between the top of the boiler and ship to creep from
"forward to aft."

[Illustration: THE "HOLLAND"

This vessel, while holding to the same general principles of
construction and method of control as used in the "Plunger," was much
better proportioned and had a much better distribution of weights.
It was her performance that led the House Naval Committee in 1900 to
authorize the construction of additional submarines of the Holland
type. Her armament consisted of one torpedo tube forward and an aerial
torpedo gun for firing aerial torpedoes, designed to be used somewhat
on the same principles as used on the gunboat "Vesuvius."]

The heat was so intense that the trial crew found it impossible to
live in the boat, so for their full power dock trials valve stems
were run up through the deck to enable the engines to be started from
there. Arrangements were made also to take the indicator cards from
the deck. She was also fitted with a heavy armored conning tower,
as per Mr. Holland's description previously quoted. This, combined
with the high position of the boiler and engines, together with her
cigar-shaped form, which gives a diminishing water plane, reduced her
stability almost to zero. I was informed that when the attempt was
first made to start up one of her engines her stability was so little
that the turning effort on her propeller shaft nearly caused her to
"turn turtle," and that she rolled over on her side to such an extent
that the conning tower struck the dock stringer. The constructor at the
Columbian Iron Works then put heavy chains on her so that she could not
turn over. Every inducement was made to the Holland Company to enable
it to make this vessel satisfactory, as Congress, in 1896, authorized
the Secretary of the Navy to contract for two more "submarine torpedo
boats of the Holland type, _provided_ that the Holland boat now
being built for the Department shall be accepted by the Department
as fulfilling all the requirements of the Contract." She was finally
abandoned in 1900 without ever making a submerged run or fulfilling any
of her guarantees of performance under which the award was secured.
Mr. Holland as early as 1897 must have concluded that the _Plunger_
was destined to failure. In fact, no submarine, even up to the present
day, has ever equalled the performance guaranteed under the _Plunger's_
contract. He therefore built a much smaller boat, called the _Holland_.
This vessel was fitted with internal-combustion engines instead of
steam, and was finally accepted by the United States Government in lieu
of the _Plunger_, and placed in commission in 1900. She was the first
submarine torpedo boat to go into commission in the United States Navy.
Her characteristics were: Length, fifty-three feet four inches;
beam, ten feet three inches; displacement, sixty-four tons surface,
seventy-five tons submerged; power, internal-combustion engines, fifty
horsepower; surface speed, six to seven knots claimed; submerged
speed, five knots claimed. The only official report I have seen gave
her a surface speed of five and two-thirds knots. I believe she was
purchased by the authority of the Act of June 7, 1900, which read as
follows: "The Secretary of the Navy is hereby authorized and directed
to contract for five submarine torpedo boats of the 'Holland' type of
the most improved design, at a price not to exceed one hundred and
seventy thousand dollars (£35,000) each: _Provided_, That such boats
shall be similar in dimensions to the proposed new 'Holland,' plans and
specifications of which were submitted to the Navy Department by the
Holland Torpedo Boat Company, November twenty-third, eighteen hundred
and ninety-nine."

[Illustration: THE "HOLLAND" RUNNING ON THE SURFACE

Courtesy of the Engineering Magazine]

The United States was, therefore, at the beginning of the twentieth
century, fairly launched on a policy of submarine boat construction,
and other governments rapidly followed suit. France had, in the
meantime, brought out two new boats, the _Morse_, 1898, and the
_Narval_, after the designs of M. Lauboeuf, launched October 26, 1899.
The _Gustave Zédé_ had also been modified by adding hydroplanes so that
she became controllable submerged.

The _Morse_ was one hundred and eighteen feet long by eight feet three
inches beam, with a displacement of one hundred and thirty-six tons,
of about the same type as the _Gustave Zédé_. The _Narval_ was one
hundred and eleven feet six inches in length by twelve feet four inches
beam; one hundred and six tons surface displacement and one hundred
and sixty-eight tons submerged. She was, like the author's 1893 design,
a double hull vessel controlled by hydroplanes. She was fitted with
"Dzrewiecke" apparatus for carrying and discharging torpedoes, two
of which were carried on either side. The _Narval_ was a successful
type and appears to have been the first French naval vessel to adopt
a ship-shape outer hull of lighter plating. She was also, so far as
my records show, the first French boat to be fitted with two motive
powers--viz., steam for surface work and electricity for submerged
work. To distinguish her in these particulars from the purely electric
boats of cigar-shaped form, like the _Gustave Zédé_ and _Morse_, Mr.
Lauboeuf called her a submersible.

Very little was known about the French boats at this time (1900), as
their method of construction and experiments were kept secret, but
enough information leaked out as to their reported success to cause the
British public much uneasiness, and they began to demand that their
Admiralty should also take up the development of the submarine. No one
had, so far, evolved a satisfactory type in England, so when the fact
became known that the United States Congress had made an appropriation
for five Holland boats, the British public became still more insistent
that they should also have submarines.

About this time, so I was informed by Sir William White, who was then
chief constructor of the British Navy, Lord Rothschild brought to
him Mr. Isaac L. Rice, president of the Electric Boat Company, who
controlled the Holland patents and who offered to build duplicates of
the United States boats for England. Sir William thought this gave the
Admiralty the opportunity to satisfy the public demands and to meet
the French, their hereditary enemy--this was before the establishment
of the "Entente Cordiale"--in their development of the submarine.
Consequently an arrangement was made for the manufacture of this type
of vessel for England by the Vickers Company. An agreement was drawn,
so Sir William informed me, giving "Vickers" an exclusive monopoly of
building submarines for the British Navy for a period of ten years,
the consideration being that they should have available for the use of
the British Admiralty all the details of the development work of the
Electric Boat Company in America. This, plus their own experience and
development work in England, which should be kept secret, should enable
England to keep on an equal footing with France.

Sir William informed me that he thought this had been a mistake in
policy, as it had deprived the government of the opportunity to secure
improvements that had been developed by other inventors and builders
who had made greater progress on independent lines.

England, therefore, started to build her first submarine, known as
the "A" type. These were practically duplicates of the United States
_Adder_ and _Moccasin_ type, now also designated as "A's" Nos. 1 to 7.
England has been particularly unfortunate with this class of submarine,
several of them having plunged to the bottom with the loss of their
crews during peace-time manoeuvres.

[Illustration: Modern French Submarine of Lauboeuf Design. Constructed
by Schneider and Company]

[Illustration: Modern Italian Submarine--Fiat Construction--Laurenti
Design. Vessel of the Double Hull Buoyant Superstructure. Hydroplane
Controlled Type]

[Illustration: German "U" Boat--Krupp Design

VARIOUS TYPES OF MODERN FOREIGN SUBMARINES

27 and 28, vertical rudders; 29 and 30, hydroplanes for controlling
depth of submergence; 9, periscopes; 21, engines; 20, motors; 22,
storage batteries; 4, drop keel; 31, torpedo tubes.]

The majority of the British and American boats are developments
from the original _Holland_ of Mr. Holland's design. Increasing the
stability, greater subdivision of ballast compartments, refinements in
steering gear, and the addition of hydroplanes forward have enabled
Mr. Holland and his successors to produce submarines that operate
very well. These boats, however, with only one pair of forward planes,
still require constant manipulation of the horizontal rudder to control
them when submerged. This rudder, controlled by power gear, is very
effective and will, by expert manipulation, hold the submarine to
practically even depth. The only danger the writer can see is that the
diving rudder gear might fail to function after it is set in the diving
position, in which case the vessel might continue diving until she
struck bottom or reached a depth great enough to cause her to collapse.

The modern submarines, therefore, as built and used in all the world's
navies, owe their final success to principles of construction and
control devices invented and introduced into the art by two American
inventors.

CHAPTER V

USE OF THE SUBMARINE IN WAR

The submarine boat is the guerilla in warfare. Its tactics are the
tactics of the Indian who fights under cover or lies in ambush for his
enemy. These are necessarily the tactics of all weaker individuals and
are an essential method of procedure in preventing the weaker party
from being annihilated by the strong and more powerful. Some people
have contended that the submarine is an unfair weapon, but the old
statement that "all's fair in love and war" applies to the submarine
as it does to every weapon which has been invented since the days when
men struggled for supremacy with their bare hands. The first man who
wielded the club might have been accused of being unfair; the same
term might have been applied to the man who invented the sling-shot
or the bow and arrow. When people fight for their existence, the
existence of their families or of their country, they do not fight
according to the "Marquis of Queensberry Rules." A revolver in the
hands of a weak man or a defenceless woman is a proper weapon to
enable them to protect their property, their honor, or their life;
and, no matter what theorists may claim, the submarine will remain
as a weapon to be reckoned with in all future wars, provided there
are future wars upon the high seas. In making this assertion I do not
intend to justify a great many of the acts performed by the submarines
of one of the belligerents in the present war. I do claim, however,
that the submarine is a perfectly legitimate naval weapon, and that it
deserves a place in the armament of any nation whose military power is
maintained for purposes of self-defence.

Above all, I believe the submarine most fitted to act as a weapon in
coast-defence operations. Coast-defence submarines will probably be
found to be the most important adjunct to the navies of every country
whose policy is to defend their own coast lines, rather than to attempt
aggressive warfare. Vessels for this purpose do not need to be of great
tonnage nor of high speed. Speed is the one thing, more than anything
else, which runs up the cost of the submarine vessel. While speed
is desirable for the cruising submarine, it is not an essential for
a defensive submarine. It is possible to get a speed of fourteen or
fifteen knots in a submarine of about five hundred tons displacement,
and at the same time have comfortable living quarters for the crew. A
boat of this size may carry eight Whitehead torpedoes, each torpedo
being capable of destroying a fifteen-million-dollar battleship,
and as a five-hundred-ton displacement submarine can be built for
about one-half million dollars, and is capable of carrying eight
Whitehead torpedoes, potentially good for eight fifteen-million-dollar
battleships, or a total of one hundred and twenty million dollars'
worth of capital ships, it seems as if that would be sufficient to
ask of one little submarine boat. Now to double that speed would
require a much larger vessel, and would cost approximately two and
one-half million dollars. A two and one-half-million-dollar boat for
the defence of harbor entrances or seacoast cities would not carry
as many torpedoes as five of the five-hundred-ton boats. A torpedo
fired from a small boat is fully as potent as one fired from a two and
one-half-million-dollar boat.

These small boats could be located at five different points covering a
portion of our coast, and the chances are that at least two of these
smaller boats could reach an objective point on the coast line under
their protection in shorter time than one large high-speed boat would
be able to do. At the same cost they could cover the same area of coast
line to a much better advantage, as there would be five of them to
protect that area instead of one.

We will assume, for purposes of illustration, that the Sandy Hook
entrance to New York Harbor is to be defended. If we strike a
fifteen-mile radius from Sandy Hook point, running from the Long Island
to the New Jersey shore, and have four submarines take station on that
radius line about five miles apart, no ship could pass that radius
line without coming within the range of vision of the commander of the
submarine, either from his periscope in daylight or at night within the
range of hearing of his "submarine ears." The Fessenden oscillators,
or microphones, now installed in all submarines, would readily detect
the approach of a surface ship or ships. These instruments have
been improved to such an extent that it is now possible to carry on
wireless conversation under water between one submarine and another
for a considerable distance. Communication by the Morse code, or other
special codes, may be carried on between submarines up to a distance of
several miles.

It would be possible for groups of submarines on station, or picket
duty, so to speak, to be in constant communication with shore stations,
either by submerged telephone stations or by wireless. In that way the
submarines can be kept in constant touch with the country's scouting
fleet of high-speed surface vessels or aeroplanes and immediately be
notified of the approach of an enemy's fleet or ship. There is no way
in which they can themselves be detected, so far as I am aware, as
there is no need to run the machinery of the submarine while lying at
rest on picket duty, and it would be impossible for a surface ship or
flying machine to detect them, providing a constant watch was kept on
the horizon or the heavens through the aeroscopes.

As the effective range of the modern Whitehead torpedo is about three
miles, no ship could pass between the submarines without passing within
torpedo range. However, a commander of a submarine would hardly take
a chance of making a hit at such great distance, and on sighting the
enemy he would leave his station and attempt to intercept her, so as
to get a shot at shorter range. If the enemy succeeded in running the
gauntlet of the outer circle it would have to pass the submarines
distributed on, say, a ten-mile radius. Three submarines would be
able to protect this radius line. A five-mile radius might also be
established with two submarines, and one located at the entrance. To
enter Sandy Hook, therefore, a ship would have to run the gauntlet of
five or six submarines without it being necessary for them to leave
their stations.

Submarines with high speed will become valuable as commerce destroyers
and for carrying on an offensive warfare. Page 32 shows a high speed,
sea-keeping, fleet submarine of the "Lake" type. Its principal
characteristics are the same as those of the coast-defence type, except
that the buoyant superstructure is increased in height sufficiently to
form living quarters for the crew when cruising in surface condition.

One of the essentials of a high-speed sea-going vessel is high-powered
machinery. A large portion of the interior of the pressure-resisting
hull, therefore, must be devoted to machinery space. The quarters would
necessarily be somewhat cramped without a buoyant superstructure, which
gives plenty of room for the crew to take exercise and secure plenty of
fresh air when off duty, even in rough water. As it is very important
to keep the physical and mental condition of the crew in a satisfactory
state, it is essential that the men be not kept in restricted quarters
for a long period of time.

This vessel is designed to carry torpedoes firing in line with the axes
of the ship both fore and aft, and carries, also, torpedo tubes in
the superstructure which may be trained to fire to either broadside.
Of course, such a vessel as this should be fitted with wireless and
sound-transmitting and detecting devices, and, to be effective, should
have a speed of at least twenty-five knots, in which case she would be
able to pursue and overtake any battle fleet that could be assembled
from existing ships in any navy in the world. Undoubtedly such
high-speed submarines will come into being within the next few years.

Congress, in 1914, appropriated money to build "fleet submarines," in
which they expressed the desire to secure twenty-five knots. A certain
amount of discretion, however, was left with the Navy Department,
which would permit them to accept boats of not less than twenty knots.
There is no difficulty in the way of making such vessels function
satisfactorily when submerged, but up to date no internal-combustion
engine has been produced suitable for such high-speed submarines, and
steam has many disadvantages in a military submarine, which should be
able to emerge and get under way at full speed after a long period of
submergence.

The tactics of the fleet submarine would be to search for and destroy
the enemy's warships or commerce carriers wherever they could be found.
A seagoing submarine of such character would also carry rapid-fire guns
of sufficient calibre to destroy surface merchantmen. Having sufficient
speed to overhaul them, they would be able to capture the merchantmen
and perhaps take them as prizes into their own ports, something which
it is impossible for the commander of the small-sized submarines now
in commission to do, as they have neither the speed to overhaul swift
merchantmen nor guns of sufficient range and power to destroy them if
they refuse to follow the instructions of the submarine commander. The
only alternative, therefore, has been to destroy the merchantmen, and,
in many cases, the crews and passengers of the merchant ships have been
destroyed as well. This latter policy, however, is much to be regretted.

From a study of the submarine problem as it stands to-day, the one
thing lacking to make the submarine sufficiently powerful to stop
commerce on the high seas between countries at war is speed. We have
seen from the foregoing that sufficient speed to accomplish this
purpose means great additional cost, and, as the engine situation
exists to-day, it may be considered that it is impossible. My own
personal opinion is that we shall not see satisfactory twenty-knot
submarines, let alone twenty-five-knot submarines, for a matter of
several years. In the meantime the people of this country, now engaged
in the gigantic conflict which is taking place across the water, are
becoming much exercised as to the possibility of some condition
arising which may bring about an attack upon our own country.

There is a method of preparing this country with a type of submarine
which may be navigated, so to speak, at much greater speed than that
called for by the 1914 Congress; namely, twenty-five knots. The boats
would have the further advantage in that they would be much less
expensive even than the fourteen-knot submarines now called for in
the latest specifications for the coast-defence type. This new method
calls for the construction of a moderate-size submarine, which, for the
want of a better term to distinguish it, I have called an "amphibious
submarine"; that is, a submarine which may be carried on land as well
as on or under the water.

[Illustration: "AMPHIBIOUS" SUBMARINE

Making up a train to ship a Lake submarine across Siberia during the
period of the Russian-Japanese war. Note the special trucks with
sixteen wheels each, used to carry the load (about 130 tons). As the
Trans-Siberian road had light rails, it was necessary to design these
special trucks to distribute the weight so as to carry this heavy load.
It is remarkable that several of these unheard-of weights should have
been transported by vessel and rail a distance of over 10,000 miles
each without accident or damage. Boats mounted on trucks especially
designed to pass through tunnels could be transported from one port
to another at railroad speed and be ready for immediate action in
defending threatened sections of the country. The Germans have since
made extensive use of this method of transporting submarines, giving
them access to the Dardanelles and other points not easily accessible
to their submarines by water.]

These submarines would be much smaller than the present coast-defence
type of submarine, and of a diameter that could pass through our
tunnels and over our bridges. They could be of about two hundred and
fifty tons submerged displacement. A railroad truck would be provided
for each submarine, with a sufficient number of wheels to carry the
load. The submarine itself would be constructed with proper scantlings
to carry her entire load of machinery, batteries, fuel, and supplies
without injury when mounted on her special trucks. Vessels of this
type, which would have a surface speed of ten to twelve knots and a
submerged speed of ten knots, would be readily constructed. They could
carry as many as eight Whitehead torpedoes and have a radius of action
on the surface of about two thousand miles at eight knots. Fitted with
telescopic, or housing, conning towers and periscopes, nothing would
need to be taken apart to ship these submarines from one section of the
country to another at railroad speed. Fifty submarines of this type
would probably be more efficient in time of need for protecting our
thousands of miles of coast line than would many times the same number
of fourteen-knot boats distributed over the same number of miles of
coast line.

In the war game no one can tell where the enemy may decide to strike
in force. An attack might be made in the vicinity of Boston, New York,
Charleston, Pensacola, New Orleans, or Galveston on the eastern coast;
it might be made at or in the vicinity of San Diego, Los Angeles, San
Francisco, or Seattle on the western coast. There should be, of course,
a certain number of the coast-defence type of submarines permanently
stationed at these ports for their protection during war-time periods.
But wars come suddenly, and the old saying that "the one who gets
in the first blow has the advantage" is a true one. The history of
recent wars shows that the declaration of war usually comes after the
first blow has been struck. It is readily conceivable, therefore, that
before we knew that we were going to become involved in war a fleet of
battleships and transports stationed off our harbors, or off a suitable
landing place on our extensive coast line, might be able to establish
a shore base before we knew it or had time to get sufficient of our
slow-going submarines at the danger point to prevent the landing of an
invading force.

If we had one hundred submarines distributed over our Atlantic and
Pacific coast lines, it would take weeks or months to mobilize many
of them at the point of attack, for the reason that a submarine, when
submerged, has such a small radius of action. The best in the service
to-day have a radius of action of about one hundred miles at five
knots, or eleven miles at ten and one-half knots, or twenty-four miles
at eight knots. The enemy, with light, shallow-draft, high-speed picket
boats, could probably make it very unsafe for a submarine to travel any
considerable distance along the coast in the daytime, or even at night,
in surface cruising condition. As it takes considerable time to charge
the batteries to enable the boat to run in a submerged condition,
should the enemy have control of the surface of the sea, the average
submerged radius to-day of a submarine would probably be less than one
hundred miles, unless it ran a grave risk of being captured while on
the surface. The chances are, therefore, that if we had one hundred
submarines distributed over our Atlantic and Pacific coast lines, not
over ten or a dozen of them would be able to reach the point of attack
in time to prevent the landing of an invading force with sufficient
men, guns, and ammunition to do a great deal of harm in some of the
thickly populated sections of the country.

[Illustration: AN AMPHIBIOUS SUBMARINE BEING HAULED OUT OF THE WATER]

If, however, the country were provided with fifty "amphibious
submarines" located at ten of our important Atlantic and Pacific
ports, they could all be mobilized at an objective point within a week.
If the government made arrangements with the railroads to run a track
down under the water at each railroad coast terminal, or to run special
tracks into the water at other suitable localities along the coast
where there would be sufficient water to float a submarine, submarines
could be rapidly mobilized to ward off a landing at any point.

To illustrate the point which I wish to make, assume that this country
should become involved in war with nations lying both to the east and
west of us. To get submarines from one coast to the other would require
a long period of time. The "amphibious submarine," on the contrary,
could in an hour's notice be run on to the tracks at New York and three
days later be run into the water at San Francisco, with her crew, fuel,
stores, and torpedoes all ready to go into action at once. A submarine
could make a trip from Boston to New York in five hours, or from Boston
to New Orleans in thirty-five hours. These boats could be built in
quantities at a cost of about $300,000 (£61,500) each. Fifty of them
could, therefore, be built at approximately the cost of one modern
battleship.

There has been much talk recently about the so-called "baby"
submarines--little one-or two-man boats. A large number of one-man
submarines were built for the Russian Government previous to 1880 by
Mons. Dzrewieckie, the well-known inventor of the Dzrewieckie type of
torpedo launching apparatus. Mr. Holland, Goubet, and practically all
inventors and builders of submarines commenced with "baby" submarines.
One of the designs which I submitted to the United States Government
in 1901 called for a one-man boat to be carried on the davits of a
battleship or cruiser. A boat of that kind might have had a place a
number of years ago when attacking vessels came near the shore. Such
small craft must necessarily have a very limited range of action
and very slow speed; they also would be unseaworthy. It would be
impossible for a man to remain submerged in a vessel of this type for a
considerable length of time, so that personally I can see very little
use for them at present.

It has been well established that submarine boats should be divided
into two classes: one a torpedo boat with as high surface and submerged
speed as it is possible to attain with a large radius of action,
capable, if possible, of exceeding battleship speed when on the
surface, so that it may intercept a battle fleet on the high seas and
submerge in its path of approach before being discovered; the second
class should consist of smaller, slower-speed, mine-evading submarines,
with torpedo and mining and countermining features. Such submarines are
essentially defensive, but if they have sufficient radius of action to
reach the enemy's harbors and to lie in wait off the entrance to such
harbors, or to enter submerged the harbors themselves and there destroy
the enemy craft, they have become potent offensive weapons of the
raiding class. For a European power it is relatively easy to give such
boats the radius necessary for them to invade an enemy's ports.

We have not pushed the consideration of the submarine of the second
class, with its anti-mine features, because we have been kept busy
trying profitably to meet the wishes of the various governments
which demand constantly increasing speeds at a sacrifice of some
characteristics which I personally regard very highly. Most government
officials have been more attracted to vessels of the first class, as
speed in all classes of vessels more than anything else seems to appeal
to the imagination, but I think it may be the old story of the tortoise
and the hare over again.

As regards the first class of submarines, the present submarine boats
engaged in the continental war consist of vessels only a few of which
have a surface speed exceeding twelve knots, or a submerged speed
exceeding ten knots for one hour or eight knots for three hours. There
may be a few in commission that exceed these speeds, but very few. Some
are in course of construction that are expected to give a surface speed
of seventeen and eighteen knots for forty hours and about eleven knots
submerged for one hour, or a slower speed for a greater number of hours.

Governments are asking for bids for submarines of greater speed, and
some have been designed which are expected to make twenty knots on the
surface; but they are not in service as yet. One reason that higher
surface speeds have not been reached is the difficulty of securing
a perfectly satisfactory high-power, heavy-oil, internal-combustion
engine, suitable for submarine boat work. As soon as a proven
satisfactory heavy-oil engine is turned out by the engine builders,
capable of delivering five thousand horsepower per shaft, submarine
boats may be built capable of making up to twenty-five knots on the
surface.

The submarine, even at its present development, has shown its
superiority over the battleship in coast operations; to intercept a
battleship at sea, however, even a high-speed submarine must lie in
wait, perhaps for days or even weeks at a time, much like a gunner in a
"blind" waiting for a flock of ducks to pass within gunshot. Because
of its relatively slow speed it would have to wait for a long time,
also, for a battleship or fleet to pass sufficiently near to be headed
off, especially if the submarine were entirely submerged, because the
moment the periscope appears above water the quarry will take to its
heels, if it follows the latest ruling of the British Admiralty, to
"steer away from the vicinity of submarines at full speed, even if it
is necessary to abandon a torpedoed sister ship and its drowning crew
to their own fate."

I believe that this apparently heartless order is justified by the
loss of the _Aboukir_, _Cressy_, and _Hogue_, the only flock of ducks,
figuratively speaking, that has come within the shot of the submarine
torpedo gunner.

The conclusion must be reached, therefore, that on the high seas
the only advantage the costly dreadnought has over the pigmy, cheap
submarine, as at present constructed, lies in its ability to run away
and to rule commerce far offshore on the high seas.

So little is known of the possibilities of submarine vessels of the
second type that it seems necessary for me to devote some time to
describing their possibilities and my experience in their construction.
In 1905, while living in Berlin, Germany, I prepared plans for a
mine-laying submarine for submission to the Russian Government, a
general description of which was published in 1906. This submarine
was designed to carry thirty-six of the regulation naval mines, which
could readily be placed in a desired locality while the submarine was
entirely submerged. A vessel of this type might be useful for either
offensive or defensive purposes. Where used for offensive purposes
the mine-laying submarine could readily, with comparatively little
danger to herself, plant mines off entrances to the enemy's harbor.
Equipped with the "mine-evading" guards, they might even work their
way into an enemy's harbor and plant mines under a vessel at anchor,
or destroy shipping lying tied up at the docks. For defensive purposes
a mine-laying submarine would be of great value, as it could readily
plant mines, even under the guns of a powerful fleet, to protect its
own entrances and harbors.

The submarine _Protector_, built in 1901 and 1902 at Bridgeport,
Connecticut, was fitted with a diving compartment which corresponds to
the mine-laying compartment of the 1905 design above referred to. The
importance of a mine-laying submarine for the defence of the country
was first officially called to the attention of the American people
by a board of officers appointed by ex-President Taft, then Secretary
of War, as early as January, 1903. This board of officers consisted
of General Arthur Murray, late chief of Coast Artillery Corps (then
Major); Captain Charles J. Bailey, and Captain Charles F. Parker, of
the Artillery Corps. The following is a copy of their recommendations
for this type of vessel for the defence of our coast:

"First and second, the board believes that this type of submarine
boat is a most valuable auxiliary to the fixed-mine defence, and
in cases where channels cannot be mined, owing to the depth,
rough water, swift tides, or width of channel, it will give the
nearest approach to absolute protection now known to the board. The
boat can lie for an indefinite time adjacent to the point to be
defended in either cruising awash, or submerged condition, by its
anchors, or on the bottom ready for instant use, and practically
independent of the state of the water and in telephonic connection
with the shore, or can patrol a mined or unmined channel invisible
to the enemy and able to discharge its torpedoes at all times. It
possesses the power of utilizing its engines in every condition
except the totally submerged, and can always charge its storage
batteries while so doing, necessitating its return to shore only
when gasolene (petrol) must be replenished. In narrow channels
the boat or boats would have a fixed position with a telephone
cable buoyed or anchored at the bottom. In wide channels they
would patrol or lie in mid-channel where they could readily meet
approaching vessels. Third, as a picket or scout boat, outside of
the mine field, or even at extreme range of gun fire, telephone
communications can be sustained and information received, and
instructions sent for attacking approaching vessels. Fourth, the
test at Newport demonstrated the ease with which the boat can
locate and pick up cables, and with minor alterations in the
present model, junction boxes, etc., can be taken into the diving
compartment and repaired at leisure while absolutely protected
from hostile interference. The faculty possessed by the boat of
manoeuvring on the bottom and sending out divers leaves little or
nothing to be desired in its facilities for doing this work.

[Illustration: THE "PROTECTOR" (LAKE TYPE, 1901-1902)]

"The boat shows great superiority over any existing means for attacking
mine-fields known to the board. First, it can be run by any field, as
at present installed, with but little or no danger from the explosion
of any particular mine or from gun fire during the few seconds it
exposes the sighting hood for observations, and can attack at its
pleasure the vessels in the harbor. Second and third, the board
personally witnessed the ease with which cables can be grappled,
raised, and cut, while the boat is manoeuvring on the bottom; mine
cables can be swept for, found and cut, or a diver can be sent out for
that purpose. The crew of the boat is a skilled one, trained for its
tests in every way likely to be requested by the Naval Board. It should
be noted that, with one exception, no seamen are used, this exception
being the man who steers and handles the boat. The crew is as follows:
One navigator, who is also a diver; one chief engineer, one assistant
engineer, one electrician, one machinist, one deck hand, and one cook.

"The board recommends consideration of the foregoing by the General
Staff. The question of the use of the Whitehead torpedoes as a
part of the fixed-mine defence, fired from tubes on shore, is now
receiving consideration. Where channels are wide and water swift,
this use of the Whitehead will be very limited. With boats of this
type the Whitehead can, it is believed, be carried within certain
effective range in all ordinary channels, and this alone will
warrant the consideration asked for.

"The board recommends, in consequence of its conclusions, that five
of these boats be purchased for use in submarine defence as follows:

"One for the School of Submarine Defence for experimental work, one
for the eastern entrance of Long Island Sound, one for the entrance
to Chesapeake Bay, one for San Francisco harbor, and one for Puget
Sound.

"The necessity for this kind of defence in the four localities
named needs no demonstration to those acquainted with them.

Arthur Murray,
"_Major, Artillery Corps, President_."

The recommendations of this board were submitted to Congress, and the
Senate passed the bill for the purchase of the _Protector_ to enable
the authorities to test out the merits of this type of boat as an
adjunct to our coast defence, but at this time it seemed as if certain
politicians and financial groups were able to control the policy of
the United States Government in its development of the submarine. The
result indicated, at least, that these influences had been sufficiently
strong to take out of the hands of the Navy Department and of the
officers connected with the Coast Artillery, who had charge of the
laying of our mines and the protection of our coast from hostile
invasion, the right to specify the kind of appliances they should use.
Instead of leaving the question of defence of our country in the hands
of the expert officers who had been trained to study the problem,
Congress in this instance specified the exclusive use of a type of boat
which did not possess the characteristics called for by these expert
students of defence.

Strange as it may seem, the opportunity of the United States to be a
leader in the development of the type of boat which Germany has proven
to be of such great value was lost by the dictation of a manufacturer
of gloves from an inland county. It is a sad commentary on our laws
that such a state of affairs could exist, but I accidentally happened
to learn that this was the case in this instance, and I fear it has
been the case in many other instances where financial and political
influences have been permitted to overrule the recommendation of
officers of the army and navy.

The _Protector_ had been built by private capital at the suggestion
of the Board of Construction of the United States Navy, at that time
composed of Admirals Melville, O'Neil, Bradford, Bowles, and Captain
Sigsbee. In 1901 I had been called to Washington by a telegram from
the late Senator Hale, who was then chairman of the Committee on Naval
Affairs in the Senate, and was asked to submit plans and specifications
for a submarine torpedo boat. Accordingly, I submitted plans for the
three types above referred to. The Board of Construction complimented
me upon the plans, and stated that they believed the plans of the
vessels I had proposed showed great superiority over any type of
vessel that had been heretofore proposed, either in this country or
abroad, but at the same they stated that all appropriations made by
Congress had specified the particular type of boat that must be used,
and the Navy Department did not have any authority to authorize the
construction of a different type. They suggested further that if I or
my friends had sufficient capital to construct such a vessel, they
would see that it had a fair trial upon its merits, and if it proved
of value to the service they would recommend its adoption, and they
did not believe that Congress would then ignore their recommendations.
Consequently the _Protector_ was built. Her performances and
capabilities for defence of the United States were strongly endorsed
by the Board of Officers which had tested her, and many of her
characteristics have been copied by all European builders of submarines.

After the Senate passed the bill authorizing her purchase, the matter
was referred to a sub-committee in the House. As the boat had been
built by private capital, and the lifetime savings of a number of
friends, as well as all my own capital, were tied up in her, I was
naturally desirous to learn if the House committee having the matter
in charge was also going to recommend her purchase. One day I called
at the committee room to inquire. There was no one present in the main
committee room, so I took a seat at the table. After sitting there for
a few moments, I heard a conversation in the chairman's room, adjoining
the general committee room. Soon the voices took on an angry tone, and
I heard one member of Congress accuse the chairman of the sub-committee
which had the matter in charge of intention to report unfavorably the
recommendations for the purchase of the _Protector_. I recognized the
voice of the gentleman who was making the accusation as that of an
old retired general. He did not use polite language in accusing the
chairman of the sub-committee of intending to defeat the purchase of
the _Protector_ in the interest of the company which had had sufficient
influence to maintain a monopoly of submarine boat construction in the
United States up to that time.

The chairman of this sub-committee did report unfavorably, and, as I
have already stated, a manufacturer of gloves from an inland section
of the country was able to defeat the recommendation for the adoption
of a means of defence for this country which the best qualified
officers in the United States service of both the army and the navy had
recommended as of great value, and superior to other defensive means
known to them at that time. It was this type of vessel which Germany
later developed and which has so far been able to keep great fleets
of almost the entire world from her shores. Recently the ex-member of
Congress referred to in this connection was sentenced to imprisonment
for attempt to defraud the government in other matters.

[Illustration: OFFICIAL DRAWING OF THE CAPTURED GERMAN MINE-PLANTING
SUBMARINE, U. C-5

Published exclusively in the _Scientific American_ by permission of the
British Admiralty and here reproduced by its courtesy.]

I am a great believer in the value of this type of vessel for harbor
and coast-defence work, and I believe that in one country vessels of
this type are now engaged as mine layers in the present war. Our own
government has to this day no submarine vessel equipped for the laying
of mines, although the Commandant of the School of Submarine Defence
repeatedly urged their adoption. I quote from the annual report of the
Commandant of Submarine Defence, 1904-1905:

"As in the case of movable torpedoes, the question of the use
of submarine boats as adjuncts to the fixed-mine defence of the
country has been under consideration by the board for the revision
of the Report of the Endicott Board during the past year, and the
Torpedo Board has been called on for remarks on this subject.

"It is now again desired to invite special attention to the
unquestionable value of submarine boats as an adjunct to fixed mine
and movable torpedoes for the defence of the particular places
named in the report of the second committee; and also to the
need of a boat of the Lake type, or similar type, at the School
of Submarine Defence for experimental work, as this is the only
submarine boat, so far as known, that can be efficiently used in
countermining electrically controlled mines. The advisability of
procuring submarine boats for the defence of the places named, it
is believed, will also be seen to be unquestionable when it is
considered that the cost of such a boat is about one-fortieth of
that of a modern battleship; that without such boats as an adjunct
to the mine and gun defences of those places a more expensive boat
of the navy will undoubtedly be called for as a home-guard for
those waters in case of war; and that with submarine boats as an
adjunct to the army's defences it will be impossible so to defend
those waters as to enable the more expensive and seagoing boats
proper of the navy to cut loose from those harbors with impunity
and go wherever naval strategy may demand.

(Signed) "ARTHUR MURRAY,
"_Lieutenant-Colonel, Artillery Corps_."

The principal means used in my mine-planting, mine-and net-evading
submarine are the bottom wheels and diving compartment which were
incorporated in my 1893 design, which also carried my pioneer features
of lateral hydroplanes to get even-keel submergence; high, water-tight
superstructure, which is indispensable for high-speed, ocean-going
submarines; anchors, and lifting and lowering sighting instruments.
Excepting the bottom wheels and diving compartment, most navies have
now incorporated these features into their submarines. Three navies
have adopted the bottom wheels, etc. These mine-evading craft are able
to enter the enemy's own territory with impunity and destroy their
merchant ships and warships in their own harbors. The _Niger_ was sunk
at Deal by a German submarine which is reported to have passed through
a mine field.

[Illustration: A BOTTOM-CREEPING SUBMARINE PASSING THROUGH A MINE FIELD

Courtesy of the Scientific American

Fitted with guards and gently pushing aside the cables which anchor
the buoyant mines, the bottom-creeping submarine can proceed slowly
and cautiously over the bottom and pass through a mine field with
impunity.]

The necessity of such features as bottom wheels and diving compartment
is now being brought out in the present war. I believe the mining
and countermining features must be incorporated in one type before
the submarine reaches its full development. The impotency of the
great combined English and French fleets of battleships, cruisers,
destroyers, and submarines must be galling to the people who have paid
for them by the sweat of their brows. These fleets are impotent because
the Germans will not come out from behind their mines and forts and
wage an unequal battle against superior numbers, but prudently are
sending out their submarines to destroy gradually the enemy which is
trying to blockade the German ports.

[Illustration: A MINE AND NET EVADING SUBMARINE UNDER-RUNNING A NET

Courtesy of the Scientific American

A submarine fitted with a device of this kind can readily under-run
any net; running slowly on the bottom the net may be seen through
the aquascope or felt with its advanced feelers. Even if mines are
attached, divers may cut them loose, or they may be exploded by counter
mines to make a safe passage under the nets. Surface ships attempting
to guard the nets may be sunk by torpedoes or heavy gun fire from
disappearing guns on other submarines, giving the bottom-working
submarines ample time to clear away nets and mines.]

Winston Churchill, former First Lord of the British Admiralty,
expressed the bitterness of this impotency when he said: "If they don't
come out and fight, we will go in after them and dig them out like
rats"; regrettably, the German mines and submarines stand in the way,
and are themselves taking their toll of ships.

The mine-evading submarine can enter with comparative safety through a
mine field, like a shuttle passing through the woof of cloth during the
weaving process, and I take the opportunity to explain this method of
entering harbors.

To comprehend thoroughly the safety with which this is accomplished,
it is necessary to appreciate the almost insuperable difficulty of
discovering an object like a submarine vessel when once sunk beneath
the surface of the water. There are many sunken ships containing
valuable treasures and cargoes that lie along our coast, and in most of
the harbors of the world, that have been known to have sunk within a
radius of less than a mile from some given point, but which have never
been located. Some of these vessels have been searched for for years
and never have been found. Dozens of vessels have been sunk in the
waters of the North and East Rivers and never have been located. Some
of the British and French submarines have been lost in localities well
known, but it has been impossible to locate them.

During several years of experimental work with submarine investigating
bottom conditions I have travelled many miles in the Chesapeake and
Sandy Hook bays, along the Atlantic coast and Long Island Sound, and
later in the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea; and it is a fact
that cannot be successfully disputed, technically, by any one, that
a submarine of the type recommended by the United States Army Board
may be taken into any harbor in the world entirely unseen, and remain
there, if necessary, for a month at a time, destroying shipping, docks,
and war craft deliberately and leisurely, and yet defy discovery.

My method of entering harbors or through mine fields consists
principally in providing submarine vessels with bottom wheels and other
component undisclosed details. When submerged, the vessel is given
sufficient negative buoyancy so that she will not be drifted off her
course by the currents when resting on the bottom. The vessel is what
may be termed a submarine automobile, and it may be navigated over the
bottom as readily as an automobile runs on the surface of the earth.
The submarine automobile has one great advantage over the surface type
in its ability to mount steep grades or go over obstructions, because
the vessel is so nearly buoyant that she will mount any obstruction she
can get her bow over.

My early experience proved to me that a submarine could not be
satisfactorily navigated submerged in shallow, rough water by the same
method of control as was found to be practical in deeper water, for
the reason that the vessel would pump up and down with the rise and
fall of the sea. Neither could the vessel lie at rest on the bottom,
as the lift of the ground swell in bad weather was sufficient, even
with a considerable negative buoyancy, to cause the vessel to pound
so badly that the storage battery plates would be destroyed in a few
minutes. I therefore suspended the wheels on swinging arms and applied
a cushioning cylinder. The hull of the vessel was then free to move
up and down, synchronizing with the lift of the ground swell, and at
the same time the weight of the wheels kept the submarine close to the
bottom and able to keep her position while at rest or to be navigated
over the bottom at any speed desired.

Most of our Atlantic coast, Long Island, and Chesapeake Bay water-beds
are comparatively uniform as to depths. In other countries I have
navigated over rocky bottoms filled with giant boulders. A rough bottom
limits the speed at which it is advisable to travel, but I have never
seen a bottom so rough that it could not be readily navigated.

"Lake" boats, fitted with bottom wheels, have, in a competitive test
abroad, entered landlocked and fortified harbors without discovery,
where the entrance from the sea has been through a tortuous channel.
All other vessels, except the one fitted with bottom wheels, were
discovered long before reaching the outer fortifications, because it
was necessary for them to show their periscopes to sight their way.
They struck the sides of the dredged channel, which caused them to
broach and be discovered, because they had to maintain a comparatively
high speed to be kept under control. In tests carried out in Russia
the boat fitted with bottom wheels simply wheeled along in the channel
at slow speed and stopped and backed to change course at will. The
revolutions of the bottom wheels gave the distance travelled, the
manometer gave the depth, and the compass the proper direction;
consequently, with a correct chart as to courses and depths, navigation
on the bottom in entering harbors is very much easier than on the
surface, unless the channels are well buoyed.

Most mines, as at present installed, are either of the observation
or contact type; the observation mines are fired usually from shore
stations when the enemy is seen to be over them, while the contact mine
is anchored a few feet beneath the surface and is either exploded by
contact with the surface of the vessel's bottom or by the agitation
caused by the rush of water due to the swiftly passing vessel. The
European belligerents have put out contact mines to protect their
capital ships from the submarines. The dread of these mines is holding
the submarines outside of the mined areas, and the mines are therefore
effective. None of the British vessels are fitted with bottom wheels
and diving compartments, and they must be navigated at such speed to
keep submerged control that they would explode a contact mine if either
the mine or its anchor rope were touched. This also applies to some
of my later boats, as the bottom wheels have been omitted to meet the
demand for greater speed on the surface and submerged.

I am inclined to the belief that this has been more or less of a
mistake, because the bottom-wheeled submarine can go to and dig the
enemy out of its base in addition to hunting the big surface craft of
the enemy on the high seas.

With the bottom wheels, navigation can be conducted so carefully over
the bottom that inspection of the course can be made, if desired, foot
by foot, as progress is made, and all mines can be avoided.

[Illustration: MINES PLACED UNDER SHIPS AT ANCHOR

Permission Scientific American

A submarine of the mine-planting and mine-evading type may, by means of
its periscope, range finders and direction indicators, ascertain the
exact distance and bearing of vessels at their anchorage. On securing
this exact knowledge the submarine may then be submerged to the bottom
and creep up under the anchored craft and plant a mine under her which
may be exploded by electricity after the submarine has backed a safe
distance away, or a mine might be fitted with a powerful magnet and
allowed to ascend (by the diver) until it attaches itself to the bottom
of the ship.]

The diagrammatic sketches illustrate the "Lake" method of operation in
cutting cables, evading mines, planting countermines, clearing away
mines, or passing under chains, cables, and nets that may be stretched
across the entrances of the harbors to effectively stop the progress
of surface vessels and submarines not fitted with bottom wheels.

[Illustration: SUBMARINE SUPPLY STATION

(Drawing by Robt. G. Skerrett.)

Illustrating the use of the submarine supply station, which may be
anchored on the bottom in positions known only to the commanders
of submarines, who may visit such station and renew their supplies
of fuel, foodstuffs and torpedoes. The submarine boat approaches
alongside of the supply boat, then, by utilizing the air lock, divers
may pass out of the submarine and enter into the supply boat through
its air lock compartment. A hose may be led from the fuel tanks of the
submarine to the fuel supply tanks in the submerged station, compressed
air admitted to the tanks and fuel driven from the submarine station
to the military submarine. The author's experimental cargo-carrying
submarine as tested out in 1900, proved the practicability of
transferring cargo from one submerged vessel to another submarine, all
the operations being performed under water.]

The diving compartment is another feature of submarine construction
which has been neglected by the majority of the world's naval
authorities. This device is of value not only to vessels of the type
just described, but is of general usefulness to all submarines of
whatever size or speed. A submarine crew is able by this means to go
outside the vessel while submerged and make repairs on the propellers,
periscopes, and other exterior parts without the necessity of rising
to the surface or of returning to their base. Further, it is capable
of use in such a way as to add immensely to the cruising radius of
submarines. The method by which this may be accomplished I will briefly
outline.

As matters stand now, the submarines are forced to return to their
home ports to refill their fuel tanks, to take on fresh provisions for
the men, and to replenish their exhausted ammunition and torpedoes.
Thus, even though their personnel gets relief by the boat's halting
upon the sea-bed, a cog is slipped in the matter of continued military
efficiency. Without a fresh supply of fuel oil and more food and
munitions of war the submarine is ineffective, and when her objective
is a distant one she must draw heavily upon her stores to get her there
and to carry her safely back to her revictualling base. Indeed, she may
overreach herself through her commander's desire to strike his remote
enemy and then find herself forced back to the surface and without the
means to take her home again, floating impotently upon the sea, an easy
target for attack, and certain to be sunk or captured.

These present handicaps need not be permanent ones, and there is
no more reason why a submarine should not take on fresh stores in
the open sea than a surface vessel. Indeed, a submarine should be
able to replenish her fuel tanks and to ship provisions under some
circumstances even more securely than its rivals that run upon the
water.

In short, a submarine should be capable of sinking to the sea-bed and
there, beyond the reach of its foes, of drawing new strength, so to
speak, from a suitably designed submergible supply boat. This scheme
is not at all visionary. In part it has already been done in the
past by vessels planned by me for commercial work, and there is no
inherent difficulty in modifying both the military submarine and its
revictualling consort so that they can thus function in unison for the
purpose of giving the fighting undersea boat a wider field of action.

While the torpedo-boat destroyer, the submarine's logical pursuer
to-day, is battling with wind and wave, jarring well nigh her sides
out, and hunting over the tumbling seas for elusive periscopes, the
submarine can lie in ambush upon the ocean-bed if the water be not too
deep, or at rest at any desired depth, held in suspension between the
surface and the bottom by her anchors, thus conserving her energies so
that when she does rise for a peep through her observing instrument she
can strike more certainly with all of the sinister force of her chosen
weapon of attack. She can lurk in wait for her quarry not only for one
day but for weeks at a time, especially when sand banks a hundred feet
below the surface offer the needful haven.

What I propose is to provide every seagoing submarine with one or more
mobile submersible bases of supply in the form of boats without motive
power of their own which can be towed by the military under-water boat
and sunk upon the sea-bed at convenient points where they will best
suit the purposes of the subaqueous torpedo vessel. Naturally you ask
what would happen if submarine scouts should sight a submarine towing a
convoy of this sort. Wouldn't the submarine have to desert her supply
vessels and sink alone beneath the surface? My answer is no.

Of course, this assumes that the submarine at the time is traversing
waters that are not too deep for her to go to the bottom. She would
take her tender or tenders down with her under such circumstances, for
the supply boats would be built to stand safely the test submergence
of the military submarine; that is, a depth of two hundred feet. The
question may arise as to how I can control the sinking of the crewless
consorts, holding as they would only supplies, and having none of the
operative mechanisms that constitute a necessary functional part of the
fighting undersea boat.

This is illustrated by the method with which I controlled the
submergence of a tender with which I salvaged the coal from a sunken
barge in Long Island Sound years ago. That cargo boat had tanks into
which water could be admitted from the sea, and certain of the inlet
passages were closed by means of check valves which were automatic,
seating themselves by the tension of springs. In order to submerge the
boat it was only necessary to admit water purposely and to open a valve
on the deck for the escape of the air as the water entered.

To refloat the tender after it had reached the bottom and was loaded,
a diver went from the submerged _Argonaut_ by way of the diving
compartment and attached a hose to the deck vent. This hose was then
connected to the compressed-air flasks in the submarine. The air was
blown down through the pipe into the ballast tanks and the water forced
outboard, past the check valves that yielded in that direction, but
reseated and closed themselves as soon as the air pressure stopped. In
this fashion buoyancy was reacquired and the tender rose to the surface.

Of course, the initial sinking operation required the presence of
someone in a small boat alongside the tender which I have just
described. This would not be feasible in the case of the military
supply boats I have in mind. These must be made to sink by suitable
controlling devices manipulated from within the military craft, but in
principle the cycle would not differ from that which I have outlined.

The deck valve allowing the air to escape from the tanks and the
inlets admitting sea-water could be operated by suitable electrical
mechanisms, and, once opened, the sea-water would enter and destroy the
reserve buoyancy, thus causing the tenders to sink. Again, compressed
air supplied from the submarine or compressed air carried by the supply
craft themselves could be turned on by electrical control, and the
boats brought to the surface at the will of the military commander.

The supply boats, like the fighting submarine, would have diving
compartments, but these would be arranged so that the bottom door could
be opened from the outside by divers, who, by manipulating suitable
valves, would fill the chambers with compressed air and thus permit
the door to be opened and allow entrance into the tender. An air-lock
would then facilitate a passage into the inside of the craft, where
stores would be stowed. This air-lock would have to be operated each
time materials were brought into the diving chamber for transfer to the
submarine.

The provisions and other portable supplies would be packed in metal
cylinders capable of keeping out the water at any depth in which a
diver could work safely. I should count upon carrying on this transfer
of provisions, etc., on depths of one hundred feet and less, but
deep enough to constitute a sufficient cover against detection by
aeroplanes. To facilitate disguise in clear water the tenders could be
painted mottled colors which would make them blend into the background
of the sea-bed, much after the fashion of a flounder.

These provision tanks, when loaded, would have a negative buoyancy of
only a few pounds, just enough to make them sink, and a diver would
have no trouble in either carrying or dragging one of them from the
tender to the open diving compartment of the submarine. Only food,
drinking water, the ammunition for guns, and the disjointed sections
of torpedoes need to be transported in this way. Fuel oil for the
engines, and even lubricating oil, could be sent from the tender to the
submarine in a very simple manner. The outboard connection of the oil
tanks of the supply craft would have hose joined to them leading to
the fuel tanks of the submarine, and the contents could be transferred
simply by pumping them across.

The supply boats should have fenders in the shape of long metal rods
reaching out from the bow and the stern and both sides. These would
give the tenders the appearance of gigantic water-bugs, but they serve
to form smooth surfaces over which the loop of a mine sweeper would
glide freely without encountering any projections to which it could
cling. Thus, while the mine sweeper could certainly pick up a floating
mine, it would pass without warning over a submerged supply base
capable of holding stuff sufficient to keep a submarine going for weeks
without return to her home port.

With such a system of revictualling, submarines should be able to
operate secretly for long periods and virtually hold to the sea during
the entire time, doing in that interval what would be absolutely
impossible for any type of surface fighting craft of kindred
displacement and military power. The submarine commander would be the
only one having knowledge of the position of his submerged supply
bases, and he could place them under cover of night just where they
would contribute best to the carrying out of the operations planned for
him.

[Illustration: SUBMARINE "SEAL"--LAKE TYPE U. S.

This vessel is unique in that she was the first vessel built that
was provided with deck torpedo tubes that could be trained and fired
to either broadside when the vessel is submerged, in addition to the
vessel's hull tubes. In her acceptance trials her crew took her down to
a depth of 256 ft. She broke the record for speed in the U. S. Navy.]

On almost every coast there are areas where submarines could sink
safely to the bottom in moderate depths of water, and there are also
quiet coves but little frequented where ideal resting places could be
found for the submerged supply boats. With these failing, however, the
tenders could be sunk to the water-bed in the open sea, and with their
bottom wheels to rest on, working upon pneumatic buffers, they need not
feel any vertical motion of the sea even in the stormiest weather. I
have found that such motion actually exists forty feet and more below
the surface when the ground swell is deep.

[Illustration: BRITISH SUBMARINE B-1 (HOLLAND TYPE)

A sister ship to B-11, that sank the Turkish battleship "Messudieh" in
the Dardanelles.]

Of course, the submarine must rise to the surface from time to time
in order to draw in fresh air to fill her pressure tanks and also to
recharge her storage batteries. The electrical accumulators are charged
by means of the oil motors, and these engines are so greedy for air
that they must have the free atmosphere to draw upon when working.
Therefore the submarine would rise to the surface to perform these
services during the night time, and boats seeking submarines after
dark have a task cut out for them pretty much like that of hunting for
the proverbial needle in a haystack. If the commander of a submarine
recognizes that the first principle of successful submarine raiding
is never to betray his position by exposing his periscope while under
way when within sight of the enemy, his vessel becomes invulnerable,
because it is an invisible object. The submarine vessel is then
invincible, because all the science of naval architecture has not been
able thus far to devise a protection against the mine and torpedo.

CHAPTER VI

THE POSSIBILITY OF DEFEATING THE SUBMARINE

In the present European war, for the first time in the world's history,
the submarine, as is also the case with the airplane, has taken an
important active part, and has become a weapon of unlimited value. We
have seen that even as early as the war of the American Revolution the
submarine was utilized, but up to modern days the submarine had never
been a really significant or consequential factor in naval warfare;
its use had been previously but sporadic and experimental. In the wars
of the past it had no bearing upon the destinies of nations or the
outcome of naval battles. To-day the situation is very different: the
submarine has been called into action as a weapon of primary value and
is producing tremendous results.

In the conflict in which we are now engaged the destructive
capabilities of the submarine have been made use of, for the most
part, in the work of commerce destruction and in the task of hampering
communication by sea. It has not taken a great deal of active part
in actual naval battles, although on some occasions its presence has
been severely felt by the fleets of its enemies. But the submarine
has been an important factor in naval warfare by reason of the fact
that its very presence and the possibility of its use have checked the
actions of belligerent fleets of battleships in no inconsiderable way.
In writing of this I am reminded of the fact that a short time ago I
was introduced to a pleasant-faced, motherly old lady who, when she
learned that I was an inventor of submarine boats, exclaimed, "Why! I
should not think you could sleep nights from thinking of all those poor
people who have been drowned by the U-boats!"

I asked the old lady if she had ever considered the submarine from
another angle of view--viz., as a life and property saver in the
present war--and she said, "No; how could that be possible?" I then
explained to her that had it not been for the existence of the
submarines many more lives would have been sacrificed than have been
lost by the use of submarines. I asked her to consider what would
have been the loss of life if the battleships, cruisers, gunboats,
destroyers, etc., had met on the high seas and fought as they were
intended to fight. A submarine carries a crew of but a few men, while
a battleship may carry a thousand, consequently thousands of men would
have been killed in the old-time methods of fighting, compared with the
few that have been killed in the submarine warfare. Then again, had it
not been for the submarines lying off Russia's, Germany's, England's,
France's, Italy's, Austria's, and even Turkey's shores, many seacoast
cities, towns, and hamlets would undoubtedly have been bombarded and
destroyed, and countless thousands of lives and enormous property
valuations lost forever to the world; for one must remember that a
life, or a property once erected by hands that are gone, if lost, can
never be economically replaced. The only reason such bombardments have
not occurred is the fleet commander's fear of that waiting, watching
invisible sentinel, the submarine, which lies off the respective
combatants' shores; and thus because of its existence thousands of
lives and great property valuations have been saved. Thus, while the
submarine has not been much of a fighter in naval battles, it has, in
my opinion, been of great power as a preventer of fighting, and that,
after all, is rather more in its favor than against it.

It is, however, the submarine in the role of commerce destroyer which
is attracting attention at the present time. The democratic nations
of the world are face to face with the problem of transporting men,
food, ammunition, and supplies to Europe. The submarine threatens to
cut off communication between Europe and the other continents. It is
very necessary that means be taken to offset the activities of the
submarine. It is this problem which leads me to write upon this topic.

[Illustration: BRITISH SUBMARINE C-2 ARRIVING AT PORTSMOUTH IN A GALE

Note hydroplanes at centre of conning tower; in later types these
were placed under the water, as they were found ineffective in this
position]

The devices which have been proposed for capturing and destroying the
U-boats in order that navigation upon the Atlantic Ocean may be made
safe have run into the thousands. I have had hundreds of impractical
schemes sent to me, and the Navy Department and the Naval Consulting
Board have been almost swamped by the various suggestions that have
been pouring in from all over the country in response to editorials
in the newspapers to "Save us from the U-boat!"; "American inventors,
rise in your might and strike down this peril which works unseen, like
an assassin in the dark!" etc. The devices proposed run all the way
from blowing up the whole restricted area or war zone of the ocean to
fishing for submarines from aeroplanes, which latter method offers a
good chance for sport, at least; and if the submarine designers and
commanders were asleep the fishermen might have a good chance of making
a catch. Many of my engineering friends with whom I have discussed
the U-boat problem have urged upon me that I ought, in order to
save the time, energy, and money of many earnest and patriotic--but
misinformed--citizens, to publish some material showing the fallacies
in many of these schemes which apparently are so promising, and at the
same time to point out wherein some have value, and along what lines I
believe success to be attainable.

At the beginning of the war I myself sent to the Navy Department
a number of devices for detecting the presence of and destroying
submarines in shoal waters, some of which may have already been
known to the Navy Department, and several of which I have since seen
published as being the ideas of others; this goes to show that where
many minds are working toward the solution of any particular problem
several are likely to arrive at the same point. In the interest of
public policy I do not think that any device hitherto unknown which
offers a chance of success if used against an enemy U-boat should be
described, and therefore I should not describe any such device if such
were known, but shall limit my remarks to a discussion of some of the
devices that have been proposed and described publicly. Trying to serve
the country by developing a certain idea, when that idea is itself
old or impractical, is evidently a waste of mental energy and money.
Further, to show how some of these methods of attack may be offset by
the submarine commanders will also serve to prevent the country from
relying on false defences; the submarine is a real menace, and should
not be lightly regarded. I hope to impress upon people that this is a
very serious proposition. It is a problem which should and does attract
the leading minds of the mechanical world; and it is not to be coped
with by any fanciful notions. While the devices proposed thus far are
individually very numerous, they may be classified into a few distinct
categories. I would designate them as follows:

_Offensive Devices:_

I. Airplanes and dirigibles for the location and destruction
of submarines.

(_a_) By bomb attacks.

(_b_) By directing surface boats to the attack of
sub-vessels.

II. Offensive appliances for use of surface vessels:

Sound detectors.
Submerged mines operated from shore stations.
Deck guns.
Under-water guns.
Aerial torpedoes.
Searchlights.
Echo devices.
Magnetic devices for locating and destroying submarines.

III. Channel and open-sea nets.

IV. Submarine vs. submarine.

_Defensive Devices:_

I. To be installed on surface vessels to baffle and elude submarines:

Sound detectors (spoken of above).
Blinding searchlights.
Blinding apparatus.

II. To offset torpedo attack:

Nets.
Plates.
Magnets.
Bombs.
Discs.

III. Unsinkable ships.

IV. Tactics to elude the submarine:

Convoying a merchant fleet.
Zigzag course.
Smoke screen.
Cargo submarine.
High speed.

In considering the practicability or value of these devices, we must
first consider the capabilities of the submarine and the proper tactics
for her commander to pursue. In a paper read before the Institution
of Naval Architects in London, in 1905, I described, illustrated by
diagrams, the proper method to be pursued in attacking a surface ship,
in which I contended that the commander of a submarine, on sighting an
enemy, should always keep the hull of his own boat below the horizon in
its relation to the enemy vessel, and try to intercept the approaching
vessel by taking frequent observations of her course and speed. When
the two vessels approach sufficiently near to make it possible for the
larger surface vessel to observe the smaller submarine (the comparative
range of visibility being proportionate to the exposed surfaces of the
two vessels above the horizon), the submarine should then entirely
submerge, with her telescopic periscope withdrawn below the surface of
the water to avoid the making of a "wake"--which looks like a white
streak on the water. When the commander wishes to make an observation
he should first bring his submarine to rest and then extend the
periscope above the surface for a brief instant only, and thus avoid
the chance of being seen. Earlier in the war it was common to detect
the submarine by her wake, but now, since the fitting of merchantmen
with guns, the above tactics are usually pursued, and the first
intimation the crew has of the presence of the submarine is the shock
of the explosion caused by the torpedo "striking home."

[Illustration: GERMANY'S U-9 AND SOME OF HER SISTER SUBMARINES]

[Illustration: AEROPLANE AND SUBMARINE

(Drawing by T. E. Lake.)

For defense of coast lines aeroplanes and submarines may work in
conjunction. Aeroplanes, with their enormous range and high speed can
locate surface ships many miles away, beyond the range of a submarine's
periscope or sound-detecting devices. It could then direct the
submarine by wireless or direct communication. Aeroplanes, however, are
of great danger to enemy submarines. Flying at certain altitudes they
can see submarines a short distance below the water and swoop down on
them, dropping depth bombs or trailing torpedoes.]

=Aeroplanes and Dirigibles.=--These are undoubtedly valuable near land
in shallow water, _providing_ the water is clear and has a bottom in
striking contrast to the hull of the submarine. I should consider
the dirigible likely to prove of more value than the aeroplane,
owing to its ability to hover directly over and regulate its speed
to that of the submarine and thus enable itself to drop depth bombs
more accurately. Experience has shown that it is almost impossible to
calculate where a bomb will strike when dropped from a swiftly moving
aeroplane. The chance of its striking the submarine would be very
slight. The use of aeroplanes has, however, forced the submarines away
from shoal clear water and probably has been instrumental, also, in
causing them to become equipped with high-angle rapid-firing guns.
In a battle between swiftly moving aeroplanes and submarines with
high-powered guns firing shrapnel, the chances are nearly all in favor
of the submarine, as they can carry the most powerful guns and are
firing from a much more stable platform; in fact, the best analogy
I can think of is that of a gunner in a "blind" firing at a flock
of ducks passing overhead. Aeroplanes have been used, however, as
scouts, merely to detect a submarine and direct surface ships to the
attack; also, aeroplanes have directed trawlers to a submarine lying
submerged at a shallow depth. This method of attack has undoubtedly
been successful in some instances, but where success might have been
met with in this manner with the earlier submarine boats, which were
not provided with guns, it is now a problem easily met by submarine
architects. Submarine boats may be built which have no fear of this
combination. One of my earliest designs provided for a revolving
armored turret to carry heavy-calibre guns; this revolvable armored
turret would extend only above the surface and would carry guns of
sufficient calibre to sink any trawler, destroyer, or other craft
except an armored ship. It has recently been reported that the Germans
are bringing out ships fitted with turrets of this type, and as they
are familiar with my designs from the Patent Office specifications,
and also have my working drawings of a large cruiser submarine mounted
with guns, in 1905, I have no doubt that the report is true, as they
have consistently been the first to adopt such new devices as may be
needed to offset any attack against their submarines, or to increase
their means of offence against surface craft without relying upon
torpedoes alone. As far back as 1902 the _Protector_ was fitted with a
small gun on top of her conning tower, with the breech extended into
the sighting hood and a tampon controlled from within the turret for
closing the muzzle, so that no water would enter the barrel when the
vessel was submerged, thus permitting a new cartridge and shell to be
inserted into the breech when submerged; then, by momentarily bringing
the conning tower above the surface, we could fire, then submerge and
reload, rest and fire again, etc., thus providing a disappearing gun on
a very stable platform.

In deep water the submarine may readily escape detection by aeroplanes
by sinking below the depth to which vision can penetrate. This depends
upon the amount of foreign substance held in suspension in the water.
Along the Atlantic coast it is possible to see only a few feet; as you
go off shore vision becomes clearer, and it would probably vary during
the dry seasons from four to five feet near shore to forty or fifty
feet well off shore. The greatest distance I was ever able to see in
my experiments in the Chesapeake Bay with a powerful searchlight was
forty feet. In Long Island Sound one can seldom see over fifteen feet,
and after storms, when sediment is carried into the Sound, sometimes
it is difficult to see over three or four feet. I have been down on
muddy bottom at a depth of one hundred feet and could not see my hand
held close to my face. At a depth of one hundred and twenty-five feet
in the Baltic on sandy bottom I was able to see twenty-five feet.
This was about eight miles off shore, opposite Libau, Russia. In the
English Channel the frequent storms stir up so much sediment that it is
seldom possible to see over fifteen feet, while in the Mediterranean
and our Southern waters near the Florida coast, near Nassau, and in
the Caribbean Sea, it is possible at times to see seventy-five or even
one hundred feet. Now there are means available to the submarine to
enable it to lie at rest submerged at depths exceeding one hundred
feet, and yet have a full view of surface ships and also to scan
the heavens, therefore I would say that aeroplanes and dirigibles
will prove ineffective against submarines fitted with revolvable
turrets, high-angle firing guns, or where they may be operating in
clear water exceeding one hundred feet in depth or in shallow water
where the sediment held in suspension is in sufficient quantity to
prevent discovery. Aviators with whom I have discussed this problem
tell me they can seldom detect objects lying on the bottom, even in
comparatively shallow water.

[Illustration: RUSSIAN CRUISER-LAKE TYPE SUBMARINE IN SHED BUILT BY
PETER THE GREAT--1905

This was the first large submarine of the cruiser type, built
substantially after the design submitted by the author to the U. S.
Navy in 1901.]

=Sound Detectors.=--We have heard many claims put forth concerning the
great results which were to be attained in fighting the U-boat by the
use of various sound-receiving devices in the nature of microphones, in
detecting the presence of submarines by hearing the hum of the motors
and the noise of their machinery. These devices are proposed both for
offensive and defensive purposes. A vessel equipped with such mechanism
is believed to be able to escape upon hearing a U-boat, or to seek out
the submarine and destroy it. Those who have been expecting so much
from this source are probably not aware of the fact that submarine
inventors themselves were the first to utilize this method of sound
detection under water to enable them to apprehend the presence of other
vessels in their vicinity before coming to the surface; they have made
use of such devices for years.

I well remember my first long submergence of ten hours' duration down
at Hampton Roads, near the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, July 28, 1898.
During this period of submergence the machinery was shut down for a
time, and one of the first sensations we experienced was the strange
sounds which came to us of the propellers and paddle-wheels of surface
vessels passing in our vicinity. The first vessel that we heard was a
tugboat; we could tell that by the sound of her puffing exhaust and
the characteristic sound of her machinery. We thought at first she was
coming right over where we were submerged, and feared she might carry
away our masts, which extended above the surface, but she passed on,
and then we heard coming at a distance the uneven and characteristic
sound of a paddle-wheel steamer as her paddles slapped the surface of
the water. Then we heard the slow, heavy pound of an ocean liner coming
in, and knew that she had a loose crank-pin or cross-head bearing by
the pound every time the crank-pin passed over the dead centre of its
shaft. The click, click of the little high-speed launch was also easily
detected--all this without any sound receiver on the vessel. Any of
us simply sitting or standing anywhere in the submarine could hear
outside sounds. By putting the head of an iron bolt against the skin
of the ship and sticking the end of the bolt in my ear the sound was
much intensified, as the whole steel fabric of the ship became a great
sound collector. This led me to make experiments toward determining
the direction of the sounds under water, and I applied for a patent on
a device which could be swung in different directions, on the theory
that the sound waves would be stronger when coming straight from their
source, but shortly after this the experiments of Professor Gray and
Messrs. Munday and Millett were published and I dropped my application
and did nothing further in the matter, as they seemed to have solved
the question in a satisfactory manner. Afterward Professor Fessenden
brought out his oscillator and improved sound detector, with which it
is possible for submarines to carry on wireless conversations under
water when at a distance of several hundred feet apart, and to pick
up the characteristic sounds of different types of surface ships at
considerable distances. Sound detectors are of greater benefit to
submarines lying in wait for their enemies than they are to surface
vessels, as they enable the submarine to lie at rest, submerged and
invisible, herself giving no betraying sound, while no surface ship
can come within the zone of her receiving apparatus without betraying
its presence.

=Submerged Sound Detectors.=--It has been stated that sound detectors
connected to shore stations have been able to detect submarines
when passing in their vicinity, and, by the triangulation method as
applied to the intensity of sounds, observers have been able to tell
approximately the location of the U-boat from the sound of the U-boat's
machinery. The obvious thing for submarine designers and commanders to
do to offset this danger to the submarine is to use noiseless machinery
in the U-boats, or to send other U-boats with a wire-cutting grapnel to
cut the shore connections of the sound transmitter. It is apparent that
this method of attack is applicable only to points close to shore or in
places like the English Channel.

[Illustration: A GROUP OF GERMAN U-BOATS

Note their broad decks, due to buoyant superstructure.]

[Illustration: RUSSIAN-LAKE TYPE CRUISING SUBMARINE "KAIMAN" MAKING A
SURFACE RUN IN ROUGH WEATHER IN THE GULF OF FINLAND]

=Deck Guns.=--The mounting of deck guns on merchantmen for defence
against the submarine has proved of slight value. When it was first
proposed to mount guns on American merchant ships I wrote the Navy
Department on March 11, 1917, in part as follows: "I have tried, in
the interest of this country, to impress this fact upon the people
(that the submarine, because it is invisible, is invincible), but
I find in talking with many intelligent people, that they do not
and cannot comprehend the possibilities of the submarine when it is
taken seriously and the effort is made to get all there is out of it,
without reference to political, financial, or prejudiced interests.
The _destructiveness_ of the submarine is growing; devices which were
effective in detecting and trapping submarines early in the war are
now becoming useless. The theory that putting a gun on a merchant ship
is going to protect that ship, her crew and passengers, will, I fear,
be equal to the signing of the death-warrant of all that are on that
ship if we are at war, as the slogan in to-day's headlines (as per copy
clipping enclosed)--'Sink any ship you see'--will be met, I fear, by
a German slogan of 'Sink every ship you meet, but don't let them _see
you_ do it.'"

Since that time many ships fully equipped with arms have been sunk by
torpedoes and have never seen the submarines which destroyed them.
There is no way to attack submarines by gun fire unless they are seen,
and commanders of submarines are becoming expert in concealing their
presence.

=Submarine Guns, Aerial Torpedoes, Searchlights.=--For an under-water
gun to be effective, there must first be discovered some way to locate
the target; this, of course, is almost impossible. Aerial torpedoes or
depth bombs might be effective if the submarine were seen, but it is
the business of the submarine commander to keep out of sight. Powerful
searchlights have very little chance of picking up the periscope or
conning tower of a submarine. I remember lying all one night in the
_Argonaut_, during a storm, at the outer edge of the mine fields off
Fortress Monroe, at the time the whole country was in dread of an
invasion by Cervera's fleet during the Spanish-American War. We were in
forbidden territory, having been delayed by the storm in getting into
harbor before "Curfew" rang, so to speak. The powerful searchlights of
Fortress Monroe were playing all night, but they did not detect our
presence, as only our sighting hood was above water, and presented such
a small object, and being painted white, it was not distinguished from
the "white caps" on top of the sea caused by the storm.

Searchlights under water are useless because of the particles of
foreign matter held in suspension which reflect back the glare of
the light. The _Argonaut_ was fitted with powerful searchlights and
reflectors located in her extreme bow, with a pilot-house or lookout
just above the three searchlight windows. The greatest distance we were
ever able to see was during some night experiments in the Chesapeake
Bay during a long dry spell, when the sediment had had an opportunity
to settle, and that was only forty feet. The light would penetrate
through the water several hundred feet and make a glow on the surface,
but vision could not penetrate the water. For instance, it is said that
after a storm a glass of Mississippi River water will show fully an
inch of sediment. To see through three or four inches of that kind of
water, therefore, one must see through an inch of mud. It is well known
that no light has yet been found that will enable vision to penetrate
through a heavy fog, due to the reflection of light upon the minute
crystals of water held in suspension in the air. It appears hopeless,
therefore, to expect vision to locate submarines by seeing through the
opaque substance held in suspension in all water.

=Echo and Magnetic Devices.=--Locating submarines by echo has been
proposed, but apparently without thought as to what would happen to
the vessel giving out the sound in the effort to get an echo back
from a submerged submarine, lying in wait with her "ears" waiting to
hear some suspicious sound. Also, magnetic devices for the purpose of
detecting submarines, if ever found practical, will probably be kept
so busy leading their operators to and investigating large steel ships
that have already been sunk by submarines that they will probably
miss the little submarine, which can easily sink them while they are
investigating these other sunken ships.

=Channel and Open-sea Nets.=--These have been and are being used with
some success, but that success has been attained only because at the
beginning of the war the submarines had no means for determining the
presence of the nets before becoming entangled in their meshes, and
when they once became entangled they had no means to cut themselves
loose. Devices are now available which enable the commander of a
submarine to locate a net before reaching it, and to destroy that net
and all its attached mines with but little danger to his own vessel. To
what extent these devices are being used is unknown. However, when the
submarine is not especially fitted for the detection and destruction of
nets and attached mines, they are probably the most efficient type of
trap yet provided for capturing and destroying these "submarine devil
fish." The _Scientific American_ published an article by me in 1915
describing a submarine fitted with mine-evading devices and meant to
under-run nets, which has been reproduced in the previous chapter.

[Illustration: THE U-65

Photograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood

One of the large German U-boats fitted with deck guns hailing a Spanish
merchantman which they have held up.]

[Illustration: RUSSIAN-LAKE TYPE

These vessels are powerfully armed, fitted with four torpedo tubes
firing fore and aft, also Dzrewiecke apparatus for firing torpedoes to
either broadside.]

The above articles having been published previous to our country
entering the war, and being thus of public knowledge, it is permissible
to republish them as a method which might be used to advantage in
preventing the German submarines from coming out from their bases. It
is admitted that the allied fleets are overwhelmingly superior to the
German fleet, yet they are impotent to attack the German battle fleet
or to make reprisals on Germany for the constant depletion of their
merchant fleet, because Germany's fleet of battleships, cruisers, and
merchantmen will not come out in the open, but lies safe behind nets
and mine fields as their inner defence, using her submarines on her
outer line of defence. As mentioned, Winston Churchill said we must
"dig them out like rats out of a hole." That was over three years ago,
but not one has been dug out as yet, and, although it would be a very
expensive process to do so, it might be possible, by the coöperation of
submarines, surface ships, trawlers, and aeroplanes, to move forward
gradually and expansively a double or treble line of nets and to defend
such a line of nets just outside of the range of the most powerful
shore-defence guns. The battleships should be protected by operating
between the line of nets to prevent attack upon them by submarines in
the rear. Bottom-working submarines would be needed to clear away the
mines and nets of the enemy as the mines and nets were moved forward.
Constant patrol and repair of the nets would be maintained under the
guns of the net-protected fleet, and allied submarines must be on
constant attendance in advance of the first line of nets to meet the
concerted attack of a portion of the German fleet in "rushing" the
line--which must be expected in the attempt to break the same--in order
to let out a fleet of their submarines into the open sea to continue
their attacks on the allied and neutral commerce of the world. This
seems to me the only practical way of stopping up the hole or holes
through which the German submarines come out, and to make it effective
it would require a double line of nets and patrol fleets extending
from Norway to Scotland, and across the English Channel, and across
the entrance to the Dardanelles from Brindisi, Italy, to the Albanian
coast. Also, battleships which should be unsinkable and provided with
longer-range guns than those of the enemy would be required. Perhaps
the combined navies of the world as arrayed against the Central Powers
could accomplish it, but unless their guns were more powerful and
far-reaching than the shore guns, even then they could not land an
invading army.

=Submarines vs. Submarines.=--Submarines to search for and sink other
submarines have been proposed in all sorts of forms and advocated in
the press under various titles, such as the "Bloodhounds of the Sea"
and other fantastic and sensational captions. Submarines cannot fight
submarines, because they cannot see each other, and if they are fitted
with noiseless machinery they cannot hear each other. Therefore one
might put thousands of submarines in the great ocean, and so long as
they kept submerged the chance of their ever finding or colliding with
one another would probably be not once in a year.

Derelicts have been known to keep afloat on the ocean for years,
although constantly searched for as a menace to navigation. Here the
searchers have had sight to aid them, and the object of their search
has floated on one plane, the surface of the water, while submarines
may navigate or remain at rest at various planes up to a depth of about
two hundred feet, which is equivalent to multiplying the area of the
ocean to be searched several times, and that in darkness, without the
aid of sight to assist. It is ridiculous to think that anything can be
accomplished except by the merest chance by one submarine searching for
another.

Our attention will now turn to consideration of devices of the second
class; namely, those which have been offered as a means of defence
against the submarine.

=Blinding Searchlight; Blinding Apparatus.=--_Blinding devices_ have
been proposed which aim to direct powerful searchlights against the
periscope so as to blind the commander. These are schemes based on
very false notions. Submarine commanders frequently have to con their
ship against the sun's rays, and have colored glasses to enable them
to withstand the intensity of the sun's rays, so that it would be
impossible to blind them this way. Further, I cannot imagine a more
desirable target for a commander to direct his torpedoes against
than a bright spot, either on the surface or submerged, as he knows
the searchlight is probably on what he wants to hit; it becomes an
illuminated bull's-eye for his target. Again, it has been proposed to
blind the periscope by putting a film of oil on the surface to obscure
the object glass of the periscope when it emerges through this oil,
and a member of one of the British commissions told me he knew of
shiploads of oil being pumped overboard, possibly for this purpose, or
to show the course of a periscope through its "slick." Some periscopes
have been built with means for squirting alcohol, gasoline, or other
substances to clear the object glass if ice or salt forms on it. A
device of this kind would clear off the oil.

=Nets; Plates.=--There have been many devices proposed for warding off
the torpedoes, the usual weapon of the submarine. The most common of
these schemes designate the use of nets or plates suspended from booms
carried out from the sides of the ship and extending down into the
water. Any device of this kind seriously handicaps the ship's speed,
and, if she is once sighted by a submarine, is almost sure to be come
up with and attacked. Plates, to be effective against a broadside
attack, would need to be the full length and extend to the full depth
of the ship. Now, skin friction of a ship's plating is the principal
resistance to be overcome in forcing a ship through the water up to
speeds of about ten knots, the average speed of the cargo-carrying
ship. If you increase the speed beyond ten knots, other resistances
come more prominently into effect, such as wave-making resistance, etc.
Now a ship afloat has two sides, while a plate suspended in the water
equal to the length and depth of the ship also must have two sides,
and thus presents nearly the same square feet of plate surface to the
friction of the passing waters as the two sides of the ship, and two
plates, one on each side, present nearly twice the area and thus very
materially reduce the speed. This resistance is further augmented by
the roll and pitch of the vessel, and in a severe storm the plates
would be unmanageable and of great danger to the ship itself. The
resistance of nets with its vertical members is much greater than that
of plates. To get some idea of what the resistance of a vertical rod
extending down into the water is, take a broom handle and attempt to
hold it vertical when it is extended down into the water from a launch
running at about ten knots; it is almost impossible to hold it. A net
with a mesh fine enough to catch a torpedo would consist of thousands
of vertical members as well as horizontal members extending down into
the water.

I have been informed by one naval architect of standing who
investigated this phase of the problem that nets of sufficient strength
to protect the sides of a ten-knot ship from a torpedo attack cut the
speed of the ship from ten knots down to two and one-half knots per
hour. It would therefore take a ship protected in this way four times
as long to make her voyage; her chance of discovery would therefore be
four times as great and her chance of destruction, if once discovered,
be almost certain, as a submarine could readily overtake her and
plant mines in her course or even tow a mine underneath her bottom and
explode it there, which would destroy the ship much more completely and
quickly than a Whitehead torpedo exploded against her side. Devices
have also been developed which enable a torpedo to dive under a net and
explode under a ship's bottom by a slightly delayed detonator.

Torpedoes have also been built with net-cutting devices, and they have
been known to penetrate a ship's plating and sink the vessel without
exploding. It is not an easy matter to stop a projectile weighing
nearly a ton speeding at thirty-five or forty miles an hour. I can see
no hope in stopping the submarine menace by any device in this class.

=Magnets.=--Some proposals have been made to divert the torpedo by
powerful magnets extended out beyond the sides of the ship or at the
ends--on the theory, I suppose, of fishing for little fish in a pan
of water--the Whitehead torpedo being built of steel in this country
and England. It is not generally known that the Schwartzkopf torpedo
built by the Germans is built of bronze, or at least it was when I went
through their works in Berlin several years ago. Even were it of steel,
I doubt if a magnet could be built powerful enough to attract or divert
a Whitehead steel torpedo from its course unless it passed very close
to the magnet, as any artificially erected magnetic force diminishes
in strength very rapidly as the distance from the object is increased.
Recall, for instance, the powerful magnets used in handling scrap and
pig iron; while they will lift pigs or billets of iron weighing tons
when in direct contact, they will not exert sufficient magnetic force
to lift any iron at a distance of only a few inches.

=Bombs.=--The throwing of bombs in the water to intercept the oncoming
torpedo might possibly divert its course if the torpedo were seen, but
of all the ships that have been lost how few have seen the torpedo
which did the damage! The white wake due to the air exhausted from the
engines of the torpedo is frequently seen, but the air wake does not
show on the surface from a torpedo running at any considerable depth
until after the torpedo itself has passed on, as it takes quite some
time for the air bubbles to reach the surface, and in a choppy sea the
wake is very difficult to see in any case.

=Discs.=--Whirling discs spinning through the water to catch the nose
of the torpedo and whirl it out of its course is one of the fanciful
schemes which has attracted some press notice. The horsepower required
to whirl the discs during one voyage would probably tax the full
capacity of the ship to provide fuel and power enough to keep them
whirling.

[Illustration: C-1, ONE OF THE LATER TYPE FRENCH SUBMARINES

French-Official

Courtesy of Sea Power & Pictorial Press]

=Unsinkable Ships.=--Unsinkable ships are possibly practical to a
limited extent. Numerous proposals of ship construction along this line
have been made, mostly of ships built up on the cellular system. Some
proposals have also been made for carrying the cargo in hermetically
sealed tanks that would assist in floating the ship if she were
torpedoed. The objections to the construction of vessels of this class
are its enormously increased cost over the ordinary cargo ship, the
reduced carrying capacity per ton of displacement of such vessels,
and the impossibility of preventing injury to ships of this sort to
such an extent as to make them unmanageable. Any surface ship, to meet
fully the submarine menace, must be not only _unsinkable, but it must
also be indestructible_. When a ship once becomes unmanageable and
incapable of getting away, a powerful mine or mines may be placed at
considerable depth under her bottom and the whole fabric blown up into
the air.

[Illustration: CARGO-CARRYING SUBMARINES OF THE AUTHOR'S DESIGN

They will carry 7500 tons of cargo on a surface displacement of 11,500
tons; their submerged displacement is about 13,500 tons.]

=Convoys.=--Convoying a merchant fleet offers perhaps some safety to
the individuals on the ships in case some of them are lost, but I
cannot see that it offers much protection to the fleet as a whole, as
the speed of the fleet is limited to that of the slowest ship, and the
smoke or appearance of the leading ships are more apt to give a waiting
slow-speed submarine time to catch up with the tail end of the fleet.
If it came to a gun fight the fleet might have the advantage, but in
experimental work I have frequently run in amidst a fleet of ships,
and their first knowledge of my presence was when the periscope was
extended above the surface. As it is only necessary to extend this for
a period of a few seconds' duration to get the range and bearing of
one of the ships to aim the torpedo, the chance of a gunner getting
the range and hitting the periscope is very slight, and, even if the
periscope were destroyed, it is easy to replace it with a spare one.

=Smoke Screens.=--To hide vessels in clouds of smoke so as to avoid
being seen by submarines has been proposed as a method for eluding the
U-boats. This procedure would really assist submarine commanders in
their search for prey, for the smoke would notify them of the presence
of vessels far below the horizon, whose location and course they would
otherwise not be aware of. They have a term in the British navy called
"firing into the Brown," which means firing at a group of vessels,
expecting that a certain percentage of hits will be made, depending on
how close a formation of ships is being kept; firing into the "smoke"
would be apt to get some. Smoke screens can be used effectively only
when the wind happens to be proportionate to the speed of the ships and
blowing in the right direction. With a head wind or a strong side wind
some of the vessels forming the convoy are sure to be exposed to attack.

=Zigzag.=--Steering zigzag courses adds to the time of crossing from
one port to another, and affords only a slight measure of additional
safety, as a ship running a zigzag course takes much longer to make
a crossing, and is therefore longer exposed to danger; besides, this
process adds very materially to the cost of the voyage. It probably
does add somewhat to her chances of escape, as a submarine lying in
wait anticipating that she will pass within torpedo range might be
fooled by her zigzagging out of the way. On the other hand, a submarine
might be lying in wait too far to one side of her course to be able to
intercept her, and the ship might just as likely as not, not knowing
she was there, zigzag right toward her and get caught.

In facing the submarine problem, the nations at war with Germany are
thus forced to adopt tactics of three kinds: First, to destroy the
enemy submarines--I have been informed from reliable sources that
England has over five thousand vessels searching for U-boats; second,
to make cargo vessels invulnerable to torpedo attacks; and, thirdly,
to elude and escape the U-boats. No great measure of success, no great
results, have come out of attempts of the first two orders; the U-boats
have in general gone unscathed, and they have inflicted damage of such
an appalling nature as to terrify those cognizant of the shipping needs
of Europe. In my judgment, however, efforts to combat the submarine
should be concentrated on devising ways and means to elude it; this is
the only solution which promises results. I shall therefore devote the
remainder of this chapter to a discussion of the problem of eluding
submarines and how it may best be accomplished.

=Cargo Submarines.=--In my judgment, the only way that any nation will
be able ultimately to continue its commerce with any degree of safety
or certainty when blockaded by submarines will be by the construction
of large merchant submarines which will be able to evade the enemy
U-boats successfully.

I have pointed out above that "submarines cannot fight submarines,"
because they cannot see or locate each other. It is this very thing
which will enable the cargo-carrying submarine to evade the military
submarine. They are also able to evade all surface craft, either friend
or foe. Captain Paul Koenig, of the _Deutschland_, told me that most
of his journey in the _Deutschland_ was upon the surface. He stated
that her low visibility enabled him to see all approaching ships before
they could see her, and that it was only necessary for him to submerge
and rest until the surface ship had passed on her way. The tactics of
the larger cargo-carrying submarines would be the same. They need not
have much radius of action when submerged; all they need to do is to
hide until the danger has passed. If desired, however, their radius of
submerged action may be increased to equal or largely exceed that of a
military submarine, but this would unnecessarily increase their cost
of construction; otherwise the cost of building such vessels should
not exceed twenty-five per cent. more than the cost of constructing a
first-class surface ship.

Now I have prepared a few diagrams showing the advantage of various
types of vessels in evading the submarine, and of these I shall treat
immediately, as they illustrate the points of my contention perfectly.
There was a time when everybody thought the earth was flat, but now
I believe it is generally conceded that it is round. Every one knows
that when the sun or moon sinks beneath the horizon it cannot be seen,
neither can anything else which is below the horizon, so if the horizon
intervenes between two distant observers they cannot see each other.
Now by referring to our text-books we find that if an observer is
stationed at a height of fifteen feet above the surface of the sea the
horizon is five and one-eighths miles distant, so that if there were
another observer stationed on the other side of the horizon at the same
distance and height from the surface of the sea they could not see each
other, as the surface of the earth or sea, being round, would stand up
like a hill between them.

[Illustration: THE "DEUTSCHLAND"

By Courtesy of Motorship

The "Deutschland" was the first submarine cargo-carrier to cross the
Atlantic Ocean. She was under the command of Captain Paul Koenig and
proved the practicability of running the English blockade four times
before war between Germany and the United States caused her owners to
discontinue her sailings. Had war not come between the two countries,
her German owners would undoubtedly have had submarine cargo-carrying
vessels making weekly sailings between the United States and Germany.]

The diagram shown herewith shows the distance of horizon in miles from
0 to two hundred feet elevation above the surface of the water.

I have drawn a sketch--in which the scale of distance is exaggerated
in order to better illustrate my meaning--of the earth's surface to
show the comparative visibility of vessels when seen from a military
submarine, lying in wait, with periscope extended fifteen feet above
water. Now take such ships as the _Lusitania_, shown in position No.
5 on the diagram, with her smoke-stacks extending over one hundred
feet above the surface of the sea; their tops would appear above the
horizon and become visible to a distant observer with a powerful glass,
stationed at, say, fifteen feet above the surface, at a distance of
about eighteen and three-eighths miles. Her smoke-stack would also
become visible through a telescopic periscope, the object glass of
which was extended fifteen feet above the surface, while men seated in
a rowboat could not see each other because of the intervening "hill,"
so to speak, at a distance of four miles apart. If they were under
water in a submarine they could not see each other at all unless they
had the periscopes elevated above the surface. In that case it would
not be possible for one periscope to see another at any considerable
distance, because the periscope is such a small object, and vision
through it does not compare with natural vision, owing to the fact that
there is considerable loss of light in passing the image of external
objects through lenses and prisms. Hence it has been found necessary
to reduce the field of vision to about one-half that of natural vision
to give the effect of true distance, and as soon as twilight falls it
is practically useless. I have taken fifteen feet above the surface
without the submarine's conning tower showing, for if her conning tower
is shown above the surface she is in danger of being herself discovered.

From the above data we are able to determine the probability of being
discovered. We take the case of the largest and fastest ocean liners,
such as the _Lusitania_ as one illustration. We will assume that the
_Lusitania_ is making her maximum speed of about twenty-five knots,
which is about the maximum of speed yet attained in a large surface
freight-and passenger-carrying ship, and from our scale of vision as
applied to upper diagram No. 5 we see that her top works will become
visible above the horizon at a distance of eighteen and three-eighths
miles from the periscope of the submarine. The commander in the
submarine, by using his range and direction finder with which all
military submarines are fitted, finds the ship to be pursuing a course
and speed that will cause her to pass probably within ten miles of the
submarine station in about thirty-five minutes, which is too far off to
attack by torpedo. Now, while submarines have a submerged speed of only
about ten knots, the commander is quickly able to ascertain that he can
intercept the twenty-five-knot boat by laying his own course at right
angles to the approaching ship, and that, if the ship keeps her course
and speed, in thirty-five minutes he can be within torpedo range, as
will be seen by reference to this sketch (see diagram, position No. 5).

[Illustration: DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE THE COMPARATIVE VISIBILITY AND
CONSEQUENTLY THE COMPARATIVE SAFETY OF SURFACE SHIPS AND CARGO-CARRYING
SUBMARINES]

Now take for another comparison a slow-speed merchantman of the
tramp type making ten knots, which is about the economical speed for
this class of ship. Her smoke might be the first thing to betray
her approach, but for purposes of comparison take her smoke-stack
also, which is the first solid portion of the ship to appear. The
smoke-stacks of this class of vessel would probably not be over forty
feet in height above water level, therefore, if she were making the
same course as the high-speed ship, it will be observed by referring to
diagram, position No. 4, and the distance and speeds mentioned thereon,
that the submarine at a speed of ten knots has more time to get nearer
the course of the approaching ship and can have more time to calculate
the enemy's speed of approach and direct course, and thus launch his
torpedo with more certainty of making a hit. But assume that this
approaching slow-speed ship had no solid opaque portion extending over
fifteen feet above the surface of the water, as is the case in a cargo
submarine as shown in position No. 3 on the diagram of the earth's
surface. One now sees that she would pass the waiting submarine
below the horizon, and the intervening round of the sea's surface would
prevent the submarine from seeing her; thus she would pass by unseen
and in safety.

The above series of diagrams will show the percentage of safety of
ships of different characteristics when coming within the range of
visibility of a submarine lying on the ocean highway waiting for
passing ships; the submarine is assumed to have a submerged speed of
ten knots in each instance. From an analysis of these diagrams it
cannot be denied that practically one hundred per cent. safety could
be secured could these cargo-carrying submarines cross the ocean from
one friendly port to another and remain invisible during the entire
journey, but at the present time this is impossible, because there
is no known means of supplying sufficient power for long under-water
voyages without drawing on the upper air in large quantities to assist
combustion in either prime or secondary power-generating machinery.

The diagram plainly shows that a cargo-carrying submarine running
awash, with her periscope and air intakes only above the water line,
may approach within about five and three-quarters miles of any waiting
military submarine without danger of being seen, as her "wake" would
be below the horizon. Such cargo-carrying submarines can be built and
can cross the Atlantic Ocean in this condition at a speed of about ten
knots, and by maintaining a sharp lookout would have as much chance of
seeing a military submarine as the military submarine would have of
seeing them; and by the application of certain tried devices which I do
not feel it proper to disclose at this time, but which are within the
knowledge of our government authorities, the range of visibility can,
I believe, be reduced to less than one mile. This type of vessel can
almost instantly become entirely invisible by submerging at the least
intimation of danger.

Such a type of vessel travelling with a freeboard of five feet would
become visible to a submarine lying in ambush when she approached
within eight miles. This increases the area of danger from one hundred
and three square miles, as shown in diagram, position No. 1, in the
first instance to two hundred and one square miles, as per diagram
corresponding to position No. 2, but in comparison with the usual type
of surface cargo-carrying ship of the so-called tramp type she is
comparatively safe, as she has the ability to submerge in less than two
minutes; and it is hardly likely that she would be attacked without
warning, for fear she might be a friendly military submarine. Any
communication in the way of wireless, sound, or other signals would,
if she were a merchant ship, give her warning, and she would at once
submerge, as her only business would be to deliver her cargo and not
communicate with or expose herself to _either friend or foe_. When far
from land she might take a chance and navigate entirely on the surface
with a freeboard of fifteen feet, in which condition she can make a
speed of eleven knots, as her position No. 3, on the surface of the
ocean. This increases the danger area to about three hundred and thirty
square miles, as on diagram, position No. 3, about three times the
danger area shown on position No. 1, but as the area to be covered by
the military submarine on the high seas, far from land, is also much
greater, the real danger would be proportionately less than that with
the lower visibility in a more thickly infested zone.

[Illustration: TORPEDO BEING FIRED FROM THE DECK TUBES OF THE SUBMARINE
"SEAL"

This vessel was fitted with two double-barrel torpedo guns, housed in
a superimposed superstructure. These four torpedoes could be fired to
either broadside. The above photograph shows a torpedo in the act of
leaving one of these tubes above water. They may be discharged either
above or below the surface.]

=High Speed.=--Speed is better than no defence, but no one would
consider building twenty-five-knot freighters. The cost would be far
out of proportion to the service. So long as U-boats do not betray
their presence, a fast vessel is almost as liable as a slower one
of less freeboard or lower top hamper. One can never tell where the
submarine may be lurking, and her capacity to harm is determined by her
ability to locate her prey. There are three means available to her to
locate her target: first, her own sight; second, her sound-detecting
devices; third, by wireless directions given to her by others who may
advise her of the vessel's position. Her own sight is the best and
usual means for locating her target. The above diagrams show that the
largest and fastest ships can be located at much greater distances than
the low visibility ships, and that the area of visibility becomes the
area of danger, which is practically ten times greater in an expensive,
large, high-speed liner over that of the comparatively low-cost
cargo-carrying submarine.

[Illustration: BRITISH SUBMARINE NO. 3 PASSING NELSON'S OLD FLAGSHIP
"VICTORY"

This submarine is of the Holland type, similar to the U. S. "Adder" and
"Moccasin." This illustration shows the radical change made in naval
warfare in one hundred years.]

One should not imagine that the Germans are carrying on this campaign
at random. It is well organized and systematic. Each vessel that
comes in sight of a submarine is a marked vessel, and even if she is
the fastest vessel afloat, she may speed unwittingly into a trap set
for her by wireless. So long as she cannot disappear she has no real
ability to elude. On the other hand, the cargo-carrying submarine of
low speed has both these advantages: she has low visibility and the
capability of disappearance. She may become invulnerable when danger
threatens. She has all of the qualities possessed by her enemies. She
may beat them at their own game. Vessels of the ordinary type will
suffice in no way to meet the great problem presented by the U-boats.
The cargo submarine, however, readily meets all the needs of the
situation. This is the sole method of which I am cognizant by means
of which a submarine blockade and the destruction of cargo-carrying
vessels can be overcome with safety and with certainty. I have expected
the Germans would blockade our own ports, as it is easily possible for
them to do so; I believe the reason they have not done so thus far
is because of political reasons, as it would undoubtedly be to their
advantage to have our trade after the war, which they might not have if
they arouse our hatred any more than they already have.

CHAPTER VII

THE SUBMARINE IN TIMES OF PEACE

So engrossed have been governments, inventors, capitalists, and the
public in general, in the development of the submarine vessel for
military purposes, and in the perfection and augmentation of its
capabilities as a destructive agent, that they have never considered
or realized that submarines and submarine appliances possess a wide
range of utility as productive instruments in commercial and industrial
operations.

This concentration of energy upon the construction of military
submarines I believe to have been a very desirable thing, and the
success which has been attained therein, I am convinced, augurs
propitiously for the future well-being of the world. It is time now,
however, to take up the development of the submarine for industrial
purposes. The world stands in need, to-day, of services which the
submarine is uniquely able to render.

While great publicity has been given to the art of submarine navigation
as applied to warfare, little or nothing has been published, outside
of scientific journals, as to the productive capacity of submarine
devices. It seems desirable, therefore, to devote a few pages to
consideration of the submarine in this other field of action. I myself
have devoted the greater part of my own efforts to the construction
of military submarines. But, in the early years of my work as a
constructor of under-water vessels I was greatly attracted to this
branch of submarine work, and from that time to the present I have
spent a great deal of time and money in developing submarine appliances
to be turned to peaceful uses. It is my aim to go into this work quite
extensively when peace is restored to the world. At present, however,
problems of national defence are occupying the attention of every naval
architect.

I shall present in this chapter a few suggestions as to the uses to
which submarine appliances may be turned as productive agents, and I
shall speak briefly and simply as to the mode of operation of such
devices. Many of the things of which I will write have actually been
accomplished in vessels constructed by me. Others of which I write are
now under process of construction. Still others are as yet visionary,
but not at all impossible. Nothing of which I write do I believe to be
impractical or improbable. The submarine can do many things in a new,
more economical, and more productive way.

One important use to which the commercial submarine may be turned is
that of navigating under ice fields, between ports which are bound with
ice fields during great parts of the year, and also for purposes of
exploration and of scientific study.

All navigators know the difficulty of attempting to break their way
through the ice fields, since it requires a vessel of tremendous power
and great weight to break down or through solid ice. A vessel of this
type was first proposed by me in 1899 for exploration purposes in
ice-covered seas. In 1903 experiments were made with the _Protector_ in
order to demonstrate the practicability of navigating in ice-covered
waters.

[Illustration: UNDER-ICE NAVIGATION

Under-ice boat designed by the author for navigating between ice-bound
ports. A boat of this character could keep up communication between
ports that are now closed by ice for several months of the year.
Passengers, mail and freight can readily be transported in this manner
with perfect safety. (See text.)]

Professor Nansen, in his North Polar explorations, has stated in his
book that his average rate of progress during eighteen months, in
attempting to reach the North Pole, was only three-quarters of a mile
per day, and that the thickest ice he found during these months of
endeavor was fourteen feet. His progress was delayed by open waters,
slush ice, and in the winter by the intense cold which compelled him to
"hibernate" for a considerable period of time.

An under-ice submarine as illustrated, with large storage battery
capacity, could navigate underneath the ice in perfect comfort and
safety. The temperature surrounding the vessel, even in the most
severe winter weather, would not exceed the temperature of the water
surrounding the vessel. The vessel illustrated is designed to make
a continuous submerged voyage of one hundred and fifty miles on
one charge of the storage battery. After such a run, it would be
necessary to stop and recharge the batteries. If open water should be
encountered, this recharging process would be done by bringing the
vessel to the surface. If the ice was not too thick, then by blowing
out the water ballast the ice would be broken, since it is very much
easier to lift the ice and break it than it is to force it apart or
downward, as surface vessels are compelled to do. Provision is made
for boring a hole up through the ice so as to permit the drawing in
of sufficient air to run the engines and to recharge the batteries.
Provision has also been made for putting out small mines underneath the
ice to blow an opening to permit the submarine to come to the surface.
A telescopic conning tower arranged to cut its way up through ice
twelve or fourteen feet thick is also provided to enable the boat to
remain under the ice and still permit the crew to reach the surface.

In navigating in an ice pack, the method of procedure would be to
reduce the buoyancy of the vessel to, perhaps, a couple of tons, and
then steam ahead, and it will be observed that the forward portion of
the boat extends downward a considerable distance under the water, so
that when the forward portion of the boat contacts with heavy ice the
reserve buoyancy will not be sufficient to lift or push the ice out
of the way, and the vessel will then be automatically pushed under
the ice and run along in contact with the under surface of the ice. A
toothed recording wheel would give the exact distance travelled, and,
of course, the compass will give the direction. Progress could be made
in perfect comfort and safety under the ice at a rate exceeding one
hundred miles per day.

The _Protector_ was fitted out in 1903 for experimental navigation
under the ice with an inverted toboggan built up over the conning
tower. This arrangement enabled her readily to navigate under
ice fields, and she successfully navigated under an ice field in
Narragansett Bay eight inches thick.

Ice two feet in thickness is sufficient to close navigation to the most
powerful of ordinary surface ships, and great power is required to
crush or break a lane through it by the specially equipped ice-breakers
now used in northern latitudes.

While ice is a deterrent to surface navigation, it is actually an aid
to under-water navigation, providing the submarine boat is specially
equipped with guide wheels or "runners" on top of the hull to enable
her to slide or wheel along under the ice.

A design of the under-ice submarine illustrated was prepared by me a
number of years ago to meet the desires of an associate of Captain
Nansen, the Arctic explorer, for a vessel that could be navigated
either on the surface or under the ice. I explained the principal
features and possibilities of a vessel of this type for under-ice
navigation before the faculty of Johns Hopkins University, in
Baltimore, in 1898, and at one time I thought one of the prominent New
York newspapers was going to finance the building of such a vessel for
North Polar exploration work, but the submarine was then looked upon as
too much of an experiment and nothing ever came of the negotiations.

Some years afterward, in Christiania, Norway, I met and discussed
the project with Captain Scott Hanson, R.N., who was associated with
Nansen in his historical search for the North Pole, and he became quite
enthusiastic over the possibilities of a submarine of this type for
North Polar exploration.

An under-ice submarine of the type illustrated, fitted with large
storage-battery capacity, would be able to average one hundred miles
per day under the ice and about two hundred and fifty miles per day
in open water. Starting from Spitzbergen, therefore, and going over
Nansen's route, if the same conditions were met as he describes,
the round trip to the Pole should be made in about ten days' time
and in perfect comfort, as, no matter how cold the weather is above
the surface, the temperature of the water is always above the
freezing-point below the ice.

Later I was asked to submit to the chief engineer of one of the
Canadian railways plans for an under-ice cargo-carrying submarine to
enable them to transport passengers, mail, and freight from their
mainland terminal at Vancouver to an open harbor on the island of
Victoria.

Cargo-carrying submarines fitted to under-run ice fields will shorten
trade routes by opening up to navigation the Northwest Passage, and
will also open up new ports in northern Europe and Asia, and provide an
outlet for Siberian-grown wheat and other northern products which are
not now utilized because of lack of transportation facilities.

Investigation of the geological formation of sea-bottoms, the flora
and fauna of the sea, will be greatly assisted by bottom-creeping
submarines. Fitted with powerful searchlights and moving-picture
cameras, actual sea-bottom conditions may be reproduced up to depths
of one thousand feet or more. The author, in 1898, succeeded in
taking photographs through the windows of the _Argonaut_ by means of
an ordinary kodak, and last year the Williamson brothers showed in
moving-picture houses throughout the country some wonderful submarine
moving pictures they had secured by the use of their collapsible
submarine tube.

One of the greatest pleasures in life so far denied to most men is to
witness the constantly changing scenery of under-sea life in tropical
waters. It has been one of the great desires of my life to explore
the bottom of the southern seas. All of my submarine work has been in
the more northern waters, covering the Chesapeake Bay, Long Island
Sound, on the Atlantic coast north of Virginia Beach, and in the Baltic
Sea and Gulf of Finland. The range of vision in any of these waters
did not exceed forty feet, but that has been sufficient to create a
zest for more. The beauties of under-sea life can be described only
by a poet. It is impossible for me to convey to the imagination the
wonderful beauty of some of the under-sea gardens when seen through the
windows of a submarine automobile. Imagine, if you can, these under-sea
gardens with masses of vegetation, swaying to the current and waves
of the sea, of a great variety of form and color and with myriads of
many beautiful and variously colored fishes swimming among them, with
perhaps a background of a wonderful coral reef of fantastic shapes,
with the octopus, or devil-fish, lurking at the mouths of dark caverns,
and the long, gray man-eating shark, like a ghost now and then flitting
within one's range of vision. Instead of the sky above you, you see a
scintillating mirror which reflects the sun's rays as they penetrate
the clear blue waters and strike the white sands and are reflected back
to this under surface of the water and are then re-reflected back in
multitudinous rainbows of color.

Such sights await the tourist of the future who visits some of the
southern seas, with the further privilege of seeing some of the old
wrecks, many of which have been lost since the days of the Spanish
galleons by striking on some of these same coral reefs, and whose
skeletons now lie at their base. I have built for my own use a
combination house-boat and exploring submarine automobile, and hope
in the near future to explore some of the southern waters along the
Florida coast and in the Caribbean Sea; also, later to build larger
submarine automobiles to enable "sight-seeing" parties to see some of
the beauties of "Davy Jones' locker."

The Williamson brothers--Ernest and George Williamson--have, by the use
of the Williamson extensible and flexible collapsible tube, invented by
their father, Capt. Charles Williamson, and fitted with an observation
chamber, succeeded in taking some wonderful moving pictures of
under-sea life, which have been shown throughout the world and have
thus given pleasure to millions of people in this country and abroad.
I am indebted to the Williamson brothers for the loan of some of their
wonderful under-sea pictures taken in the vicinity of Nassau, in the
West Indies, where the waters are particularly clear, and the under-sea
floral gardens, noted for their beauty, have been visited by tourists
for many years, who view them through the glass-bottom boats. This
method discloses some of their beauty, but does not begin to do them
full justice, as compared with a view from under the water in their
natural perspective. When viewed from above it is much like judging of
the beauties of architecture of a city from a balloon, as one can only
get a plan view.

The Williamson brothers commenced their experiments in submarine
photography during the summer of 1913. Their first experiments proving
satisfactory, the following year, 1914, they fitted out an expedition
and visited the West Indies and there took several thousand feet of
films of submarine motion pictures, showing some of the submarine
gardens, divers fighting with sharks, an old wreck, etc. These were the
first moving pictures of under-sea life that had ever been produced.
"Still" under-water photography had been done by Dr. Francis Ward in a
pond on his estate in England and by several others, but none of these
experimenters had ever succeeded in getting the wonderful results such
as those secured by the Williamsons in their 1914 expedition.

[Illustration: A SUBMARINE GARDEN AT THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA

Submarine Photo by Williamson Bros.

This photograph, taken in the vicinity of Nassau, shows a great variety
of tropical submarine growth and fishes.]

Since 1914 the Williamsons have produced many remarkable submarine
scenes in the film productions known as "Twenty Thousand Leagues
Under the Sea," "The Submarine Eye," and other photoplays.

[Illustration: SUBMARINES FOR HYDROGRAPHIC WORK AND WRECK FINDING

Permission of Scientific American

A sweep line extending between the two submarines running parallel
courses locates any intervening obstructions. (See text.)]

As it is of historical value to record some of their experiences, I
quote from Mr. Ernest Williamson's notes:

"During the first experiments in Hampton Roads, I found the
condition of the water to be such that objects could be seen
clearly for a distance of about six feet, and the photographic
results showed that the fish and other objects photographed clearly
at about four feet through the water. My theory, judging from the
experiments, was that it would be possible to photograph through
the water at almost the distance you could see clearly with the
eye, and if it were possible to see through the water a distance
of one hundred feet or more, as we were informed could be done
in the West Indies, I reasoned that we could possibly get good
photographic results at a distance of seventy-five feet.

"The latter proved to be correct, although in the middle of the
experimental work I was a little bit concerned about a published
record at that time of the experiments made by a Dr. Francis Ward
in England. This Doctor Ward had built a cement well in the edge of
a pond in his estate, and through a plate-glass window in the side
of this well, under water, he had photographed fish and water-fowl.
The _Illustrated London News_ devoted four or five pages to his
photographs and technical description of his work, and he made a
point, in drawing his conclusions, that he believed that under
the most favorable conditions it would be possible to photograph
through water at a distance not exceeding three feet. None of
his photographs showed any more than this, and he seemed to have
technical reasons for believing that three feet was the limit.

"During the extensive work we have carried on in the West Indies,
making scenes for our various productions, I have been down in the
operating chamber at the base of the Williamson tube, when the
water was so clear at times I have seen objects at a distance of
two hundred feet--possibly more. At such times we have made motion
pictures showing objects clearly at a distance of one hundred and
fifty feet. These results were obtained at a depth of thirty feet.
I have been down sixty feet in the chamber, and, of course, the
greater the depth the less the sunlight under water and naturally
the photographic results are not so good, but with the banks of
Cooper-Hewitt lamps, which I successfully encased in watertight
containers for the purpose of illuminating the under-sea, we
obtained excellent results within a radius of the greater volume of
this artificial light.

"For exploration and scientific work the artificial lights are a
valuable adjunct, as they make it possible to photograph at any
depth and at any time; but, there being so many other details to be
taken care of in the taking of a scene under water, we try to do
them all in the daytime. With as many as five divers operating in a
scene, the divers wearing self-contained suits with no connection
with the surface, having the tide and wind and the photographic
apparatus and other things to be all worked at the same time, it is
better to be working in the daylight, when you can keep your eye on
the sharks and take care of the divers."

The reproduction of under-sea photographs shown in this book will
give the reader some intimation of the "wonders of the deep," but
unfortunately the wonderful colors and the play of light and movement
cannot be reproduced.

Similarly, for scientific purposes as well as those of safeguarding
navigation, submarines equipped for hydrographic work will prove
of immense value. My work with submarine boats, both in the United
States and foreign countries, has taught me that most charts are very
unreliable, so far as their recorded depths are concerned. While they
may be fairly accurate as to the average depths, they do not record
many of the peaks or depressions that exist, especially where the
water-bed is formed over a rock foundation. Silt and sand may fill
in the depressions between peaks so that the average depth is fairly
constant, yet here and there are outcropping peaks or humps that have,
in many instances, proved fatal to shipping.

The method of charting our coast lines and the estuaries of the sea has
been by the use of the sounding lead, taken at points a greater or less
distance apart. The depths recorded at these points are plotted by the
triangulation method of location from tripods or known structures, or
objects on shore, and shown on the chart. These points would need to
be taken every few feet to give an accurate topography of the bottom,
the cost of which, in time and money, would be prohibitive. Assuming
that our coast waters were sounded and depths recorded, at points only
fifty feet apart in all directions, even such close soundings would not
guarantee that some peak might not project above the bottom and prove
disastrous to some ship.

I remember some few years ago the battleship _Missouri_ struck such a
peak in New York Harbor, seriously injuring her bottom. Thousands of
ships of equal draft had passed this vicinity, but none of them had
happened to strike this particular spot and no one suspected that such
a rock existed in this much-frequented highway. In 1900 the steamer
_Rio de Janeiro_ struck an unknown rock in entering the harbor of San
Francisco, with a loss of one hundred and thirty-one lives and over two
million dollars in property.

In Long Island Sound we found, during a deep submergence trial with one
of our submarines, a depth of two hundred and fifty-six feet, whereas
the chart indicated a depth of only twenty-seven fathoms (one hundred
and sixty-two feet).

In one instance in Russia we were conducting submerged trials on the
official trial course of the Russian Government in the Gulf of Finland,
this being the course on which they tried their surface torpedo boats,
and we were assured that there was not less than sixty feet of water
on the course, yet we struck rock peaks twice on this course in less
than thirty feet depth. The record of ships that have been lost, due
to striking uncharted rocks and shoals, is a large one, and a more
correct topography of the water-beds of our coast and inland waterways
should be worked out. In 1899 and 1901 considerable time was spent
in experimental work with the submarine boat _Argonaut_ in locating
sunken ships and recovering their cargoes. To find a sunken ship it
was necessary to search the bottom thoroughly, and many experiments
were made and success attained to such an extent that we could search
thoroughly an under-water area of from ten to twenty square miles per
day. It is the result of this experimental work that has led to the
design of the herein-described apparatus, which will give very accurate
contour records of the bottom within such depths as would prove of
interest to navigators of either surface vessels or submarines. The
advent of the submarine has made it more important to know where
obstructions exist, as they require at least seventy feet depth to
navigate at speed entirely submerged and to enable them to keep below
the bottom of surface ships. This method of water-bed surveying
consists of using two or more submarine boats of my bottom-navigating
type, with access tubes extending to surface vessels. Instead of
using two bottom wheels arranged in tandem, as is used on my military
submarine, I use a single pair of toothed driving wheels capable of
being swivelled and driven to propel the submarine in any desired
direction over the bottom. The submarine vessel contains also a diver's
compartment, so that examinations of the bottom may be made and a
record kept of the materials and conditions found, which are recorded
as frequently as may be desired directly on the contour sheet, on which
the soundings are being automatically recorded.

Navigators of surface vessels are interested principally in knowing
the amount of water they have beneath their keel and the nature of
the bottom, so that they may judge of their location by soundings,
especially in time of fog. It is not essential, therefore, to know
every foot of the bottom, but it is essential to know that no
obstructions exist extending nearer to the surface than their keel. It
is also essential for submarine commanders to know that there are no
obstructions nearer the surface than their depth of submergence, if
they are running submerged at speed. It is possible that collisions
with submerged obstructions may have been responsible for some of the
mysterious submarine fatalities.

This method of bottom investigation permits of very accurate contour
lines being run as close together as may be desired for harbor
work. On the coast, in depths exceeding fifty to seventy-five
feet, if contours were run one-half mile apart, it would probably
be satisfactory if a guaranty could be given that there were no
obstructions over five or six feet in height which lay between such
contours. Two vessels as herein described are capable of automatically
recording parallel contours at the rate of two or three miles per hour
and to guarantee that there are no dangerous obstructions lying between
them.

Referring to page 267, a surface vessel is shown with a well which
extends from under the pilot-house and out under her stem. An access
tube extends from this well forward to a small submarine vessel. The
upper end of this access tube is pivoted to strong bearings secured in
the sides of the well, and is further secured by tension rods extending
from part way down the tube to bearings secured to the outer skin of
the ship in line with the bearings in the well. Large bearings with
stuffing boxes in the submarine boat end of the access tube permit of
access through a door to an air-lock compartment, and a second door
leads from the air-lock into the diving compartment, a sliding door in
the bottom of the diving compartment permitting the door to be opened
for inspection of the bottom. By donning a diving suit members of the
crew may also leave or enter the vessel when on the bottom. The water
is kept from entering the diving compartment by air compressed to the
same pressure as the surrounding water pressure, corresponding to the
depth of submergence, the same as is done in my military submarine
boats. A motor, drawing its power from a dynamo on the surface vessel,
drives through suitable gearing the tractor wheel arranged near the bow
of the submarine. This tractor wheel may be turned by its vertical
steering post so as to propel the vessel in any desired direction.

The weight of the submarine upon the bottom is regulated by water
ballast. A depth-recording device operates in connection with a
distance-recording apparatus, so that an exact contour of the bottom is
reproduced on a roll of paper, the record being made by the revolution
of the tractor wheels. Corrections of errors are made by taking
observations from the surface vessels from known points on shore by the
usual triangulation method.

A drum is mounted on the submarine on which is wound a double wire.
The upper wire is an insulated wire and is used to telephone between
the two submarine vessels. The lower wire is a bare wire and is
used to locate obstructions. The two wires are secured together as
shown. Suitable recording devices in the interior of each vessel
give the amount of wire unwound from its drum. A tension regulator
holds a certain desired strain or pull upon the sweep lines, and
another indicator gives the direction of lead of the wires during the
"sweeping" operations. The surface vessel has a propeller in her skeg
operating athwartship in addition to the usual stem propeller.

The method of operation is as follows: Two vessels are required, which
proceed to the location to be charted. In surface navigation the
submarine, carried at the forward end of the access tube, is emptied
of her water ballast and floats on the surface in front of the surface
vessel, being pushed ahead of the latter vessel by the access tube, the
pivoted bearings at each end of the tube giving sufficient flexibility
to prevent any damage to the tube because of strains set up by the
waves.

One of the vessels takes her station at the point of beginning the
day's survey and anchors; the other vessel then comes sufficiently near
to secure the end of the sweep line from the anchored ship and then
moves over to her starting point, which might be only a few yards away
or as much as a mile. I have found, in wreck-sweeping operations, that
it is practical to go as much as a mile apart, depending upon how close
together the contours are desired. These sweep lines of the two vessels
are then joined together and the submarines sink to the bottom, on
which they are allowed to rest with sufficient weight to prevent their
being drifted out of their course.

We will assume that their starting points are one-half mile apart,
and that they are to run contour lines due west from their respective
starting points. The boats should therefore lie due north and south
from each other, and the sweep lines should lead at right angles from
each toward its companion boat. The dynamo is now started in the
surface vessel to supply the motors in the submarines with power. The
two submarines now start ahead.

The surface vessels, by means of their athwartship propellers, are
always kept headed due west, therefore the course must also be due
west. Each operator in the submarine keeps watch on his indicator,
which records the amount of line paid out, and also enables him to be
kept advised, by frequent inquiry through the telephone, of the amount
of line his companion vessel has out. The operators also keep each
other advised of the distance their respective vessels have travelled
and the direction of lead of sweep line. Thus they can always keep
each other on lines due north and south. If now an obstruction is
struck, such as a rock, a sunken ship, etc., the strain on the sweep
line becomes greater than normal, and the line commences to run off its
drum. After running a short distance the sweep line will begin to lead
aft instead of at right angles to the course. The two operators then
stop and advise each other of the lead of the line. The one whose line
leads the greater number of degrees off from right angles to the course
is nearest the obstruction. He now turns his tractor wheel in the
direction of the lead and wheels over to the obstruction, taking in his
sweep lines as fast as he goes. The characteristics of the obstruction
are noted, and its position accurately located by the triangulation
method and recorded on the chart. In practice this sweep line extends a
few feet above the bottom so as not to pick up small boulders, stones,
etc., and would be caught only on the larger submerged objects. In
taking off the readings from the contour sheets, when plotting the
depths on the charts, the assurance can be had that no obstructions
exist between the surface and the depth of the sweep line, as the depth
and contour recording gauge is located at the height of the sweep line.
The actual contour depth would be the distance between the sweep line
and the water-bed, which could be added if desired.

As the submarine may be used for purposes of making navigation more
safe, so also may it be used for the recovery of ships' cargoes and for
salvaging ships which have had the misfortune to be sunk.

In searching for sunken vessels two boats are used, of the same
general type as the "hydrographic submarine." When a wreck is located
divers go out and examine it. If it is concluded that she has cargo
on board worth salving, her location is plotted on the chart and
then the recovery boats are sent out to remove the cargo. I have
done much experimental work in locating sunken wrecks and recovering
their cargoes. In 1898, 1899, and 1900 the _Argonaut_ and special
wreck-finding apparatus were used in this experimental work. Numerous
wrecks were found and a number of cargoes were profitably recovered,
notwithstanding the fact that the apparatus used was crude and
experimental. In 1901 I was called from this line of work to take up
the construction of submarine torpedo boats, and have been too busy
ever since, building for the United States and foreign governments, to
find the time and opportunity to push on this very interesting phase of
submarine work.

[Illustration: THE "ARGONAUT" SUBMERGED

Drawn by C. McKnight Smith for _Harper's Weekly_, April 1, 1899. (By
permission. Copyright 1899 by Harper & Brothers.)

This shows the remodelled "Argonaut" with her buoyant ship-shaped
superstructure, on a submerged wrecking expedition, as was actually
accomplished in the years 1900-1901.]

Searching for sunken vessels is, perhaps, the most interesting of
all submarine work. It is like fishing. One is always on the _qui
vive_ for a "bite." There is hardly a location along our coast or in
Long Island Sound that does not have a tradition about lost treasure
ships, and every time one gets a "bite"--that is, our lines get fast
to some sunken object--excitement runs high in the expectation of some
valuable find. In my experimental work in the vicinity of Bridgeport,
Connecticut, we located sixteen sunken vessels, the great majority of
them containing coal, which we recovered at a cost of about fifty cents
per ton. Most of these vessels had been sunk a long time. Only a few of
them were known by name, and some had evidently been sunk many years.
One that we searched for during several months had a cargo of copper
ore and copper matté which was quite valuable. We finally found her
several miles away from where people testified they saw her disappear.

Somewhere off Bridgeport lies the wreck of the old Sound steamer
_Lexington_. Legend has it that she has a fortune in her safe. Many a
ship has been sunken in the waters about Hell Gate; search was carried
on there for years for the old British frigate _Hussar_, which struck
on Pot Rock and sank during the Revolutionary War. Tradition has it
that she had four million dollars (£820,000) in gold on board to pay
off the British troops, and that she carried this treasure to the
bottom with her. There is a cargo of block tin somewhere in a sunken
barge off the Battery, and many a ship with valuable cargoes lies along
the coast from Newfoundland to Key West. The yearly loss in ships and
cargoes throughout the world has always run into many millions of
dollars, and since the war this has been multiplied a hundred-fold,
and amounts to billions. The time will come when many of these ships
will be found, and such of their cargo as is still valuable will be
salvaged. Salving a sunken cargo is not a difficult engineering feat,
providing the proper apparatus is at hand. It is the novelty of the
enterprise and the mystery surrounding submarine work that make it so
difficult to the layman. Diving, as heretofore conducted, has been
difficult and dangerous work, and only the strong could stand the
hardships connected with it. The advent of submarine salvage vessels
fitted with proper machinery and in the application of scientific
methods, however, will clear away many of the hardships and dangers
connected with salving a sunken cargo, and more experience and proper
apparatus will prove that certain cargoes may be removed from sunken
ships in moderate depth with almost as much rapidity as they can be
lifted from the hold of a vessel alongside of a dock. Take anthracite
coal, for instance. With a six-inch pump, on the old _Argonaut_, I
have transferred fifteen tons of nut coal from a sunken barge to a
sunken freight-carrying submarine in nine minutes. A turn of the air
valve then sent the sunken freight boat to the surface. The coal was
transferred while all the boats were submerged in seven fathoms of
water. It was this kind of experimental work which has enabled me to
devise apparatus which will undoubtedly operate successfully on a much
larger scale, as explained in the illustrations.

[Illustration: EXPERIMENTAL CARGO-RECOVERING SUBMARINE

This vessel was built in 1899 and experimented with in 1900, to
demonstrate the practicability of transferring cargoes from sunken
vessels to submarine freight carriers. (See text.)]

The crucial feature of diving operations lies in the time required
in decompression, which, if held within the limits given by Fleet
Surgeon Mourilyan, would practically limit diving operations to half
the present depth of submergence and greatly increase the cost and the
time demanded for such undertakings. Strange as it may seem, the human
body will stand an immense amount of compression, but the greatest
care must be taken to make the recovery to normal a very slow and
deliberate process. Doctors Leonard Hill and Greenwood, of the London
Hospital Medicine College, have conducted a series of scientific
investigations regarding the physical limits of a normal man to
compression without risk of strain or ultimate injury. Remarkable as it
seems, they have shown that it is possible to submit to a pressure of
seven atmospheres--the equivalent of a submergence to a depth of two
hundred and ten feet, a depth considerably in excess of the best diving
records up to the time of their experiments. These gentlemen proved
conclusively that immunity from serious consequences could be assured,
provided the period of decompression was sufficiently long. The
experiments were not made under water, but were made in an experimental
air-chamber especially fitted up for them by one of the big English
submarine engineering companies.

[Illustration: SKETCH DRAWING ILLUSTRATING A METHOD OF TRANSFERRING
CARGOES FROM SUNKEN VESSELS TO SUBMERGED FREIGHT CARGO-CARRYING
SUBMARINES

Demonstrated as practical in 1900 by the combined use of the "Argonaut"
and the demonstrating freight-carrying submarine shown above.]

Under the conditions usually prevailing in the fields wherein divers
are employed, it is not possible, with the systems of working generally
adopted, to provide this period of decompression nor to work with this
studied deliberation when descending from or when ascending to the
ordinary surface vessel. The suit of a diver weighs over two hundred
pounds, and when inflated the bulk is considerable. A diver being
lowered from a vessel is swung to and fro like a pendulum, and if
there is any sea on--the open sea is never entirely still--the surge
naturally affects the diver so that it is beyond human possibility
to limit his descent to a nicety or to take the time either in going
down or coming up that science has proved necessary to his physical
well-being in the most generous sense. The greater the depth the
greater the difficulties, and to reach a submergence of one hundred
and fifty feet is now practically prohibitive except under ideal
conditions. The semi-submergible boat has, however, met the problem
squarely and has overcome many of the difficulties heretofore deemed
insuperable. The simplicity and the practicability of the working
principle involved are graphically shown by the accompanying drawings.

This combination consists of a tube which may be built of any desired
length or so constructed that this may be increased by the insertion
of additional sections. This tube is provided with an operating
compartment or working chamber at the free end, and water-ballast
tanks are distributed throughout the length of the tube so that the
structure can be placed in equilibrium with the water when ready for
submergence. In the working chamber there are also water-ballast tanks
by which that end of the tube can be sunk and caused to rest upon the
bottom with any desired pressure or dead weight. This operating chamber
has a hatch and door located in its bottom. This bottom door can be
opened when needed--the whole compartment becoming then a virtual
diving bell, so that divers can be sent out if so wished, or operations
through this open passage to the water-bed can be pursued by means of
tools and appliances controlled from within the compartment. There
is also an air-lock or equalizing chamber. Its purpose is to enable
the operators to become gradually accustomed to change of pressure
when entering or when leaving the working chamber when the latter is
being used with the bottom door open; the air pressure within the
compartment would be maintained in constant accord with the water
pressure corresponding to the particular depth at which this tube would
be in use. The tube itself may have its upper end attached to the side
of a surface craft, but preferably it floats in the well of a craft
especially designed to work in combination with it, as shown.

[Illustration: SEMI-SUBMERGIBLE WRECKING APPARATUS

The submergible tube has the diver's operating compartment shut off
from the rest of the apparatus by means of an air lock which permits
passage from the surface vessel and normal air pressure to the diver's
compartment, where the air is under pressure equal to the compartment's
depth of submergence, when the diver's exit door is open. The above
illustration shows divers "breaking" the cargo out of the hold of a
sunken ship and sending it to the surface.]

The general method of operating upon a submerged wreck is as follows:
The vessel carrying the tube is brought to the place of operation;
it may be carried there either by towing or by its own power. The
carrying vessel is moored over the wreck by quartering lines; anchor
lines connect with anchors run out abeam on each side of the vessel.
These lines are controlled from within the operating chamber, when once
the anchors are planted, so that the lower end of the tube, when
submerged, may be swung through the arc of a circle within the pivotal
point at the buoyant end attached to the surface vessel.

The operating chamber and tube are lighted electrically, and
electricity also supplies power control within the chamber. Compressed
air is led into this compartment to supply the chamber when operating
under pressure and also to supply any divers sent out therefrom at such
times.

The surface vessel being properly moored, the ballast compartments are
flooded and the working end of the apparatus allowed to settle near
enough to the wreck to permit of inspection through the "aquascope,"
or the bottom door may be opened and divers sent out for more intimate
inspection, and instructions may then be telephoned to the surface
vessel so to change her position that the working compartment may be
located in the place most convenient to act as a base for carrying
on the operations of recovering cargo, making repairs, etc., as the
occasion may demand.

The position of the operating chamber may be over the hatchway of a
ship, or, in the case of an old and worthless hulk, the decks may be
blown off and the working end of the apparatus lowered right down
through and on to the cargo itself. Sufficient additional water ballast
may now be introduced to hold the working chamber securely to the
bottom, or it may be held fast to the hulk itself, if that course be
preferable. It will thus be seen that communication is now established
between the surface and the submerged vessel at the point where it
is desired to carry on the operations, and it will be realized that
this can be accomplished without the use of divers and in absolute
safety throughout the range or reach of the apparatus. The operators
are protected by a strong steel tube, which now forms a sheltered
passageway to and from the surface under normal atmospheric pressure,
and no more skill is required to go down within working reach of the
sunken ship than that required to go up or down a flight of stairs. It
will also be seen, by referring to the sketch, that the operators are
where they are protected from the currents, and even quite a severe
storm on the surface would not interfere with work below, so long as
the surface vessel could be held to her moorings.

The illustration shows a wrecking plant of the "Lake" design as it
appears when operating on a sunken steamship. The case taken for
illustration is that of a vessel that had been sunk for some time and
where it had been considered advisable to blow away the decks in order
to enable the operating compartment of the tube to be lowered right
down into the cargo hold. The ship's hold is lighted up electrically,
and the work of removing the material follows. A light down-haul line
leads from the lower block of each set of derrick falls, and is led
through a block secured conveniently to the diver's station. This
line is handled by an electric winch in the operating compartment.
Its purpose is to return the hoisting line with its sling to the
divers after each load has been discharged upon the surface craft.
As the divers operate only a few feet from the working chamber, they
are protected from the surge of the surface boat, with its attendant
pull on air-hose and life-line, and also from possible aggravation
by currents; and, as the handling of all lines is done by mechanical
power, work of recovery may be carried on in a very expeditious manner
with a minimum of stress upon the operator.

[Illustration: THE "CAVIAR MAP" OF SHIPPING'S GREATEST GRAVE-YARD

(The little circles represent wrecks.)

Reproduction of a chart published by the German Hydrographic Office,
giving a list of wrecks which have occurred in the locality pictured
during a period of only fifteen years. This great loss of shipping was
one of the principal causes leading up to the construction of the Kiel
canal.]

In many waters the divers would be engaged in plain view of their
tenders in the operating compartment, who would handle the down-pull
lines and transmit signals by bell or telephone to the control station
on the boat above. Work is thus carried on continuously by relays
of divers who are thoroughly conversant with the progress of the
undertaking and the circumstances affecting performance. Through the
medium of the equalizing room the divers, who leave their helmets,
shoes, and weights in the operating chamber, are able to undergo slowly
and comfortably either decompression or compression after or before
each shift. They can remain in the equalizing room as long as necessary
to effect this in the way most conducive to their physical well-being.
This compartment is well lighted, is fitted with seats, and provides
every reasonable convenience for the diver during this intermediate
stage.

Statistics have been published to show that practically the entire
commerce of the world sinks in every twenty-five years. In the present
war the rate of sinking has been, of course, enormously accelerated,
and millions of tons of ships have been sunk, with billions of dollars'
worth of cargo. Many of these vessels were sunk in the North Sea or
the English Channel, where the water is comparatively shallow, and
where many of the cargoes can undoubtedly be recovered with the proper
apparatus. The loss of ships in peace times is such a common occurrence
that little attention is paid to them except when their loss is
accompanied by great loss of life, as was the case with the _Titanic_,
the _Monroe_, the _Empress of Ireland_, or the _Lusitania_. There are
therefore great opportunities for devices of this nature to operate
profitably.

Another use to which the submarine may be put is the recovery of
shellfish from the sea bottom. For such work as this adaptations of the
submarine vessel are well fitted.

A submarine vessel of the "Lake" bottom-working type has been designed
and is now being built for the location of and the recovery of
shellfish on a large scale. Shellfish abound on both the Atlantic and
Pacific coasts in great quantities. They are about the most delicious
and nutritious food known to man. The most common shellfish are the
oyster, the round or hard-shell clam, the long-neck or soft-shell clam,
the scallop, and, on the Pacific coast, the abalone, which is valuable
both for its mother-of-pearl shell and its meat, which is a great
delicacy, the most of which is sent to Japan, either dried or canned.

My own sea-bottom investigations, combined with the sea-bottom
investigations of the United States Fish Commission, have led me to the
conclusion that edible shellfish abound along our coast in such great
quantities that they can become an important rival to our meat-growing
and packing industries, provided the proper apparatus is used for their
recovery. I have, when "wheeling" along the bottom, found beds of the
round or hard-shell clam in such great quantities that there must have
been thousands of bushels to the acre. This was in waters too deep
to be recovered by the usual clammers' apparatus. It is impossible
to dredge for the soft-shell clam, as the shell is too delicate, and
to pull them out of their bed would crush them. The abalone attach
themselves to rocks, and it requires considerable force to break their
hold, so there is no known means to recover them with surface ships.

The oyster industry is the only one that has thus far been developed by
planting and cultivating methods, so that it is now a great industry,
employing thousands of steam, internal-combustion, and sail boats in
their cultivation and collection for the market. The method employed by
the largest growers is by the use of power boats which drag dredges.
These are rakes with a meshed bag dragging on the bottom back of the
tooth bar of the dredge to collect the oysters after they are raked
or torn up from their beds. This is not a scientific method, for the
reason that many of the oysters are killed by the heavy dredge being
dragged over them. It is largely a hit-or-miss or grab-in-the-dark
method, as it is impossible to clean up the ground in this manner.
Some oyster grounds will produce from three to four thousand bushels
of oysters to the acre. When dredging is started it is only necessary
to drag the dredge a few feet before it is filled; then, as the
oysters become thinner, the drag becomes longer. They drag in all
directions across the grounds, but, as they cannot see the bottom,
there are places they never hit, because the wind and currents prevent
a systematic covering of the ground.

[Illustration: SUBMARINE OYSTER-GATHERING VESSEL

By admitting water ballast into ballast tanks the vessel is allowed
to sink to the bottom with sufficient weight to afford traction to
the toothed driving wheels in the central operating compartment. This
compartment is open at the bottom; water is prevented from entering it
by the use of compressed air. As this apartment is well lighted the
oysters may readily be seen lying on the bottom the full width and
length of the compartment. When the boat is given headway the oysters
are automatically transferred into the cargo holds by means of a system
of pipes and suction pumps to induce a flow of water which carries the
oysters from the dredges.]

The design of a submarine oyster-dredging vessel is such that the
vessel goes down to the bottom direct and the water is forced out of
the centre raking compartment so that the oysters may be seen by the
operator in the control department. With only a few inches of water
over them, headway is then given to the submarine and the oysters are
then automatically raked up, washed, and delivered through pipes into
the cargo-carrying chambers, as shown. Centrifugal pumps are constantly
delivering water from the cargo compartments, which induces a flow of
water through the pipes leading from the "rake pans" with sufficient
velocity to carry up the oysters and deposit them into the cargo holds.
In this manner the bottom may be seen, and by "tracking" back and forth
over the bottom the ground may be cleaned up at one operation.

The author's design of vessel illustrated has a capacity of gathering
oysters from good ground at the rate of five thousand bushels per
hour. The use of the submarine will make the recovery of oysters more
nearly like the method of reaping a field of grain, where one "swath"
systematically joins on to another, and the whole field is cleaned up
at one operation.

In many other fields of industrial and commercial enterprise the
submarine is qualified to render valuable services. In general
submarine engineering work; in the construction of breakwaters,
lighthouses, driving piles and building abutments, and in the deepening
and improvement of waterways and harbors, the submarine will be
utilized. In prospecting for, and the recovery and separation of, gold
from river-beds and sea-coast bottoms submarine devices have been found
to be very efficient and economical. A new method of laying tunnels
under water has been proposed in which adaptations of the submarine
boat will play a great part. However, these latter developments of the
submarine are so highly specialized and a description of them would
be so very technical that mere mention of these possibilities will be
sufficient for the purposes of this book.

Thus it is evident that the submarine has a utility entirely apart from
that of a military weapon. Its unique qualities fit it for the labors
of peace as well as for those of war. Of course, in both cases, either
as a naval weapon or as an industrial mechanism, it is the unique
capacity of submergence possessed by the submarine which makes it of
value, and in either case it is the question of accessibility which is
all-important. In the war use the chief function of the submarine is to
make itself inaccessible to the foe. It is immune from attack because
it cannot be seen. It is able to strike at its foe with success because
its presence is not detected by him. It is thus able to make use of
its destructive energy in perfect safety. On the other hand, the chief
value of the industrial submarine lies in the fact that it constitutes
a means of access to places otherwise inaccessible to men. It is very
desirable and very profitable for men to go down into the depths of the
sea. There are things well worth doing on the bed of the ocean. Travel
may be made safe, goods of great value may be brought up, foodstuffs
of the first order may be obtained there; with submarines men may
prosecute their labors beneath the sea with very little danger and at
a minimum of cost. The diver's profession will become, through the use
of this mechanism, an important factor in the economic affairs of the
world.

CHAPTER VIII

THE DESTINY OF THE SUBMARINE

Studies of the submarine which deal with the subject solely from the
engineering or military standpoint, or which treat of the development
of this weapon simply in the light of its strategic value, fail to
recognize the human aspects of the problem.

I have stated in the Foreword that at the present time the submarine
is a tremendous factor in the political and industrial economy of the
world, and I believe that a treatment of the submarine which gives
no consideration to it in this broader relationship to the life and
welfare of humanity is altogether incomplete. In my opinion, just as
the submarine is to-day a power to be reckoned with in the world--an
agency the prodigious capacity for destruction of which we realize but
too well--so is it to be in the future an instrument the influence of
which upon the progress and safety of the nations of the earth will be
well-nigh incalculable. Temporarily, it presents itself as a power for
evil, as the weapon, the bludgeon, as it were, of either a misguided
people or of an overbearing and power-thirsty aristocracy; permanently,
I believe, it will prove to be destined to work for the highest good
of humanity, and will serve the noblest and most intimate interests
of men; for, as I have asserted above, the submarine has by no means
been brought to its fullest measure of development. The limit of its
capabilities has not been approached by modern ship constructors,
even remotely. It will have a future; it has a destiny; it will serve
mankind.

There have been many criticisms and attacks directed at the submarine
and against the designers of submarines within the past few years.
These may be classified in general into two main categories: first,
those which discredit the submarine on the basis of its mechanical
limitations, and, secondly, those which assail the submarine on moral
and humanitarian grounds and condemn the use of the weapon as piratical
and murderous. For people who criticise the submarine on the grounds
first stated I have little sympathy; they are those "who have eyes and
see not, and having ears, hear not." They disavow the very testimony
of the senses. I can, however, fully sympathize with those who attack
the submarine on the latter basis; the events of the past three years
may have borne this conviction upon them. Yet they also fail to realize
that the submarine, in the end, will render great benefits and service
to the world. They judge too much from the present and look too rarely
into the future. By way of answering these criticisms I will be able to
present the facts concerning the future of the submarine as they appear
to me after years of thought and experimentation in this field.

[Illustration: THE "ARGOSY AND ARGONAUT III"

A house boat with submarine and access tube attached, built by the
author in 1917, for pleasure and experimental purposes in making
underwater explorations and investigation of sea coast waterbed
formation, in locating beds of shellfish, wrecks, etc., and to
demonstrate the practicability of their recovery. The house boat is 100
ft. overall, 20 ft. beam. The submarine can operate up to depths of 150
ft. by adding additional lengths of access tube.]

There are many who believe that the submarine is limited in its power
because of the inherent nature of its operation. These are the people
who erroneously conceive that the submarine designers in some peculiar
and miraculous way manage to get around the laws of the universe. They
think that the activity of the submarine is in defiance of the law of
gravitation; that it performs unnatural feats. People with such views,
of course, are inclined to believe that the submarine by now must
have reached the height of its development, and that in any case it
is an unreliable mechanism. Criticism from such sources is worthy
of notice solely because of its positive stupidity. Inventors never
perform miracles and they never defy nature. Man can never master
nature nor override her dictates. The inventor, rather, is one who
comes to know the laws of nature with intimacy, and devises ways to
turn them to his use. He works in harmony with nature, perhaps a little
more closely than ordinary men; the secret of inventors' successes
lies in the fact that they are those who best know how to coöperate
with nature. Just so the submarine, as we have seen, acts in response
to the laws of gravity, hydraulics, pneumatics, and other natural
sciences, and is in complete accordance with nature's dictates; it has
no limitations set by nature upon its operation. Objectors on these
grounds are in the same class with those who asserted some years ago
that an iron ship could not float.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF THE "ARGOSY AND ARGONAUT III"

Sketch showing the submarine "Argonaut III" on the bottom and operator
in diving compartment inspecting the waterbed through the open diver's
door.]

There is also a very numerous class of persons who hold that the
submarine is a very risky and dangerous mechanism; they feel that
the principles of its operation have not yet been brought to a point
of safety or certainty. The facts upon which they base this judgment
are found by them in the accounts of the many accidents which have
occurred to submarines in recent years. As a matter of fact, these
accidents have been due, as a rule, to either of two causes; namely,
faulty construction or carelessness. There is not a case on record of
a properly constructed, well-handled submarine coming to grief through
any cause related to the principle of her operation. The principles
of successfully navigating under the water were discovered twenty
years ago, and have been applied with perfect safety ever since.
Many designers since that time have failed to recognize the correct
principles, and their incorrectly built boats have given trouble;
hence accidents have occurred. To-day, however, the true principles
of construction are universally recognized. The modern submarine has
passed the stage of experimentation.

Another source for notions of this same sort, as to the unreliability
of submarine navigation, is the constant repetition in the daily press
that our submarines are not operating satisfactorily. These complaints
also lead people to conclude that the mechanical demands of under-water
navigation are not completely fulfilled. Now, submarine vessels may be
constructed to-day which are a great deal more trustworthy in their
operation and considerably less dangerous to go about in than are
certain well-known United States railroads. Nearly every submarine
in use in the navies of the world at the present day is capable of
functioning in perfect safety, so far as submergence and emergence
are concerned. They may be operated with almost exact precision while
located many feet beneath the surface. If given sufficient static
stability, there is no danger that they will dive to the bottom or that
they will not come up again.

The cause of all these complaints about our submarines is traceable
to a single difficulty. The reader by this time realizes that the
difficulty is with the engines, and not with the principles of
submarine construction. The modern submarine builder cannot find
an engine of sufficiently light weight to install with safety in a
submarine hull which will give all the speed which the government
demands that his boat should produce. On attempting to attain speed
much engine trouble has developed, due to experimentation and trial,
and from this source have sprung all the criticisms of the operation
of our vessels. There is no such natural limitation to the possible
utility of the submarine as many people believe; the only limitation is
that of speed. Our boats are safe, they are seaworthy, they are capable
of a tremendous radius of action. Sooner or later a reliable engine
will be developed which will meet the needs of military submarines
and which will deliver power sufficient to give the submarine
battleship speed. This is at present the only limitation upon submarine
development, and it is not an insuperable obstacle.

Those critics of the submarine who base their opinions upon moral and
humanitarian notions are as self-deceived as those who disparage the
mechanical success of the under-water vessel. People in this latter
class, however, are not afflicted with a distorted vision of the truth,
as are those of the other group, but rather, we may say, they suffer
from nearsightedness. They do not look far enough ahead to judge as
to the permanent utility of the submarine. They base their inferences
entirely upon the use which one of the belligerent powers has made of
its submarines. It is true, indeed, that the activities of a great
many submarine commanders, and the policy of frightfulness which has
been so consistently maintained throughout the course of the war by a
certain group of autocrats, have temporarily put a moral stigma upon
the submarine as a justifiable naval weapon. They have made it appear
that the submarine cannot play a humane and legitimate part in warfare.
While I have firmly maintained, and still believe, that a submarine
blockade is a legitimate use of this weapon in warfare, I do regret
that many acts committed by the submarines of one of the belligerents
in the present war have been little short of outright piracy.

Strange to say, from the time when I first went into submarine work
a fear has always possessed me that the submarine might be turned
to piratical uses. I have often thought that some unscrupulous and
adventurous group of men might terrorize the commerce of the world
in times of peace by taking advantage of the invisible qualities of
submarine vessels. Such a group of men with the use of such a weapon
might make submarine attacks on peaceful merchant vessels and escape
detection and capture for years. I did not, however, nor did any other
submarine inventor, anticipate that any of the world's recognized
governments would sanction piratical and barbarous actions on the part
of their naval officers. In fact, it has been the aim of submarine
inventors, from Fulton's time to the present, to devise a weapon that
would ultimately bring war between maritime nations to an end. They
have not had in mind the murderous designs which have been accredited
to them from the very outset. It is my firm conviction that it is the
destiny of the submarine to put an end forever to the possibility of
warfare upon the high seas, and to eliminate warfare between nations
which have no other access to each other except by sea. This is the
wonderful opportunity of the submarine, and the submarine inventor has
been and will be a laborer in the cause of peace, and not the cause of
war and bloodshed.

Robert Fulton pointed out this possibility when he was working upon his
own devices. In a letter upon the subject he stated:

"All my reflections have led me to believe that this application of
it (the use of the mines placed by submarines) will in a few years
put a stop to maritime wars, give that liberty on the seas which
has been long and anxiously desired by every good man, and secure
to Americans that liberty which will enable citizens to apply their
mental and corporeal faculties to useful and humane pursuits, to
the improvement of our country, and the happiness of the whole
people."

Later on it was Josiah L. Tuck who recognized the same fact, and
entitled the vessel of his construction _The Peacemaker_.

The reason which underlies this conviction held by submarine inventors
was succinctly expressed by the late Mr. John P. Holland. He pointed
out the fact that "submarines cannot fight submarines," the submarine
inventors have long since grasped the significance of this fact,
realizing as they have that the submarine eventually was to drive the
battleship from the sea.

When the day comes that submarines are equipped with engines of
battleship speed, and thus take away from the battleships the only
means of defence which they now have--namely, the ability to run away
from the submarine--the submarine will dominate the surface of the
high seas. Submarines may be built of almost any conceivable size, and
carry large-calibre disappearing guns and ten, fifty, or one hundred
torpedoes. The battleship will be powerless before the submarine of the
future; the advantage will always be with the submarines, as they are
invisible.

When every country with a sea-coast is equipped with a sufficient
number of defensive submarines, even of very low speed, attacks by
invasion of their sea-coasts will become impossible. In case two
maritime nations go to war, the submarines belonging to each will
effectively blockade the ports of the other. Commerce will come to
an end, but there will be no invasions and no naval battles. The
submarines, not being able to see each other, will not be able to
fight. The worst that can happen is a deadlock, and a commercial
deadlock of this sort will soon be ended by mutual agreement. The
smallest of countries may fear no country, however large, whose sole
access to her is by way of water. With a few defensive submarines she
may adequately protect herself from invasion. Her shipping may be
bottled up, but she needs to stand in no fear of invading hosts and
of rapine by armies from across the ocean. She stands prepared, with
a fleet of a few tiny submarines, to stand for her rights and for her
liberty.

Offensively the submarine will be of little value when brought to
its highest point of development, for when every nation is fully
equipped with submarines the menace of these vessels will keep enemy
surface ships from venturing on the sea. There will be nothing for
the submarines to attack except ships of their own kind, and that,
of course, will be impossible. Thus wars between maritime nations
will come to be nothing more than a mutual check; no surface ships or
transports will dare to move in any direction. Offensive warfare will
thus end, and each nation will be playing a waiting game, relying upon
her submarines for defence.

This is the destiny of the submarine. This has been the aim and the
prophecy of the pioneers in submarine development. There is nothing
which will stand in the way of the accomplishment of this happy
result. The success of the submarine in the present war has at last
forced those in power--and among them many who bitterly opposed its
development--to recognize the value of this weapon. Submarine designers
and submarine inventors will from now on receive the encouragement and
the attention of naval authorities throughout the world. Hence we may
expect to see the submarine developed and improved until it has many
times the efficiency, speed, and destructive power which is possessed
by it to-day. We may also expect to see the industrial possibilities
of the submarine developed to a high degree within a few years. Travel
will be made safer, rich cargoes will be recovered, and the ocean will
be forced to give up its wealth and its products to the uses of man in
greater quantity than ever before. Thus, instead of following a career
of murder and of piracy, the submarine is destined to protect the weak,
to strengthen the strong, and to serve humanity in general as an agent
for prosperity and for peace.

INDEX

A-8, English submarine, 47

A-1, English submarine, 48

Abbott, Leon, 123

Aerial torpedoes, 240

Aeroplanes, 234ff

Air supply, question of, 49-51

"Alligator," Russian submarine, 67

"American Turtle," 79, 80, 149ff

"Amphibious" submarines, 202ff

Anchoring weights, 20, 21

Appropriation, U. S., 1893, requirements, 161ff

Appropriation, U. S., 1915, requirements, 175

"Argonaut," 1, 7, 10, 36, 41, 50, 55, 58, 60, 70, 125, 177ff, 264,
270, 276

"Argonaut, Junior," 125, 127, 176ff

Asphyxiation, 32, 70

Baker, G. F., 121, 161, 163

Ballast tanks, 9

"Battle of the Kegs," 81

Becklemechief, Capt., 65

Berg, H. O., 137

Blinding the submarine, 244

Board on Submarine Defense, report of, 209ff, 215ff

Bombs, 248

Bonaparte, Napoleon, 81

Bottom wheels, 216, 219

Bourgois and Brun, 153

Brayton engines, 94

Bubonoff, Constructor, 65

Buoyancy, negative, 18-19

Buoyancy, positive, 18-19

Buoyancy, reserve of, 9

Bushnell, Dr. David, 79, 149

Carbonic acid gas, engine, 10

Cargo-carrying submarines, 251ff

Champion, S. T., 127

Champion, B. F., 128

Churchill, Winston, 217

Classes of submarine, 206

Coast defense submarines, 197

Compass, adjustment of, 180, 181

Compressed air engine, 10

"Congress, The," 87

Conning tower (invisible), 26

Converse, G. A., 162

Convoy, 249

Criticisms of submarine, 290ff

Cruiser submarines, 199ff

"Cumberland, The," 87

Dangers of submarining, 32ff

Daniels, Josephus, 139

Dawson, Sir Trevor, 174

Day, 79

Debrell, Cornelius, 77, 78

Deck guns, 239

Decompression, question of, 278

Defensive devices, 232

"Delphine," Russian submarine, 65, 66

Depth control, 17ff, 216

Destiny of submarine, 296, 297

Detection of surface ships, 257

"Deutschland, The," 251

Dickey, 91

Diesel engines, 13ff

Dirigibles, 234ff

Discs, whirling, 248

Divers, 59, 276, 277ff

Divers' compartment, 30, 51ff, 221

Dixon, Lieut., 39

Doyle, A. Conan, 4

Dunkerly, 91

"Dzrewiecke apparatus," 192

E-2, American submarine, 76

"Eagle, The," 79, 80, 150

Echo device, 241

Edison, Thos. A., 16, 141

Electric Boat Company, 114

Engines, 9ff

Engines, difficulty with, 11ff, 292, 293

"Even-keel," 173ff, 183

Exius, Otto, 140

Explosions, 70ff

F-1, American submarine, 76

F-4, American submarine, 76

"Farfadet," French submarine, 76

Fenian movement, 96, 157, 158

"Fenian Ram," 96ff, 157, 158

Fessenden, Prof., 27, 238

Fisher, J. J., 56

Fleet submarines, 199ff

"Foca, The," 13

Folger, Commander, 162

"Fortuna," 63

Freight submarine, 58

"Fulton," American submarine, 76

Fulton, Robert, 81, 151, 294, 295

Gadd, Capt. Alex., 44

Garrett, G. W., 158

Geological investigation (submarine), 264

Goubet, M., 160

Government aid to inventors, 138ff

Grubb, Sir Howard, 25

"Gustave Zédé," French submarine, 162

"Gymnote," French submarine, 162

Gyroscope, 29

Hale, Senator, 125

Halstead, O. S., 155

Hanson, Capt. Scott, 263

Hasker, C. H., 38, 152

Haswell, C. H., 126

Holland, J. P., 84ff, 157, 163, 295

Holland, J. P., Jr., 85

"Holland, The," American submarine, 190, 191

Hopkinson, Francis, 81

"Housatonic," S. S., 39

Hull, construction of, 6, 7

"Hunley, The," 37, 38, 152, 158

Hydrogen, 16

Hydrographic investigation, 269ff

Hydroplanes, 17, 171ff

"Intelligent Whale, The," 155ff

Internal combustion engines, 10

International peace, influence of submarines, 295

Installation of batteries, 16

Inventors, proposed institution for, 146ff

"Irish Ram." See "Fenian Ram."

Jonson, Ben, 77

Koenig, Capt. Paul, 251

Krupps, 183, 184

Lake, 1893 design, 169ff

Lauboeuf, M., 2, 173, 183

Laurenti, naval constructor, 183, 186

Lees, Capt. Edgar, 174

Legitimacy of the submarine, 294

Limitations of the submarine, 290ff

Lister, John, 91

"Lutine, The," 76

Magnetic devices, 247ff

Malster, W. T., 131

Maxim, Sir Hiram, 137

"Merrimac, The," 86

Metacentric height, 8ff

Microphone, 198

Mines, 80, 220

Mine-evading submarine, 206, 216ff

Mine-laying submarine, 208, 216ff

Mirabello, Admiral, 185

"Monitor, The," 86

"Morse, The," French submarine, 191

Nansen, Capt., 263

"Narval, The," French submarine, 191

"Nautilus, The," 81

Nautilus Submarine Boat Co., 109

Naval Consulting Board, 139, 141ff

Nets, used _vs._ submarines, 242ff, 245ff

Net-evading submarines, 206, 216ff

New Orleans submarine, 39, 152, 153

_New York Herald_, 129, 141

Nordenfelt, 158, 159

"Obry" gear, 29

Offensive devices, 232

Officina Galileo, 24

Omniscope, 25

One-man submarines, 205

Oscillator, Fessenden, 27, 238

Paget, Lord, 87

Patent attorneys, 134

Patent laws, 187

Patent "sharks," 134

Payne, Lieut., 38

"Peacemaker, The," 83, 160

Peral, Lieut. Isaac, 160

Periscope, 22ff, 47, 48

Perpetual motion machine, 135, 136

Piratical submarine, 294

Pitt, William, 83

Planté storage battery, 15

"Plongeur, Le," French submarine, 153, 154

"Plunger, The," 166ff, 176, 188ff

"Pluviose, The," French submarine, 76

Promoters, 130ff

Propelling mechanism, 9ff

"Protector, The," 43, 50, 62, 209ff, 235, 260, 262

"Resurgam, The," 158

Rice, Isaac, 115, 192

Richards, G. M., 98, 99, 102

"Running down," danger of, 42ff

Russian experiences, 63ff

Sampson, Admiral, 96, 124

Salvaging, 57, 275

"Schwartzkopf" torpedoes, 247

_Scientific American_, 242

Scott, Sir Percy, 3

Searching for wrecks, 275, 276

Searchlights, 240

Shell-fishing, 285ff

Smoke screen, 249

Sound receivers, 27ff

Sound detectors, 237ff, 239

Spear, L. Y., 173

Speed, demand for, 11-19

Stability, 7ff, 70, 150

Storage batteries, 9, 15ff

Submarine engineering, 287

Submarine guns, 240

Submarine supply boats, 223ff

Submarine _vs._ submarine, 244

Sueter, Murray F., 173

Superstructure, 7, 182

Tillian, Capt., 67

Torpedoes, 28ff, 247

Torpedo tubes, 28

Triangular drag, 165

Trinitrotoluol (T-N-T), 30

Tuck, Josiah L., 83, 84, 160, 295

Turret, armored, 235

U-1, Austrian submarine, 48

U-2, Austrian submarine, 48

U-boats, German, 3

Under-ice navigation, 260ff

Unsinkable ships, 248

Verne, Jules, 1, 119

Vickers Company, 193

Vision, underwater, 236, 241

Waddington, 160, 161

"Wake" of a periscope, 233

Ward, Dr. Francis, 266, 267

Washington, George, 150

Weddingen, Lieut., 4

White, Sir William, 192

Whitehead torpedo, 2, 28, 29, 247

Williamson Brothers, 265ff

Williamson, Capt. Charles, 265

Wireless, 28, 198

Wrecking work, 57

Wright Brothers, 137

Zalinski, Capt., 109

Zigzag course, 250

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Probably "The Intelligent Whale."

[2] NOTE.--The blockade of Alexandria was in progress at that time.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
The oe ligature has been replaced by 'oe'.

Obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and
consultation of external sources.

Except for those changes noted below, inconsistent or archaic spelling
of a word or word-pair within the text has been retained. For example:
gasolene gasoline; waterbed water-bed; air lock air-lock; under-sea
undersea; conquerer; to-day.

List of Illustrations:
p xi. 'Tubes Assembled for' changed to 'Tubes Assembled Ready for'.
p xi. 'Built in August,' changed to 'Built. Launched in August,'.
p xii. 'of "Argosy" and' changed to 'of the "Argosy" and'.
p xii. 'Le Plungeur' changed to 'Le Plongeur'.

p 117. 'blank space' replaced by '__________'.
p 194. (caption)'Laubeuf' changed to 'Lauboeuf'.
p 301. 'Schwarzkopf' changed to 'Schwartzkopf'.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Submarine in War and Peace - Its Development and its Possibilities" ***

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