The Historical Child - Paidology; The Science of the Child

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Title: The Historical Child - Paidology; The Science of the Child
Author: Chrisman, Oscar
Language: English
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Transcriber's Note:

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document.

_Paidology_
_The Science of the Child_

THE

HISTORICAL CHILD

BY
OSCAR CHRISMAN, A.M., Ph.D.
_Professor of Paidology and Psychology in the Ohio University_

BOSTON

RICHARD G. BADGER

THE GORHAM PRESS

_All Rights Reserved_

Made in the United States of America

The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A.

TO MY WIFE

PREFACE

In the _Pedagogical Seminary_ for December, 1893, in an article on "The
Hearing of Children," the last paragraph, page 438, occurred for the
first time in print the word _paidology_.[1] In _The Forum_ for
February, 1894, page 728, the first article explanatory of paidology
appeared. A more complete outlining of the subject was as a doctor's
dissertation at the University of Jena, Germany, 1896. In the first
edition of the Standard Dictionary was included the word paidology,
wherein it was defined as "The scientific study of the child." Paidology
originated in my mind at a very unexpected moment one day in April,
1893.

This book is the first of a series that it is my purpose to write upon
child life. The others will follow from time to time upon the different
phases of child being. This book and the others it is hoped may appear
are the outcome of several years of study and of teaching the subject to
young men and women, which has proved to me that people are eager to
know about children in the past as well as in the present. He who wishes
to acquaint himself with children and child nature must have a knowledge
of child life as it existed among the various nations of the world. The
child as found in Ancient Mexico and Ancient Peru is given place here
because the life and doings of these peoples have always been attractive
reading to me, and also it is well to consider child life in these
nations who reached such a high stage of existence among the lower forms
of human society and so far removed from the civilizations of Asia and
Europe. It is hoped there is value in this work to the student of child
nature and that young people may find it interesting and profitable.

It will be noted that there are topics of a general nature given in this
work, which purports to be a study of child life. When it is considered
that the affairs of a nation affect every class and age of the persons
constituting it and especially react upon women, the mothers, then it
may be understood how vital these matters become in a study of child
life among a people and how necessary they are for a better
comprehension of what is directly connected with children. Too the term
"child" is used here in a general sense, to include all ages up to full
manhood.

It seems to me that everything done and studied in my whole life touches
this science of the child and that every one with whom I have come in
contact has aided me. It is wished here to express in a general way my
thanks to these friends for their help. I must, though, mention by name
a few who have more directly made this book possible. First of all is
President G. Stanley Hall of Clark University, the great leader and
pioneer in the study of children, with whom I spent two years and from
whom I first obtained the right ideas of studying child life. Another is
Professor Wilhelm Rein of the University of Jena, who kindly permitted
me to use paidology as the subject for my doctor's thesis and extended
the time for working on it, thus giving me opportunity for use of
material at Berlin and when completed he endorsed the thesis,
"Paidologie, Entwurf zu einer Wissenschaft des Kindes," to the Senate of
his University. A third one to whom I am greatly indebted is Professor
Rudolph Eucken of the University of Jena, whose lectures listened to for
a year gave me a broader view of life and the sympathy he expressed for
myself and work were of the utmost encouragement and too at a time when
well needed. I owe much to Prof. Dr. W. Preyer of the University of
Berlin, now deceased, who wrote me encouragingly of my work before my
going to Germany and while there he talked over matters with me and went
over the thesis when completed and had faith in the idea I was
promulgating, new at that time, that the study of the child is a science
in and of itself and for which I had originated the term paidology, and
he advised and encouraged me to make it my life study.

I must take this opportunity to express gratitude to my wife who so
willingly gave up the many things which are so dear to a woman and a
mother that there might be acquired by myself the very best education
the world could give and so make possible the coming forth of paidology
and all it may contain.

O. C.

_The Ohio University._

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

PREFACE 7

I. THE CHILD IN MEXICO 15-38
The people 15
Women and marriage 16
Birth 18
Casting the nativity of the infant 19
Baptizing and naming child 19
Care and treatment of children 19
Dress 24
Food and drink 25
Lore 27
Human sacrifice 28
Slavery 30
Industries 30
Couriers 33
Amusements 33
Education 36

II. THE CHILD IN PERU 39-51
The people 39
Buildings 41
Dress 41
Food, drink, narcotics 42
Marriage 43
Care and treatment of children 44
The Virgins of the Sun 44
Human sacrifice 45
Industries 45
Training of the Inca and the Order of the Huaracu 49
Education 50

III. THE CHILD IN EGYPT 52-84
The country 52
The people 53
Slavery 54
The home 55
Women and marriage 57
Child and parent 58
Dress 59
Food and drink 62
Food and clothing of children 64
Industries 65
Sickness and death 74
Child and religion 76
Amusements 76
Games, plays, and toys 81
Education 82

IV. THE CHILD IN INDIA 85-103
Caste 85
Women and marriage 85
Boys and girls 96
Infanticide 97
Dress 98
Amusements 98
Rites 99
Adoption 99
Inheritance 100
Education 100

V. THE CHILD IN CHINA 104-129
Women and marriage 104
Infancy 112
Boys and girls 115
Child and parent 116
Deformation of the feet 117
Amusements 118
Dress 121
Religion 122
Education 123

VI. THE CHILD IN JAPAN 130-160
Women 130
Marriage 134
The mother's memorial 138
Dress 140
Regulations 140
The care of children 143
Naming children 145
Carrying children 145
Adoption and inheritance 145
Power and duty of father 146
Amusements 146
Lore 152
Religion 155
Suicide 155
Work 156
Education 157

VII. THE CHILD IN PERSIA 161-166
Characteristics 161
Women and marriage 161
Dress 163
Child and parent 163
Inheritance 163
Amusements 164
Education 164

VIII. THE CHILD IN JUDEA 167-176
Historical 167
Women and marriage 167
Care and treatment of children 170
Duties of children 171
Dress 171
Amusements 173
Education 173

IX. THE CHILD IN GREECE 177-211
Physical characteristics 177
The people 177
The home 178
Girls and women 178
Marriage 182
Dress 186
Food 190
Child and parent 191
Care of children 191
Infanticide 193
Duties of children 194
Adoption and inheritance 194
Toys and playthings 194
Games and plays 195
Sports and festivals 197
Other amusements 199
Sickness and death 201
Religion 202
Education 203

X. THE CHILD IN ROME 212-263
Characteristics 212
The people 213
Slavery 214
The home 215
Women 218
Marriage 224
Dress 231
Food 237
Child and parent 238
Names 239
Care and treatment of children 239
Citizenship 240
Inheritance 241
Adoption 242
Sickness and death 243
Industries 246
The spectacles 249
Other amusements 253
The bath 254
Games and plays 254
Religion 255
Vestal Virgins 255
Education 257

XI. THE CHILD IN EARLIER AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE 264-312
Historical and critical 264
Feudalism 265
The feudal castle and its life 267
Chivalry 268
The peasantry 271
The town people 273
The aristocracy 275
The home 276
Women 277
Marriage 279
Dress 282
Food 285
Children of the ancient Britons 287
Children among the early Christians 289
Child and parent 289
Care and treatment of children 290
Apprenticeship 290
Military training for the young 291
Amusements 292
Education 296
The children's crusade 302
Other child-pilgrimages 310

XII. THE CHILD IN EARLIER UNITED STATES 313-455
Customs relating to land 313
The people 314
Slavery 316
Servants 318
The home 322
Women 334
Marriage 336
Dress 348
Infants' clothing 359
Boys' clothing 360
Girls' clothing 361
Food 364
Drink 369
Food and drink of children 374
Infancy 376
Number and names of children 379
Child welfare 380
Manners and courtesy of children 382
Diary of a Boston school girl of 1771 384
Inheritance 388
Sickness and death 389
The illness of children 396
Amusements 398
Games and sports of children and young people 407
Children's toys and story books 412
Holidays and festivals 413
Public punishments 416
Manufactures 421
Boys' work and manufactures 422
Girls' and women's work 423
Religion 428
The child and religion 438
Education 442

INDEX 457

THE HISTORICAL CHILD

CHAPTER I

THE CHILD IN MEXICO

=The People.= When the Spaniards entered Mexico, in the sixteenth
century, and conquered it, they found the ruling people to be the Aztecs
and whose capital city, Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), was on an island in
the lake of Tezcoco. The Aztecs were not the first inhabitants of Mexico
as they had entered the country some five hundred years before the
Spanish conquest and through alliances and conquests had become the
ruling power about a century before the appearance of the Spaniards. The
people whom the Aztecs found when they entered Mexico told them of a
great people who had lived before their time and the ruins of whose
great buildings remained and still exist to the present day and who were
designated the Toltecs. It has been claimed for the Toltecs a very high
state of civilization, much in advance of the Aztecs, and some even
holding that it really equaled the civilization of the present time.

Mexico at the time of the conquest by the Spaniards was a monarchy, in
which the king stood supreme as he was a priest of their great god,
commander-in-chief of the military forces, and supreme judge. The
throne, however, was not hereditary, as upon a vacancy a ruler was
selected by four officers appointed for that purpose by the nobles and
principal officials of the kingdom. The king was usually taken from the
ruling family and might have been a brother of the late ruler or a
nephew belonging to an elder branch. The office-holders were usually
appointed for life and at their death the vacancies were filled by
appointment by the king. The people were divided into classes. The
highest class was a landed aristocracy, who paid no definite taxes but
owed service to the king; a second class, who ranked with the landed
aristocracy, was a military nobility who held land at the king's
goodwill; the next class embraced the freemen, who held land in common
and paid taxes in common; below these were a class of freemen who rented
the lands of the lord and made payment to him for the same; and the
lowest of all were the serfs, who were bound to the soil. They
maintained a military system and made war upon neighboring tribes; at
the time of the coming of the Spaniards this seemed to have been carried
on mostly for the purpose of securing captives for the human sacrifices
demanded by their religion. They had an elaborate and efficient judicial
system and the laws seem to have been justly administered to all alike,
whether the ones before the courts were of higher rank or of the common
people.

=Women and Marriage.= The women were described by the Spaniards as being
pretty, with long black hair, and with a serious and rather melancholy
cast of countenance. It would appear that they were treated with much
consideration by the men who permitted them to engage in festivities and
entertainments equally with themselves.

Marriage was an important institution with the Mexicans and it was held
in such high esteem that there was a tribunal appointed for the sole
purpose of attending to matters relating to it. The customary age with
men for marriage was about twenty, women marrying at a younger age. When
a young man reached this age it became his duty to marry and sometimes
the high priest commanded it of him. The selection of the bride was made
by the parents and if a young man refused to abide by his parents'
decision and made his own choice, he was looked upon as being quite
ungrateful to his parents. Should he refuse to marry, it was his duty to
remain continent through his life and devote himself to the service of
the gods. Should he afterward decide to marry, he was despised by his
friends and publicly denounced for not keeping his vow to the gods and
no respectable woman would marry him.

When the parents had decided it was time for their son to marry, all the
relatives were called together and a feast given at which the father
announced to them that the son was of proper age to be married. The son
was then informed that his parents were about to select a bride for him,
to which the young man gave consent. Then they called in the priests
under whom the young man had received his education and their permission
was obtained and one of the priests addressed the young man with advice
for the occasion. The next step was to ascertain the day and sign of the
young man's birth and also the birthday and sign of the young woman,
which was obtained through astrologers or soothsayers. If the horoscopes
of both were favorable and showed that the union would have good fortune
all was well; if not, another girl had to be selected. If the augurs
were favorable to the union, two discreet and virtuous elderly women
were called in as go-betweens. These women were given their directions
and they called upon the parents of the bride and after a second visit
preliminaries were arranged.

The parents of the girl then called in the relatives and friends and
informed them of the affair and the girl was given much advice by them.
Then their decision was sent to the parents of the young man. A
favorable day for the marriage was found by the augurs and both families
made preparations for the day of marriage and sent out invitations to
relatives and friends. On the day set for the marriage the relatives and
friends of the bride went to her home as did also some of the
bridegroom's relatives and friends and in procession escorted her to his
home, where the best room in the house had been fitted up for the
occasion and the house festooned with green branches and garlands of
flowers. The bridegroom met the bride at the entrance to his home and
took her by the hand and led her into the room for the ceremony. They
were then seated upon a special mat, the woman at the left of the man.
The mother of the bridegroom gave presents to the bride and the mother
of the bride gave presents to the bridegroom. Then the priest made a
long talk to the couple, defining their duties to one another and toward
the married state. The couple then arose and the priest tied the end of
the man's mantle to the dress of the woman. A feast was then partaken of
but in which the couple did not participate as they were required to
spend four days in fasting and prayer in the room, closely guarded by
old women. Upon the fourth night two priests prepared a couch of two
mats and the young people were left to themselves. The next day they
underwent a baptismal ceremony and they were adorned with new apparel
and some more advice was given them by the mothers-in-law or nearest
relatives, another feast was given of which they partook, and the
marriage ceremony was then fully completed.

Cousins were allowed to marry but not nearer relatives. As a rule a
widow was not permitted to remarry except a brother of her deceased
husband and in case she had children by the first marriage, then it was
the duty of the brother-in-law to marry her that the children might not
be without the care and protection of a father. Divorce was allowed but
only after a careful hearing by the tribunal on marriage, and when a
divorce was granted the couple could not under any circumstances be
reunited. Concubinage was practiced and it might occur even with young
people under marriageable age upon the consent of the parents. In this
there was no contract or ceremony, the two simply living together. In
case a child was born to them a marriage was performed or else the woman
returned to her parents' house, taking the child with her which was then
considered as belonging to her parents. This was not considered
dishonorable on the part of the girl nor were her chances for marriage
in any degree lessened by her having thus lived in a state of
concubinage. Polygamy was permitted but perhaps it was not greatly
indulged in and it was chiefly among the wealthiest people. The
necessity for monogamy seemed to be understood, as a record is given of
a father counselling his son that for the proper perpetuation of the
race but one man is ordained but for one woman.

=Birth.= As soon as a woman was found to be pregnant the relatives and
friends were informed of it and a feast was prepared, to which all were
invited who had been present at the wedding. Speeches of congratulations
and of admonition were made to the future parents. During the period
before the birth of the child, the mother was careful and she observed
many rules. "Thus, sleeping in the daytime would contort the child's
face; approaching too near the fire or standing in the hot sun would
parch the fœtus; hard and continued work, lifting weights, running,
mental excitement, such as grief, anger, or alarm, were particularly
avoided; in case of an earthquake all the pots in the house were covered
up or broken to stop the shaking; eating _tzictli_, or _chicle_, was
thought to harden the palate of the unborn child, and to make its gums
thick so that it would be unable to suck, and also to communicate to it
a disease called _netentzzoponiztli_; neither must the edible earth, of
which, as we shall see in a future chapter, the Mexicans were very fond,
be eaten by the mother, lest the child should prove weak and sickly; but
everything else the woman fancied was to be given her, because any
interference with her caprices might be hurtful to her offspring."[2]
When the time of confinement drew near another feast was given and
speeches and suggestions were made. Among the higher classes a midwife
was procured and careful preparation was made for the confinement. A
woman dying in childbirth was honored by a burial with great ceremony.
When the child was born, there was rejoicing with praises to the mother
and congratulations to parents and grandparents, and even the child
itself was spoken to in welcoming words by the midwife as it was being
dressed.

=Casting the Nativity of the Infant.= Astrology was held in high esteem
by the Mexicans and it was used to decide the fortune of the infant. On
the birth of a child the astrologer was summoned and upon being told the
time of the event he cast the horoscope of the infant. If the augury was
favorable he told of the great fortune coming to the child and of the
honors and happiness to fall upon him. Should the augury prove
unfavorable, it was made less severe by the horoscopist who found
accompanying signs that helped allay the evil coming from the bad omens.

=Baptizing and Naming the Child.= The rite of baptism was early
performed upon the child, at which time it was given a name. The house
was decorated with branches and flowers, a feast was prepared, and
relatives and friends invited. Miniature weapons were used, if a boy, to
show that he was born a warrior, and, if a girl, small weaving utensils
as symbols of her future calling of housewife. The child, if a boy, was
usually named from the sign of the day or a bird or animal, and, if a
girl, was named from a flower. Sometimes a child took its name from some
important event which occurred at the time of its birth. A solemn
invocation to the gods was made, after which the head and lips of the
infant were touched with water, the name was given to it, and then it
was lifted up to heaven and a prayer of blessing said over it.

=Care and Treatment of Children.= Upon the arrival of a child into a
family, friends and neighbors congratulated them upon such, for it was
deemed quite a blessing. Although children were welcomed, yet the
discipline of younger children was rather severe and children were
taught to reverence and obey their parents and superiors. Both boys and
girls were carefully reared by the best parents.

The following admonitions of a father to his son show how greatly these
ancient Mexicans would have their children observe a right living:--

"My son, who art come into this light from the womb of thy mother, like
the chicken from the egg, and like it, art preparing to fly through the
world, we know not how long heaven will grant to us the enjoyment of
that precious gem which we possess in thee; but, however short is the
period, endeavor to live exactly, praying God continually to assist
thee. He created thee; thou art His property. He is thy Father, and
loves thee still more than I do; repose in Him thy thoughts, and day and
night direct thy sighs to Him. Reverence and salute thy elders, and hold
no one in contempt. To the poor and the distressed be not dumb, but
rather use words of comfort. Honor all persons, particularly thy
parents, to whom thou owest obedience, respect, service. Guard against
imitating the example of those wicked sons who, like brutes, that are
deprived of reason, neither reverence their parents, listen to their
instruction, nor submit to their correction; because, whoever follows
their steps will have an unhappy end, will die in a desperate or sudden
manner, or will be killed and devoured by wild beasts....

"When any one discourses with thee, hear him attentively, and hold
thyself in an easy attitude, neither playing with thy feet, nor putting
thy mantle to thy mouth, nor spitting too often, nor looking about you
here and there, nor rising up frequently if thou art sitting; for such
actions are indications of levity and low breeding.

"When thou art at table do not eat voraciously, nor show thy displeasure
if anything displeases thee. If any one comes unexpectedly to dinner
with thee, share with him what thou hast; and when any person is
entertained by thee, do not fix thy looks upon him.

"In walking, look where thou goest, that thou mayest not push against
any one. If thou seest another coming thy way, go a little aside to give
him room to pass. Never step before thy elders, unless it be necessary,
or that they order thee to do so. When thou sittest at table with them,
do not eat or drink before them, but attend to them in a becoming
manner, that thou mayest merit their favor.

"When they give thee anything, accept it with tokens of gratitude; if
the present is great, do not become vain or fond of it. If the gift is
small, do not despise it, nor be provoked, nor occasion displeasure to
them who favor thee. If thou becomest rich, do not grow insolent nor
scorn the poor; for those very gods who deny riches to others in order
to give them to thee, offended by thy pride, will take them from thee
again to give to others.

"Support thyself by thy own labors; for then thy food will be sweeter.
I, my son, have supported thee hitherto with my sweat, and have omitted
no duty of a father; I have provided thee with everything necessary,
without taking it from others. Do thou so likewise....

"Stay no longer than is necessary in the market-place; for in such
places there is the greatest danger of contracting vices.

"When thou art offered an employment, imagine that the proposal is made
to try thee; then accept it not hastily, although thou knowest thyself
more fit than others to exercise it; but excuse thyself until thou art
obliged to accept it; thus thou wilt be more esteemed.

"Be not dissolute; because thou wilt thereby incense the gods, and they
will cover thee with infamy. Restrain thyself, my son, as thou are yet
young, and wait until the girl whom the gods destine for thy wife
arrives at a suitable age; leave that to their care, as they know how to
order these things properly. When the time for thy marriage is come,
dare not to make it without the consent of thy parents, otherwise it
will have an unhappy issue.

"Steal not nor give thyself up to gaming; otherwise, thou wilt be a
disgrace to thy parents, whom thou ought rather to honor for the
education they have given to thee. If thou wilt be virtuous, thy example
will put the wicked to shame. No more, my son, enough hath been said in
discharge of the duties of a father. With these counsels I wish to
fortify thy mind. Refuse them not, nor act in contradiction to them; for
on them thy life and thy happiness depend."[3]

The girl was not degraded among the Mexicans, and she was treated with
tenderness and love. How well cared for was the girl is attested by the
following advice of an Aztec mother to her daughter:--

"My daughter, born of my substance, brought forth with my pains, and
nourished with my milk, I have endeavored to bring thee up with the
greatest possible care, and thy father has wrought and polished thee
like an emerald, that thou mayest appear in the eyes of men a jewel of
virtue. Strive always to be good; for otherwise who will have thee for a
wife? Thou wilt be rejected by every one. Life is a thorny, laborious
path, and it is necessary to exert all our powers to obtain the goods
which the gods are willing to yield to us; we must not therefore be lazy
or negligent, but diligent in everything. Be orderly and take pains to
manage the economy of thy house. Give water to thy husband for his
hands, and make bread for thy family. Wherever thou goest, go with
modesty and composure, without hurrying thy steps, or laughing with
those whom thou meetest, neither fixing thy looks upon them nor casting
thy eyes thoughtlessly, first to one side and then to another, that thy
reputation may not be sullied; but give a courteous answer to those who
salute and put any question to thee.

"Employ thyself diligently in spinning and weaving, in sewing and
embroidering; for by these arts thou wilt gain esteem, and all the
necessaries of food and clothing. Do not give thyself too much to sleep,
nor seek the shade, but go in the open air and there repose thyself, for
effeminacy brings along with it idleness and other vices.

"In whatever thou doest encourage not evil thoughts but attend solely to
the service of the gods, and the giving comfort to thy parents. If thy
father or thy mother calls thee, do not stay to be called twice; but go
instantly to know their pleasure, that thou mayest not disoblige them by
slowness. Return no insolent answers, nor show any want of compliance;
but if thou canst not do what they command, make a modest excuse. If
another is called and does not come quickly, come thou, hear what is
ordered, and do it well. Never offer thyself to do that which thou canst
not do. Deceive no person; for the gods see all thy actions. Live in
peace with everybody, and love everyone sincerely and honestly, that
thou mayest be loved by them in return.

"Be not greedy of the goods which thou hast. If thou seest anything
presented to another, give way to no mean suspicions; for the gods, to
whom every good belongs, distribute everything as they please. If thou
wouldst avoid the displeasure of others, let none meet with it from
thee.

"Guard against improper familiarities with men; nor yield to the guilty
wishes of thy heart; or thou wilt be the reproach of thy family, and
wilt pollute thy mind as mud does water. Keep not company with
dissolute, lying, or idle women; otherwise they will infallibly infect
thee by their example. Attend upon thy family, and do not go on slight
occasions out of thy house, nor be seen wandering through the streets,
or in the market-place; for in such places thou wilt meet thy ruin.
Remember that vice, like a poisonous herb, brings death to those who
taste it; and when it once harbors in the mind it is difficult to dispel
it. If in passing through the streets thou meetest with a froward youth
who appears agreeable to thee, give him no correspondence, but dissemble
and pass on. If he says anything to thee, take no heed of him nor his
words; and if he follows thee, turn not your face about to look at him,
lest that might inflame his passion more. If thou behavest so, he will
soon turn and let thee proceed in peace.

"Enter not without some urgent motive into another's house, that nothing
may be either said or thought injurious to thy honor, but if thou
enterest into the house of thy relations, salute them with respect and
do not remain idle, but immediately take up a spindle to spin or do any
other thing that occurs.

"When thou art married, respect thy husband, obey him, and diligently do
what he commands thee. Avoid incurring his displeasure, nor show thyself
passionate or ill-natured; but receive him fondly to thy arms, even if
he is poor and lives at thy expense. If thy husband occasions thee any
disgust, let him not know thy displeasure when he commands thee to do
anything; but dissemble it at that time, and afterwards tell him with
great gentleness what vexed thee, that he may be won by thy mildness and
offend thee no farther. Dishonor him not before others; for thou also
wouldst be dishonored. If any one comes to visit thy husband, accept the
visit kindly, and show all the civility thou canst. If thy husband is
foolish, be thou discreet. If he fails in the management of wealth
admonish him of his failings; but if he is totally incapable of taking
care of his estate, take that charge upon thyself, attend carefully to
his possessions and never omit to pay the workmen punctually. Take care
not to lose anything through negligence.

"Embrace, my daughter, the counsel which I give thee. I am already
advanced in life, and have had sufficient dealings with the world. I am
thy mother. I wish that thou mayest live well. Fix my precepts in thy
heart and bowels, for then thou wilt live happy. If by not listening to
me, or by neglecting my instructions, any misfortunes befall thee, the
fault will be thine and the evil also. Enough, my child. May the gods
prosper thee."[4]

=Dress.= The men wore a long broad girdle or sash with the ends hanging
down before and behind, which sash often was figured and the ends
fringed or tasseled. They also wore a cloak or mantle, which was thrown
over the shoulders and tied around the neck. The women wore a short
tunic, usually without sleeves, and with it a short skirt under which
they would wear another skirt of longer length, these skirts often being
embroidered and ornamented. Over tunic and skirt they would wear a long
loose robe, which might have at its upper part a hood attached, for
wearing over the head. The material first used for clothing was of skins
and later of maguey and cotton. Mantles of fur and of feather-work were
also worn in cooler weather by both men and women. They wore sandals
made of deer and other skins and also of nequen and cotton.

The ordinary way of wearing the hair was to cut it short on the forehead
and temples and let it grow at the back. Unmarried girls wore their hair
loose, while the virgins who served in the temple had their hair cut
short. In some parts the heads of the children were shaved, with a tuft
left behind. Women after marriage on becoming mothers would sometimes
let their hair grow on all parts and arrange it on the head; one way was
to plait it and cross it on the forehead, another way was to braid it
and ornament it with flowers. Also, sometimes the women would use a dye
made of herbs on their hair, which gave it a violet shade.

The women used paint on their faces, one fashion was to paint the face
yellow and with a pottery stamp impress a pattern of red upon the
cheeks. They painted the teeth with cochineal and also they painted the
hands, neck, and breast. Among some peoples the women had their arms and
breasts tattooed, incisions being made with a sharp instrument and a
blue color inserted. Ornaments were worn by the men, women, and
children, and by all classes of people. The higher classes used gold and
gems, while people of the lower classes used shell and obsidian. There
were a great variety of ornaments made for the arms and neck and
attached to garments. Rings were worn on the fingers and rings and plugs
in the ears. There also were rings and plugs for the nose and plugs for
the lips, although it would appear that these were not so much in use as
were the other ornaments. "There existed very stringent laws regarding
the class of ornaments which the different classes of people were
allowed to wear, and it was prohibited, on pain of death, for a subject
to use the same dress or ornaments as the king."[5]

=Food and Drink.= There was quite a variety of foodstuffs in Mexico.
Maize was the principal product but also there was great use made of
other grain, yams, and beans, and there were fruits, as the banana and
plantain. Their supply of meat was obtained very greatly from the game
animals, among which were deer, wild hogs, rabbits, quails, pigeons,
ducks, turkeys, and geese. Turkeys, ducks, and geese were domesticated,
having been raised for their feathers as well as for food. Fish was
another important article of food and both salt water and fresh water
varieties were procured in abundance.

"Miscellaneous articles of food, not already spoken of, were
_axayacatl_, flies of the Mexican lakes, dried, ground, boiled, and
eaten in the form of cakes; _ahuauhtli_, the eggs of the same fly, a
kind of native caviar; many kinds of insects, ants, maguey-worms, and
even lice; _tecuitlatl_, 'excrement of stone,' a slime that was gathered
on the surface of the lakes, and dried till it resembled cheese; eggs of
turkeys, iguanas, and turtles, roasted, boiled, and in omelettes;
various reptiles, frogs, and frog-spawn; shrimps, sardines, and crabs;
corn-silk, wild-amaranth seeds, cherry-stones, tule-roots, and very many
other articles inexpressible; yucca flour, potoyucca, tunas; honey from
maize, from bees, and from the maguey; and roasted portions of the
maguey stalks and leaves."[6]

There were three meals a day, morning, noon, and night, and among the
higher class, at least, banquets and feasts were quite numerous. The
food was cooked and eaten from pots, bowls, and dishes of pottery.
Maize, when green, was boiled and eaten, as roasting-ears with us now,
and when dry it was sometimes parched or roasted. It was usually ground
into meal and prepared in the form of cakes. To prepare the meal, the
grain was thrown into boiling water, in which, lime had been placed, and
then the hull was removed. It was then washed and ground on
grinding-stones, called _metlatl_, and then kneaded and rolled into
cakes and baked, there having been many kinds of cakes. The meal was
also boiled and made into porridge or gruel. Beans were boiled when
green and also when dry. Meats were stewed, boiled, and roasted. Pepper
was quite freely used, as was also salt. Fruits were eaten raw, although
some, as the plantain and banana, were roasted and stewed.

There were two national drinks, _octli_ and _chocolatl_, now known as
pulque and chocolate, the first an intoxicant made from the maguey and
the second from the cacao. There were other fermented drinks prepared
from grain, and a kind of mushroom was used to put into drinks to make
them more intoxicating. Intoxication was excusable in older people but
the young people were severely punished for it and even in case of
intemperance death was the punishment paid to the young while with the
older persons only loss of rank and property was the punishment.

Tobacco was used by the Mexicans, having been smoked in pipes or in the
form of cigars, and also it was made into snuff and used. "A kind of
chewing-gum was prepared from resin or bitumen, though its use, at any
rate in public, was confined by custom to unmarried girls."[7]

Human flesh also was eaten. This was not used as a common food but as a
religious rite. The sacrifice was made on an elevated place and after
the victim's heart was taken out as an offering to the gods, and if a
warrior his head was taken off to be preserved as a trophy, the body was
then cast down the steps and taken by minor priests and prepared for the
table as other animals. A thigh was sent to the king's palace and the
remainder was taken to the home of the warrior who captured the victim
or if a slave to the house of the owner, who had the human flesh
prepared with other dishes and served up in an entertainment to his
friends. "This was not the coarse repast of famished cannibals, but a
banquet teeming with delicious beverages and delicate viands, prepared
with art, and attended by both sexes, who, as we shall see hereafter,
conducted themselves with all the decorum of civilized life."[8]

Although the eating of human flesh by the ancient Mexicans was not
merely to satisfy the appetite for such food but in obedience to
religion, yet there must have been quite a good deal of partaking of it
as the number of human sacrifices each year was very great. Too, must be
kept in view, the sacrifices included men and women, quite often young
people, and likewise children, even infants. One peculiar custom was
that the giver of the feast where the body of a human sacrifice was
served did not partake of the flesh of his own captive, having been
disbarred from this because he was supposed to stand to the victim in
the relation of father to son.

=Lore.= "Various portents were drawn from the animal world; the cries of
beasts of prey at night were supposed to forebode disaster to those who
heard them, and the voices of certain birds were believed equally
unlucky. The owl, so closely associated with Mictlantecutli, was
especially regarded as the harbinger of ill-fortune and death, and if
one of these birds perched upon the house of a sick man his demise was
considered certain. It was held unlucky to encounter a skunk or a
weasel, and the entry into the house of a rabbit or a troop of ants
foreboded bad luck. If a certain kind of spider was found in the house,
the owner traced a cross upon the ground, at the center of which he
placed the insect. If it went towards the north, the direction of the
underworld, it was regarded as a sign of death for the observer, any
other direction foretelling misfortune of minor importance.

"Besides these superstitions there were a whole host of popular beliefs,
of which only a few can be given here. Many of these were connected with
food; it was customary to blow upon maize before putting it in the
cooking-pot, to 'give it courage,' and it was believed that if a person
neglected to pick up maize-grains lying on the ground they called out to
heaven to punish the omission. If two brothers were drinking, and the
younger drank first, it was thought that the elder would cease to grow;
and it was also believed that the growth of a child was stopped by
stepping over it when seated or lying down, but that the effect could be
averted by stepping back again. Young girls were not allowed to eat
standing, for it was believed they would fail to get husbands, and
children were prevented from licking the grindstone for fear they would
lose their teeth. When a child lost one of its first teeth, the father
or mother placed the tooth in a mouse-hole, a proceeding which was
supposed to ensure the growth of the second tooth; and all nail-parings
were thrown into the water in the hope that the auitzotl, a mythical
water-animal which was believed to eat them, would make the nails grow.
Sneezing was thought to be a sign that evil was being spoken of the
sneezer, and there was a peculiar belief that the perfume of the flowers
which were carried at banquets and in ceremonial dances might only be
inhaled from the edges of the bouquet, since the center belonged to the
god Tezcatlipoca."[9]

=Human Sacrifice.= The sad and degrading side of the Aztec civilization
was that of human sacrifice. The number of sacrifices was very great,
estimated from twenty to fifty thousand annually, and on one occasion
alone, the dedication of a great temple, no less than seventy thousand
human beings were sacrificed to the gods. The great object of war, along
with the desire for the extension of the kingdom, was to obtain victims
for the sacrifices and hence an enemy was never slain in battle if there
was a chance of taking him alive. Mostly the victims were prisoners of
war but slaves also were used as sacrifices. Sometimes they offered up
children, generally infants, who were obtained by the priests, purchased
from poverty-stricken parents, who, perhaps, gave their children as much
from a sense of religious duty as for money. These children were dressed
in beautiful garments, and adorned with flowers. They were then carried
in procession of chanting priests through the city to the place of
sacrifice. The cries they uttered were not heard because of the chants
of the priests, and the tears they shed were favorable omens.

These sacrifices were so conducted as to exhibit something of prominence
relating to the deity being worshipped. The following illustrates
this:--

"One of their most important festivals was that in honor of their god
Tezcatlipoca, whose rank was inferior only to that of the Supreme Being.
He was called 'the soul of the world,' and supposed to have been its
creator. He was depicted as a handsome man, endowed with perpetual
youth. A year before the intended sacrifice, a captive, distinguished
for his personal beauty, and without a blemish on his body, was
selected to represent this deity. Certain tutors took charge of him, and
instructed him how to perform his new part with becoming grace and
dignity. He was arrayed in a splendid dress, regaled with incense and
with a profusion of sweet-scented flowers, of which the ancient Mexicans
were as fond as their descendants of the present day. When he went
abroad, he was attended by a train of royal pages, and, as he halted in
the streets to play some favorite melody, the crowd prostrated
themselves before him, and did him homage as the representative of their
good deity. In this way he led an easy, luxurious life, till within a
month of his sacrifice. Four beautiful girls, bearing the names of the
principal goddesses, were then selected to share the honors of his bed;
and with them he continued to live in idle dalliance, feasted at the
banquets of the principal nobles, who paid him all the honors of a
divinity.

"At length the fatal day of sacrifice arrived. The term of his
short-lived glories was at an end. He was stripped of his gaudy apparel,
and bade adieu to the fair partners of his revelries. One of the royal
barges transported him across the lake to a temple which rose on its
margin, about a league from the city. Hither the inhabitants of the
capital flocked, to witness the consummation of the ceremony. As the sad
procession wound up the sides of the pyramid, the unhappy victim threw
away his gay chaplets of flowers, and broke in pieces the musical
instruments with which he had solaced the hours of captivity. On the
summit he was received by six priests, whose long and matted locks
flowed disorderly over their sable robes, covered with hieroglyphic
scrolls of mystic import. They led him to the sacrificial stone, a huge
block of jasper, with its upper surface somewhat convex. On this the
prisoner was stretched. Five priests secured his head and his limbs;
while the sixth, clad in a scarlet mantle, emblematic of his bloody
office, dexterously opened the breast of the wretched victim with a
sharp razor of _itztli_--a volcanic substance, hard as flint,--and,
inserting his hand into the wound, tore out the palpitating heart. The
minister of death, first holding this up toward the sun, an object of
worship throughout Anahuac, cast it at the feet of the deity to whom the
temple was devoted, while the multitudes below prostrated themselves in
humble adoration. The tragic story of this prisoner was expounded by the
priests as the type of human destiny, which, brilliant in its
commencement, too often closes in sorrow and disaster."[10]

=Slavery.= Slavery existed, the slaves having been criminals, prisoners
of war, public debtors, persons who sold themselves into slavery, and
children. Slavery was never the birthright of any child born in ancient
Mexico. Children born to a slave were free. Yet children could be sold
into slavery and were often sold by their parents, mostly on account of
poverty. There was one peculiar thing in slavery here. With the consent
of the master the parents could substitute a younger child as it grew up
for an older one sold into slavery, which substitution could go on down
to the youngest child. Slavery must have been rather mild, as in the
presence of four witnesses the precise services were prescribed when a
child was sold, and a slave could have a family and even hold other
slaves, and, as was stated, all his children were born free, the worst
feature having been that slaves were liable to be sacrificed.

=Industries.= Agriculture was in quite an advanced stage in ancient
Mexico. Unlike in other parts of North America, the men engaged in the
work, performed such labor as preparing the fields, planting, and
reaping, while the women helped in scattering the grain, weeding, and
winnowing. They had no useful domesticated animals, so that the people
carried on all the kinds of farm work and the implements were simple,
as, the hoe, spade, and basket. They fertilized the soil, let it recover
from exhaustion by lying fallow, irrigated by means of canals,
surrounded the fields by adobe walls and aloe hedges, and built
granaries in which to store the harvests.

They mined silver, lead, tin, and copper. Gold was obtained in the form
of nuggets on the surface of the ground or from the sand in the beds of
rivers. They also got quicksilver, sulphur, alum, ocher, and other
minerals which were used in making colors and for other purposes.
Although there was an abundance of iron, it was not mined or used. They
made tools of copper, hardened with tin. Most of the instruments,
however, were of stone, such as axes and hammers. From obsidian, a kind
of volcanic glass, by means of pressure they detached long flakes having
a razor-like edge, which they used for making knives, razors, lancets,
swords, arrow-heads, and spear-heads. They quarried stone from the hills
and mountains and often transported large blocks for long distances and
erected great buildings.

The caste-system did not exist in Mexico but it was a custom, usually
observed, for the son to learn the trade of his father. Trades were
highly esteemed among them, being learned even by the nobles. A
particular part of the city was given over to a particular trade, which
had its own distinctive mark, something like a guild, having its own
god, festivals, and the like. The high standing of the trades is shown
by this advice given by an aged chief to his son: "Apply thyself, my
son, to agriculture, or to feather-work, or some other honorable
calling. Thus did your ancestors before you. Else how would they have
provided for themselves and their families? Never was it heard that
nobility alone was able to maintain its possessor."[11]

Among the manufactures were cloths made of cotton, maguey fiber, rabbit
hair, fiber of palm-leaves, and also the cotton was mixed with the
rabbit hair and with feathers in making a very fine kind of cloth. The
cloths were dyed in different colors as they obtained a number of dyes
from both vegetable and mineral substances, probably even excelling the
Europeans in the art of dyeing. They tanned the skins of animals both
with and without the hair. The making of mats and baskets was an
important industry. Paper was made from maguey fiber, sometimes this was
mixed with fiber from some other plants. Wood was used in making
household furniture and farming implements and they also made cups and
vases of lacquered wood. In the working of gold and silver they had
reached a high degree of perfection, making most beautiful ornaments,
which, in many instances, were superior to the work done in Europe. They
were quite skillful in the use of feathers. Feathers were mixed with
cotton and with other fiber for the making of clothing, tapestry,
carpets, and bed-coverings. Feathers were used as ornaments and
decorations, sometimes having been tipped with gold and set in precious
stones, most beautiful fans were made in this way. The work with
feathers they most excelled in was what has been called feather-mosaic,
in which beautiful designs were worked out and colors harmoniously
blended by the skillfully pasting of feathers on to cloth. For temporary
use, as for decorations on the occasions of special festivals, they made
designs with leaves and flowers similar to the feather-work. They were
quite skillful in working precious stones, making most beautiful
ornaments from the stones found in the country, emeralds, amethysts, and
turquoises being the most abundant. Pearls and bright colored shells
were used with the stones in the formation of necklaces, bracelets,
earrings, and other ornaments. "Mirrors of rock crystal, obsidian, and
other stones, brightly polished and encased in rich frames, were said to
reflect the human face as clearly as the best of European
manufacture."[12]

The making of pottery was one of the leading industries, which products
ran from coarse undecorated vessels to quite fine ware of various colors
and highly ornamented. "The quality of the potting varies considerably
according to locality, but the finer examples, such as the ware from
Cholula and the Totonac district exhibit a very high standard of paste,
form and technique, though the potters of this region of America cannot
boast such consummate mastery over their material as the early
inhabitants of the Peruvian coast."[13]

The agricultural and industrial products were not only used where
produced but also carried to the different provinces and even to other
countries by traders, which occupation was highly respected in Mexico.
They took with them the products of their own country and brought back
the products of other countries. These traders not only engaged in trade
but also acted as spies for the king and brought to him much information
concerning the places visited by them. The products of the country and
those brought in from outside by the traders were displayed for sale in
the great market-places of the principal cities. "The great market in
Tlaltelolco moved the wonder of the conquerors; it is described as being
three times as large as that of Salamanca, and one estimate places the
daily attendance at twenty or twenty-five thousand persons. One of the
conquerors gives the following picture of it. 'On one side are the
people who sell gold; near them are they who trade in jewels mounted in
gold in the forms of birds and animals. On another side beads and
mirrors are sold, on another, feathers and plumes of all colors for
working designs on garments, and to wear in war or at festivals. Further
on stone is worked to make razors and swords, a remarkable thing which
passes our understanding; of it they manufacture swords and roundels. In
other places they sell cloth and men's dresses of different designs;
beyond, dresses for women, and in another part footgear. A section is
reserved for the sale of prepared hides of deer and other animals;
elsewhere are baskets made of hair, such as all Indian women use.
Cotton, grain which forms their food, bread of all kinds, pastry, fowls,
and eggs are sold in different sections; and hard by they sell hares,
rabbits, deer, quails, geese and ducks. Elsewhere wines of all sorts are
for sale, vegetables, pepper, roots, medicinal plants, which are very
numerous in this country, fruits of all kinds, wood for building, lime
and stone. In fact, each object has its appointed place. Beside this
great market-place there are in other quarters other markets also where
provisions may be bought.' Special magistrates held courts in the
market-places to settle disputes on the spot, and there were market
officials similar to our inspectors of weights and measures.
Falsification of the latter was visited with severe punishment."[14]

=Couriers.= The means of communication between different parts of the
country was by couriers, who were trained for this purpose from
childhood. One courier would carry his messages from one post-house to
another, where another courier would take them and carry them to the
next post-house, and so on. These couriers were so well trained from
childhood that they traveled with remarkable speed, so that as much as
two hundred miles a day would be covered by the chain of carriers.

=Amusements.= Feasts were of common occurrence and were given by people
of all ranks of society. Each man vied with the other in giving banquets
and it often happened that the host ruined himself financially by his
hospitality, as it was the custom to distribute costly presents among
the guests, and some went so far as to have sold themselves into slavery
to raise funds to give at least one big feast that would make a name for
them and thus be kept in the memory of their fellow-men. One form of
entertainment at these feasts was the use of jesters, similar to the
court-fools of European medieval times, who made jokes at the expense of
the guests, imitated people of different nations in dress and manners,
mimicked old women and well-known eccentric individuals, and the like.

"At the royal feasts given when the great vassals came to the capital to
render homage to their sovereign, the people flocked in from the
provinces in great numbers to see the sights, which consisted of
theatrical representations, gladiatorial combats, fights between wild
beasts, athletic sports, musical performances, and poetical recitations
in honor of kings, gods, and heroes. The nobles, in addition to this,
partook daily of banquets at the palace, and were presented by the
monarch with costly gifts."[15]

There were people who gave gymnastic performances and who performed
acrobatic feats such as of the present day and with equal or even
greater skill. There were running races, swimming matches, wrestling
matches, contests in shooting with bow and arrow and in throwing the
dart, and soldiers fought with wild beasts in enclosed places. Gambling
greatly prevailed, property of all kinds was put up as stakes and even a
man might jeopardize his own personal liberty on a game of chance. Dice
was the most general gambling game.

Dancing was one of the leading amusements of the ancient Mexicans. It
formed an important part in their religious ceremonies and much time was
given by the priests in instructing the youth in this art. Drums and
other musical instruments were used in the dancing and they were
accompanied by chants and other music of the dancers. In some of the
dances each sex danced apart, while in others they danced together.
Sometimes they danced in threes, two men and a woman, or two women and a
man, while again they danced in pairs, with their arms round one
another's waist or neck. There was one dance which somewhat resembled
the old English May-pole dance, in which ribbons were wound and unwound
about a pole. In some of their great public dances thousands
participated. These occurred in an open place, the musicians being
placed in the center, about them was formed a circle of the nobles and
elderly people, next came a circle of middle-aged persons, and then the
young people formed a great circle around them all. Each person was to
keep his own place on the circle while all circled about the musicians.
The inner circle moved with slow and sedate steps, the middle circle
moved more rapidly, and the outer circle of young people twirled rapidly
about with many fantastic figures. With drums beating and other musical
instruments going and all the dancers chanting, with arms, feet, heads,
and bodies all moving in perfect accord, leaders directing, this dancing
must have made a great spectacle to the onlookers.

There were not a great variety of musical instruments. They had drums,
rattles, gongs, trumpets, and whistles. There were bands of musicians
and choirs, each temple having had a choir composed of singers of
different ages, among whom were boys of four to eight years of age.
There were contests in music and prizes were given to the successful
competitors. There were a large number of popular songs or ballads,
which were well known to all classes of the people. The drama existed
among them. The plays were given on a terrace in the market-place or on
a porch of a temple. The players usually wore wooden masks or were
disguised as animals. The play generally was given in the form of a
burlesque and ended with the animal players giving exhibits of the
actions of the animals they represented.

"The national game of the Nahuas was the _tlachtli_, which strongly
resembled in many points our game of football, and was quite as lively
and full of scuffle. It was common among all the nations whose cult was
similar to the Toltec, and was under special divine protection, though
what original religious significance it had is not clear. Indeed, for
that matter, nearly every game enjoyed divine patronage, and
_Ometochtli_, 'two rabbits,' the god of games, according to Duran, was
generally invoked by athletes as well as by gamblers, in conjunction
with some special god. Instruments of play, and natural objects were
also conjured to grant good luck to the applicant. As an instance of the
popularity of the game of tlachtli, it may be mentioned that a certain
number of towns contributed annually sixteen thousand balls in taxes,
that each town of any size had a special playground devoted to the game,
and that kings kept professionals to play before them, occasionally
challenging each other to a game besides. The ground in which it was
played, called the _tlachco_, was an alley, one hundred feet long and
half as wide, except at each end where there were rectangular nooks,
which doubtless served as resting places for the players. The whole was
enclosed by smooth whitewashed walls, from nine to twelve feet high on
the sides, and somewhat lower at the ends, with battlements and turrets,
and decreasing in thickness toward the top. At midnight, previous to the
day fixed for the game, which was always fixed favorably by the augurs,
the priests with much ceremony placed two idols--one representing the
god of play, the other the god of the tlachtli--upon the side walls,
blessed the edifice, and consecrated the game by throwing the ball four
times round the ground, muttering the while a formula. The owner of the
tlachco, usually the lord of the place, also performed certain
ceremonies and presented offerings, before opening the game. The balls,
called _ullamaloni_, were of solid India-rubber, three to four inches in
diameter. The players were simply attired in the maxtli, or
breech-clout, and sometimes wore a skin to protect the parts coming in
contact with the ball, and gloves; they played in parties, usually two
or three on each side. The rule was to hit the ball only with knee,
elbow, shoulder, or buttock, as agreed upon, the latter was however the
favorite way, and to touch the wall of the opposite side with the ball,
or to send it over, either of which counted a point. He who struck the
ball with his hand or foot, or with any part of his body not previously
agreed upon, lost a point; to settle such matters without dispute a
priest acted as referee. On each side-wall, equidistant from the ends,
was a large stone, carved with images of idols, pierced through the
center with a hole large enough to just admit the passage of the ball;
the player who by chance or skill drove the ball through one of these
openings not only won the game for his side, but was entitled to the
cloaks of all present, and the haste with which the spectators scrambled
off in order to save their garments is said to have been the most
amusing part of the entertainment. A feat so difficult was, of course,
rarely accomplished, save by chance, and the successful player was made
as much of as a prize-winner at the Olympic games, nor did he omit to
present thank-offerings to the god of the game for the good fortune
vouchsafed him."[16]

=Education.= Annexed to the temples were buildings devoted to the
purpose of education for boys, youths, and young women. The education of
the males was in the hands of the priests and of the females in the care
of the priestesses. Thus the priesthood were enabled to mould the young
in their own way. They brought the young so well under their sway that
they were never able in after life to free themselves from such nor did
they seem so to desire to do.

The sexes were not educated together nor was any intercourse allowed
between them, and if such occurred the transgression was severely
punished. The morals of both sexes were very closely looked after.
Offenses were severely punished, sometimes by death. Love did not lead
the Aztec youth in education, but terror.

The children of the common people and those of the higher classes did
not attend in the same buildings. Both classes were taught such things
in religion, music, painting, and the like, as belonged to their
stations in life. The boys of the common people did the heavier and more
menial work about the temples, such as the attending to the getting of
fuel for the sacred fires and preparing the material for the repair of
the sacred edifices. The young nobles attended to the higher duties,
such as caring for the fires of the sanctuaries, keeping the upper parts
of the temples clean, and decorating the shrines of the gods with
flowers. The children of the common classes were obliged to sleep in the
school buildings but they took their meals at home while the young
nobility remained in the buildings for meals as well as for sleeping.

For the most part the girls who attended the schools belonged to the
nobility. They attended to the lower part of the temples, prepared the
offerings of meats to the idols, and wove and embroidered the fine
cloths for the altars. They were strictly guarded so that no intercourse
could take place between them and the youths. When they went out they
were accompanied by their teachers and they were not permitted to pay
any attention to any one, and if they did so they were severely
punished. They were instructed in religion, household arts, spinning,
the weaving of mantles, the making of feather-work, and the like.

In the higher schools, the noble boys were taught much that was given to
the other boys and also in many of the arts and sciences, such as the
study of heroic songs and sacred hymns, history, religion, philosophy,
law, astronomy, astrology, and the writing and interpreting of
hieroglyphics. Those destined to be priests were further educated in the
priestly duties, while those who were to enter upon a military life were
exercised in gymnastics, and trained to the use of weapons, to shoot
with the bow, to manage the shield, and to cast darts at a mark.

When the young reached the age when marriage was permissible or when
business cares should be entered upon, they were sent from the schools
with the commendations of the officers and teachers, which were of great
aid to many in securing positions in life.

LITERATURE

1. Bancroft, Hubert Howe, The native races of the Pacific states of
North America.

2. Barnes, Earl and Mary S., Education among the Aztecs. _Studies in
Education_, I, 73-80.

3. Joyce, Thomas A., Mexican archæology.

4. Mason, Otis Tufton, Woman's share in primitive culture.

5. Nadaillac, Marquis de, Prehistoric America.

6. Prescott, William H., History of the Conquest of Mexico.

CHAPTER II

THE CHILD IN PERU

=The People.= The origin of the people found in Peru at the time of the
Spanish conquest is unknown. The people themselves held to a tradition
that the empire began with a settlement in the Cuzco valley, the central
region of Peru. By the time of the coming of the Spaniards in the first
part of the sixteenth century, through military expeditions this Inca
power had been extended to include the country from the river Ancasmayu,
just north of the city of Quito, Ecuador, to the river Maule, just south
of the city of Santiago, Chile, or from about the second degree of north
latitude to the thirty-seventh degree of south latitude, territory
embraced at the present time by Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, part of Chile,
and north-west Argentina. Before these Inca people there seemed to have
existed a race of well advanced people who left imposing architectural
remains that the Inca people were unable to account for. To hold
together the parts of the empire, great roads were built leading from
Cuzco, the capital, to the extremities of the country. One of these
great roads ran over the grand plateau north to Quito and south to
Chile, and a second one ran each way, north and south, along the
lowlands on the border of the ocean, and these two were connected by
cross-roads. "The road over the plateau was conducted over pathless
sierras buried in snow; galleries were cut for leagues through the
living rock; rivers were crossed by means of bridges that swung
suspended in the air; precipices were scaled by stairways hewn out of
the native bed; ravines of hideous depths were filled up with solid
masonry; in short, all the difficulties that beset a wild and
mountainous region, and which might appall the most courageous engineer
in modern times, were encountered and successfully overcome. The length
of the road, of which scattered fragments only remain, is variously
estimated at from fifteen hundred to two thousands miles; and stone
pillars, in the manner of European mile-stones, were erected at stated
intervals of somewhat more than a league, all along the route. Its
breadth scarcely exceeded twenty feet. It was built of heavy flags of
freestone, and, in some parts at least, covered with a bituminous
cement, which time has made harder than the stone itself."[17] Along
these roads were a series of post-houses for couriers, selected for
their swiftness of foot, who carried messages back and forth between the
capital and the different parts of the empire. The statement is made
that these couriers covered the distance from Quito to Cuzco, over a
thousand miles, in eight days. Along the routes were also placed
storehouses with provisions for troops or for those who travelled on
state affairs, who really were the only travellers.

At the time of the Spanish invasion, Peru was a huge bureaucracy, which
had evolved from a primitive communism as the territory was extended by
conquest. The empire was divided into provinces and placed under rulers,
below whom was a hierarchy of officials, running down to an inspector of
ten heads of families. A careful census was kept of the people and
resources of each province, which censuses were sent regularly to Cuzco.
From these returns was estimated the tribute each person was to give to
the state, which was not paid in money but in labor or products. No one
but the sick was permitted to remain idle and there was constant
supervision over all. No man was exempt except by special regulation
from agricultural work and military service. "From the cradle to the
grave the life of the individual was marked out for him; as he was born
so would he die, and he lived his allotted span under the ceaseless
supervision of officials. His dress was fixed according to his district;
he might not leave his village except at the bidding of the state, and
then only for state purposes, he might not even seek a wife outside his
own community."[18] Yet every one was cared for, widows, orphans, aged,
and sick, in fact no one was allowed to suffer. The state stored in
buildings provisions for times of scarcity of crops, so as to prevent
famine. At the head of the empire was the sovereign and who bore the
title of Sapa Inca, Only Inca, the divine ruler; next to the sovereign
came the nobility of royal blood, the Inca nobility, and who held the
principal offices of the state; then came a lower nobility, the Curaças,
who were of the original rulers of conquered states; and last were the
common people.

=Buildings.= The buildings of the highlands were of stone, while on the
coast stone was used for foundations and brick made of clay mixed with
reeds or tough grass was used for the walls. With stone mortar was
sometimes used and sometimes not. In the great buildings where large
stones were placed in the walls no mortar was used, and it is stated
that in some of the remains of such buildings the stones are fitted so
closely that not even a knife-blade can be inserted in the joints. The
exterior walls were often of great thickness and the interior of the
building was arranged around a court, with windows and doors from the
rooms opening on to the court. Some of the buildings were of immense
sizes, in particular those built as fortifications and for religious
purposes. The doors were narrowed at the top, and with a stone across
the top, the arch with the keystone not showing in Peruvian
architecture. The roofs were thatched and in the large buildings the
ceilings sometimes were vaulted by having the upper courses of masonry
overlap and the whole topped by a single slab, thus forming a kind of
arch. On this lower part a second story was built, which did not open on
to the first floor, but was approached from the hill against which the
building was built. Inside the building the walls were niched for the
purpose of decoration and also gold plates and jewels were placed on the
walls as ornaments.

=Dress.= The two principal garments of the ancient Peruvians were the
tunic and the robe. In the simplest form the tunic consisted of an
oblong piece of cloth, folded crosswise in the middle and a piece cut
out of the fold for the head to go through, and the edges on each side
sewed together except a place left for the arms. Sometimes the tunic was
made with short sleeves. Often a belt was worn about the tunic at the
waist. In the coast country the material used for clothing was cotton
while wool was used in the highlands in the interior. The quality of the
clothing differed with the rank of the wearer, the coarsest clothes were
used by the common people while the finest were reserved for the
nobility and the very finest for the sovereign. The cloths were colored
and designs woven in them and sometimes they were fringed and
embroidered and sometimes even they were further decorated with feathers
and small plates of silver and gold.

On the head were worn conical or flat-topped caps, some having flaps to
cover the ears and the back part of the head, while others enclosed the
entire head, coming down under the chin, leaving only the face exposed
to view. Women wore their hair long while with men the length of the
hair proclaimed the rank, as the higher the rank the shorter the hair
was worn, the sovereign alone having a closely cropped head. The ruling
class wore a fringed cord of vicuña wool wound round the head three or
four times, the color designating the rank of the wearer, that of the
sovereign being crimson, of the heir to the throne yellow, and the
higher officials wore other colors. Hair was not allowed to grow on the
face and it was kept pulled out by means of small silver and copper
tweezers. They wore sandals made of the hide of the llama or of
vegetable fiber and they were fastened to the feet with cords.

Another mark of rank, along with their colored fringed cord, was the
wearing of studs in the lobe of the ear, the largest size having been
permitted to the sovereign only, and the sizes diminished according to
rank. These ear-ornaments were so heavy as to pull the lobes of the ears
down, making them quite large, the sovereign's ears being distended
nearly to his shoulders. Sometimes the nose and the lower lip were
pierced and ornaments worn in them. They wore necklaces made of beads of
colored shell and turquoise, finger-rings, anklets, and bracelets of
silver and gold, and pins for fastening the cloaks. Tattooing was
practiced, designs having been worked into the skin with a blue pigment.

=Food, Drink, Narcotics.= Because of the country's lying for the most
part in the tropics and also being of a mountainous nature, thus
allowing different climatic conditions, there was a plant life as found
in both tropical and temperate zones such as to offer a variety of food.
In the uplands maize was one of the staple foods, which was usually
eaten whole, roasted or boiled, maybe not used by them as bread except
at festivals, and the leaves were eaten as a vegetable. Quinoa was
another grain used by them, a kind of buckwheat. Another staple was the
potato, most commonly used in the form of chuno, in which the potatoes
were exposed to the frost for some time, then pounded and dried in the
sun, which made quite nourishing food and could be stowed away and kept
for some time. Beans and tomatoes were also used by them. On the
lowlands along the coast were found bananas, cocoa-nuts, the quava, and
the manioc. Birds were abundant, as were also fish, both from the lakes
and the ocean. The llama and the deer and the wild sheep of the
mountains were used as food, as was the flesh of some other animals.
This flesh was often cut into strips and dried, which was called
_charqui_, probably from which came the term "jerked" beef.

Syrup and a kind of vinegar were made from the juice of the maguey and
also syrup was made from the juice extracted from the stalk of the
maize. They made from the grain of the maize _chica_, which was the
national drink of Peru, and chica also was made from the grain of the
quinoa. But more desired than food or drink was the narcotic effect of
the coca, whose leaves were gathered and dried, mixed with lime or
bone-ash, and thus made into a preparation for chewing. Tobacco was used
by the Peruvians but they "differed from every other Indian nation to
whom it was known, by using it only for medicinal purposes, in the form
of snuff."[19]

=Marriage.= By law in ancient Peru, every person, both male and female,
was to marry at a marriageable age, which should be not less than
twenty-four in males and eighteen or twenty in females, it being
recognized that not until that age were people prepared to care for a
family. The nobility were allowed more than one wife but the common
people were limited to one.

According to law, each person was to marry within his own kindred. This
was not a very great restriction since all of his community, including
the town and often the whole province, were counted his kin.

The queen of the ruler was selected from among his sisters. No other
person in the realm was allowed to marry his own sister. This was
commanded of the ruler so that only the purest blood--the blood of the
heaven-born children of the sun--would thus flow in their offspring,
thereby preventing anything earthly from being a part of their great
rulers.

No marriage was considered legal unless the consent of the parents had
been given; nor was any contract performed without the contracting
parties so desiring it.

The ceremony was very simple and yet quite peculiar. On a certain day of
each year, designated by law, all persons of marriageable age came
together in the open squares of their native places. The ruler of the
district would take the hands of the different couples in his and place
them in each other's and pronounce them man and wife. Among the kindred
of the Inca this ceremony was performed by the Inca in person.

After all the marriage vows were performed, there was a general good
time had by the newly married pair and their friends, which was carried
on for several days. It can be seen that these festivities must have
been very general over the whole empire, as all weddings occurred on the
same day, and as in every circle there must have been one wedding, so
there must have been among the participants in the after-feasts nearly
all, if not all, the people of the country.

The newly married pair were not left to find a home for themselves. Each
district furnished a house for each married couple within its boundaries
and gave a certain portion of land to them, and as children came
additional allotments were made for the support of each child. For a son
twice as much land was assigned to the parents as for a daughter. This
allotment of land occurred each year and amounts were given in
accordance with the size of the family.

=Care and Treatment of Children.= Infants were placed in cradles,
somewhat like Indian cradles, and fastened in them and kept in this
manner, not even having been taken out and into the mother's arms when
fed. When they were weaned an important ceremony occurred. In the first
place the hair was cut. The first lock of hair was cut from the head by
an elder relative with a stone knife and the rest of the hair was cut by
the relatives in the order of closeness of kin. The child was then given
a name, presents were given to it, and a feast closed the proceedings.
When the heir to the throne underwent this ceremony, the High-priest of
the Sun cut the first lock of hair, and the child received many fine
presents, among them being presents from the rulers of the various
provinces of the empire. A very careful record of births and deaths was
kept.

=The Virgins of the Sun.= The Peruvians worshipped the sun and they
trained for this worship young women who were called Virgins of the Sun.
They were taken from their homes at an early age and placed in convents
solely consecrated to their instruction and training. One of these
institutions, located at Cuzco, was for the girls of royal blood. In the
other provinces they were for the girls of the higher and inferior
nobles, and occasionally a girl of remarkable beauty from among the
common people was placed among the inmates.

These girls were put in charge of old, reliable women, who had spent
many years in the convents. They taught the girls how to spin and to
weave the hangings for the temples. They prepared the apparel for the
ruler and his people. They were instructed in their religious duties,
one of these being the watching over the sacred fires.

When the girls entered the convents they were shut entirely away from
the world, not even being permitted to see or to hear from their friends
and relatives. Morality was carefully inculcated. If one of the young
women should be caught in an intrigue, she was buried alive, her lover
was strangled, and his native town razed to the ground.

No one was allowed to enter these convents except the king and his
lawful queen. The institutions were inspected each year by persons sent
for that purpose, who made a report of what they noted on their visits.

The buildings themselves were as finely furnished as were the palaces of
the Incas and the temples, as they were for the accommodation of the
Daughters of the Sun and so were in especial charge of the state.

When these young women reached a marriageable age, the most beautiful
among them were chosen to become brides of the ruler, others were given
by him as wives to the higher nobles, while others remained in the
service of religion, vowing perpetual virginity, and who were held in
the very highest respect.

=Human Sacrifice.= Human sacrifice was of rare event in Peru. This only
occurred to mark some great public affair. The victims usually were
children and beautiful maidens. They were selected from the various
parts of the empire and they travelled in regular convoys, the children
too young to walk being carried by their mothers. As they journeyed they
received the adoration of all the people on the way. In offering them up
as sacrifices, the priests strangled them or broke their necks with a
stone implement, while with some the throat was cut and blood from the
wound sprinkled on their faces. In some cases the hearts of the victims
were plucked out and offered to the divinity. These sacrifices were
never served up at feasts, as in Mexico, but all were buried in special
cemeteries. Human sacrifice never came to be a great part of the
religion of Peru under the Incas, as was the case in Mexico, and where
it did occur there was never any cannibalism with it.

=Industries.= Agriculture was the main occupation of the ancient
Peruvians. Every one was required to put in some time in agricultural
pursuits unless excused by special permit by the authorities. The land
was divided into three parts, one portion was reserved for the Sun, to
be used to produce revenue to care for the temples and the priests and
others connected with the religion, a second part was reserved for the
state, and the third part was given over to the people for their own
use, each head of a family receiving a plot and additional plots for
each unmarried child. There were no animals for use in the fields, so
the people had all the work to do. The men used a digging-stick, which
was a long stake with a sharpened point, sometimes having the point
covered with copper, and with a cross stick about a foot up from the
pointed end for a foot-rest for digging with the foot. The men would
turn up the soil with their digging-sticks and the women would follow
and break up the clods with a rake and pull out the weeds. The men
unable to dig and the boys acted as scare-crows or used blow-guns and
slings to keep the birds away. Every bit of ground was cultivated and to
add to this terraces were formed on the hillsides by means of parallel
walls of rough stones, one above the other. To add further to the area
of tillable land, where the soil was rocky and dry they would make
excavations, sometimes as much as an acre in extent and sunk to the
depth of fifteen or twenty feet, and would line these with walls of
adobe, sun-dried bricks. The bottom of the pits probably reached down to
where there was some moisture and they were prepared for cultivation as
the other fields.

As is well known, much of the coast region of the country which was
occupied by the empire of the ancient Peruvians is arid, as the
prevailing winds are from the east and the moisture is taken from them
by the high Andes mountains, and thus the rivers are few and with but
little water in them, often dry for a long time, and there is but little
rainfall, if at all. In order to overcome this lack of moisture and to
add to the fertile area of the country, the Peruvians built reservoirs
and aqueducts. These aqueducts were sometimes above ground and sometimes
underground and some were quite long, one at least having been between
four and five hundred miles in length and twelve feet deep and wide. As
they did not use the arch they could not well cross depressions or
streams and had to make long detours, and sometimes they tunneled in the
mountains for the passages. They had sluices by means of which the
water could be turned on to the land and they were very careful in
allowing the right amount of water to be used on the fields. The
construction of these aqueducts, and other great buildings, is all the
more remarkable when it is considered that these people had no iron
tools of any kind whatever.

They were acquainted with the principle of fertilizing the crop. A small
sardine-like fish was abundant along the coast, which they caught and
often placed with the grains of maize in the holes in planting. Guano,
the deposit of sea-fowls on the islands along the coast, was used in
great quantity by them, and much care was given to its proper
distribution to the different districts. No one was allowed on the
islands during the breeding season and such trespass and killing the
birds at any time were punished by death. "Inland other forms of manure
were used."[20]

As most of the country of the Peruvian empire lay in the torrid zone and
consisted of low coast land, elevated land, and mountainous regions, it
would have all ranges of climate, according to elevation, and without
any great changes of temperature in any one part. Thus all kinds of
agricultural products could be cultivated, such as would be found in
tropical and temperate regions. In the warm coast region cotton was
grown in great abundance and the banana and the cassava; in the more
elevated regions the great staple produced was maize and also manioc,
guava, groundnuts, tobacco, beans, gourds, and tomatoes; and in the
higher and colder parts were found the potato, quinoa, coca, and maguey.

Fishing was an important industry and on the coast regions it ranked
next to agriculture. They had a kind of raft, balsa, made of bundles of
reeds or poles fastened together and they used nets, harpoons made of
copper or tipped with copper, and hooks of bone or copper. Fowling was
carried on by means of nets and quite largely engaged in especially
along the coast where there were great numbers of birds. Game was
plentiful in the mountainous regions and often great drives were made,
sometimes as many as fifty or sixty thousand people took part in one and
in which thirty thousand head of game might have been taken. They used
dogs in hunting, having had at least two varieties of hunting dogs.
Beasts of prey, such as pumas, bears, foxes, and wild-cats were killed.
The real purpose of the hunt, though, was to capture the huanaco and
vicuña, from which the wool was cut and then the greater part of them,
the females and best males, were turned loose to let the wool grow for
another year, some being kept for food. Besides these wild animals, they
kept great flocks of llamas and alpacas, the alpaca having been raised
for its wool and the llama for a beast of burden, for its wool, and also
for its flesh for eating.

The Peruvians excelled in the art of weaving. They made cloth, tapestry,
gauze, and embroidery. They used cotton and wool for the most part,
although there was a thread made from the fiber of the maguey. One of
the principal occupations of the women was the preparation of the thread
for weaving. In the early times it would seem that the loom was unknown
but at the time of the entrance of the Spaniards into the country the
work was done by true weaving on the loom. There were a number of
designs used, variations showing from one period to another. Various
colors were used. The patterns were woven in the material or placed on
the cloth in the form of embroidery or painted on the cloth, and
sometimes the cloth was ornamented with feathers placed on it in the
form of patterns. They also wove a double-faced cloth in which the
colors were different on the two sides. Delicate gauzes were made in
which designs were embroidered on fine net background.

Pottery was another important industry. There were very many designs and
all kinds of utensils and the workmanship was good. Gold was obtained
from deposits in streams and silver was mined. These metals were cast,
hammered, soldered, and inlaid, as the people were very skillful in
working with these metals and did especially fine work. They made vases,
bracelets, mirrors, necklaces, and all kinds of delicate ornaments.
Copper was greatly used, tin having been mixed with it. They made from
this various kinds of implements and tools and weapons. They were quite
skillful in wood-carving and inlaying was widely practiced, not only on
wood but also on bone and shell and stone. They displayed skill in
stone-carving, being able to cut the hardest stones, as emeralds and
other precious stones. Their implements were of copper or stone, as iron
was not at all in use.

Money was not in use among the Peruvians and so there was required an
exchange of products. As the products of the country varied it became
necessary that ways should be provided whereby people could have
opportunity to exchange what they had for things greatly needed from
other people of a different calling. This was done by means of fairs
held throughout the empire. In the more populous places they took place
three times a month. "These fairs afforded so many holidays for the
relaxation of the industrious laborers."[21]

=Training of the Inca and the Order of the Huaracu.= "In his early
years, the royal offspring was intrusted to the care of the _amautas_,
or 'wise men,' as the teachers of Peruvian science were called, who
instructed him in such elements of knowledge as they possessed, and
especially in the cumbrous ceremonial of their religion, in which he was
to take a prominent part. Great care was also bestowed on his military
education, of the last importance in a state which, with its professions
of peace and good will, was ever at war for the acquisition of empire.

"In this military school he was educated with such of the Inca nobles as
were nearly of his own age; for the sacred name of Inca--a fruitful
source of obscurity in their annals--was applied indifferently to all
who descended by the male line from the founder of the monarchy. At the
age of sixteen the pupils underwent a public examination, previous to
their admission to what may be called the order of chivalry. This
examination was conducted by some of the oldest and most illustrious
Incas. The candidates were required to show their prowess in the
athletic exercises of the warrior; in wrestling and boxing, in running
such long courses as fully tried their agility and strength, in severe
fast of several days' duration, and in mimic combats, which, although
the weapons were blunted, were always attended with wounds, and
sometimes with death. During this trial, which lasted thirty days, the
royal neophyte fared no better than his comrades, sleeping on the bare
ground, going unshod, and wearing a mean attire--a mode of life, it was
supposed, which might tend to inspire him with more sympathy with the
destitute. With all this show of impartiality, however, it will probably
be doing no injustice to the judges to suppose that a politic discretion
may have somewhat quickened their perceptions of the real merits of the
heir-apparent.

"At the end of the appointed time, the candidates selected as worthy of
the honors of their barbaric chivalry were presented to the sovereign,
who condescended to take a principal part in the ceremony of the
inauguration. He began with a brief discourse, in which, after
congratulating the young aspirants on the proficiency they had shown in
martial exercises, he reminded them of the responsibilities attached to
their birth and station, and, addressing them affectionately as
'children of the Sun,' he exhorted them to imitate their great
progenitor in his glorious career of beneficence to mankind. The novices
then drew near, and, kneeling one by one before the Inca, he pierced
their ears with a golden bodkin; and this was suffered to remain there
till an opening had been made large enough for the enormous pendants
which were peculiar to their order, and which gave them, with the
Spaniards, the name of _orejones_. This ornament was so massy in the
ears of the sovereign that the cartilage was distended by it nearly to
the shoulder, producing what seemed a monstrous deformity in the eyes of
the Europeans, though, under the magical influence of fashion, it was
regarded as a beauty by the natives.

"When this operation was performed, one of the most venerable of the
nobles dressed the feet of the candidates in the sandals worn by the
order, which may remind us of the ceremony of buckling on the spurs of
the Christian knight. They were then allowed to assume the girdle or
sash around the loins, corresponding with the _toga virilis_ of the
Romans, and intimating that they had reached the season of manhood.
Their heads were adorned with garlands of flowers, which, by their
various colors, were emblematic of the clemency and goodness that should
grace the character of every true warrior; and the leaves of an
evergreen plant were mingled with the flowers, to show that these
virtues should endure without end. The prince's head was further
ornamented by a fillet, or tasselled fringe, of a yellow color, made of
the fine threads of the vicuña wool, which encircled the forehead as the
peculiar insignia of the heir-apparent. The great body of the Inca
nobility next made their appearance, and, beginning with those nearest
of kin, knelt down before the prince and did him homage as successor to
the crown. The whole assembly then moved to the great square of the
capital, where songs and dances and other public festivities closed the
important ceremonial of the _huaracu_."[22]

=Education.= Education in ancient Peru was wholly reserved for the
nobility. The common people were treated very kindly by the ruling
class, but it was the theory of their government that the masses were
only children and must be treated as such. The following from one of
their leading sovereigns portrays this idea: "Science was not intended
for the people; but for those of generous blood. Persons of low degree
are only puffed up by it, and rendered vain and arrogant. Neither should
such meddle with the affairs of government; for this would bring high
offices into disrepute, and cause detriment to the state."[23]

The youth of the nobility were placed under "wise men," who were the
only ones having sufficient learning to do such work. The youth were
trained for the especial kind of duties they were to perform in after
life. They were taught the laws of their country, the principles of
government, and were well grounded in the use of their mother tongue.
Those who were to enter into a religious life were carefully instructed
in regard to the rites and ceremonies of the religion of the country.
All were made familiar with the use of the quipus.

The quipus were used for counting and computing numbers. The quipu was a
cord near two feet long, made of threads of different colors twisted
together and having smaller threads hanging from them like fringe. These
threads were of different colors with knots in them which served instead
of ciphers in computing. Sometimes the threads represented abstract
ideas, as, white stood for peace, red for war, and, again they
represented concrete objects, as, white was for silver, yellow for gold.

LITERATURE

1. ... Ancient Peru--Its people and its monuments. _Harper's Magazine_,
VII. (1853), 7-38.

2. Joyce, Thomas A., South American archæology.

3. Nadaillac, Marquis de, Prehistoric America.

4. Prescott, William H., History of the conquest of Peru.

5. Winsor, Justin, Narrative and critical history of America.

CHAPTER III

THE CHILD IN EGYPT

=The Country.= The desert stretching across Africa from the Atlantic
Ocean on the west extends into Western Asia and in its whole extent it
is broken only in one place and that is the long, narrow valley made by
the Nile river. In this valley snow and frost are unknown and the chief
characteristic of the climate is its combined warmth and dryness. There
is but little rainfall throughout this region and yet there is abundance
of moisture, which comes from the annual overflow of the Nile, and which
overflow also greatly enriches the soil. The deserts surrounding Egypt
and the cataracts of the Nile at its southern border isolated this
country so that it was not readily disturbed by outside peoples. This
isolation, with the warm climate and the productive soil, gave just the
conditions necessary for the development of mankind in its early times
and thus arose a people in this region which developed into a great
nation, extending from about 5,000 years before Christ down to its
overthrow by the Persians in 525 B. C. The country was divided into
Upper Egypt, the principal city of which was Thebes, Middle Egypt, with
Memphis as the principal city, and Lower Egypt, which included the
Delta, its chief city being Heliopolis.

From the cataracts on the South to the Mediterranean Sea the Nile
pursues its course for over five hundred miles, till within sixty miles
of its mouth it divides into branches and forms the part called the
Delta. The cultivable land, depending upon the extent of the inundation,
averages about five and a half miles in width, varying from two miles in
its narrowest part to ten and three-quarters in its widest part,
including the river. On the west of the valley is a range of hills,
which protects it from the sand of the desert, and on the east, between
the Nile and the Red Sea, is also another range of hills. Lying at the
foot of the hills is a strip of sand, sometimes as great as two and a
half miles in breadth, which is not reached by the inundation and
consequently remains a waste. The demarcation between this waste and
the fertile soil is very marked, so as to be readily noted. The rock in
these hills varies, at the southern extremity being found the granite,
from which were cut out their monoliths and made into obelisks and
collossi; further north is found sandstone of various colors, and from
which were built the palaces and temples of that region; and following
this district is a part wherein there is a limestone formation, in which
region are found the pyramids, mostly composed of this stone.

=The People.= The ancient Egyptians, although in Africa, were not from
African races but were of Asiatic descent, as the formation of their
skulls, their features, their hair, and their language, show that they
were of a Caucasian race. "The Egyptians appear to have been among the
darkest races with which the Greeks of the early times came into direct
contact.... The hair was usually black and straight. In no case was it
'woolly,' though sometimes it grew in short, crisp curls.... The
forehead was straight, but somewhat low; the nose generally long and
straight, but sometimes slightly aquiline. The lips were over-full; but
the upper lip was short, and the mouth was seldom too wide. The chin was
good, being well-rounded, and neither retreating nor projecting too far.
The most marked and peculiar feature was the eye, which was a long,
narrow slit, like that of the Chinese, but placed horizontally and not
obliquely. An eyebrow, also long and thin, but very distinctly
pencilled, shaded it. The coloring was always dark, the hair, eyebrows,
eyelashes, and beard (if any) being black, or nearly so, and the eyes
black or dark brown.

"In form the Egyptian resembled the modern Arab. He was tall; his limbs
were long and supple; his head was well placed upon his shoulders; his
movements were graceful; his carriage dignified. In general, however,
his frame was too spare; and his hands and feet were unduly large. The
women were as thin as the men, and had forms nearly similar. Children,
however, appear to have been sufficiently plump; but they are not often
represented."[24]

The people were divided into classes and although the separation of the
classes was very marked and distinct, yet there was really no rigid
caste system, as the boundaries were crossed by people ascending from a
lower class into a higher. Of course, as with all people, it was quite
customary for the son to take up the work of his father, but, at least,
in some cases this was not compulsory. In one instance it is shown where
the occupation of architect had descended from father to son for
twenty-one generations. There is difficulty in knowing just what were
the divisions of society but at any rate there were at least three
distinct classes, which were the priestly class, the military class, and
the rest of the people. The first two classes, from whom came the king,
were exempt from taxation. The rest of the people had to bear the burden
of the taxes, to construct the public works, to perform the agricultural
tasks, and to carry on all mechanical and other pursuits. They had a
hard time and yet the laws regarding them seem to have been justly
administered and it would appear as if they were contented with their
condition.

"The occupations of the common people in Egypt were carefully watched by
the magistrate, and no one was allowed to live an idle life, useless to
himself and to the community. It was thought right that the industrious
citizen should be encouraged, and distinguished from the lazy or the
profligate; and in order to protect the good and detect the wicked, it
was enacted that every one should at certain times present himself
before the magistrates, or provincial governors, and give in his name,
his place of abode, his profession or employment, and the mode in which
he gained his livelihood, the particulars being duly registered in the
official report. The time of attendance was fixed, and those from the
same parish proceeded in bodies to the appointed office, accompanied by
their respective banners, and each individual being introduced singly to
the registering clerks, gave in his statement and answered the necessary
questions."[25]

=Slavery.= Slavery has a very early date, as it is found at the very
beginning of history, which is true in Egypt as elsewhere. The origin of
slavery cannot be traced but in the early history of Egypt it appears
that the slaves came from outside countries, gained through wars and
raids and by purchase from dealers. Many of the captives who became
slaves were placed in the service of the king and used on public works,
as the building of temples, cutting canals, raising dykes and
embankments, and the like. They were used in private, both black and
white, to do the work in the fields and in the homes and elsewhere. They
attended on guests at banquets and also were used to amuse them by
singing and dancing and in other ways.

The master had full power over his slaves, could sell them, remove them
from place to place, if they escaped could pursue and recapture them,
and do with them as he pleased, and yet he could not wilfully murder one
of them or, if so, he himself was put to death. "The very kind treatment
of Joseph, the mode of his liberation, and his subsequent marriage with
the daughter of a freeborn Egyptian, a high functionary of the
sacerdotal order, are striking proofs of the humanity of the Egyptians
and of their indulgent conduct toward manumitted slaves."[26] At the
same time, as with slaves everywhere and at all times, no doubt they
were often cruelly treated, as is given concerning the Israelites, when
"there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph."[27]

=The Home.= The houses in the towns varied in size, many of one story
and maybe some of four or five stories, but for the great part not above
two stories. The streets of the towns were narrow. The poorer classes
lived much in the open air and so did not use their houses greatly. The
wealthier classes built their houses so as to be cool throughout the
summer. To keep their houses cool "a line of trees ran parallel with the
front of the house; and to prevent injuries from cattle or from any
accident, the stems were surrounded by a low wall, pierced with square
holes to admit the air."[28] The material used in constructing the
houses was crude brick, baked in the sun, a material peculiarly suited
to the climate. Wood was used for beams and doors, sometimes for floors,
and the finer imported woods for decorative purposes.

The houses were of different sizes and arrangement. Some of the houses
were small, having an open court in front, with three or four small
rooms adjoining for storing grain and other things, and a single chamber
on a second floor above these rooms, stairs leading to it from the
court. Such houses as these small single ones probably were found only
in the country. In the towns the smaller houses were usually built in a
solid row along a street, with a courtyard, common to several dwellings.
The wealthier people had separate houses, which sometimes were quite
large, covering a good deal of ground.

Before the front door was a portico or porch, about twelve or fifteen
feet high and supported on columns of stone, or if of wood they were
stained to represent stone. There was a large front entrance and on
either side a small door, probably for servants and ordinary use.
Sometimes on the lintels or imposts of the entrance the owner's name was
written and over the door was placed a phrase, as, "The Good House."
Inside next to the entrance was a small open court with a receiving door
for visitors, on the opposite side of which was a door through which the
master of the house came to receive the callers. From this small court
doors led to a larger court, which was shaded by trees. The rooms of the
house were arranged on the right and left of the large court, opening
into it. The rooms on the ground floor were used chiefly as store-rooms
for furniture, goods of various kinds, wines, oil, etc. Over the rooms
on the ground floor were placed the chambers of the upper story, with
stairs leading to them.

The ceilings of the rooms were formed with rafters of the date tree with
transverse layers of palm branches or planks and sometimes they were
vaulted and made of brick and in the houses of the rulers they might
have been arched with stone. The floors were of stone or a composition
made of lime and other materials. The doors opened inward, both of the
rooms and the outside entrance. The doors were made of wood, often
stained to imitate foreign and rare wood. They were made of one or two
valves and they turned on pins of bronze, which were fastened to the
wood with nails of the same metal, and they were secured within by means
of a bar or bolt or with a wooden lock. The openings for the windows
were small as the cloudless sky of Egypt gave out brilliant light and
small openings let in less heat. The windows had wooden shutters of one
or two valves, opening on pins and secured by bars and bolts, as the
doors. The walls and ceilings were stuccoed and ornamented with various
devices painted on them, being tastefully done in form and arrangement
of colors. A terrace was placed on top of the house and covered with a
roof and supported by columns, which during the summer provided a refuge
from the heat of the day and a sleeping-place at night.

Beside these town places there were villas, which sometimes were quite
great in extent with a large mansion and beautiful gardens, watered by
canals from the Nile, and all surrounded by a wall.

The poorer classes of people sat cross-legged, crouched on the ground,
knelt on one or both knees, or sat on the heels. Sometimes as a token of
respect to superiors, the people of the higher classes knelt or sat on
the heels, but usually they used chairs or stools or couches.

The chairs were of various kinds, some of them of elegant form and made
of ebony and other fine woods, inlaid with ivory, and covered with rich
stuffs. Beside the single chair, they had a double chair for two
persons, which often was reserved for the master and mistress of the
house, and occasionally offered to guests. Most of the chairs had backs,
some had a raised piece at the back, while others were made in the form
of camp-stools. They were usually about as high as they are now, but
some of the chairs were quite low, the seat sometimes being as low as
eight inches from the floor. The legs were usually made in imitation of
those of an animal, as, of the lighter chairs like the legs of an
antelope, of the heavier like those of a lion. In the finer chairs bars
were not used to unite the legs. The seats were made of wood or leather
and sometimes of interlaced string or leather thongs, over which a
cushion was placed.

The finer stools were very much as the chairs, of fine workmanship and
of rare woods inlaid with ivory. Some of the cheaper ones had solid
sides while others had three legs. They had footstools with open or
closed sides, covered with leather or interlaced string, as with the
chairs. They used couches, some of which were most beautiful in form and
workmanship. They used mats and carpets and rugs.

The tables of the Egyptians were round, square, or oblong. They were
generally made of wood, although some were of stone or metal. The
smaller tables often had but one support, in the center, while the
larger ones had three or four legs or were made with solid sides. In
sleeping, for the head they used a low half cylinder, usually of wood,
sometimes of pottery or stone, some of the wooden ones being made of
rare woods and ornamented. The poorer people slept on mats on the floor
but probably the wealthier people had bedsteads made in wicker form of
palm branches and some, perhaps, were of wood and bronze.

=Women and Marriage.= We find the women having considerable power in
ancient Egypt. They had full control of the home, as it appears that
the husband entered the house of his wives, rather than the wives to
have entered his. Royal authority and supreme direction of affairs were
intrusted without reserve to women. The women went often into public, at
some of the public festivals they were even expected to attend with
their husbands. Even greater privileges were accorded to the women of
the middle and lower classes as they often went and came as they liked.

Plurality of wives was allowed, except in the case of priests, who by
law were permitted but one wife. Yet the Egyptians generally restricted
themselves to one wife. Marriage of brother and sister was permitted and
seemingly encouraged from a religious point of view.

Although in most cases they might not have had but one wife, yet they
had concubines. These appear to have been obtained mostly in war or
bought as slaves from foreign dealers, not for most part being native
Egyptian women. These concubines were both white and black, but the
black were used as domestics in the family. Sometimes the white
concubine took a prominent part in the family, ranking next to the wives
and children.

All the children born to a father were considered legitimate whether the
offspring of a wife or of some other woman, but those who were born of a
brother and sister in legitimate marriage took precedence of those whose
mother was of inferior rank or a slave.

The people of old Egypt held strong opinions on the behavior of their
women and so punished adultery very severely. A woman detected in
adultery had her nose cut off, as it was thought this would be a severe
blow to her charms and so make her less attractive. The man was
condemned to receive a bastinado of one thousand blows. If a man used
force toward a free woman he was very cruelly punished.

=Child and Parent.= The Egyptians were very fond of their children. Even
the most consequential pontiff did not affect indifference toward them.
They cared for the children and did not permit the father to have any
right over the life of his offspring. The punishment for child-murder
was very severe. They did not take the life of the offender, but gave to
him a punishment which would well portray to him the heinousness of the
crime. In the case of the killing of a child, it was ordered that the
corpse of the child be fastened to the neck of the parent offending, and
for three entire days and nights was the embrace of the dead child to
continue, under the watchful eyes of a public guard. The murder of a
parent was considered the most wicked of all crimes. In this case the
criminal was sentenced to be lacerated with sharpened reeds and after
being thrown on thorns he was burnt to death. In case a pregnant woman
was sentenced to death, the punishment did not take place till after the
birth of the child, both because they thought it wrong to take the life
of an innocent being and also they did not wish to deprive the father of
the child, which might become his support in later life.

Children were taught to pay great respect to old age. The children's
greatest duty was respect for and care of parents. This was just as
binding among the upper classes as with the lower. This was carried up
even to the very highest, as the sons of the king acted as fan-bearers
to him, and they also walked on foot behind his chariot in triumphal
processions.

=Dress.= The lower orders of the Egyptian people dressed in a very
simple manner. The men wore a sort of apron, or kilt, held at the waist
by a girdle or sash, or else short drawers, extending half way to the
knees. Sometimes the apron was simply bound round the loins and lapped
over in front. When at heavy labor the men would even wear less
clothing, as they would use the girdle about the body at the waist and
fasten to it in front a roll of linen and pass this between the legs and
fasten it to the girdle at the back. The men of the higher orders used
the apron also and wore over it a dress which extended to the ankles and
had large sleeves. Sometimes this dress was fringed on the border around
the legs. Over this for cool weather they wore a woolen cloak. Sometimes
they wore over the apron a skirt with short sleeves and over this a
loose robe with the right arm left exposed. As a distinguishing mark,
the princes wore a peculiar badge at the side of the head, which
descended to the shoulders and was frequently adorned and terminated
with a gold fringe.

The women of the lower classes usually wore a loose robe or shirt, with
tight or full sleeves, fastened at the neck with a string, and over this
they wore a sort of petticoat with a girdle about it at the waist, and,
often while at hard work, this costume was further simplified by their
wearing merely the loose shirt or robe and going barefooted. The women
of the higher orders wore a petticoat, or gown, held by a colored sash
at the waist or by straps over the shoulders, and over this they wore a
large loose robe, with full sleeves and tied in front below the breast.
Slaves and servants were not allowed to dress as their mistresses. They
wore a long tight gown, tied at the neck, with short sleeves, reaching
nearly to the elbows. When entertaining guests by dancing or otherwise
at banquets and the like, these women wore over their dress a long loose
robe and strings of beads around their hips.

The material used for the clothing was sometimes cotton but linen was
preferred. Wool was used for cloaks for colder weather. Some of the
material was of very fine texture, this being particularly true of the
linen. There was a great variety of patterns in brilliant colors. In
some of the striped patterns, the stripes were of gold threads,
alternating with red lines as a border. The most elegant stuff and
beautiful patterns were reserved for the robes of the deities and the
dresses of queens.

The men of ancient Egypt shaved the head and face, never letting the
hair grow except when they were in mourning. Women, on the contrary,
never had their hair cut off, even in mourning or after death. They wore
their hair long and plaited, generally in a triple plait, the ends being
left loose; but more usually two or three plaits were fastened together
at the ends by a woolen string of the same color as the hair, and
falling around the head to the shoulders. An ornamental fillet was bound
around the head and fastened with a lotus bud, which fell over the
forehead. The plaits of hair at the side were held in place by a comb or
band and sometimes a round stud or pin was thrust into them at the
front. The male slaves had their heads and faces shaved as their
masters. The female slaves generally bound their hair at the back of the
head into a sort of loop; sometimes they arranged it in long plaits at
the back and at the sides of the neck and face.

The men wore wigs both within the house and without. Sometimes the whole
wig was of plaited hair, sometimes the upper portion was of curled hair
and the lower part of plaited hair, and again the whole wig was of short
locks of equal length. Too, cheap wigs were made in woolen and other
stuffs in imitation of hair. "The wig was worn by every gentleman; and
though it might appear ill-suited to a hot climate, the interlaced
texture of the ground to which the hair was fastened, and the protection
of this last against the sun, rendered it a most effective, and at the
same time the coolest, kind of covering for the head."[29]

"The most singular custom of the Egyptians was that of tying a false
beard under the chin, which was made of plaited hair, and of a peculiar
form, according to the person by whom it was worn. Private individuals
had a small beard, scarcely two inches long; that of a king was of
considerable length, square at the bottom; and the figures of gods were
distinguished by its turning up at the end. No man ventured to assume,
or affix to his image, the beard of a deity; but after their death it
was permitted to substitute this divine emblem on the statues of kings,
and all other persons who were judged worthy of admittance to the
Elysium of futurity, in consequence of their having assumed the
character of Osiris, to whom the souls of the pure returned on quitting
their earthly abode."[30]

Both men and women wore sandals, which often were carefully and
beautifully made. They were made of leather, and lined with cloth, or of
palm leaves, papyrus stalks, or other similar materials in a sort of
woven or interlaced work. Some were pointed and turned up in front, some
had a sharp flat point, while still others were nearly round.

The Egyptians liked ornaments very much. They used gold and silver and
precious stones, and also cheaper materials were used in imitation of
these. Women wore earrings, some quite large. The women seem to have
been exceedingly fond of rings, sometimes wearing two or three on the
same finger, often wearing them on every finger of the left hand and at
the same time on a finger or two of the right hand, and they even wore a
ring on the thumb. They wore anklets. Both men and women wore armlets,
bracelets, and necklaces.

The men carried walking-sticks. These were of various lengths, running
from three to six feet. Some had a knob at the top while others had a
peg projecting from the side. On entering a house the sticks were left
at the door or in the hall. Where a party was being given, sometimes a
poor man was employed by the master of the house to hold the sticks of
the guests. Quite often the name of the owner was written in
hieroglyphics on the stick.

For improving their appearance, the ladies of ancient Egypt used paints
and cosmetics. They applied kohl to the eyes, they used ointment on the
body, the ointment having been scented in various ways, they stained the
fingers with red _henneh_ and the eyelids with a moistened powder of a
black color. They kept the paints and ointments in bottles and boxes and
vases of various forms and materials, some being ornamented. They had
pins and needles. Some of the needles were of bronze and from three to
three and a half inches in length. Some of the pins were seven or eight
inches in length, with or without heads, used for arranging the plaits
or curls of the hair. They had combs, usually of wood, about four inches
long and six wide, some being double with small teeth on one side and
large teeth on the other side. They had mirrors of mixed metal, chiefly
copper, carefully made and highly polished, nearly round in form, and
with handles of wood, stone, or metal.

These people were of cleanly habits, both men and women. As was given
before, the men kept the head and face wholly shaved. They used warm and
cold baths. "The priests were remarkable for their love of cleanliness,
which was carried so far that they shaved the whole body every three
days, and performed frequent daily ablutions, bathing twice a day and
twice during the night."[31]

=Food and Drink.= Beef and goose constituted the principal part of the
animal food throughout Egypt, yet the cow was held sacred and forbidden
to be eaten.[32] Among the animals used for food were the ox, kid, wild
goat, and gazelle. Of fowls there were the goose and duck, the widgeon
and quail and other wild birds. There were fish in plenty. They had a
variety and abundance of vegetables, among them being onions, garlic,
lentils, beans, cucumbers, and melons. The lotus, papyrus, and other
plants that grew abundantly along the Nile furnished the greatest food
for the poorer people. Among the grains they had wheat, barley, and
durra. Of the fruits were dates, figs, pomegranates, olives, almonds,
peaches, and grapes.

For grinding the grain they had a mill of two circular stones, the lower
one fixed and the upper one arranged to turn on a pivot. The grinding
was done by a woman turning the upper stone by a handle, the grain being
poured through an opening in the center of the upper stone so as to get
between the stones to be crushed and ground. The same kind of a mill
was made on a larger scale and turned by animals. The better classes
used bread made from wheat while the poorer people used cakes of barley
or durra flour.

Dinner probably came at midday and supper in the evening. It would seem
that they washed before the meal as well as after partaking of it. A
napkin was presented to each person for wiping the mouth after drinking.
It was their custom to sit together about a table at their meals, as we
do now. Men and women sat together, although sometimes the sexes were
entertained separately in a different part of the room, on which
occasion the master and the mistress of the house sat close together on
two chairs or on a double chair at the upper end of the room. Water,
cooled in porous bottles, or wine was served to the guests. Knives were
used for the carving of a large joint and spoons were provided the
guests, for soups and other liquids, but they did not have knives or
forks, so they ate with their fingers, each one dipping his bread into a
dish placed in their midst, one after another according to rank as
guests.

"The Egyptians, a scrupulously religious people, were never remiss in
expressing their gratitude for the blessings they enjoyed, and in
returning thanks to the gods for that peculiar protection they were
thought to extend to them and to their country, above all nations of the
earth. They therefore never sat down to meals without saying grace; and
Josephus says that when the seventy-two elders were invited by Ptolemy
Philadelphus to sup at the palace, Nicanor requested Eleazer to say
grace for his countrymen, instead of those Egyptians, to whom that duty
was committed on other occasions."[33]

"It was a custom of the Egyptians, during (or according to Herodotus
after) their repasts, to introduce a wooden image of Osiris, from one
foot and a half to three feet in height, in the form of a human mummy,
standing erect, as Plutarch informs us, in a case, or lying on a bier,
and to show it to each of the guests, warning him of his mortality, and
of the transitory nature of human pleasures. He was reminded that some
day he would be like that figure; that men ought 'to love one another,
and avoid those evils which tend to make them consider life too long,
when in reality it is too short'; and while enjoying the blessings of
this world, to bear in mind that their existence was precarious, and
that death, which all ought to be prepared to meet, must eventually
close their earthly career."[34]

Wine was their favorite beverage and they had several different kinds of
it. They indulged in it very freely and there were no restrictions on
its use by individuals. It was used by all classes of the people, by the
priests, furnished to soldiers, offered to the gods, and prescribed as
medicine. Women, both young and old, were permitted to have wine, and it
would appear as if there were no restrictions as to their use of it.

The Egyptians also had beer, which was made from barley, and as they did
not grow hops they used lupins, skirret, and an Assyrian root for
flavoring it.[35] "Besides beer, the Egyptians had what Pliny calls
factitious, or artificial, wine, extracted from various fruits, as figs,
myxas, pomegranates, as well as herbs, some of which were selected for
their medicinal properties."[36]

There were excesses in drinking committed by people of all classes, both
men and women. At the banquets of the rich stimulants were sometimes
used to excite to further drinking, the cabbage having been one of the
vegetables used for such purpose.

=Food and Clothing of Children.= Swaddling clothes do not seem to have
been used by the Egyptians as they were among the Jews and some other
nations. If the child could not walk, he was carried by the nurse or
mother before her or at her side, in a shawl thrown around her back over
a shoulder. It was the custom, no matter whether the child had little or
no clothing on, to have a string of beads about the neck, having
occasionally a charm suspended in the center, a symbol of truth and
justice. These were for the purpose of keeping ill luck from the child,
and to make him wise and virtuous.

"The dresses of children of the lower classes were very simple; and, as
Diodorus informs us, the expenses incurred in feeding and clothing them
amounted to a mere trifle. 'They feed them,' he says, 'very lightly, and
at an incredibly small cost; giving them a little meal of the coarsest
and cheapest kind, the pith of the papyrus, baked under the ashes, with
the roots and stalks of some marsh weeds, either raw, boiled, or
roasted; and since most of them are brought up, on account of the
mildness of the climate, without shoes, and indeed without any other
clothing, the whole expense incurred by the parents does not exceed 20
drachmæ (about 13 shillings) each; and this frugality is the true reason
of the populousness of Egypt.' But the children of the higher orders
were often dressed like grown persons, with a loose robe reaching to the
ankles, and sandals."[37]

=Industries.= The ancient Egyptians engaged in many industries and
reached a high stage in the development of their country and their own
powers. The country was immensely rich, as was shown from the objects of
luxury found among them, and they loved pomp and splendor. Their
accomplishments come to us from the accounts of ancient writers and are
depicted through sculptures and paintings found upon the walls of
temples, palaces, and tombs, and remains of their work still exist
sufficient to show the great things they did.

The life of ancient Egypt depended upon the annual rise of the Nile,
caused by the rains and melting of snow on the mountains in the interior
of Africa. This rise begins in June, reaches the highest point in
September, remains stationary a few days, then recedes, and by December
the flood is past. This inundation, spreading over the whole country,
left the land covered with a rich dressing so that no further
fertilizing was necessary and made ancient Egypt probably the most
fertile tract of country in the world. This rising of the Nile produced
a line of industries, such as the building of canals and dykes and
irrigation works as well as the greatest industry of all, that of
agriculture.

Because of the favorable conditions in Egypt, as mentioned above, and
the dense population, agriculture was the principal industry. So
efficient did the people become in this and the agricultural laborers
were so frugal in their mode of living that there was a great surplus of
products each year, which gave Egypt advantages which no other country
possessed, giving them the balance of trade with other nations. The
principal grains were wheat, barley, and durra. Beside these grains they
grew beans, peas, and lentils, clovers, lupins, and vetches, flax and
cotton, various medicinal herbs, and of vegetables, garlic, leeks,
onions, endive, radishes, melons, cucumbers, and lettuce, in fact, a
very large number and a great variety of plants.

As soon as the water began to subside and land to appear, they began
preparing to sow the grain. On the highlands right along the river this
would generally be in October and the other parts following. The wheat
and the barley were sown about November, the barley ordinarily ripening
in about four months and the wheat in five. The durra was usually sown
about April, as an after-crop when the wheat and the barley had been cut
and taken off the ground. The ground was prepared by means of a very
rude plow, but more often by the hoe. The seed was sown broadcast over
the surface of the land. It would appear as if neither harrow nor rake
was used to cover in the grain, but it was left as it fell on the ground
to germinate. As was stated before, the water of the overflow of the
Nile was carried by means of canals throughout Egypt and retained for
irrigating the land. When the land was elevated, as along the banks of
the Nile, they used the _shadoof_, a contrivance somewhat like the old
well-sweep and bucket, to lift up the water from the river or wells to
be poured over the soil. When crops were raised late in the year or on
soil not covered by the Nile, they sometimes used fertilizing
substances, as nitrous earth and some other kinds of dressing. In
harvesting the wheat was cut a little ways below the grain with a
toothed sickle and placed in baskets and carried to the threshing-floor,
on which it was deposited and cattle driven over it to tread out the
grain. It was then winnowed with wooden shovels and put in sacks and
taken to the granary.

Of the domestic animals were cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, horses, asses,
camels, cats, and dogs. The cat was a favorite animal among the ancient
Egyptians. They never allowed a cat to be killed purposely, cared for
them when ill, and embalmed them when dead. Dogs also were well
considered by them and they had several breeds of them. They had learned
the artificial process of hatching eggs and built ovens expressly for
that purpose. There were great flocks of sheep and they were well taken
care of, great attention having been given to their proper food in the
various seasons and they were carefully treated when ill. The skill of
the Egyptians in curing animals had reached a high stage.

Hunting was an industry as well as an amusement. There were quite a
number of different animals that they hunted. They used the bow and
arrow and other weapons and also the net, which in hunting large animals
was placed across ravines and the like to keep them from escaping. They
hunted with dogs and they even had cats trained to hunt with. The
Egyptians were expert fowlers, using for the most part nets and traps
for catching the birds. The Nile was celebrated for its fish and fishing
was an important industry. The net was greatly used in fishing and the
rod and line and spear were also used. Salted as well as fresh fish were
used as food.

There were a great number of people engaged in manufactures and many
different trades were found among the ancient Egyptians. Whether each
one was compelled by law to follow the trade of his father, it is
probable that most of them did, so that often they were able to trace
back the occupation in the family for many generations. It is probable
that each craft had its own particular part of the city set aside for it
wherein its members dwelt and carried on their particular work and which
was called after it, as, the quarter of the goldsmiths, and so on. The
workmen became very proficient in their work and a number of inventions
were made which are the same as we have now, among some of the
implements invented being the forceps, bellows, blow-pipe, and siphon.

They were celebrated for their manufacture of cloths, having made such
of cotton, wool, and linen. They were woven on hand looms, some of which
were vertical and others horizontal and must have been of considerable
size, as they wove cloth five feet wide and at least sixty feet in
length. The spinning and weaving was the work of women, although men did
sometimes engage in this work. They colored the cloths, using dyes and
paints, and varied the colors in them, making patterns and showing
figures of animals and the like. Whether they understood the principle
of the action of mordants, they used this agency to make the cloth take
the color equally and also to change the hues.

Glass was known to the Egyptians and from it they made bottles, vases,
and other utensils, beads and other ornaments, and they were quite
skillful in the use of glass in counterfeiting the amethyst and other
precious stones. They had glazed ware a long time before they used
glass. There were quite a large number of people engaged in pottery work
and they were quite skillful in the manufacture of this ware. There
were many varieties and forms of their work and it included rough
unglazed ware up to fine glazed vases, highly decorated and colored.
There were bottles not only of glass and earthenware but also of leather
and of stone and there were glass bottles enclosed in wicker-work and
others encased in leather. There were all kinds of vases, earthenware,
stone, bronze, alabaster, glass, porcelain, ivory, bone, silver, and
gold. Some of the vases were most beautiful in make and design, inlaid
with precious stones and tastefully ornamented.

There was quite an industry in metal working among them. There was
probably very little of any kinds of metals found in Egypt, having been
brought in from other countries. Gold was early used for the making of
ornaments. They soon found a way of hardening gold by alloying it with
silver. They learned to work gold in various ways. They cast it into
figures, molded it into beads by pressure, soldered it, drew it out into
wire, used it in plaiting, beat it out into sheets for gilding, engraved
it and inlaid it with precious stones. Silver came into use later than
gold and in early times it was scarcer than gold. Copper was greatly in
use among the ancient Egyptians and by alloying it with tin produced
bronze. They made many utensils and implements of it and learned to make
it so hard as to be used for woodcutting tools and chisels for cutting
limestone. Lead was used by them, as was also tin and antimony. Iron was
perhaps used in the early times, but it would appear that it was not
greatly in use till the time of the Greeks and the Romans in Egypt.

They were quite skillful in working in wood and there was a large class
of wood-workers, divided into carpenters, cabinet-makers, wheelwrights,
coopers, coffin-makers, and boat-builders. There was quite a good deal
more wood in Egypt in ancient times than now and yet not a great
variety. The principal trees were the date-palm, used for beams; the
Theban palm, used for rafts, and other purposes connected with water,
and for beams and rafters; the sycamore, used for large planks for
boxes, tables, doors, and the like; the tamarisk, a hard and compact
wood, used for the handles of tools and wooden implements; and the
acacia, used for planks and masts of boats. For ornamental purposes and
where fine woods were required, they were brought in from other
countries, as, the cedar, cypress, cherry, walnut, and deal from Syria,
and ebony and other rare woods from Ethiopia.

Wood was used for buildings and parts of buildings, for furniture,
boxes, barrels, chariots, traveling cars, palanquins, coffins, statues,
statuettes, and in boat-building. "Regarding the methods of woodworking,
certainly the axe was the primitive tool, as shown by the royal
architect being designated by the axe. In the scenes of the pyramid age
we find the saw about three feet long worked with both hands, the mallet
and chisel for cutting mortise-holes, and the adze in constant use for
shaping and for smoothing wood. To this day the small adze is a favorite
tool of the Egyptian carpenter and boat-builder. For smoothing down the
caulking inside a boat, heavy pounders of stone were used, held by a
handle worked out on each side of the block. Drills were also commonly
used both on wood and stone, worked by a bow."[38]

As they had only the hand-saw, in making planks they usually placed the
piece of timber upright and fastened it to stakes and then sawed
downward through it. In joining two boards end to end, they would cut
into their ends and join them and glue them and then insert a flat
wooden pin through them from edge to edge and then pass a round wooden
pin through the boards into the flat pin, thus effectually keeping the
joints from opening and thereby showing the thoroughness of their work.
They dovetailed and veneered and stained and painted and gilded and
inlaid their woodwork, thus displaying a high degree of skill in working
with wood.

One of the greatest industries with them was that of brick-making, which
was wholly under the control of the government and carried on solely by
it. "The use of crude bricks baked in the sun was universal throughout
the country for private and for many public buildings, and the dry
climate of Egypt was peculiarly suited to those simple materials. They
had the recommendation of cheapness, and even of durability; and those
made 3,000 years ago, whether with or 'without straw,' are even now as
firm and fit for use as when first put up in the reigns of the Amunophs
and Thothmes, whose names they bear. When made of the Nile mud, or
alluvial deposit, they required straw to prevent their cracking; but
those formed of clay (now called _Háybeh_) taken from the torrent beds
on the edge of the desert, held together without straw; and crude brick
walls frequently had the additional security of a layer of reeds or
sticks placed at intervals to act as binders."[39]

The tanning and preparation and use of leather was quite a leading
industry of ancient Egypt, so much so that a section of the city of
Thebes was set apart for the exclusive use of the workers in skins and
leather. The demand for leather was so great Egypt itself could not
supply the hides necessary and great quantities of hides were imported
from foreign countries and also the skins of wild animals were brought
in and used. They tanned the skins and dyed them and made some fine
leather and also embossed the leather.

The tools used for working in leather were a semi-circular knife, a sort
of chisel, an awl, a stone for polishing, cutting table, bending form,
hone, and a few others. They made shoes, sandals, coverings and seats
for chairs and sofas, bow-cases, ornaments and harness for chariots, and
adornments for harps. Skins were used to cover shields and other things
and they were shaped into forms for carrying water, wine, and other
liquids. They made thongs by twisting leather strips together, cutting
the strips from circular pieces of leather as is done now.

The Egyptians were famed for their manufacture of paper, which was made
from the papyrus plant. This grew almost altogether in Lower Egypt, on
marshy land or in the ponds left after the inundation of the Nile. The
right of growing and selling it belonged to the government and the
particular species from which the paper was made was closely guarded and
perhaps not allowed to grow anywhere else than in the restricted
territory in the Delta. The paper was made by removing the outer
covering of the stalk, cutting the interior lengthwise into thin pieces
and laying these together side by side on a flat board and across them
another layer, cementing the strips together with a kind of glue, then
putting all under pressure, and after drying the paper was completed and
ready for use.

The paper made from the papyrus differed in quality according to the
growth of the plant and from which part of the stalk the pieces were
taken, the stalk growing to about fifteen feet in height. The breadth of
the paper differed, running from six inches under an early Dynasty to
fourteen and a half inches under a later Dynasty. When a sheet of
papyrus had been used for writing, it was rolled up, and if important
and to be preserved for any length of time, tied round the middle and
secured by clay stamps with a seal. The cost of the papyrus was so great
that it was used only in funeral rituals, conveyances, deeds, and other
public documents, and sometimes the old writing was erased and then the
roll was written on again. For ordinary purposes of writing, pieces of
broken pottery, stone, board, and leather were used.

The Nile traversing the entire length of Egypt formed a great avenue for
trade, as it was an open and easy way for reaching all parts. Not only
did the Nile give access to all parts about it, but also the canals
going out from it and running parallel with it connected the various
parts and gave ready ways on which domestic trade could go. The other
nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea carried on important maritime
trade with Egypt and, too, there was a great caravan trade with the
interior of Africa and parts of Asia. From Ethiopia came gold, ivory,
and slaves; from Arabia was obtained an incense necessary in the
religious ceremonies; from India were received spices. "Syria took
Egyptian chariots by hundreds; Tyre imported 'fine linen with broidered
work'; Greece, large quantities of paper; India and Arabia, linen
fabrics; Etruria, glass, porcelain, and alabaster; Assyria, perhaps,
ivories. In the earlier times Egyptian manufactures must have been
altogether unrivalled; and their glass, their pottery, their textile
fabrics, their metal-work, must have circulated freely through the
various countries bordering the Mediterranean and the Red Sea."[40]

Among the important industries of Egypt were the works in sculpture,
painting, and architecture. The men engaged in these occupations ranked
high, along with the scribes.

There were three kinds of sculpture in ancient Egypt. One kind was that
of statuary, sculpture in the round, where the complete figure was
shown; a second kind was relief, where the figure was raised from the
flat surface by cutting away the stone about it; the third kind was
intaglio, in which there was a cutting of the figure into the flat
surface, sinking the figure below the surface, and in one form of this
the cutting was done about the figure so as to leave it raised from the
interior, almost up to the level of the surface of the stone.

The old Egyptians reached a stage of progress in which the block of
stone for the sculpture figure was cut away from the original rock and
transported to the place where it was to stand. Yet the figure was
rarely if ever cut entirely away from the stone and so did not stand
forth separate, detached, a statute in and of itself. That which most
kept Egyptian sculpture, perhaps, from reaching to the highest
attainment was the conventionality in the displaying of figures. As the
sculptures were used in the decoration of tombs and temples, religion,
which is ever conservative, prescribed certain attitudes for the
figures, so that there was not much left for the working out by the
individual sculptor, and although there was an exactness of finish
attained there was not that expression which comes through allowing
freedom to the individual sculptor, and in consequence there is very
much of a sameness in the products of the sculptors running through the
twenty centuries of old Egypt.

As with sculpture so with painting, the conventional forms were demanded
of the painter so that although mechanical skill became great, there was
not that high artistic effect that is attained where individuality is
permitted to display itself. The walls of buildings were not broken by
windows, as the brilliancy of light was such that few openings were
necessary and the openings let in heat. The walls on the interior were
covered with a coating of stucco, which was white or whitish, and then
decorated with paintings displaying scenes and events in the life of the
people and the nation. The ceilings were also painted. The colors used
were black and white, red, blue, and yellow, green and brown. Columns
and other parts of buildings were also stuccoed and painted and even the
same was done with statues and other products of the sculptors.

The early buildings in Egypt were made of brick or by the interweaving
of palm-sticks. From these rude structures to the great temples and
pyramids makes the architecture of that country a most marked feature of
its progress. The architecture of Egypt in its rectangular form and
massiveness fits well into the nature of the land, which frames plain
and cliff about these buildings as a proper background. Yet size is not
so much the essential characteristic of this architecture but rather
strength and durability, which were the chief features of the
structures, whether large or small. Although they were familiar with the
arch and used it very much in brickwork, yet it would appear that it was
not used in the great buildings of stone, or, if so, it was hid in the
building and kept away from the external forms.[41]

The kinds of stone used in sculpture and architecture were limestone,
sandstone, granite, basalt, alabaster, and diorite. The stone was cut
out in blocks from the quarry, the surfaces were picked smooth with a
short adze, the blocks were then sawn and cut with drills, and probably
all prepared at the quarry ready for use at the building. Sand was used
as the cutting material with the soft stones and emery with the harder
ones. Whether the cutting material was used as powder or set as separate
teeth on the copper saw blade cannot be determined, yet in some
instances it would appear that the emery was set in the tool as teeth.
The great problem to us is how these stones were transported from the
quarries and set up in their places. One obelisk is estimated to have
weighed 886 tons and it was taken over-land a distance of 138 miles.
Some of the obelisks of seventy to eighty feet in length and weighing
near 300 tons each were conveyed a distance of more than 800 miles.[42]
Two great collossi, weighing 1,175 tons each, were carried upstream a
distance of 450 miles.[43] It would appear that sometimes the stone were
placed on sleds and drawn by oxen down to the river, where by an
inclined plane they were placed on vessels, while again these blocks
were hauled by large bodies of men over-land to their places of
destination.

The greatest of all their buildings were the Great Temple at Karnak and
the Great Pyramid at Ghizeh. The temple at Karnak was 1,200 feet long
and 340 feet wide, with an entire area of 396,000 square feet, and with
pylons, obelisks, and columns, and it is called "the greatest of man's
architectural works." The Great Pyramid at Ghizeh has a square base the
length of each side of which is 764 feet, covering an area of about
twelve acres. Its original perpendicular height is estimated at about
485 feet. "The solid masonry which it contained is estimated at more
than 89,000,000 cubic feet, and the weight of the mass at 6,848,000
tons. The basement stones are many of them thirty feet in length and
nearly five feet high. Altogether the edifice is the largest and most
massive building in the world, and not only so, but _by far_ the largest
and most massive--the building which approaches it the nearest being
the Second Pyramid, which contains 17,000,000 cubic feet less, and is
very much inferior in the method of its construction."[44]

=Sickness and Death.= It would appear that the study and practice of
medicine began at a very early time in Egypt. Principles and remedies
were given out from time to time till finally they were brought together
in the form of medical works and all physicians were expected to study
them and to use the prescribed remedies. The medical skill of the
Egyptians became known to other parts of the world and they were
consulted and called to foreign countries to give advice and treatment.
They went so far as to divide the study and practice of medicine into
specialties and so there were physicians attending to one kind of
illness only, as, one for the diseases of the eyes, another for the
diseases of the intestines, and so on, accoucheurs having been usually,
if not always, women. The physicians were given salaries by the
government and fixed by it and also they were permitted to receive fees
for their advice and attendance upon patients, but when in military
service they could not charge fees.

On account of the glaring light and the sandy plains and the overflow of
the Nile, some of the prominent troubles were of the eyes and such as
were connected with malaria. In treatment of illness, it was held that
the patient had been attacked by some evil influence, hence to cure him
was first necessary to find what was the nature of this evil spirit and
to drive it out or to destroy it. This was the task of those skilled in
sorcery, through incantations, amulets, and the like. Then the diseases
that had been carried into the body by the evil influences were to be
cured by medicine and medical treatment. Physicians were held
responsible for their treatment of a disease and if contrary to the
established system they were punished and the death of a patient under
such circumstances was considered a capital offense. Yet if they had
exhausted all the prescribed remedies without producing good effect,
they could prescribe new remedies and hence an opportunity for
advancement in the science of medicine. In their practice they strove to
prevent illness by directing attention to regimen and diet; they purged
the system by use of emetics or clysters; and they used drugs and
medical herbs.

When a death occurred, all the women of the household covered their
faces with dust and mud and with bosoms exposed ran out through the
streets, striking themselves and uttering loud cries of grief. Friends
and relatives joined the procession and the demonstrations became the
louder. If the deceased person had been of wide repute, many other
people went into the line of mourners and hired mourners were employed
to increase the lamentations and thereby enlarge the public display of
respect to the dead. For seventy-two days the mourning was carried on in
the house, lamentations were made, the funeral dirge was sung, all
amusements and indulgences were abstained from, and the men allowed
their hair and beard to grow. Thus they endeavored to show respect to
the deceased and their great affliction by his departure.

One of the great arts of the ancient Egyptians was that of embalming. It
constituted a distinct profession. The embalmers had wooden models of
mummies, displaying the three different ways of embalming. The first way
of embalming was very expensive and was used only by the wealthy class
and people of high position; the second way was more simple and quite
less expensive and used by the middle class of people; the third way was
very simple and very cheap and employed by the lower classes. After
embalming the body was returned to the family and put into a case and
placed in a room upright against the wall, and sometimes they were
retained by the family for quite a while before their burial.

When the time for burial came, the mummy was put into a coffin of wood
or stone to be placed in a tomb, which may have been hewn in the rock or
built up of brick or rock and usually on the western side of the Nile.
Some of the tombs were of great extent and highly ornamented with
paintings and sculptures and some were immense structures. The pyramids
were built for tombs. The funeral of any important personage was a great
occasion. There was much display and much noisy lamentations and it was
very costly. Upon reaching the Nile the body was placed on the funeral
barge and the procession went out on the river to the lake of the dead.
Before the deceased could be taken across the lake for burial he had to
meet the tribunal of death. Forty-two judges were at the bank of the
lake and any one could bring accusation against the deceased. The judges
considered the accusation and acted upon it and if the decision was
acquittal then burial in the tomb took place, but if the accusation was
sustained burial was denied. The judgment was carried out on the body of
any person in the country, high or low, rich or poor, the meanest
subject or a Pharaoh, and there are instances of deceased Pharaohs
having been denied public burial.

"All the legitimate tendencies exerted by this singular institution were
obviously for good. It sent forth from the very entrance of the tomb a
most powerful persuasive to live a life of virtue. It appealed to some
of the strongest of human motives, and enforced that appeal by the
severest of all sanctions, the exclusion of the body from its sepulchre,
and of the soul from the abodes of the blessed. It is not a little
singular that a custom apparently so salutary, and so early introduced,
should not afterwards have been adopted by other nations."[45]

=Child and Religion.= The child played a part in the religion of the
ancient Egyptians. Even one of their gods, Harpocrates, was represented
by an infant, having his finger to his mouth and that striking
characteristic of a young child--a protruding abdomen. The birth of a
child was a matter for thanksgiving offerings through the priests to the
gods. Herodotus says: "When parents, living in town, perform vows for
the recovery of their children's health, they offer prayers to the deity
of whom the animal is sacred, and then shaving a portion, or half, or
the whole of the child's head, they put the hair into one scale of the
balance and money into the other until the latter outweighs the former;
they then give it to the person who takes care of the animal to buy fish
(or other food)."[46]

On some occasions when the sacred bull was led in procession through the
town, the procession was led by children, and on such occasions it was
thought that these children received the gift of foretelling future
events. Wilkinson gives the following from Plutarch: "They even look
upon children as gifted with a kind of faculty of divination, and they
are ever anxious to observe the accidental prattle they talk during
play, especially if it be in a sacred place, deducing from it presages
of future events."[47]

=Amusements.= In the earlier times of ancient Egypt, as of all nations,
when the struggle for living required the putting forth of the energies
and but little leisure was allowed, there was not much time for
recreation and the people were not much given to amusements. As wealth
grew and there was leisure time, the desire for amusement and
entertainment increased until there grew up in the Egyptian character a
softness and inclination to luxurious living. Great banquets were given,
where hosts vied with one another in entertaining lavishly and in
furnishing amusement for the guests, till it would appear as if they
devised every possible kind of amusement. Nor was the zest for amusement
confined to the upper classes, for during the inundation of the Nile,
when but little work could be done, the peasantry gave themselves up to
pastime and sport. Many of the kinds of entertainment given at the
banquets were performed on the streets and open places.

Dancing was an indispensable entertainment at an Egyptian party and
music was required with the dance. They danced to the music of the harp,
lyre, guitar, pipe, tambourine, and other instruments, and in the
streets also to the drum. Dancing was not done by the guests, as it was
held not to be proper for the upper classes to dance, although the lower
classes indulged in this amusement and greatly enjoyed it. The dancing
was carried on before the guests by slaves taught the steps for that
purpose or by hired performers who made a profession of furnishing
dancing and music for festive occasions. Graceful posings and movements
and especial skill and grace in the use of the hands were the important
features of the dance. Both men and women danced for hire, the women
showing the superior grace and elegance and the men displaying the most
spirit. The dress of the female dancers was usually a loose flowing
robe, reaching to the ankles, fastened at the waist, and around the hips
was a small narrow girdle of various colors and ornamented with beads.
The material of the dress was of a very fine texture and thin, showing
the form and movement of the limbs in dancing.

There were various ways of dancing. Sometimes one person danced alone,
sometimes they danced in pairs, again there were several dancers
together sometimes of both sexes and then of but one sex. Some danced to
slow music, while others preferred lively tunes, men sometimes
displaying great spirit, bounding from the ground. The aim of the dance
was to display a succession of figures in which were exhibited a great
variety of gestures. Twirling was much used in dancing and the pirouette
was quite a favorite form with them. In one dance two parties would each
dance on one leg toward one another and perform a series of evolutions
and then retire from one another. In another step, standing on one foot
the dancer would strike the ground with the heel, changing back and
forth from one foot to the other. The dances of the lower classes were
sometimes in the form of a pantomime, in which there was a preference
shown for the ludicrous rather than the graceful.

Music was very popular with the Egyptians and they had both vocal and
instrumental. They had numerous songs and for various occasions. They
had quite a variety of musical instruments. Music was used in military
movements, in religious exercises, in their social functions, and in the
wailing for the dead. Music formed a part of the education of a member
of the upper classes, but he did not display this at social functions,
as that, like dancing, was given over to professionals. Both men and
women of the priestly order, though, did render service with voice and
instrument in religious ceremonies.

"It is sufficiently evident, from the sculptures of the ancient
Egyptians, that their hired musicians were acquainted with the triple
symphony; the harmony of instruments, of voices, and of voices and
instruments. Their band was variously composed, consisting either of two
harps, with the single pipe and flute; of the harp and double pipe,
frequently with the addition of the guitar; of a fourteen-stringed harp,
a guitar, lyre, double pipe, and tambourine; of two harps, sometimes of
different sizes, one of seven, the other of four strings; of two harps
of eight strings, and a seven-stringed lyre; of the guitar, and the
square or oblong tambourine; of the lyre, harp, guitar, double pipe, and
a sort of harp, with four strings, which was held upon the shoulder; of
the harp, guitar, double pipe, lyre, and square tambourine; of the harp,
two guitars, and the double pipe; of the harp, two flutes, and a guitar;
of two harps and a flute; of a seventeen-stringed lyre, the double pipe,
and a harp of fourteen strings; of the harp and two guitars; or of two
seven-stringed harps and an instrument held in the hand, not unlike an
Eastern fan, to which were probably attached small bells, or pieces of
metal that emitted a jingling sound when shaken, like the
crescent-crowned _bells_ of our modern bands; besides many other
combinations of these various instruments; and in the Bacchic festival
of Ptolemy Philadelphus, described by Athenæus, more than 600 musicians
were employed in the chorus, among whom were 300 performers on the
_kithara_."[48]

As was stated before, dwarfs and deformed persons were attached to the
households of the greater people as a means of entertainment as in Rome
and Medieval Europe. These dwarfs and also others engaged in buffoonery
for the entertainment of guests. There were various tricks performed by
jugglers, and we find there the old cup or shell game, in which a little
ball or pea is rolled about on a board from one inverted cup to another
to guess under which it finally rested. There were many kinds of
acrobatic feats, mostly performed by women, such as two performers
swinging around in a reckless fashion while holding hands. This was
varied by two men holding the hands of two women and whirling them
around with feet braced together. There were tumbling exhibits of
turning forward and backward on the hands, somersaulting off one
another's shoulders, and even sometimes doing these feats while holding
one foot with a hand. There were tests of strength wherein two men would
sit back to back and each strive to rise first from the ground, and in
another test they would try who could lift the heaviest weight or raise
a bag of sand with a straight arm up over head. They would throw knives
at a board, each contestant striving to strike his knife in the center
of the board or on a mark.

The most common indoor games were odd and even, mora, and draughts, all
of which it would appear were played in Egypt from very ancient times.
In odd or even bones, beans, nuts, almonds, and coins were used and any
indefinite number was held between the hands, the game being to guess
whether odd or even. The game of mora was usually played by two persons,
each at the same time quickly throwing out the fingers of one hand, then
trying to guess the number of fingers shown by both. Draughts was a
favorite game of all ranks. It was played by two people on a board
similar to the present checker-board, but the pieces were not flat,
being raised, more like the pieces in chess, and picked up like chessmen
between thumb and finger. In another game hooked rods were used by which
a small hoop was to be snatched from one another, the skill in this was
for one person to get his hoop loose from his opponent's rod and then
snatch it away quickly before he had time to stop it. In one game a
player knelt with face toward the ground between two others, who held
over him in their closed hands shells or dice, the number of which he
was to guess before being allowed to rise. They played with dice and
probably played several other games of chance.

Wrestling was a favorite amusement among the lower classes. They fought
with the single-stick and among the boatmen of the Nile were conflicts
with long poles. Mock fights were common, especially with the military
classes, sometimes quite a great affair wherein a temporary fort would
be erected and attacked by a party with a battering-ram and other
implements of war and vigorously defended by the party within the fort.
There were bull fights, sometimes between the animals and again men
would fight the bulls. The animals were carefully trained to fight and
prizes were awarded to the owner of the victorious combatant. It is
pretty certain that animals were taught to perform tricks and to dance.

All classes of the Egyptians delighted in hunting, fowling, and fishing.
In hunting they used the bow, the spear, the lasso, and the net to place
across enclosures. There were preserves on some of the estates in which
animals were kept for hunting, but the greatest sport was hunting out on
the desert. Dogs were used and different breeds reared, some for
attacking, some for coursing, and the like. Sometimes there would be a
great hunt arranged, with beaters for forcing the game into quarters
where they could be enclosed with nets and then hunted within. In
hunting for birds and water-fowl the real sportsman used only the
throwing-stick, which was from a foot and a quarter to two feet in
length, about one inch and a half in breadth, and slightly curved at the
upper end. The hunter would usually go out in a boat into the places
covered with tall reeds and lotuses and gliding swiftly in among the
birds, or using a decoy bird to attract them toward him, he would cast
the throwing-stick at them as they arose and thus fell them. Often a cat
would accompany the hunter which was trained to get the birds as they
fell and bring them to the boat. In the pleasure-grounds of villas were
ponds well stocked with fish. The fish were caught from them by hook and
line. But the real fisherman used the bident spear, which sometimes had
feathers at one end, like an arrow, but more often without, and
sometimes the spear had a string attached to it to bring it back when
thrown. Running his boat over the surface of the water, as he would see
a fish he would cast his spear at it. They prided themselves on their
skill with the spear.

=Games, Plays, and Toys.= The children and young people among the
ancient Egyptians engaged in many sports and they were encouraged in
this by their elders, particularly in those activities of an outdoor
nature, as they were considered to be conducive to good health through
exercise of the body. The young people took part in the singing and
other music and at least among the lower classes in the dancing. They
went out with their parents and other relatives on fishing trips and
bird hunting and the youth went with the men on hunting trips. The youth
of both sexes practiced shooting at a target with the bow and arrow.

The game of ball was one of the great games of the Egyptians,
participated in by children and adults of both sexes, but it appears to
have been more indulged in by the women. Some of the balls were made of
leather or skin, sewed with string, and stuffed with bran or husks of
corn, some being about three inches in diameter. In one of the favorite
games the ball was thrown and caught and the one failing had to carry
the other woman, who caught it on her back till this one failed to catch
it, when she had to do the carrying. The women rode sidewise in short
petticoats on the backs of the losers. In another game the ball was
thrown as high as possible and the catcher would leap up and catch it
before the feet would touch the ground. Again when the ball was thrown
to them they would catch it with the hands behind the back and even
while standing on one leg.

The playthings of the little child are often found buried with it. They
had dolls of various kinds, being made of wood, stone, and enamelled
pottery. They often were painted, the inferior ones being the most
gaudily colored. Some were of rude construction with head and body and
without arms and legs, while others were small models of the human
figure. Some were jointed, the arms and legs moving on pins. Some had
artificial hair, while others had beads in imitation of hair hanging
from the head. Some grotesque figures were formed and by means of
strings could be made to assume various postures. One such figure was
that of a crocodile which could be made to amuse the child by its
grimaces and by the opening and closing of its mouth. Some figures of
persons could be made to go through the motions of washing and of
kneading dough. One was the figure of a person with jointed arms and
legs, which could be thrown about by the pulling of a string, and which
still exists with us today in the jumping-jack. They also had pigs,
ducks, pigeons on wheels, boats, balls, marbles, and miniature sets of
household furniture.

=Education.= The ancient Egyptians were very much interested in the
education of the young. It would appear that the parent was left entire
freedom in the selecting what education and how much the child should
have. In the matter of education there seemed to be no caste whatever,
as the poor boy and son of one of the lower classes could take his place
in school by the side of the rich boy or the son of the noble.

A clever boy in school had great opportunities, be he from whatever
class of society. He was encouraged to go on to literary life, which
meant, if successful, entering into the employ of the government and
reaching the very highest places. Many a great nobleman so arose in
Egypt and often was found on his monument after his death: "His
ancestors were unknown people."

There were elementary schools, probably none provided by the state, and
whether there were schools or not in a community, there were teachers to
be had for the instruction of the young. With the temples were connected
higher schools and in the capitals of the three districts of Egypt,
Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, the temple schools were quite important
centers of learning. The child started into the elementary school at
near five years of age and continued till he left for work, or to enter
a higher school, or else he might have gone into the office of a scribe
or physician or architect to learn directly the work of his profession.
The vast majority of the children received very little training beyond
the rudiments of education and what instruction was given to them by
their parents in teaching them their trades. Some of the young people
continued with their schooling and entered the schools of the temples
and there came in contact with the learned men of the state and received
a higher education. A very few of these, who displayed special aptitude
for learning, were permitted to enter into the deeper studies and to
whom was thrown open all the knowledge possessed by the wisest men of
their day. Little is known about the education of girls. As the women
ranked high in Egypt and took part in the public festivities and
religious ceremonies, they must have received such education as would
prepare them for their duties in life.

The purpose of education in ancient Egypt was to prepare for some one of
the callings of priest, scribe, architect, engineer, physician, soldier,
musician, artisan. It was necessary to be educated to enter into office
and to rise in position. Thus the education was of a utilitarian nature.
The most important calling outside the priesthood was that of the scribe.
The scribe learned about official documents and the management of business
and to read and write the three forms of writing--hieroglyphic, hierotic,
demotic--and also he studied ethics, philosophy, and law. The
architect studied mathematics and science and the history that would
give him a knowledge of art. The physician was taught such anatomy
and physiology as was known, remedies and incantations, and other
things pertaining to his calling. Whatever may be considered about
this education, it did give Egypt a high place among the old nations
of the world and caused its civilization to continue through many
centuries.

In the home and in the school it was impressed on the children to be
respectful to their elders. They were taught to be careful of looks and
gestures, that such should be of a proper kind. It was not permitted to
use any dance or ode at the feasts and sacrifices that had not been
passed on by the proper authorities. The children were not permitted to
hear or to learn any verses or songs than such as were of a virtuous
giving character.

The discipline in school was quite severe. One teacher spoke thus: "The
hawk is taught to fly and the pigeon to nest; I shall teach you your
letters, you idle villain."[49] A pedagogical saying runs: "A young
fellow has a back, he hears when we strike it."

"Plato says the Egyptians taught numbers to children in their play by
distributing amongst them a certain number of fruits, or other things,
the same number to be given to many or to few children, so that by
dividing them amongst themselves they learnt lessons in arithmetic; and
all sorts of numbers were given to them in their games and plays as
arithmetical problems."[50]

For written work they had wooden blocks covered with red or white
stucco. Copies were engraved on wooden or stone tablets and then the
children copied them on their tablets. Work was also given by dictation.
The older pupils wrote from dictation, or from copies, extracts from the
best writers. This trained also in penmanship and spelling. Often the
pupils copied an "instruction," which consisted of moral precepts of an
ancient writer. Often the instruction consisted of letters between
student and teacher.

LITERATURE

1. Brugsch-Bey, Henry, A history of Egypt under the Pharaohs.

2. Dean, Amos, A history of civilization.

3. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the middle
ages.

4. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

5. Maspero, G., Life in ancient Egypt and Assyria.

6. Maspero, G., The dawn of civilization.

7. Petrie, W. M. Flinders, Arts and crafts of ancient Egypt.

8. Rawlinson, George, History of ancient Egypt.

9. Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner, A popular account of the ancient
Egyptians.

10. Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner, The Egyptians in the time of the
Pharaohs.

11. Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner, The manners and customs of the ancient
Egyptians.

CHAPTER IV

THE CHILD IN INDIA

=Caste.= The caste system in India was the most fixed of any of the
nations. In this way the natural divisions into which mankind placed
itself in a free country was not allowed, but fixed and hereditary
classes were formed. There were four principal classes: The Brahmans,
the priests; the Kshatriyas, the warriors; the Vaisyas, the farmers and
traders; the Sudras, the laborers. Below these was a class of the very
lowest.

There was very little opportunity for a member of one caste going into a
higher, so that an impulse for higher striving was of no avail, and if
ever such came to a member of a lower caste it must have soon died away.
This entailed especial disadvantages upon the children, for a boy's
whole situation in life depended upon the class to which the father
belonged and, consequently, his occupation and education. This rigid
caste system might have brought contentment to the people, as there was
no use of being discontented with one's lot, but such contentment could
not bring great progress.

=Women and Marriage.= In the early times in India, women were not
excluded as they were later, but they were honored and respected. They
were considered as the intellectual companion of the husband, as helper
in the daily life, and as partaker in the religious duties. They
attended the courts and assemblies and public entertainments, being
permitted to appear freely and openly on public occasions. The change
took place when they were conquered by the Moslems, from whom the custom
of the exclusion of women was learned by the Hindus or was thrust upon
them.

The Code of Manu some three centuries before Christ set the status of
woman thus, "During her childhood a woman depends on her father; during
her youth, on her husband; her husband being dead, on her sons; if she
has no sons, on the near relatives of her husband; or if in default of
them, on those of her father; if she has no paternal relatives, on the
sovereign. A woman ought never to have her own way." So it is no wonder
that the wife was treated by the husband in the harshest manner and she
to respond with the greatest humility. The following from a witness of a
hundred or more years ago, portrays some of the relations which women
bore to the opposite sex:

"The women, on the other hand, are so thoroughly accustomed to harsh and
domineering treatment from their husbands that they would be quite
annoyed if the husbands adopted a more familiar tone. I once knew a
native lady who complained bitterly that her husband sometimes affected
to be devoted to her in public and allowed himself such little
familiarities as are looked upon by us as marks of affection. 'Such
behavior,' said she, 'covers me with shame and confusion. I dare not
show myself anywhere. Did anyone ever see such bad manners amongst
people of our caste? Has he become a Feringhi (European), and does he
take me for one of their vile women?'

"As a rule a husband addresses his wife in terms which show how little
he thinks of her. _Servant_, _slave_, etc., and other equal flattering
appellations, fall quite naturally from his lips.

"A woman, on the other hand, never addresses her husband except in terms
of the greatest humility. She speaks to him as _my master_, _my lord_,
and even sometimes _my god_. In her awe of him she does not venture to
call him by his name; and should she forget herself in this way in a
moment of anger, she would be thought a very low class of person, and
would lay herself open to personal chastisement from her offended
spouse. She must be just as particular in speaking of him to anyone
else; indeed, the Hindus are very careful never to put a woman under the
necessity of mentioning her husband by name. If by chance a European,
who is unacquainted with this point of etiquette, obliges her to do so,
he will see her blush and hide her face behind her _sari_ and turn away
without answering, smiling at the same time with contemptuous pity at
such ignorance.

"But if women enjoy very little consideration in private life, they are
in some degree compensated by the respect which is paid to them in
public. They do not, it is true, receive those insipid compliments which
we have agreed to consider polite; but then, on the other hand, they are
safe from the risk of insult. A Hindu woman can go anywhere alone, even
in the most crowded places, and she need never fear the impertinent
looks and jokes of idle loungers. This appears to me to be really
remarkable in a country where the moral depravity of the inhabitants is
carried to such lengths. A house inhabited solely by women is a
sanctuary which the most shameless libertine would not dream of
violating. To touch a respectable woman even with the end of your finger
would be considered highly indecorous, and a man who meets a female
acquaintance in the street does not venture to stop and speak to
her."[51]

Courtesans in India, as in Greece, if of great beauty and
accomplishments, were accorded many more privileges than the other
women. As these were used in the temples, they were permitted to learn
to read and to sing and to dance, accomplishments which a respectable
woman would have been ashamed to have acknowledged even if she should
have learned them.

In the early times, during the Vedic period, it would seem that the
girls had some choice in the selection of the husband, and yet the
father must have exercised some control over the affair. But later the
selection of both bride and groom was fast fixed in the hands of the
parents, who arranged everything. With the young man's family the purity
of the caste of the future wife was the greatest concern, beauty and
personal attraction counting nothing, while the girl's parents thought
more of the fortune of the bridegroom to be and of the character of his
mother, because she was to become the absolute mistress of the young
wife. Intermarriage between castes was not strictly forbidden, but a
woman could not marry a man of lower caste without losing caste.

"To a Hindu marriage is the most important and most engrossing event of
his life; it is a subject of endless conversation and of the most
prolonged preparations. An unmarried man is looked upon as having no
social status and as being an almost useless member of society. He is
not consulted on any important subject, and no work of any consequence
may be given to him. A Hindu who becomes a widower finds himself in
almost the same position as a bachelor, and speedily remarries.

"Though marriage is considered the natural state for the generality of
men, those who from pious motives remain unmarried are looked up to and
treated with the utmost respect. But it is only those persons who have
renounced the world, and have chosen to lead a life of contemplation,
who can take vows of celibacy. In any other case marriage is the rule,
and every one is under obligation of discharging _the great debt to his
ancestors_, namely, that of begetting a son.

...

"But this privilege men possess of remaining single, and giving
themselves up to a life of contemplation, is not shared by women. They
at all events cannot, under any circumstances, take vows of celibacy.
Subjected on all sides to the moral ascendancy of man, the very idea
that they could possibly place themselves in a state of independence and
out of men's power is not allowed to cross their minds. The opinion is
firmly established throughout the whole of India, that women were only
created for the propagation of the species, and to satisfy men's
desires. All women therefore are obliged to marry, and marriages are
carefully arranged before they arrive at a marriageable age."[52]

There were eight kinds of marriages described in the law, the Institutes
of Manu: "Of which one half are honorable, and differ from one another
only in some minute circumstances; in the fifth, the bridegroom bestows
gifts upon the bride, her father, and paternal kinsman; the last three
are rather species of unlawful connection, than forms of nuptial
contract; one being voluntary and by mutual consent; the other forcible
when a woman is seized, 'while she weeps and calls for assistance, after
her kinsmen and friends have been slain in battle'; the last, 'when the
damsel is sleeping, or flushed with strong liquor, or disordered in her
intellect."[53]

The following verses from the Rig Veda, a very ancient Aryan collection
of hymns, belonging to the Hindus, give the ceremony of marriage in
those olden times:

"21. O Visvâvasu! (god of marriage), arise from this place, for the
marriage of this girl is over. We extol Visvâvasu with hymns and
prostrations. Go to some other maiden who is still in her father's house
and has attained the signs of the age of marriage. She will be your
share, know of her.

"22. O Visvâvasu! arise from this place. We worship thee, bending in
adoration. Go to an unmarried maiden whose person is well developed;
make her a wife and unite her to a husband.

"23. Let the paths by which our friends go in quest of a maiden for
marriage be easy and free of thorns. May Aryaman and Bhaga lead us well.
O gods! may the husband and wife be well united.

"24. O maiden! the graceful sun had fastened thee with ties (of
maidenhood), we release thee now of those ties. We place thee with thy
husband in a place which is the home of truth and the abode of righteous
actions.

"25. We release this maiden from this place (her father's house), but
not from the other place (her husband's house). We unite her well with
the other place. O Indra! may she be fortunate and the mother of worthy
sons.

"26. May Pûshan lead thee by the hand from this place. May the two
Asvins lead thee in a chariot. Go to thy (husband's) house and be the
mistress of the house. Be the mistress of all, and exercise thine
authority over all in that house.

"27. Let children be born unto thee, and blessings attend thee here.
Perform the duties of thy household with care. Unite thy person with the
person of this thy husband; exercise thy authority in this thy house
until old age.

"40. First Soma accepts thee; then Gandharva accepts thee; Agni is thy
third lord; the son of man is the fourth to accept thee.

"41. Soma bestowed this maiden to Gandharva, Gandharva gave her to Agni,
Agni has given her to me with wealth and progeny.

"42. O bridegroom and bride! do ye remain here together; do not be
separated. Enjoy food of various kinds, remain in your own home, and
enjoy happiness in company of your children and grandchildren.

"43. (The bride and bridegroom say), May Prajapati bestow on us
children; may Aryaman keep us united till old age. (Address to the
bride), O bride! Enter with auspicious signs the home of thy husband. Do
good to our male servants and our female servants, and to our cattle.

"44. Be thine eyes free from anger; minister to the happiness of thy
husband; do good to our cattle. May thy mind be cheerful; and may thy
beauty be bright. Be the mother of heroic sons, and be devoted to the
gods. Do good to our male servants and our female servants, and to our
cattle.

"45. O Indra! make this woman fortunate and the mother of worthy sons.
Let ten sons be born of her, so that there may be eleven men in the
family with the husband.

"46. (Address to the bride), May thou have influence over thy
father-in-law, and over thy mother-in-law, and be as a queen over thy
sister-in-law and brother-in-law.

"47. (The bridegroom and bride say), May all the gods unite our hearts;
may Mâtarisvan and Dhâtri and the goddess of speech unite us
together."[54]

Dubois goes quite fully into the ceremonies and functions of a Brahmin
marriage of his time, from which is taken the following extract.[55]

There were four different ways of arranging the preliminaries of a
marriage. In the first the father of the bride refused the sum of money
to which he was entitled from the young man's parents and he bore all
the expenses of the wedding. In the second way the parents of both
parties agreed to share all the expenses. In the third way the youth's
parents bore all the expenses of the wedding and also paid a sum of
money to the father for his daughter. In the fourth method the girl's
parents handed her over to the young man's parents to do with her what
they would. It is needless to say that the first way was the most
honored and respected and the last was most mortifying to the girl's
parents and it was used by none but the very poorest.

As soon as the parents of a young man had discovered a suitable girl,
when the auguries were favorable, they provided themselves with presents
and went and formally asked for her. Then the parents of the girl, at a
favorable moment, gave their consent and accepted the presents. Then the
priest who presided at public and private ceremonies fixed on a lucky
day and great preparations were made. The wedding garments were
prepared, the stores for feasts and for presents were got together, and
all the many other things needed. A canopy was erected and all the
relatives and friends invited.

The marriage ceremony lasted for five days. The first day was the great
day, as it was the day on which the most important and solemn ceremonies
took place. The gods and the ancestors and other divinities were invited
to be present. Then a number of rites and ceremonies were performed, in
which the bride and bridegroom, the parents, and guests partook. Near
the close of these ceremonies the husband fastened round the neck of the
young wife the _tali_, the little gold ornament which all married women
wore round their necks, and which performed by the husband showed that
henceforth the woman was to be his property. The day was ended with a
specially magnificent feast.

Amongst the ceremonies of the second day was the placing of an ornament,
covered with gold-leaf or gold paper and entwined with flowers, on the
forehead of both husband and wife to avert the effects of the evil eye,
the spell which is cast by the looks of jealous or ill-disposed people.
On the third day the wife joined in the sacrifice offered by the
husband, the only occasion on which a woman could take an active part in
any of the sacrifices. The only remarkable ceremony on the fourth day
was that the newly married couple rubbed each other's legs three times
with powdered saffron, of which Dubois did not understand the meaning
and fancied its only object was to kill time, just as Europeans under
similar circumstances would spend their time in drinking. The fifth day
was chiefly occupied in dismissing the gods and the ancestors and the
other divinities that had been invited to the feast. Then followed the
distribution of presents. The festivity ended with a solemn procession
through the streets, which generally took place at night by torchlight
in the midst of squibs and fireworks of all kinds.

A girl's lot after marriage must have been dreadful in many cases, as
she became a servant to the mother of her husband, who too often tried
in every way to make the young girl miserable. In her husband's home the
young wife occupied the back of the house with the other women and she
must take the humblest place in this apartment for women. The little
girl was scolded quite a great deal and received no, or but little,
praise. "I have several times seen young wives shamefully beaten by
beastly young husbands who cherished no natural love for them.... A
child of thirteen was cruelly beaten by her husband in my presence for
telling the simple truth, that she did not like so well to be in his
house as at her home."[56] Yet, there are here and there bright spots in
this dark home life.

Polygamy was practiced in ancient India, and even down to later times,
as was true among many other ancient nations, but as a rule it was
confined to kings and wealthy lords. It was not looked upon with great
favor. A person of inferior rank was not allowed to have more than one
wife, except in case his wife was barren or had only borne female
children, but before he could contract a second marriage he had to
obtain the consent of the first wife.

"Women in India have ever been remarkable for their faithfulness and
their duteous affection towards their husbands, and female
unfaithfulness is comparatively rare."[57] Adultery was looked upon with
the greatest detestation in India. Yet the heinousness of the crime was
regulated by the caste of the offender, for a man of high caste
committing adultery with a woman of low caste was by no means so
severely punished as was a man of low caste with a woman of high caste.
In case the man was a Sudra and the woman of one of the three higher
castes he suffered capital punishment, but as on no account was a
Brahmin to be punished with death, this offence could not bring it to
him.

"Although no law has ever said so, the popular belief is that a woman
can have no salvation unless she be formally married."[58] Perhaps for
this belief parents became extremely anxious when their daughters were
over eight or nine years of age and were unsought in marriage. This was
so strong it frequently happened that poor parents feeling that their
daughters must be married would marry girls of eight or nine to men of
sixty or seventy. In the early times child marriages were unknown, but
later boys among the Brahmins married at about sixteen years of age and
girls generally at five or seven or, at the utmost, nine years of age.
One author states that among the Brahmins, if any girl remained
unmarried until she was eleven years old the family was suspended from
caste.[59]

In early times in India, widows married and men belonging to one caste
married widows of other castes. "A droll story is told of the daughter
of a householder of Mâlava who married eleven husbands successively; and
on the death of the eleventh husband the plucky widow would probably
have welcomed a twelfth, but 'even the stones could not help laughing at
her,' so she took to the life of an ascetic."[60] But Manu laid down
that a widow should never even mention the name of another man after
her husband had died, and that a second husband was nowhere prescribed
for virtuous women. A widower, whatever his age might be, and to
whatever caste he might belong, could marry again; but a woman of the
Brahminical caste, whether she ever lived with her husband or not, was
not allowed again to enter the married state. Sad was the state of these
widows, for they were cast out of society, but however despised they
might have been, if one remarried her lot became even worse, for she was
shunned absolutely by every honest and respectable person. "I once
witnessed amongst the _Gollavarus_, or shepherds, an instance of even
greater severity. A marriage had been arranged, and, in the presence of
the family concerned, certain ceremonies which were equivalent to
betrothal amongst ourselves had taken place. Before the actual
celebration of the marriage, which was fixed for a considerable time
afterwards, the bridegroom died. The parents of the girl, who was very
young and pretty, thereupon married her to another man. This was in
direct violation of the custom of the caste, which condemns to perpetual
widowhood girls thus betrothed, even when, as in this case, the future
bridegroom dies before marriage has been consummated. The consequence
was that all the persons who had taken part in the second ceremony were
expelled from caste, and nobody would contract marriage or have any
intercourse whatever with them. A long time afterwards I met several of
them, well advanced in age, who had been for this reason alone unable to
obtain husbands or wives, as the case might be."[61]

Suttee is the name given to the act of a woman immolating herself upon
the funeral pile with the body of her deceased husband. This was not
practiced in the early times of India, yet it was quite old as it was
known from the time of Alexander, and even earlier. It continued down
till the nineteenth century, when a noted Hindu, Raja Ram Mohun Roy, got
up such an agitation against it that Lord William Bentinck,
Governor-General of India, enacted a law in 1829, which prohibited
suttee within British dominion and made all assistance, aid, or
participation in any act of it to be murder and punishable with death.
But it did not fully cease till near the middle of the century.

"Dr. Carey appears to have been the first who made efforts to ascertain
the extent of this practice in Bengal, and he found that the number of
widows who perished in this way, within 30 miles of Calcutta, in 1803,
was 438. In 1817 the number of cases officially reported to the
magistrate in Bengal was 706. In 1818 the number was 839, thus making
1,545 in two years. The number which took place in Bengal from
1815-1826, or for 12 years, as officially reported to the English
magistrates, was 7,154. This number includes only those which took place
in Bengal. There was no means of ascertaining the whole number of cases
in the country. Mr. W. Ward estimated them at 3,000 annually."[62] The
practice was chiefly among kings, princes, Brahmins, and the wealthy and
this made it all the more horrid, because these were the men who
practiced polygamy, and several of the wives were burned with the
husband's dead body. Instances are recorded of 5, 10, 15, 25, and even
more, who thus sacrificed themselves. Everything was done to get a woman
to sacrifice herself and if after mature deliberation she decided to do
so there was no turning back for her. For if she did not go on the
funeral pyre of her own free will she would be dragged to it by force.
This is well portrayed in the following:

"In 1794, in a village of the Tanjore district called Pudupettah, there
died a man of some importance belonging to the _Komatty_ (Vaisya) caste.
His wife, aged about thirty years, announced her intention of
accompanying her deceased husband to the funeral pyre. The news having
rapidly spread abroad, a large concourse of people flocked together from
all quarters to witness the spectacle. When everything was ready for the
ceremony, and the widow had been richly clothed and adorned, the bearers
stepped forward to remove the body of the deceased, which was placed in
a sort of shrine, ornamented with costly stuffs, garlands of flowers,
green foliage, etc., the corpse being seated in it with crossed legs,
covered with jewels and clothed in the richest attire, and the mouth
filled with betel. Immediately after the funeral car followed the widow,
borne in a richly decorated palanquin. On the way to the burning-ground
she was escorted by an immense crowd of eager sight-seers, lifting their
hands towards her in token of admiration, and rending the air with cries
of joy. She was looked upon as already translated to the paradise of
Indra, and they seemed to envy her happy lot.

"While the funeral procession moved slowly along, the spectators,
especially the women, tried to draw near to her to congratulate her on
her good fortune, at the same time expecting that, in virtue of the gift
of prescience which such a meritorious attachment must confer upon her,
she would be pleased to predict the happy things that might befall them
here below. With gracious and amiable mien she declared to one that she
would long enjoy the favors of fortune; to another, that she would be
the mother of numerous children who would prosper in the world; to a
third, that she would live long and happily with a husband who would
love and cherish her; to a fourth, that her family was destined to
attain much honor and dignity; and so forth. She then distributed among
them leaves of betel; and the extraordinary eagerness with which they
were received clearly proved that great value was attached to them as
relics. Beaming with joy, these women then withdrew, each in the full
hope that the promised blessings of wealth and happiness would be
showered on her and hers.

"During the whole procession, which was a very long one, the widow
preserved a calm demeanor. Her looks were serene, even smiling; but when
she reached the fatal place where she was to yield up her life in so
ghastly a manner, it was observed that her firmness suddenly gave way.
Plunged, as it were, in gloomy thought, she seemed to pay no attention
whatever to what was passing around her. Her looks became wildly fixed
upon the pile. Her face grew deadly pale. Her very limbs were in a
convulsive tremor. Her drawn features and haggard face betrayed the
fright that had seized her, while a sudden weakening of her senses
betokened that she was ready to faint away.

"The Brahmins who conducted the ceremony, and also her near relatives,
ran quickly to her, endeavoring to keep up her courage and to revive her
drooping spirits. All was of no effect. The unfortunate woman,
bewildered and distracted, turned a deaf ear to all their exhortations
and preserved a deep silence.

"She was then made to leave the palanquin, and as she was scarcely able
to walk, her people helped her to drag herself to a pond near the pyre.
She plunged into the water with all her clothes and ornaments on, and
was immediately afterwards led to the pyre, on which the body of her
husband was already laid. The pyre was surrounded by Brahmins, each with
a lighted torch in one hand and a bowl of ghee in the other. Her
relatives and friends, several of whom were armed with muskets, swords,
and other weapons, stood closely round in a double line, and seemed to
await impatiently the end of this shocking tragedy. This armed force,
they told me, was intended not only to intimidate the unhappy victim in
case the terror of her approaching death might induce her to run away,
but also to overawe any persons who might be moved by a natural feeling
of compassion and sympathy, and so tempted to prevent the accomplishment
of the homicidal sacrifice.

"At length, the _purohita_ Brahmin gave the fatal signal. The poor widow
was instantly divested of all her jewels, and dragged, more dead than
alive, to the pyre. There she was obliged, according to custom, to walk
three times round the pile, two of her nearest relatives supporting her
by the arms. She accomplished the first round with tottering steps;
during the second her strength wholly forsook her, and she fainted away
in the arms of her conductors, who were obliged to complete the ceremony
by dragging her through the third round. Then, at last, senseless and
unconscious, she was cast upon the corpse of her husband. At that moment
the air resounded with noisy acclamations. The Brahmins, emptying the
contents of their vessels on the dry wood, applied their torches, and in
the twinkling of an eye the whole pile was ablaze. Three times was the
unfortunate woman called by her name. But, alas! she made no
answer."[63]

=Boys and Girls.= "A son is the most coveted of all blessings that a
Hindu craves, for it is by a son's birth in the family that the father
is redeemed."[64] This accounted for the difference in the feeling for a
boy and for a girl. So strong was the desire for a son that sonless
mothers were filled with great care and anxiety lest the child should
not be a boy. There is, perhaps, nothing which will so weaken mankind as
the life of the mothers before the birth of the children, so what a
great influence upon the Hindu race must have been this constant worry
of women who were to become mothers. Well might the wives worry, for
according to Manu, a wife who had all daughters and no sons could be
replaced with another wife in the eleventh year of marriage.

This was also a burden to a girl born into the family. If a boy died
soon after the birth of a girl, or if a girl was born soon after her
brother's death, she was considered to be the cause of such death and
was accordingly treated very cruelly. This also had a bad influence upon
the boys, as they soon learned to know of their superior being and
learned to despise and to mistreat their sisters and later all
womankind. After several sons had come into a family a daughter might
not be undesirable and in some cases really wished for. Such a daughter
was kindly and even affectionately treated.

The following is a striking passage. "Young children will obey their
father, because they fear punishment if they do not; but they will
overwhelm their mother with abuse, and will insult her grossly, even
going so far at times as to strike her. When they grow older they fail
to respect even their father, and it often happens that he is obliged to
give way to his sons, who have made themselves masters of the house.
Strange to say, nowhere are parents fonder of their children than they
are in India; but this fondness usually degenerates into weakness. If
the children are good, they are extravagantly praised; if they are
naughty, their parents show the utmost ingenuity in finding excuses for
them. The mild punishments that their naughtiness or disobedience brings
down upon them invariably err on the side of leniency. The parents do
not dare to whip them or scold them sharply, or even inflict any
punishment that they would be likely to feel. The father and mother
content themselves with making feeble remonstrances about their bad
behavior, and if these produce no effect, they leave them to grow up in
their evil ways. The few sensible parents who show more firmness and
severity with their children are met with a show of temper. Sons do not
hesitate to resist the parental authority and threaten to escape it by
running away and living elsewhere. This threat rarely fails to produce
the desired effect; the parents' severity melts away and they become
passive witnesses of the disorderly conduct of their sons, who,
encouraged by this first victory, end by becoming absolute masters of
the house. One must, however, do them the justice to say that, after
having thus gained the mastery over their parents, they take great care
of them, as a general rule, and see that they want for nothing in their
old age. But I fancy that in acting thus they are moved less by filial
affection than by considerations of what the world will say."[65]

=Infanticide.= It is not strange that under such beliefs and treatment
as mentioned above that many female children should have been destroyed.
Fathers were willing to destroy their girls because of so little value
and mothers because of the saving to the girls the burdens which woman
had to endure. Also the Hindus were very superstitious and a child born
under an unlucky star was not only destined, according to common belief,
to all sorts of troubles and accidents during his life, but he would
also bring bad luck to his parents and relatives. Parents convinced that
their child would bring bad luck, because of having been born on an
unlucky day, would abandon the child at some place along the road, and
even some would strangle and drown such babies.

=Dress.= All classes of women in India were very fond of ornaments. They
wore jewels and rings in the ears and nose, rings on the fingers and
toes, chains on the neck, and bracelets on the arms, wrists, and ankles.
It was no uncommon sight to see a woman decked out in all her jewels,
drawing water, grinding rice, cooking food, and attending to all the
menial domestic occupations. But the greatest ornamenting was on the
occasion of marriages, holidays, and other festive times.

The women not only profusely ornamented themselves, but they also took
great pains and manifested much pride in ornamenting their children,
both boys and girls. Often the small children would have but little
clothing on but they would be wearing many ornaments, in some cases when
all the clothing worn by the child would, not exceed in value one dollar
they would be wearing ornaments worth one hundred dollars. Children were
frequently robbed and even murdered for these ornaments.

The dowry given with the girls at marriage consisted very greatly of the
ornaments. What the girl received from her husband's people or from her
home was clearly set forth in writing and they were considered her own
personal property. If she became a widow she claimed all such things as
her own.

=Amusements.= The amusements of the Hindus were for the most part of the
sedentary and inactive kind. Yet dancing was one of the most prominent
forms but they did not dance themselves but had hired performers, the
dancers being young women supposed to be courtesans, and for the most
part connected with the temples. There were feats of bodily agility and
dexterity, as found with the tumbler and the juggler. They were fond of
chess, cards, and other games of chance. Story-telling was a favorite
diversion.

=Rites.= The Hindu performed a great many rites. We are concerned here
only with the domestic ceremonies. The most important of the Domestic
Ceremonies were Marriage, ceremonies performed during pregnancy of wife,
birth of child, first feeding of child, tonsure, initiation, and return
from school on the completion of education.

In marriage there were many parts to the ceremony, all of which had to
be rigorously observed. During pregnancy there were rites to secure
conception, a rite to cause a male child to be born, rites to insure
protection to the child in the womb, and sometime between the fourth and
eighth month was the ceremony of the husband affectionately parting the
wife's hair.

On the birth of a child a rite was performed and a secret name given to
the child, known only to the parents. The child was weaned at eight
months, at which time he was given his first solid food, and an
appropriate ceremony went with it. At one year another rite was
performed, at which time the child's head was shaved, leaving such hair
as might be desired for its arrangement as was the custom of the family.

The ceremony of initiation, or the giving over of the boy to his teacher
for education, was a very important affair, participated in by the boy
and by his teacher. After he had finished his education, the student
returned home, which was the occasion for another important ceremony,
which was followed by his marriage and the student was then changed into
a householder. At the time of the initiation, the triple cord or sacred
thread, which was worn by the three upper castes, was bestowed upon the
boy. The age of the boy differed at this time according to which caste
he belonged, the Brahmin boy being initiated between 8 and 16, the
Kshatriya between 11 and 22, and the Vaisya between 12 and 24.

=Adoption.= "When a Hindu had no sons, because of his wife's failure to
bear them to him or because the sons borne to him had all died, two
things were left to him to do, to take another wife or to adopt a son.
If he adopted a child it was generally from among his own relatives or
if a Brahmin, at any rate from his own caste. He might adopt a child or
an adult, just as he should choose. Girls were adopted, but there were
very few instances of such. The adoption was an event of importance and
it was attended with solemn ceremonies.

"The adopted son renounces wholly and forever all his claims to the
property and succession of his natural father, and acquires the sole
right to the heritage of his father by adoption. The latter is bound to
bring him up, to feed him, and to treat him as his own son; to have the
ceremony of _upanayana_, or the triple cord, performed for him, and to
see him married. The adopted son, in his turn, is obliged to take care
of his adoptive father in his old age and in sickness, just as if he
were his natural father, and to _preside at his obsequies_. On the death
of his adoptive father he enters into full possession of his
inheritance--assets as well as liabilities. Should there be any property
left, he enjoys it; but if, on the other hand, there are debts, he is
bound to pay them. He is, moreover, by his adoption admitted into the
_gothram_ or family stock of the adopter, and is considered to have left
that in which he was born."[66]

=Inheritance.= It appears that the property was divided in earlier times
equally among the sons upon the death of their father. Yet there was a
joint system where all lived together and the eldest son supplied the
place of the father, receiving all the property and then caring for all
the others of the family. At one time it was the custom for a daughter
to get one-fourth as much as a son, and at another time each son gave to
the daughter one-fourth of his share. As was stated above, when a son
was adopted, he renounced all claim to what his natural father might
leave on his death, while he became the full heir of his adopted father
and upon his death got all that he might leave.

The right of inheritance and the duty of presiding at a man's obsequies
belonged one with the other. When a man died without leaving direct
descendants, if he was wealthy a crowd of relatives appeared and great
disputes often arose as to whom belonged the honor of conducting the
funeral rites. But if he was poor, and burdened with debts, then the
survivors took every possible care to disprove near relationship.

=Education.= In the very early times in India, royal courts were the
seats of learning, and the learned and wise of all nations were welcomed
to them. Learned priests were retained in these courts not only to
perform the religious duties but also for the purpose of imparting
learning. On great occasions men of learning from all parts came to
these places and discussions were held on ritualistic matters and
likewise on such subjects as the human mind, the destination of the soul
after death, the future world, and the like. Then later appeared
Brahminic settlements called _Parishads_, answering to the Universities
of Europe. These were at first, perhaps, conducted by three Brahmins who
knew the Vedas, but the number was increased up to twenty-one. To these
places men of the Brahmin caste who wished to become learned could go
and receive instruction in the Vedas and such traditionary law and
astronomy and philosophy as was current. Besides these Parishads, there
were private schools, established by individual teachers, who collected
about them a body of students. Also learned Brahmins in their old age
would sometimes retire to forests and gather students around them. Later
great schools arose, such as noted by Houen Tsang, a Chinese traveler,
who spent several years in India in the seventh century after Christ.
"Our traveler now came to the great NÂLANDA University, if we may call
it by that name. The monks of this place, to the number of several
thousands, were men of the highest ability, talent, and distinction.
'The countries of India respect them and follow them. The day is not
sufficient for asking and answering profound questions. From morning
till night they engage in discussion; the old and the young mutually
help one another. Those who cannot discuss questions out of the
_Tripitaka_ are little esteemed, and are obliged to hide themselves for
shame. Learned men from different cities, on this account, who desire to
acquire quickly a renown in discussion, come here in multitudes to
settle their doubts, and then the streams (of their wisdom) spread far
and wide. For this reason some persons usurp the name (of Nâlanda
students) and in going to and fro receive honor in consequence.'"[67]

The Brahmins themselves received the highest education possible. This
consisted in the memorizing of their sacred books and a study of the
philosophy and science of their times. The second and third castes seem
to have been accorded the right to study what the first caste did, yet
the third caste must not have entered much into this but have received a
somewhat meager education. As boys followed the occupation of their
parents, they would receive such elementary instruction as was needed
in the trade or work to be performed. The fourth caste had no need for
learning so they received none except in the duties which a servant was
expected to perform.

In the olden times, when women were well respected and permitted to
appear in public, girls were taught to read and to write and were given
other education. But later they received no education further than the
training for domestic duties. Education was not needed by women, as a
woman must at all times depend upon some man for her knowledge of
things. The dancing girls received some education, as it was considered
that their religious duties would be better performed if they should
receive some intellectual training.

The student was expected to be obedient and respectful to his teacher
and to serve him in every way. The discipline of the school was very
mild. Laurie quotes from Manu: "Good instruction must be given to pupils
without unpleasant sensations, and the teacher who reverences virtue
must use sweet and gentle words. If a scholar is guilty of a fault, his
instructor may punish him with severe words, and threaten that on the
next offence he will give him blows; and, if the fault is committed in
cold weather, the teacher may dowse him with cold water."[68]

"To the Hindus we are indebted for our numerical notation, often wrongly
attributed to the Arabs. During the fifth century after Christ they
invented an algebra superior to that of the Greeks, although they were
probably assisted by the work of the latter. They early learned how to
calculate eclipses and find the location of planets by means of tables.
They seem also to have had some knowledge of medicine. By 300 A. D. they
possessed a treatise on rhetoric, and had worked out a logic two
centuries before the time of Aristotle; while in the science of grammar,
as early as the fourth century B. C., they were so far advanced that the
Western world first learned what philology was when the study of
Sanskrit was opened to Europe a hundred or more years ago."[69]

LITERATURE

1. Allen, David O., India, Ancient and modern.

2. Dubois, Abbé J. A., Hindu manners, customs, and ceremonies.

3. Dutt, Romesh Chunder, A history of civilization in ancient India.

4. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the middle
ages.

5. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

6. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

7. Mill, James, The history of British India.

8. Ragozin, Zénaïde A., Vedic India.

9. Ramabai, Pundita, The high-caste Hindu woman.

10. Rhys-Davids, T. W., Buddhist India.

CHAPTER V

THE CHILD IN CHINA

=Women and Marriage.= The Chinese have an old maxim that "a woman is
thrice dependent; before marriage, on her father; after marriage, on her
husband; when a widow, on her son." But this refers, no doubt,
principally to support and subsistence, as the mother was greatly
respected and had much authority for even "the emperor himself performs
the ceremonies of the _ko-tow_ before his own mother, who receives them
seated on a throne."[70] This power of the mother was carried to the
daughter-in-law, for after marriage the girl was no longer a daughter
but a daughter-in-law and for a considerable part of her life she was
under the absolute control of a mother-in-law. Cruel treatment was the
rule rather than the exception and the only way out was through suicide,
and suicide and attempts at suicide on the part of wives were so
frequent as to cause but little comment. Christianity requires a man to
leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife, but Confucianism
requires a man to cleave to his father and mother and compels the wife
to do the same. The sale of wives and children was not uncommon. "It is
perfectly well known to those acquainted with the facts, that during
several recent years in many districts stricken with famine, the sale of
women and children was conducted as openly as that of mules and donkeys,
the only essential difference being that the former were not driven to
market."[71]

Modesty was deemed so essential in the female character that it was
considered indecorous in women of birth and breeding to show even their
hands, and the dresses were so made that the long sleeves usually
covered the hands when touching or moving anything. Yet there was
adultery, which was considered a most heinous offence, but instead of
bringing the offender before a magistrate many cases were dealt with in
private. The offender would be attacked by a band of men and sometimes
his legs were broken, sometimes his arms, and again quicklime would be
rubbed into his eyes, destroying the sight.

The laws of China did not sanction polygamy but they did permit
concubinage. The man could have but one wife, who was distinguished by a
proper title, while the concubines were inferior and their children
belonged to the wife. If the wife had borne sons, it was considered
somewhat discreditable for a man to take a concubine, and if he did and
brought her into the same home with his wife there was usually great
disturbance, which accorded with one of their proverbs, That nine women
out of ten are jealous. These concubines were generally purchased with
money and were from the lower classes, where poverty always prevailed,
making occasion for the selling of the girls. In a few cases,
concubinage in a family might have arisen through the wife's desire to
have women and children to serve her, as they would come under her
control.

There were seven grounds for divorce in China, being, barrenness,
adultery, disobedience to the husband's parents, talkativeness,
thievery, ill temper, and malignant disease. But divorce was not for the
wife, for no offense, of whatever kind, on the part of the husband, gave
a woman any right to claim a divorce from him. "Any of these, however,
may be set aside by three circumstances: the wife having mourned for her
husband's parents; the family having acquired wealth since the marriage;
and the wife being without parents to receive her back."[72] The family
of the woman was a great factor against divorce, not only on account of
the unjustness or disgrace attached to it but also because when the
woman married she gave up her home and no provision was made for her
further support and especially so if her parents were dead as the
property was divided among her brothers and she would be looked upon as
an alien. Hence a husband would not be allowed to divorce his wife,
except for a most valid cause.

It was considered disreputable for widows to remarry. But this was not
true of a widower as he could marry whomever he should choose, nor did
he have to wait for any length of time for the ceremony because of any
period of mourning for his first wife. If the widow herself should be
unwilling to marry, the law would protect her against those trying to
make her do so. One of the strong motives against marrying again was
that as long as she remained a widow she would be absolute mistress of
herself and her children. The widow was occasionally sold as a concubine
by her father-in-law, but this was rare, as it was considered a great
degradation and especially as she would be separated from her children.

"A reverse view of matrimonial experiences is suggested by the practice
of wives refusing to survive their husbands and, like the victims of
suttee in India, putting a voluntary end to their existence rather than
live to mourn their loss. Such devotion is regarded by the people with
great approbation, and the deed of suicide is generally performed in
public with great punctiliousness. The following account of one such
suicide at Fuhchow is taken from the Hong Kong _Daily Press_ of January
20, 1861:

"'A few days since,' says the writer, 'I met a Chinese procession
passing through the foreign settlement, escorting a young person in
scarlet and gold in a richly decorated chair; the object of which I
found, was to invite the public to come and see her hang herself, a step
she had resolved to take in consequence of the death of her husband, by
which she had been left a childless widow. Both being orphans, this
event had severed her dearest earthly ties, and she hoped by this
sacrifice to secure herself eternal happiness, and a meeting with her
husband in the next world. Availing myself of the general invitation, I
repaired on the day appointed to the indicated spot. We had scarcely
arrived, when the same procession was seen advancing from the Joss house
of the woman's native village towards a scaffold or gallows erected in
an adjacent field, and surrounded by hundreds of natives of both sexes;
the female portion, attired in gayest holiday costume, was very
numerous. A friend and I obtained a bench for a consideration, which,
being placed within a few yards of the scaffold, gave us a good view of
the performance. The procession having reached the foot of the scaffold,
the lady was assisted to ascend by her male attendant, and, after having
welcomed the crowd, partook with some female relatives of a repast
prepared for her on a table on the scaffold, which she appeared to
appreciate extremely. A child in arms was then placed upon the table,
whom she caressed and adorned with a necklace which she herself had
worn. She then took an ornamental basket containing rice, herbs, and
flowers, and, whilst scattering them amongst the crowd, delivered a
short address, thanking them for their attendance, and upholding the
motives which urged her to the step she was about to take. This done, a
salute of bombards announced the arrival of the time for the performance
of the last act of her existence, when a delay was occasioned by the
discovery of the absence of a reluctant brother, pending whose arrival
let me describe the means of extermination. The gallows was formed by an
upright timber on each side of the scaffold supporting a stout bamboo,
from the center of which was suspended a loop of cord with a small
wooden ring embracing both parts of it, which was covered by a red silk
handkerchief, the whole being surrounded by an awning.

"'The missing brother having been induced to appear, the widow now
proceeded to mount on a chair placed under the noose, and, to ascertain
its fitness for her reception, deliberately placed her head in it; then,
withdrawing her head, she waved a final adieu to the admiring
spectators, and committed herself to its embrace for the last time,
throwing the red handkerchief over her head. Her supports were now about
to be withdrawn, when she was reminded by several voices in the crowd
that she had omitted to draw down the ring which should tighten the cord
round her neck; smiling in acknowledgment of the reminder, she adjusted
the ring, and, motioning away her supports, was left hanging in
mid-air--a suicide. With extraordinary self-possession she now placed
her hands before her, and continued to perform the manual chin-chin
until the convulsions of strangulation separated them and she was dead.
The body was left hanging about half an hour, and then taken down by her
male attendants, one of whom immediately took possession of the halter,
and was about to sever it for the purpose of appropriating a portion,
when a struggle ensued, of which I took advantage to attach myself to
the chair in which the body was now being removed to the Joss house, in
order to obtain ocular proofs of her demise. Arrived at the Joss house
the body was placed on a couch, and the handkerchief withdrawn from the
face, disclosed unmistakable proofs of death. This is the third instance
of suicide of this sort within as many weeks. The authorities are quite
unable to prevent it, and a monument is invariably erected to the memory
of the devoted widow.'"[73]

The most essential circumstance in a respectable family alliance was,
that there should be equality of rank on either side. A Chinese lover
who should woo a young lady of good family would visit the house of her
parents, where he was expected to display his accomplishments,
especially in penmanship. There was romance and poetry in the wooing, as
may be shown by this love song, which has been sung in Cathay for more
than two and a half millenniums:

"How rises the moon in radiant glory!
And thou my lady, most charming and sweetest
Oh, listen kindly to love's story!--
Ah, poor my heart that vainly beatest!

"How rises the moon in cloudless effulgence!
And thou my lady, most winsome and purest
Oh, grant thy lover more indulgence!--
Ah, poor my heart what thou endurest!

"How rises the moon in splendor most brightly!
And thou my lady, loveliest, fairest
Wilt never for my love requite me?--
Ah, poor my heart what pain thou bearest!"[74]

"At the present day marriage is probably more universal in China than in
any other civilized country in the world. It is regarded as something
indispensable, and few men pass the age of twenty without taking a wife.
Chinese legislators have at all times encouraged early marriages as
having a pacifying effect upon the people. A man who has given hostages
to fortune in the shape of wife and children has a greater inducement to
follow the paths of steady industry, and is less likely to throw in his
lot with brigands and rebels, than a man who has but himself to think
of, and is without any immediate ties. Besides this the Chinese believe,
in common with the ancient Greeks, that the shades of the unburied
wander restlessly about without gaining admittance into Hades; so that
non-burial came to be considered by them the most deplorable calamity
that could befall one, and the discharge of the last service a most holy
duty. To die, therefore, without leaving behind a son to perform the
burial rites, and to offer up the fixed periodical sacrifices at the
tomb, is one of the most direful fates that can overtake a Chinaman, and
he seeks to avoid it by an early marriage."[75]

The two young people to a betrothal in China had very little to do with
it. This was arranged by means of a go-between, or match-maker. The
negotiations generally originated with the family of the boy or young
man. A card was made out containing data of the candidate, such as the
ancestral name, the hour, day, month, and year of birth of the young
candidate. At some time in the proceedings both parties had to make
known to each other if there were any bodily or constitutional defect,
what the true age of each was, whether born of a wife or a concubine,
and whether real offspring or only adopted. Provided with the card, the
go-between went to the other family and stated the object of the visit.
The parents or guardians of the girl would then make inquiries about the
other family, they would consult a fortune-teller to ascertain if it
would be fitting and auspicious for the two young people to wed. If the
offer was acceptable, then the go-between was furnished with a similar
card about the girl to take to the other family. If within three days of
the engagement an unlucky thing occurred, as the breaking of a china
bowl or the losing of some article in the house, circumstances were
considered to be sufficiently unlucky to warrant the instant termination
of the negotiations. The betrothal was not binding till certain cards
were interchanged between the families. The outside of the cards was
covered with red paper, on which was pasted a paper dragon for the one
and on the other a paper phœnix. Each card was adorned with two pieces
of red silk. The card with the dragon was filled out with particulars
relating to the family of the boy and retained by the girl's family,
while the one with the phœnix had particulars of the girl's family and
it was kept by the family of the boy. At the time of the exchange of
cards presents were sent. For the girl was sent a pair of silver or gold
wristlets and for her family articles of food, as pigs' feet, fruits,
fowls, etc. For the boys' family were sent artificial flowers, bread,
cakes, etc.

As usually in a family there was strict separation between the males and
females, there was but little opportunity for the bride and groom to
meet one another and often they would not have seen one another till the
day of the wedding. The difficulty was increased after betrothal, for it
was considered quite improper for the girl to be actually seen by the
family of the future mother-in-law. The girl had to maintain the
strictest seclusion. She must retire to the inner apartments when
friends called upon her parents, and when going out she was to use a
closed sedan chair. For this reason, most engagements were arranged
between parties not living in the same place.

The time which might transpire between betrothal and marriage varied
from a month or two to eighteen or twenty years, depending much on the
age of the parties. "There are six ceremonies which constitute a regular
marriage. 1. The father and elder brother of the young man send a
go-between to the father and brother of the girl, to enquire her name
and the moment of her birth, that the horoscope of the two may be
examined, in order to ascertain whether the proposed alliance will be a
happy one. 2. If so, the boy's friends send the go-between back to make
an offer of marriage. 3. If that be accepted, the second party is again
requested to put their assent in writing. 4. Presents are then sent to
the girl's parents according to the means of the parties. 5. The
go-between requests them to choose a lucky day for the wedding; and, 6,
the preliminaries are concluded by the bridegroom going or sending a
party of his friends with music to bring his bride to his own
house."[76]

In the spring was considered the most appropriate time for marriage, and
the month in which the peach-tree blossomed as the happiest time. The
following poem translated from the "Book of Odes," illustrates this:

"Sweet child of spring, the garden's queen,
Yon peach-tree charms the roving sight;
Its fragrant leaves how richly green,
Its blossoms how divinely bright!

"So softly shines the beauteous bride,
By love and conscious virtue led,
O'er her new mansion to preside,
And placid joys around her spread."[77]

Some time previous to the day fixed, the bridegroom was invested
ceremoniously with a dress cap or bonnet, and he took an additional
name. About this same time the bride, whose hair had hung down in long
tresses, had it done up in the style of married women of her class in
society. Usually, the day before the wedding, the bride tried on the
clothes she was to wear in the sedan going to the home of her husband,
and what she was to wear the first day upon her arrival at his home.
This was an occasion of great interest to her family, and the parents
invited female relatives and friends to a feast that they might view the
clothing and help to have things well prepared for the wedding-day.

On the wedding-day, the bridegroom or his best man and friends went with
an ornamented sedan, accompanied with musicians, to the home of the
bride. When evening came and the stars were just beginning to peep out,
the bride, with a thick veil over her head and completely covering her
features from view, entered the sedan and the procession, with music and
lanterns, took its way to the home of the bridegroom. On reaching his
residence, the bride was carried into the house in the arms of matrons
and lifted over a pan of burning charcoal on the threshold. The
bridegroom and bride seated themselves side by side, each trying to sit
on a part of the dress of the other, as it was considered that the one
who succeeded in so doing would rule the household. Then the bride
returned to her chamber and her outer garments and veil were removed and
she was dressed in her wedding finery and then with her husband she
entered upon the wedding-dinner. Often this was the first time in the
husband's life to behold the features of his wife. He could eat what he
chose of the good things but she, according to established custom, must
not take a particle, but must sit in silence, dignified and composed.
The door of the room was left open and about it gathered the invited
guests, the parents of the bridegroom and his relatives, all of whom
scrutinized the bride and observed her deportment and expressed their
opinions and criticisms. The cup of alliance was drunk together by the
young couple and pledges were exchanged. On the next day they worshipped
together the ancestral gods of the husband and paid their respects to
his parents and relatives. This was the wife's last time to be in public
with her husband, as husbands were never seen with their wives in
public. On the third day after the wedding, the bride paid a customary
visit to her own parents.

Whatever else might have been included in the marriage customs in China,
the wedding-feast was the main feature of the occasion. This might occur
upon the wedding-day or at some later time. Wedding and funeral feasts
would be quite impossible were it not for the "share" system which they
have worked out. Each guest, or each family, were not only expected but
really required by a rigid code of social etiquette to contribute to the
expense of the occasion. This was sometimes in food but usually in
money and there was a scale according to which every one knew what his
"share" should be.

"One of the most characteristic methods in which the Chinese lack of
sympathy is manifested is in the treatment which brides receive on their
wedding-day. They are often very young, are always timid, and are
naturally terror-stricken at being suddenly thrust among strangers.
Customs vary widely, but there seems to be a general indifference to the
feelings of the poor child thus exposed to the public gaze. In some
places it is allowable for any one who chooses to turn back the curtains
of the chair and stare at her. In other regions, the unmarried girls
find it a source of keen enjoyment to post themselves at a convenient
position as the bride passes, to throw upon her handfuls of hay-seed or
chaff, which will obstinately adhere to her carefully oiled hair for a
long time. Upon her emerging from the chair at the house of her new
parents, she is subjected to the same kind of criticism as a newly
bought horse, with what feelings on her part it is not difficult to
imagine."[78]

=Infancy.= "A Chinese baby is a round-faced little helpless human
animal, whose eyes look like two black marbles over which the skin had
been stretched, and a slit made on the bias. His nose is a little kopje
in the center of his face, above a yawning chasm which requires constant
filling to insure the preservation of law and order. On his shaved head
are left small tufts of hair in various localities, which give him the
appearance of the plain about Peking, on which the traveler sees, here
and there, a small clump of trees around a country village, a home, or a
cemetery; the remainder of the country being bare. These tufts are
usually on the 'soft spot,' in the back of his neck, over his ears or in
a braid or a ring on the side of his head."[79]

It was considered a deep disgrace if the children of a Chinese mother
were not all born at the father's home, and in their efforts to have
such occur women would do everything possible, even going to great
inconvenience and hardship. If this should be the first baby and a boy,
there would be great rejoicing in the whole household, but if a girl
there would not only be no rejoicing but along with depression the young
wife would be treated with coldness and often with harshness, and she
might be beaten for her lack of discretion in not producing a son.

On the third day after birth, the child was washed for the first time.
Friends and relatives were invited to take part and they brought
presents to the child. Immediately after the washing, the ceremony of
binding the wrists took place, which in some cases consisted of the
tying of one or more ancient _cash_ to each wrist by means of a red
cotton cord while with others only a loose red string was put around
each wrist. When the child was a month old, the mother and child left
her room for the first time and the ceremony of naming the baby and
shaving its head took place. All the relatives and friends were invited
and they were expected to take dinner with the child, and, which was
more important, to take presents.

"The presumption is that a Chinese child is born with the same general
disposition as children in other countries. This may perhaps be the
case; but either from the treatment it receives from parents or nurses,
or because of the disposition it inherits, its nature soon becomes
changed, and it develops certain characteristics peculiar to the Chinese
child. It becomes _t'ao ch'i_. That almost means mischievous; it almost
means troublesome--a little tartar--but it means, exactly _t'ao ch'i_.
In this respect almost every Chinese child is a little tyrant. Father,
mother, uncles, aunts, and grandparents are all made to do his bidding.
In case any of them seems to be recalcitrant, the little dear lies down
on his baby back on the dusty ground and kicks and screams until the
refractory parent or nurse has repented and succumbed, when he gets up
and good-naturedly goes on with his play and allows them to go about
their business. The child is _t'ao ch'i_."[80]

The baby in China has its toys to play with and it also has its Mother
Goose rhymes and Headland states that he collected more than six hundred
of such rhymes.[81] A few will be sufficient to give here to show their
resemblance to our own. The following is as popular in China as "Jack
and Jill" is here:

"He climbed up the candle-stick,
The little mousey brown,
To steal and eat tallow,
And he couldn't get down.

He called for his grandma,
But his grandma was in town,
So he doubled up into a wheel,
And rolled himself down."

This next one easily calls up "Lady bug, lady bug, fly away home:"

"Fire-fly, fire-fly,
Come from the hill,
Your father and mother
Are waiting here still.
They've brought you some sugar,
Some candy and meat,
Come quick or I'll give it
To baby to eat."

The following is said over the baby's toes very much as "This little pig
went to market:"

"This little cow eats grass,
This little cow eats hay,
This little cow drinks water,
This little cow runs away,
This little cow does nothing,
Except lie down all day.
We'll whip her."

The Chinese loved their children and yet infanticide existed with them,
but mostly only that of girls. The greatest cause was poverty. Being too
poor to care for their children parents thought best to kill them than
to sell them into slavery. This perhaps was not large over the whole
country and existed to a great extent only in certain parts, sometimes
as high as eighty per cent. of all girl babies born. The following
conditions as given as found some time before the year 1840, shows its
prevalence in certain districts at that time, as this refers to a small
village on the Amoy island. "On a second visit, while addressing them,
one man held up a child, and publicly acknowledged that he had killed
five of the helpless beings, having preserved but two. I thought he was
jesting, but as no surprise or dissent was expressed by his neighbors,
and as there was an air of simplicity and regret in the individual,
there was no reason to doubt its truth. After repeating his confession,
he added with affecting simplicity, 'It was before I heard you speak on
this subject, I did not know it was wrong; I would not do so now.'
Wishing to obtain the testimony of the assembled villages, I put the
question publicly, 'What number of female infants in this village are
destroyed at birth?' The reply was, 'More than one-half.' As there was
no discussion among them, which is not the case when they differ in
opinion, and as we were fully convinced from our own observations of the
numerical inequality of the sexes, the proportion of deaths they gave
did not strike us as extravagant."[82]

It is difficult to judge this matter correctly when such contrary
opinions are placed before us as in the following quotations, the first
by an American who spent many years in China and the second by a
Chinaman who spent many years in America. "Much has already been done by
those who have had most opportunity to learn the facts, toward
exhibiting the real practice of the Chinese in the matter of destroying
female infants. Yet no more can be safely predicted than that this is a
crime which to some extent everywhere prevails, and in some places to
such a degree as seriously to affect the proportion of the sexes. It
seems to be most common in the maritime provinces of the southern part
of China, in some districts of which it is by the Chinese themselves
regarded as a terrible and a threatening evil."[83] "I am indignant that
there should be a popular belief in America that Chinese girls at birth
are generally put to death by their parents because they are not wanted.
Nothing can be further from the truth. In a country like China, where
women do not appear in public life, it must follow that sons are more to
be desired, for the very good reason that family honor and glory depend
on them and ancestral worship necessitates either the birth or adoption
of sons to perpetuate it. I venture to say that in proportion to
population and distribution of wealth that infanticide is as rare in
China as it is in this country."[84]

=Boys and Girls.= The relative estimation that was placed upon boys and
girls in olden China is well expressed by a passage from one of their
oldest classics, The Book of Odes. In describing the palace of an
ancient king, the dreams of the king are treated and then comes the
following:

"Sons shall be born to him; they will be put to sleep on couches;
They will be clothed in robes; they will have scepters to play with;
Their cry will be loud.
They will be (hereafter) resplendent with red knee-covers,
The (future) king, the princes of the land.
Daughters will be born to him. They will be put to sleep on the
ground;
They will be clothed with wrappers; they will have tiles to play with.
It will be theirs neither to do wrong nor to do good.
Only about the spirits and the food will they have to think,
And to cause no sorrow to their parents."[85]

The baby boy was greatly welcomed upon his arrival into the family,
while the baby girl might not only be unwelcomed but very greatly
undesired. This was mostly because girls counted for so little as they
would marry and then no longer belong to their family but entirely to
the family of their husband. Boys would not only become the support of
their family but they might have opportunity to acquire learning and
thus add dignity and honor to their family. Too, there was great need of
sons to carry on the ancestral worship and if not born into the family
they must be procured through adoption or by means of concubines.
Without a son a man would live without honor and would die unhappy. No
matter how good or how beautiful a girl might become, she could never
equal the very poorest and weakest boy.

=Child and Parent.= While his parents were alive, a son should continue
to obey them, was the doctrine of the classics, the laws, and the
customs of China. But a daughter, after she was married, was not subject
to her own parents but to her husband's parents. Although instances were
rare, parents had the right to bring their children before magistrates
for aid in controlling and punishing them. With all this, it would seem
that the children were not greatly disciplined nor did they give prompt
obedience to their parents.

Public sentiment, especially in the older times of China, was strongly
against the individual who would not accord to his parents due respect
and obedience. No matter how old, how educated, or how wealthy he might
become this respect and obedience was still due his parents. Confucius
taught: "That parents when alive should be served according to
propriety, that when dead they should be buried according to propriety,
and that they should be sacrificed to according to propriety."[86]

"If a son should murder his parent, either father or mother, and be
convicted of the crime, he would not only be beheaded, but his body
would be mutilated by being cut into small pieces; his house would be
razed to the ground, and the earth under it would be dug up for several
feet deep; his neighbors living on the right and the left would be
severely punished; his principal teacher would suffer capital
punishment; the district magistrate of the place would be deprived of
his office and disgraced; the prefect, the governor of the province, and
the viceroy would all be degraded three degrees in rank. All this is
done and suffered to mark the enormity of the crime of a parricide."[87]

=Deformation of the Feet.= The practice of footbinding among the Chinese
females was carried on by all classes of society, so it was not a mark
of rank. It was the fashion and all classes followed it, for in some
places women sitting by the roadside begging had their feet bound, and
in some places, where women worked in the fields, they would have to
kneel to do their work because they could not stand upon their mutilated
feet. But of course it prevailed most with the higher and wealthier and
more fashionable people.

The practice of the compressing of the feet arose in China, it is
thought, sometime during the ninth century of our era. It is only
conjecture as to how and why this originated. Some accounts state that
it arose from a desire to pattern after the club feet of a popular
empress; another story is that it gradually came into use because of the
admiration of small feet and the attempt to imitate them; and a third
suggestion is that it developed through the men wishing to keep their
wives from gadding. The Chinese women call their feet "golden lilies,"
which is accounted for from the popular idea that a certain empress was
so beautiful that golden lilies sprang out of the ground wherever she
stepped.

The age at which the binding began varied, being from six to eight years
of age, but sometimes the bandages were put on as soon as the little
girl was able to walk. The whole operation was performed, and the shape
maintained by bandages, which were never permanently removed or covered
by stockings. The bandages were of strong white cotton cloth, about two
yards long and between two and three inches wide. The end of the strip
was laid on the inside of the foot at the instep, then carried over the
toes, leaving the great toe free, then under the foot and round the
heel, and the bandage was so continued till all used up and then the end
was sewed tightly down. Each day the bandage was tightened and if the
bones should spring back into place upon the removal of the bandage,
sometimes they would be struck back into place with a blow from the
heavy mallet used in beating clothes. These bandages would finally cause
a bulge in the instep, a deep indentation in the sole, and the toes
would grow down under and across the sole and come out on the opposite
side, the great toe alone retaining its normal position, the foot
becoming from four to six inches in length and sometimes even three or
less.

The pain and suffering, as might be expected, was very severe and
continued so for about three years. In some families the child would
have to stay of nights in an outhouse or elsewhere away from the family
so as not to disturb them through the night, while in others the mother
or mother-in-law would have a big stick by the side of her bed, with
which to get up and beat the little girl should she disturb the
household by her wails. Toes would often drop off under binding and
sometimes the entire foot. When grown up the women could walk alone with
their maimed feet for short distances but usually they needed to be
supported by some one or something. "Don't imagine, however, that
Chinese ladies are unable to move. They can, most of them, walk short
distances. But it is true that the spirit is taken out of them by this
species of suffering, and that they are oppressed by a sense of physical
helplessness and dependence."[88]

=Amusements.= "The active sports of Chinese boys are few. There are
hardly any sports, so-called, that develop the muscles and render a lad
graceful and agile. The Chinese boy at sixteen is as grave and staid as
an American grandfather; and if he happens to be married soon after, he
throws aside most games as being childish. At the best, he has nothing
corresponding to baseball, football, cricket, bicycle-riding, skating,
sliding, or tennis. Nor is he fond of exerting himself. He would rather
sit for hours talking and joking than waste time in running and jumping.
He thinks it work if his play entails much perspiration. His elders,
too, frown upon boisterous games. They approve quiet, meditative lads
who are given to study."[89]

"Active, manly plays are not popular in the south, and instead of
engaging in a cricket-match or regatta, going to a bowling-alley or
fives' court, to exhibit their strength and skill, they lift beams
headed with heavy stones to prove their brawn, or kick up their heels in
a game of shuttlecock. The outdoor amusements of gentlemen consist in
flying kites, carrying birds on perches, sauntering hand in hand through
the fields, or lazily boating on the water, while pitching coppers,
fighting crickets or quails, kicking a shuttlecock, snapping sticks,
chucking stones or guessing the number of seeds in an orange, are plays
for lads."[90]

"Children's games are always interesting. Chinese games are especially
so because they are a mine hitherto unexplored. An eminent archdeacon
once wrote: 'The Chinese are not much given to athletic exercises.' A
well-known doctor of divinity states that, 'their sports do not require
much physical exertion, nor do they often pair off, or choose sides and
compete, in order to see who are the best players,' while a still more
prominent writer tells us that, 'active, manly sports are not popular in
the South.' Let us see whether these opinions are true."[91] And this
author goes on to give a large number of games, enough to bear out his
statement in the preface to his book that, "to the careful observer of
these different phases it becomes apparent that the Chinese child is
well supplied with methods of exercise and amusement, also that he has
much in common with children of other lands."

There were numerous holidays and festivals, giving abundance of
entertainment for the children. The principal time of leisure and
rejoicing was at the new year. On the night of the last day of the old
year everybody would remain up and at midnight a great time was begun
with an incessant firing of crackers and this was kept up for a number
of days. Another great time was at the Feast of Lanterns, in which was a
procession of men and boys with lanterns of all shapes and sizes, the
procession ending with an immense and terrible dragon, forty feet or
more in length, carried aloft on bamboo poles.

Kite-flying was a national recreation, indulged in by all ages and
classes. It was not an unusual thing to see an old gray-haired man
enjoying it in company of a young boy. All kinds of kites were used and
of all sizes. The ninth day of the ninth month, which comes in October,
was "Kites' Day." On that day the men and the boys would go out to the
hills and have a great time. Rank and size and age made no difference,
as all entered into the zeal of the sport just the same. The greatest
sport consisted in the cutting of one another's kite strings while the
kites were in the air, which was done by the sawing of one string on
another.

There were plenty of little shows and juggling and gymnastic feats for
the children and who might wish to see them. They had Punch and Judy,
trained dogs and monkeys, the whirling of plates, the tossing of knives,
juggling of various kinds, sword swallowing, and many other tricks and
performances.

The Chinese children had plenty of toys, which, as in all countries,
were suited to the wants of that country. The toys were not greatly
complicated in structure. There were rattles for the baby, dolls for the
little girl, and drums and knives and tops for the boys.

"There are not many games in which boys and girls play together. If they
do play together it is only while they are children, under ten or
twelve. Growing-up girls will have nothing whatever to do with boys,
though Chinese boys and girls are very sociable, each with friends of
their own sex."[92]

Girls have plenty of games they play among themselves--"Lots of them,"
which Headland says was the stereotyped answer that would come from any
Chinaman to almost any question he might be asked about things Chinese.
Several are given but one quoted here will be sufficient to show that
their games are as full of life as among girls anywhere. "This small
girl after some delay took control of the party and began arranging them
for a game, which she called 'going to town,' similar to one which the
boys called 'pounding rice.' Two of the girls stood back to back, hooked
their arms, and as one bent forward she raised the other from the
ground, and thus alternating, they sang:

Up you go, down you see,
Here's a turnip for you and me;
Here's a pitcher, we'll go to town;
Oh, what a pity, we've fallen down.

At which point they both sat down back to back, their arms still locked,
and asked and answered the following questions:

What do you see in the heavens bright?
I see the moon and the stars at night.
What do you see in the earth, pray tell?
I see in the earth a deep, deep well.
What do you see in the well, my dear?
I see a frog and his voice I hear.
What is he saying there on the rock?
Get up, get up, ke'rh kua, ke'rh kua.

They then tried to get up, but, with their arms locked, they found it
impossible to do so, and rolled over and got up with great
hilarity."[93]

In the one city of Peking alone, Headland collected more than
seventy-five different games. In his pictures and descriptions of games
played by boys are such as would call out much vigorous exercise. One of
their favorite games was "Skin the snake." In this game the boys all
stood in line one behind the other. They would then bend forward and
each put one hand between his legs and grasp a hand of the boy behind
him. Then they all would back and the rear boy would lie down and the
others would back over astride of him and each would lie down in turn,
thus bringing the head between the legs of his neighbor. When all were
down then the last boy that lay down would get up and each would get up
in turn, raising each one after him, until all were up and standing
straight, when they would let go hands and the game was finished.

Gambling was, perhaps, the greatest sport of the Chinese, and it was
indulged in by both men and boys. "A boy with two cash prefers to risk
their loss on the throw of a die, to simply buying a cake without trying
the chance of getting it for nothing."[94] One of their means of
gambling was through cricket-fighting. In the season, the crickets were
hunted by men and boys, who would go out to the hills and waysides to
get them. They were cared for and trained and some would become such
great fighters as to command high prices.

=Dress.= The Chinese did not use wool in clothing. In the earlier times,
before cotton was introduced, it is thought that they used for their
garments some other vegetable fibers, such as rushes. When cotton was
introduced into China, it became the chief material for clothing. They
did not use underclothing but padded the outer garments for winter use
and as the weather grew colder they would put on more wadded clothes
till in full winter they would become about double their usual size.
Their shoes were made of cloth and so they were a poor protection from
cold and moisture.

The young women enjoyed wearing colors, pink and green and blue being
the ones most preferred. The ordinary dress was a large-sleeved robe of
silk or cotton over a longer garment, under which were loose trousers
fastened round the ankles just above the small feet and tight shoes.
They wore their hair hanging down in long tresses, and the putting up of
the hair was one of the ceremonies preparatory to marriage. The eyebrows
were blackened with charred sticks and arched or narrowed to a fine
curved line, to resemble a young willow leaflet or the moon when a day
or two old. Cosmetics were used quite freely, on grand occasions the
face being daubed with white paint and the lips and cheeks with red, so
that all blushes were covered up. They wore bangles, bracelets, and
ear-rings of glass, stone, and metal. "A belle is described as having
cheeks like the almond flower, lips like a peach's bloom, waist as the
willow leaf, eyes bright as dancing ripples in the sun, and footsteps
like the lotus flower."[95]

In some parts of China, if not in all, the baby in summertime wore no
clothing at all. In the winter it wore quilted trousers with feet
attached. In some parts the trousers of the baby were partly filled with
sand or earth, so that it was a common saying that a person who
displayed small practical knowledge had not yet been taken out of his
"earth-trousers." The older children wore the same pattern of clothing
and cut out of the same kind of cloth as their parents and grandparents.

=Religion.= "In considering all systems of idolatry and superstition,
one significant fact stands prominent, _the utter neglect of religious
training of the young_. China's three great religions have nothing
answering to the Christian Sunday School. Of course, boys and girls pick
up some religious ideas in their intercourse with those about them. But
nobody ever deliberately sits down to tell them of this god and that
god, their origin, character and power. Only incidentally is such
knowledge conveyed. There are many religious books; but from the
difficulty of learning to read, they are necessarily sealed to the young
mind. If the young are told to worship this idol and that idol, they
never understand why and wherefore they should do this. In time they
comprehend that they do it to obtain favor and to gain merit.

"I well remember the first time I was led to a temple and there told to
bend my knees to the idol decked out in a gorgeous robe, its face
blackened by the smoke from the incense. On either side of the room
stood four huge idols, with stern and forbidding faces. One of them was
especially frightful. It was the God of Thunder represented by an image
having the body of a man and the head of a highly caricatured rooster.
This idol had a hammer in one hand and a large nail in the other, with
which he is supposed to strike wicked persons. This god made such an
impression on me that I had a horrible dream about it that very night. I
saw him clad in fierceness; he moved his hands threateningly. Almost
choked with fright though I was, I managed to cry out and that awoke
me."[96]

=Education.= Education in China is of long standing. The Chinese from
the earliest time, 2,000 B. C., or even earlier, held school education
of high value. The competitive literary examinations of candidates for
office was established about a thousand years later and about 700 A. D.
the whole plan was gone over and arranged as found in the last century,
previous to the changes of recent years. No other nation has so
venerated scholars and scholarship.

Nevertheless of this high esteem for education, there were no public
schools in the sense as with us as the government did not establish
schools, except, perhaps, for the most advanced students. Yet there were
a great number of schools, taken care of in a private way, and although
every village did not have a school, yet they would have liked such, but
mostly on account of poverty could not, for everywhere was the most
profound reverence for education. There were three classes of
undergraduate schools: "The primary, in which little is attended to
beyond memoriter recitation and imitative chirography; the middle, in
which the canonical books are expounded; and the classical, in which
composition is the leading exercise."[97] Because of the great number of
literary scholars who wanted to teach, the pay for the most part was
quite meager.

School usually began about six in the morning, and it continued all day,
with intervals for breakfast and lunch, sometimes running till dark. In
some of the higher schools the scholars would return in the evening to
their school work. School would continue throughout the entire week and
the year, except one month during the New Year's festival and a vacation
at wheat harvest and also at the autumnal harvest. If the teacher was
preparing himself for a literary degree, there might be a vacation of
about six weeks in the summer. The teacher was often not quite regular
in his attendance at the school and the pupils were still more irregular
than he, so that in a way made up for the lack of holidays.

There were scarcely any school-houses as such in China. The schools were
held as a rule in the hall of a temple or in a private building, usually
the ancestral temples were used for such purposes, and yet they might be
held in a shed, which scarcely protected from the weather, or in the
upper attic of a shop. In this room were placed a table, with an
arm-chair, for the teacher. The writing-materials, which consisted of
brushes, India ink, and ink-wells made of slate, were placed on this
table. About the room were tables and stools for the pupils. In one
corner of the room was placed a tablet or an inscription on the wall,
dedicated to Confucius and the god of Letters.

Whatever may be said of education in older China, the teachers were
educated men, the majority of them being unsuccessful candidates for
literary degrees, but many of them were Bachelors and not a few were
Doctors. For the work they had to do they were well prepared by a long
course of study and they were usually competent. "In no country is the
office of teacher more revered. Not only is the living instructor
saluted with forms of the profoundest respect, but the very name of
teacher, taken in the abstract, is an object of almost idolatrous
homage."[98] Yet, "as a matter of fact, the Chinese teacher is often
barely able to keep soul and body together, and is frequently obliged to
borrow garments in which to appear before his patrons."[99]

The first day of school was a great and noted day in the life of a
Chinese boy. He entered school in his seventh or eighth year. When he
was to enter school, a lucky day was found for him, and with his good
clothes on he started for school, feeling that this was the greatest
event that was to happen in his life till he entered the Imperial
Academy, which he was sure to do, so said all his friends. On entering
the school-room he saluted, by prostrating himself, the picture of
Confucius and next, with almost as much reverence, saluted his teacher,
for the teacher was held in very high respect.

The course of study for the schools of China was formulated a long time
ago and rigidly held to in all the schools of the empire. It was divided
into three grades of instruction. The Chinese language does not have an
alphabet but there is a different symbol for each word. In the first
period the pupil was to learn the most important symbols, learning also
to write them, and to commit to memory the nine sacred books, known as
the Four Books and the Five Classics. The Four Books are known as the
Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, the Golden Medium, and the
Sayings of Mencius; and the Five Classics are the Book of Changes, the
Book of History, the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Book of Odes, and the
Book of Rites. All this would take four or five years on the part of the
pupil. As these books were written in the old Chinese language they
would not be understood by the pupils and the second stage of learning
consisted in the translation of these books and classics into the
language of the pupils, and also there were lessons in composition. The
commentaries on these works were taken up and their meaning explained.
In the third stage of learning composition was entered upon and
consisted in the writing of essays and poems, imitating the style and
thought of the five classics and the better commentaries. A full
comprehension of the four books and the five classics and the
commentaries upon them and the use of this knowledge in the writing of
essays and poems was the desired end aimed at by the Chinese scholar and
which was all that was needed for the highest examination in the empire.

The methods of teaching with the Chinese were formal, being based upon
methods handed down from the ages, so that all teachers taught in the
one stereotyped way. In teaching reading the teacher would have the
pupils come to his desk, stand in line, each holding his book open
before him. The teacher would read aloud a line, the pupils would then
read this in concert in a loud voice, and this would continue till the
pupils could pronounce the line without the teacher's help. Then they
would go to their seats and commit this line to memory, each shouting it
out as loud as he could. "Every Chinese regards this shouting as an
indispensable part of the child's education. If he is not shouting how
can the teacher be sure that he is studying? and as studying and
shouting are the same thing, when he is shouting there is nothing more
to be desired."[100] When the pupil had learned the line, he would go to
the teacher's desk, lay his book upon it, turn his back to the teacher,
and shout out the line as rapidly as he possibly could do. This method
gave to the Chinese the phrase "to back the book" as we have "to learn
by heart." This method was continued till the whole book was committed
to memory.

The only other subject taught in the elementary schools was writing. In
teaching writing, the master would make a copy and the pupil would place
it under transparent paper and trace it with a hair pencil and then copy
it without the tracing till he could make it from memory. "In lieu of
slates, they generally use boards painted white to save paper, washing
out the writing when finished."[101] In China, writing takes the place
that drawing and painting do here, so all strive to become fine penmen.

For most of the boys, three or four years was the extent of their
schooling, but if higher education was desired they attended higher
schools. Here they were given lectures explaining the meaning of
classical authors, which lectures were greatly committed to memory. They
were also taught prose and verse composition, in which they followed the
thought, style, and meter of the sacred books or of great writers,
memorizing these writings for the purpose.

The Chinese teacher was very severe. The more severe he was, the better
teacher he was considered. Fear ruled in the Chinese school. That the
boy might ever be reminded of the necessity of studying, the implements
to help him were always kept in plain view, as, "a wooden ruler to be
applied to the head of the offender and sometimes the hands, also a
rattan stick for the body. Flogging with this stick is the heaviest
punishment allowed; for slight offenses the ruler is used upon the
palms, and for reciting poorly--upon the head."[102] Teachers carried
their punishments to extreme lengths. The bad pupils were the stupid
ones who did not get their lessons assigned in the given time. For such,
severe beatings were administered, so severe that in one case "a pupil
was so much injured as to be thrown into fits, and such instances can
scarcely be uncommon."[103]

Girls were not often educated in China, because the parents thought it
of no use as they would marry and leave them, also there was no such
incentive for girls as with boys, who might hold office, and besides
popular opinion regarded reading and writing dangerous arts in female
hands. Nevertheless here and there a woman came forth among the educated
and celebrated instances were sometimes quoted of women who have been
skilled in verse. When a woman did emerge with a good education, she was
highly respected for her attainments. The girls of the better class were
taught needlework, painting on silk, and music.

Education in China did not stop with the youth, as the manner of filling
the offices through literary competitive examinations kept many studying
even to old age. This system was very old, dating back to several
centuries before Christ. In these examinations there were three grades
of degrees conferred--"flowering talent," Bachelors; "promoted man,"
Master; "entered scholar," Doctor. Beyond this was yet another higher
honor, as the very highest became members of the Imperial Academy, the
"forest of pencils," at the court at Peking. The best and most finished
scholar of all was so designated every three years by the Emperor, the
very greatest honor. The only thing in history that seems to approach
this honor is the winning of the foot-race at the Olympian Games.

Chinese education appears to fulfill the saying heard in this country in
bygone days--Educate a boy and he won't work--for in China "the scholar,
even the village scholar, not only does not plow and reap, but he does
not in any way assist those who perform these necessary acts. He does
not harness an animal, nor feed him, nor drive a cart, nor light a fire,
nor bring water--in short, so far as physical exertion goes, he does as
nearly as possible nothing all day. 'The scholar is not a utensil', (a
Confucian saying), he seems to be thinking all day long, and every day
of his life, until one wishes that at times he would be a utensil, that
he might sometimes be of use. He will not even move a bench nor make any
motion that looks like labor."[104]

"There are among us who are enamored of state-systems which regulate
education down to its minutest detail, and leave no room for the free
play of mind: in China we have this indirectly accomplished and see in
it all its necessary rigidity, uniformity, and pedantry. There are who
advocate a secular system of education: in China we see this in full
operation. There are who think that all success in the education of mind
should be measured by external competitive tests: in China we have this
elaborated into an iron system. There are who cling by the dogmatic and
preceptive, and regard with suspicion the habituating of the mind of
schoolboys to ideals esthetic and spiritual, including even the simple
elements of humanity: in China they will find what they desire to see.
There are who hold that teachers and school-inspectors are heaven-born,
and are above the study of educational principles and methods (as the
Emperor Sigismund was _supra Grammaticam_): so China thinks."[105]

Whatever may be said of Chinese education, it has lasted through the
ages and it has sufficed for the needs of the nation. It may be that
when this old nation gets a system of education based upon European and
American ideas, and fills her offices with the most highly educated and
only the most highly educated, then may China lead the world.

LITERATURE

1. Barnes, Earl and Mary S., Historical ideas and methods of Chinese
education. _Studies in education_, I (1896-97), 112-118.

2. Carus, Paul, Chinese life and customs.

3. Davis, John Francis, The Chinese.

4. Doolittle, Justus, Sketches of social life in China. _Harper's
Magazine_, XXXI (1865), 429-442.

5. Douglass, Robert K., China.

6. Flower, William Henry, Fashion in deformity.

7. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the Middle
Ages.

8. Headland, Isaac Taylor, Home life in China.

9. Headland, Isaac Taylor, The Chinese boy and girl.

10. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

11. Lee, Yan Phou, When I was a boy in China.

12. Little, Mrs. Archibald, Intimate China.

13. Martin, W. A. P., The Chinese.

14. Martin, W. A. P., The lore of Cathay.

15. Smith, Arthur H., Chinese characteristics.

16. Smith, Arthur H., Village life in China.

17. Williams, S. Wells, The Middle Kingdom.

CHAPTER VI

THE CHILD IN JAPAN

=Women.= Although women have always stood higher in Japan than in any
other oriental country, yet they were much more highly considered in the
early times than in the later times. There was no seclusion, they had a
station in society, they shared in the recreations of their fathers and
husbands, they possessed intellectual and physical vigor, they filled
offices of state and religion; in fact, they ranked alongside of men as
among the best nations of the earth. Among the rulers of Japan there
have been nine empresses, the most noted having been Jingu and who led a
conquering expedition into Corea about 200 A. D., from whence came
letters, religion, and civilization into Japan.

"Of one hundred and twenty-three Japanese sovereigns, nine have been
women. The custodian of the divine regalia is a virgin priestess. The
chief deity in their mythology is a woman. Japanese women, by their wit
and genius, made their native tongue a literary language. In literature,
art, poetry, song, the names of women are among the most brilliant of
those on the long roll of fame and honor on whose brows the Japanese, at
least, have placed the fadeless chaplet of renown. Their memory is still
kept green by recitation, quotation, reading, and inscription on screen,
roll, memorial-stone, wall, fan, cup, and those exquisite works of art
that delight even alien admirers east and west of the Pacific.

"In the records of the Japanese glory, valor, fortitude in affliction,
greatness in the hour of death, filial devotion, wifely affection, in
all the straits of life when codes of honor, morals, and religion are
tested, in the person of their professors, the literature of history and
romance, the every-day routine of fact, teem with instances of the
Japanese woman's power and willingness to share whatever of pain or
sorrow is appointed to man. In the annals of persecution, in the red
roll of martyrs, no names are brighter, no faces gleam more peacefully
amidst the flames, or on the cross of transfixing spears, or on the pyre
of rice-straw, or on the precipice edge, or in the open grave about to
be filled up, than the faces of the Christian Japanese women in the
seventeenth century. Such is the position of woman in Japan in the
past."[106]

In later times woman fell from her high estate and even lost power over
herself, as she came under her father in the home, under her husband
when married, and under her son when widowed. "The introduction of the
Chinese civilization with the Confucian system of moral philosophy, and
of Buddism, and later on the establishment of Feudalism, were
prejudicial to this high position of women. Chinese philosophers seem
not to have had much respect for women; while Buddism regards women as
sinful creatures, a temptation and snare, an obstacle to peace and
holiness. In our feudal system, in the code of Bushido, there was no
reverence for women as in the Western Chivalry."[107] Buddism entered
into Japan in the sixth century of the Christian era and Confucianism
came in some earlier, while Feudalism existed in Japan earlier than in
Europe and continued later, from the fifteenth to the sixteenth
centuries being the time during which the feudal system received its
most perfect development and the _Bushido_, or "The Way of the Samurai,"
was fully elaborated.

The Japanese women had a love for beauty, order and neatness; they were
patient and long-suffering; their hopes lay in their children and they
tended and cared for them as, perhaps, no other nation of women ever
did. They had plenty to keep them busy with their numerous household
duties and the making of their own clothing and that of their children.
Many of them were engaged in the care of silk-worms and in tea-picking.
The country wife was busy in the rice-field, doing her work alongside
her husband and sons, as well as performing the other duties that came
into her country life. "Among the daily tasks of the housewife, one, and
by no means the least of her duties, is to receive, duly acknowledge,
and return in suitable manner, the presents received in the family.
Presents are not confined to special seasons, although upon certain
occasions etiquette is rigid in its requirements in this matter, but
they may be given and received at all times, for the Japanese are
pre-eminently a present-giving nation."[108]

"As regards our standard of beauty.... A woman to be considered
beautiful by us, need not be tall. Height may be divinely imposing, but
not essential to human beauty. With us, about five feet would be
considered the most desirable height, but if one must err, it is
advisable to err by exceeding rather than by falling short of the mark.
The figure should be slender without being bony, the waist long and the
hips narrow. To secure grace, the body should be held slightly forward,
not boldly erect. A very important feature is the neck, which should be
long, white, slender, and gracefully curved. The hair should, of course,
be abundant, long, and perfectly straight, and while no deviation from
black is tolerated, it should not be just black, but should be so glossy
that it seems blue-black. The face should be oval and long, with a
straight nose, which should also be high and narrow. As for the eyes,
opinions are divided, one school of connoisseurs demanding that they
should be large with a double line of the lid, while another school
prefers that the eyes should be long and narrow and slightly slanting
upwards at the outer corner. The color of the eye should always be clear
and deep brown; the lashes thick, long, and curved; the eyebrows black
and distinct, their line long, and well arched; the mouth small; lips
thin, curved, and red; teeth small, regular, and white. The ears must be
evenly curved, with no angle, and in size not too small, for pinched
lobes look poverty-stricken. Large ears, like those of the probable
inhabitants of Mars, lately described by Professor Perrier, if not
exactly beautiful, are believed to be lucky. As for the shape of the
forehead, there are four types. By the one termed 'horned,' we mean that
in which the hair grows to a point in the middle of the forehead and
high at the sides after the fashion called by the Germans
_Geheimraths-Ecke_ or the 'Councillor's corners.' Then there are the
square and the round types; but the forehead most admired is high and
narrow at the top, and obliquely slanting at the sides, suggesting the
outline of our sacred mountain, Fuji. As for the complexion, it should
be fair, with a tint of the rose on the cheek, only, in our parlance, we
would call it cherry-hued."[109]

One of the phases of the life of women in Japan is that of the
dancing-girls, the _geisha_. These are girls obtained when quite young
from poor parents or as orphans and trained in establishments for
entertaining at tea-houses or at private gatherings. They are taught the
old Japanese dances, and other dances, to sing and to play on
instruments, to serve wine, and in other ways to entertain. These are
from ancient times. "The _geisha_ are not necessarily 'bad women,' as
you call them, not any worse professionally than the actresses and
vaudeville artistes of America."[110] Whatever the geisha may be, there
is no question about the _jōrō_, or courtesans, because licensed houses
exist in every part of Japan. Yet this is claimed of rather recent
origin, as in the older times such houses did not exist, and especially
in the villages and towns of the interior, where there were even but few
of such women. The saddest side of these houses is their filling through
filial obedience, the one thing considered most important for Japanese
women. "The Japanese maiden, as pure as the purest Christian virgin,
will, at the command of her father, enter the brothel tomorrow, and
prostitute herself for life. Not a murmur escapes her lips as she thus
filially obeys. To a life she loathes, and to disease, premature old
age, and an early grave, she goes joyfully. The staple of a thousand
novels, plays, and pictures in Japan is written in the life of a girl of
gentle manners and tender heart, who hates her life and would gladly
destroy it, but refrains because her purchase-money has enabled her
father to pay his debts, and she is bound not to injure herself. In the
stews of the great cities of Japan are today, I doubt not, hundreds of
girls who loathe their existence, but must live on in gilded misery
because they are fulfilling all righteousness as summed up in filial
piety."[111]

Old age was not a burden or a fear among the Japanese women, nor was it
something to be ashamed of. Old age was really welcome, and especially
in the last centuries when woman's freedom was taken away and obedience
to the men introduced, for old age brought freedom, as then the mother
became a person of much consideration, to be waited upon and cared for
by children and grandchildren, the burdens of life being turned over to
them. "As she bears all things, endures all things, suffers long, and is
kind, as she serves her mother-in-law, manages her husband's household,
cares for her babies, the thought that cheers and encourages her in her
busy and not too happy life is the thought of the sunny, calm old age,
when she can lay her burdens and cares on younger shoulders, and bask in
the warmth and sunshine which this Indian Summer of her life will bring
to her."[112]

=Marriage.= A young woman in Japan was expected as a matter of course to
marry. Any young woman was not forced to marry any young man, for there
was a certain freedom of choice on her part. Young people were expected
to marry within their rank. In the early times, marriage between a
brother and sister of the same mother was not permitted, but if by the
same father by a different mother they could marry, as they were not
considered related as in the first instance. In these earlier times
marriage was permitted at sixteen in man and thirteen in woman. Marriage
was not a religious affair, and not even a contract between the parties.
It was rather a giving away of the girl to the man who was to be her
husband and to his family, so that the bride's person and property
passed completely under the control of the husband and his family.

At one time, according to one authority, when a youth had fixed his
affections upon a maiden of suitable condition, he disclosed his passion
by attaching a branch of a certain shrub (the _Celastrus alatus_) to the
house of the damsel's parents. If this emblem of his passion was
neglected, it implied that his suit was rejected; if accepted, so was
the lover; and should the young lady wish to express reciprocal
tenderness, she forthwith blackened her teeth, though she must not pluck
out her eyebrows until after the wedding.[113] In other times, the
affair was arranged by a go-between. A young man would get a married
friend to help him select a bride, to make his wants known to the girl
and her family, and to arrange a meeting between the young people at the
home of a mutual friend, where they could decide the matter. Again the
matter may have been arranged by the families, it might be a long time
in advance, so that the young people did not have much to do with it.

When the matter was decided on, then presents were exchanged, the young
man usually sending a piece of handsome silk, used for the _obi_ or
girdle, which corresponded to the engagement-ring of Europe and America,
but sometimes the young man sent other presents, and because of which a
handsome daughter was considered rather an addition to the fortune of a
family. A formal betrothal was then entered into, and a lucky day found
for the wedding.

Just before the wedding, generally on the morning of the wedding-day,
the bride's trousseau and the household goods, which the bride was
expected to take with her, were sent to the house of the bridegroom.
These varied according with the rank and position and wealth of the
bride's family. The trousseau would contain dresses for all seasons and
sashes of all kinds, and since fashion unchanged a woman might enter her
husband's home with a supply of clothing that could last her through a
lifetime.

As in old times the wedding ceremony occurred in the afternoon, toward
noon there was a bridal procession from the bride's home to the home of
the bridegroom. The bride was seated in a palanquin, clothed and veiled
in white, escorted by two bridesmaids, and accompanied by relatives,
neighbors, and friends, the men all in their dress of ceremony and the
women in their gayest robes. When the procession reached the
bridegroom's home, the bride was escorted by the bridesmaids into the
room of state, where sat the bridegroom in the post of honor, surrounded
by parents and nearest relatives.

When the real ceremony was performed there were present the bridegroom
and his parents, the bride and her parents, a few of the most intimate
relatives or friends, and the cupbearers, perhaps not over a dozen
people in all. There was no religious ceremony, no words were spoken, no
promises, no vows, no prayer. When all was ready, the wedding-cup, a
two-spouted cup, was filled by a young girl with native wine (_saké_)
and presented to the mouths of the bride and groom alternately, till all
was drank by them, being a symbol as husband and wife of the equal
sharing of their joys and sorrows of married life. Then the young couple
arose and offered cups of _saké_ to their parents, after which the bride
removed her veil, and the ceremony was ended. Then the wedding-guests,
who had been in other rooms during the ceremony, joined the
wedding-party and all partook of a feast prepared for the occasion, with
the mirth and joy that usually accompany weddings among all peoples and
in all times.

On the third day after the wedding, the newly-married couple were
expected to make a visit to the bride's family. The bride's family
prepared a dinner for the occasion, with music and dancing by
professional performers, and other entertainment. A large number of the
relatives and friends were invited and the bride appeared as hostess
with her mother. Within the course of two or three months, the newly
married couple were expected to entertain either in their own home, the
home of the bridegroom's parents, or at a tea-house.

"There are wedded couples who labor and save heroically for years, in
order to pay the expenses of their marriage festival. There is one
rather amusing custom, however, whereby this expense may be avoided. A
couple of respectable people have a daughter, who is acquainted with a
good young fellow who would be an excellent husband for her, except that
he lacks the necessary means to give her the customary wedding-presents
and keep a free table for a week, for the two families. The parents,
coming home from the bath one fine evening, do not find their daughter
at home. They inquire in the neighborhood; nobody has seen her, but all
the neighbors offer their services in assisting to find her. The parents
accept the offer, and the procession, constantly increasing in numbers,
passes from street to street, until it reaches the dwelling of the
lover. The latter, protected by his closed screens, in vain pretends to
be deaf; he is at last obliged to yield to the demands of the crowd. He
opens the door, and the lost daughter, in tears, throws herself at the
feet of her parents, who threaten her with their malediction.

"Then, the tender-hearted neighbors, moved by the scene, intercede; the
mother relents; the father, remains haughty and inexorable; the
intercession of the neighbors increases in eloquence, and the young man
promises to be the most faithful of sons-in-law. Finally, the resistance
of the father is overcome; he pardons his daughter, pardons the lover,
and calls the latter his son. All at once, as if by magic, cups of saké
circulate among the crowd; everyone takes his or her place on the
matting of the room; the two outlaws are seated in the midst of the
circle, drink their bowl of saké together, the marriage is proclaimed in
the presence of a sufficient number of witnesses, and the police
officer enters it upon his list the next morning."[114]

There is another side of Japanese marriage, where the young man enters
the home of the bride. If in a family there was no son to inherit the
name and no son was adopted, upon the eldest daughter's coming of age,
her family would seek some young man who would be willing to marry the
daughter and give up his own name and take that of the family. The young
men were usually attracted to such a marriage because thereby they could
inherit wealth or rank or both, but sometimes such was entered upon
solely on account of the attractiveness of the young lady.

It is a question whether polygamy in itself ever existed in Japan, but
there is no question about concubinage, as it began at an early time,
for the Emperor was allowed twelve supplementary wives and the nobles
(samurai) two. It seems from the earliest there was one legal wife, and
whatever the other women were they were subservient to her. But
concubinage did not prevail very much among the middle and lower
classes, and with the upper classes only with the wealthier members.
These concubines were kept in the home unless the legal wife was strong
enough to keep them out, when they were furnished separate dwellings.
They were ever a discordant element in the life of the family. Since
both Shintoism and Confucianism called for ancestral worship, where
there were no offspring by the legal wife, this might call for
concubinage to raise up children, and sometimes where there was no heir,
the wife might for that cause urge the husband to take a handmaid to
raise up sons to preserve the ancestral line. If the child of a
concubine was adopted into the family, it was taken from the mother and
she became no more to it than any other of the servants and had no more
to do with it than they did.

During feudalism in Japan, the legal status of women was very low. They
had no legal rights and their evidence was not admitted in a court of
justice. The husband had unlimited power of divorce, but under no
circumstances could a wife demand to be separated from her husband, but
she had to abide his will. A great reason for a wife suffering much and
not leaving her husband was that the children belonged to him and in
case of a separation their disposal rested absolutely with him.

"Seven causes for justifiable divorce are laid down in the classics of
Confucius, which are the basis of legal morals in Japan as in China, or
as those of Justinian are with us. The wife may be divorced:

1. If she be disobedient to her parents-in-law. (After marriage, in her
husband's home, his parents become hers in a far more significant sense
than among us.)

2. If she be barren. (If the husband loves his childless wife, he keeps
and supports her.)

3. If she be lewd or licentious. (She must not be given to loose talk or
wine. It is not proper for her even to write a letter to any other man.)

4. If she be jealous (of other women's clothes, or children, or
especially of her husband).

5. If she have a loathsome or contagious disease. (If dearly beloved,
she may be kept in a separate room and cared for.)

6. If she steal.

7. If she talk too much.

"It is needless to say that the seventh and last reason is the one
frequently availed of, or pretended. The Japanese think it is a good
rule that works but one way. The husband is not divorced from the wife
for these equal reasons. Of course, woman in Japan, by her tact, tongue,
graces, and charms, is able to rule her husband generally by means
invisible to the outer world, but none the less potent. Though man holds
the sword, the pen, and divorce, and glories in his power, yet woman, by
her finer strength, in hut as in palace hall, rules her lord."[115]

=The Mother's Memorial.= "A sight not often met with in the cities, but
in the suburbs and country places frequent as the cause of it requires,
is the _nagaré kanjō_ (flowing invocation). A piece of cotton cloth is
suspended by its four corners to stakes set in the ground near a brook,
rivulet, or, if in the city, at the side of the water-course which
fronts the houses of the better classes. Behind it rises a higher,
lath-like board, notched several times near the top, and inscribed with
a brief legend. Resting on the cloth at the brookside, or, if in the
city, in a pail of water, is a wooden dipper. Perhaps upon the four
corners, in the upright bamboo, may be set bouquets of flowers. A
careless stranger may not notice the odd thing, but a little study of
its parts reveals the symbolism of death. The tall lath tablet is the
same as that set behind graves and tombs. The ominous Sanskrit letters
betoken death. Even the flowers in their bloom call to mind the tributes
of affectionate remembrance which loving survivors set in the sockets of
the monuments in the grave-yards. On the cloth is written a name such as
is given to persons after death, and the prayer, '_Namu miō, hō ren ge
kiō_' (Glory to the salvation-bringing Scriptures). Waiting long enough,
perchance but a few minutes, there may be seen a passer-by who pauses,
and, devoutly offering a prayer with the aid of his rosary, reverently
dips a ladleful of water, pours it upon the cloth, and waits patiently
until it has strained through, before moving on.

"All this, when the significance is understood, is very touching. It is
the story of vicarious suffering, of sorrow from the brink of joy, of
one dying that another may live. It tells of mother-love and mother-woe.
It is a mute appeal to every passer-by, by the love of Heaven, to
shorten the penalties of a soul in pain.

"The Japanese (Buddhists) believe that all calamity is the result of sin
either in this or a previous state of existence. The mother who dies in
childbed suffers, by such a death, for some awful transgression, it may
be in a cycle of existence long since passed. For it she must leave her
new-born infant, in the full raptures of mother-joy, and sink into the
darkness of Hades, to wallow in a lake of blood. There must she groan
and suffer until the 'flowing invocation' ceases, by the wearing-out of
the symbolic cloth. When this is so utterly worn that the water no
longer drains, but falls through at once, the freed spirit of the
mother, purged of her sin, rises to resurrection among the exalted
beings of a higher cycle of existence. Devout men, as they pass by,
reverently pour a ladleful of water. Women, especially those who have
felt mother-pains, and who rejoice in life and loving offspring, repeat
the expiatory act with deeper feeling; but the depths of sympathy are
fathomed only by those who, being mothers, are yet bereaved. Yet, as in
the presence of nature's awful glories the reverent gazer is shocked by
the noisy importunity of the beggar, so before this sad and touching
memorial the proofs of sordid priestcraft chill the warm sympathy which
the sight even from the heart of an alien, might evoke.

"The cotton cloth inscribed with the prayer and the name of the
deceased, to be efficacious, can be purchased only at the temples. I
have been told, and it is no secret, that rich people are able to secure
a napkin which, when stretched but a few days, will rupture, and let the
water pass through at once. The poor man can get only the stoutest and
most closely woven fabric. The limit of purgatorial penance is thus
fixed by warp and woof, and warp and woof are gauged by money. The rich
man's napkin is scraped thin in the middle. Nevertheless, the poor
mother secures a richer tribute of sympathy from her humble people; for
in Japan, as in other lands, poverty has many children, while wealth
mourns for heirs; and in the lowly walks of life are more pitiful women
who have felt the woe and the joy of motherhood than in the mansions of
the rich."[116]

=Dress.= The ordinary dress of both sexes in Japan in the older times
was quite similar but differed in color and texture. It consisted of a
number of loose, wide gowns worn over each other, fastened at the waist
with a girdle. The family arms were woven or worked into the back and
breast of the outer garment. The sleeves of the garments were wide and
long. Within doors the feet were bare or covered with socks and outdoors
clogs of straw, matting, or wood were worn, kept on the feet by an
upright pin or button held between the two large toes.

The men shaved the front and crown of the head, leaving a sort of tuft
on top; the boy's head was shaved in different ways, but at fifteen the
boy's hair was dressed exactly like a mature man, because then he
attained his majority. Among the women the hair was worn long but
arranged differently for a married woman than a young girl, and, too,
the married women removed the hair of the eyebrows.

The infant was free from swathing; at three its clothes was bound at the
waist with a girdle. At seven or later the boy of noble birth wore a
short sword in his girdle which at fifteen, when he became a man, he
would exchange for the two swords of the samurai.

=Regulations.= During the two hundred and fifty
years--sixteenth-nineteenth centuries--when Japan was cut off from all
outside people, the strictest economy was necessary for the nation to be
able to care for itself. To this end regulations were laid down to which
the different classes had to adhere closely. These were binding and must
have proved irksome, yet they preserved the nation. It seems well to
give some of the regulations here.

"The following are examples, first, of the rules applying to the
_bungen_ (station in life) of a farmer of seventy-five to one hundred
_koku_ ($375 to $500), and, second, to that of a common farm-laborer:

I. For a Farmer of 100 _Koku_.

1. Such a farmer may build a house whose length is ten _ken_ (about
sixty feet), but there must be no parlor (_zashiki_), and the roof must
not be tiled. If the householder wishes to tile the roof, to protect it
against fires, he must first get permission.

2. On the occasion of a marriage of a son or daughter, the gifts of the
householder must be limited to the following:

Two _nagamochi_ (a chest used for bed-clothes).
One _tansu_ (a chest of drawers).
One _tsuzura_ (a vine used in basket making).
One _hasami-bako_ (a case for scissors).
A _yuinō obi_ (a present, usually the sash called _obi_, exchanged
at the time of the wedding).
One _sensu_ (a fan).
One _taru_ (a vessel containing wine).
_Surume_ (a kind of fish).
_Kobu_ (a kind of seaweed).
_Tai_ (a kind of fish, used on occasions of ceremony).

3. The viands on the wedding-day must be as follows:

(1) _Zōni-zuimono_ (a kind of soup).

(2) The things placed on the _honzen_ (a small table): (a) in the _hira_
(one of the dishes), _namasu_ (a kind of fish); (b) in the _choku_ (the
other dish), something roasted or broiled.

(3) _Hikimono_ (viands taken home by each guest): (a) _suimono_ (soup),
two kinds; (b) _torimono_ (a liquid), two kinds; (c) _hikigashi_ (a kind
of cake). These three kinds altogether must not make more than a small
amount.

4. The family must never wear silk clothes. If a son or a daughter is to
marry a person whose station allows the use of silk, the householder
must request him not to use it on the occasion of the wedding.

5. No guests should be invited other than relations of the family,
_ko-bun_ (people who are under obligations to the householder for
kindness received, and stand in the place of children), and a few of
the most intimate friends. But this rule refers only to the day of the
wedding.

6. At a wedding or New Year's call, the use of _jū_ (lacquer boxes,
containing confectionery, given as presents) is forbidden.

7. When a member of the family makes a visit to a relation or elsewhere,
he should not carry valuable presents. When he is visiting a sick
friend, he may take anything which happens to be at hand.

8. When there is death (_fukō_), and people come to the house on visits
of condolence, no wine should be offered.

9. At a funeral (_butsuji_) wine should not be offered to the persons
who follow to the grave.

10. On such occasions, the viands should be of five kinds only; but
there should be no wine. If wine is offered, it should be given in
soup-cups, not in wine-cups, nor should _tori-zakana_ (a dish served
only with wine) be prepared.

11. On the occasion of the birth of a first child (_Uizan_), the
presents from the grandparents should be as follows only:

A cotton garment.
One set (four boxes) of jū.
One _taru_.
Viands.

From the other relations only small money-presents, if any should be
sent.

2. When the child is taken to the _mura_ (village) temple (the occasion
called _miya-mairi_), _jū_ may be offered to the grandparents, but not
to others.

13. At the time of _hatsu-bina_ (girls' festival), and _hatsu-nobori_
(boys' festival), grandparents and other relations should not present
_hina_ and _nobori_ (dolls and flags), the whole family should present a
single _kami-nobori_ (paper-flag) and two _yari_ (spears), and relatives
may also make small money-presents.

II. For the _Bungen_ of a Farm-laborer.

1. The house may be five and a half _ken_ (about thirty-two feet) in
length, and the roof should be of straw or bamboo thatch.

2. The presents at a wedding may be:

One _tsu zura_ (a vine used in basket making).
_Nagamochi_ (chests) are forbidden.

3. At entertainments, one _hira_ (dish) and one soup may be offered, but
not in cups.

4. The collar and sleeve ends of the clothes may be ornamented with
silk, and an _obi_ (belt) of silk or silk crêpe may be worn, but not in
public.

5. Hair ornaments should consist of _norihiki_ and _motoi_, and nothing
more.

6. Footwear should be _narazōri_ (sandals made at Nara) not _setta_
(sandals of iron and leather). Women are to wear bamboo-thonged sandals
ordinarily, but at occasions of ceremony sandals with cotton thongs; men
should wear only bamboo-thonged sandals on all occasions.

7. At the time of _Uizan_ (birth of first child) the grandparents may
send two _jū_ (set of confectionery boxes), and money for rice and fish;
other relations should send only money for fish.

8. At the time of _hatsu-nobori_, the grandparents may present a _yari_
(spear), and at the time of _hatsu-bina_ a _kami-bina_ (paper doll), or
_tsuchi-ningyo_ (earthen doll).

"Accompanying these specific regulations, made with careful reference to
each man's station in life, there were also general rules to meet
unspecified contingencies. For example, only in case of absolute
necessity could an umbrella be used by the ordinary laborer. He must
usually content himself with the protection of a straw raincoat. Another
provision related to costly articles which a family might happen to
have. Special permission was necessary to make use of them, and no
articles of luxury were to be used if on hand."[117]

=The Care of Children.= The birth of a child among the Japanese was a
cause of rejoicing, a boy being somewhat more welcome than a girl. At
the birth of a child, a special messenger was sent to notify relatives
and intimate friends, who must soon visit the baby and take it presents,
and especially so if it was the first in the family. Yet infanticide was
not uncommon, for poverty sometimes decided against the infant, and this
also might be true of a child born maimed or deformed. "In old days,
when the new-born child was laid at the father's feet, the father could
refuse to take it, and the child was then exposed to die in a
bamboo-grove. The custom exists no longer; I doubt whether it ever
prevailed to any very great extent, but it has left behind it a very
picturesque reminder. If parents have lost a child by death, they often,
not perhaps unnaturally, look upon their loss as the visitation of an
angry Heaven, which must need be propitiated by the free-will offering
up of the next born child. So when the next child is born it is taken to
the bamboo-grove and left by its parents. The exposure is, however,
nothing very serious; a friend of the family is waiting round the corner
for the weeping parents to abandon their infant, and a few minutes
afterwards he comes in, quite as if it were by accident, and tells the
bereaved couple that he has just picked up a fine, handsome baby boy (or
girl), which he hopes they will take and rear. Thus the anger of Heaven
has been, figuratively at least, averted, and the baby is known in after
life by the word sute ('abandoned') prefixed to his personal name. He is
known as _sutejiro_ or _sutesaburo_, as the case may be ('the abandoned
second son' or 'the abandoned third')."[118]

The baby's dress was loose and easily put on, so it was soon dressed.
The dresses were made like the _kimono_ of the mother, being
wide-sleeved and straight, silk, cotton, or flannel, as the season
demanded, and long enough to cover the feet and hands. Red and yellow
were the colors of the young baby's dress, and if a girl high colors
prevailed later, but a boy's clothing became subdued in color. Near the
one hundredth day of the child's life, long dresses were left off and
also about the same time it was weaned. The baby's head was kept shaved
bald until it was three years of age, when only a part of it was shaved;
it might all be shaved but a tuft on top, or tufts at the side, or bare
on top and encircling the head at the sides, just as the mother might
wish. "There is no limit set to the whimsical mother's taste in this
matter of tonsorial landscape gardening."[119]

Since the Japanese sat on the floor with their legs under them, the baby
was placed on the floor with its knees bent under it, which trained it
to the right way of sitting. The baby in learning to walk did not have
chairs and the like to bump against and fall over and it had soft-matted
floors to bump down upon without injury. It was quite noteworthy if the
baby of his own accord should walk before its first birthday, and
_mochi_ (rice pastry) was made to celebrate the auspicious event. When
the baby went outdoors, then its feet were hampered by sandals or clogs
fastened to the feet by straps passing between the toes, but he soon
learned to use them all right, so that babies of two or three could get
around all right in these clogs. One good thing, these clogs did not
bind the children's feet, but let them grow naturally. These clogs left
the toes of the Japanese children free and thus they retained some of
their prehensive powers so that in adult life the feet were still used
somewhat for holding and grasping. It would seem that the baby learned
to talk some earlier than in other countries, as the Japanese language
is conducive for such since it abounds in expressions easy for children.

=Naming Children.= On the seventh day, some authors say the thirteenth,
the child received its name, at which time very little ceremony took
place; at seven years of age this name gave way to another name; which
occurred again upon reaching his majority at fifteen. When he married he
received another name; again he was given a new name if he took office;
another new name came if promoted; and, finally, after death, he
received his last name, which was engraved upon his tomb.

=Carrying Children.= The babies were carried upon the back of some
member of the family, quite often an older brother or sister and
sometimes these were not over five or six years of age. The baby was
tied upon the back of the one carrying it, face front, head and feet
out, and even in quite cold weather. The babies soon learned to hold on
and thus they looked out for themselves so as not to be dropped by the
one carrying them. "The mother bears the bairns, but the children carry
them. Each preceding child, as it grows older, must lug the succeeding
baby on its back till able to stand. The rearing of a Japanese poor
family is a perpetual game of leap-frog."[120]

=Adoption and Inheritance.= There was a great desire, especially in
feudal times, to have a male heir to keep up the ancestral line, which
otherwise would be a disgrace to the family. There being no male heir,
it might be that a son would be adopted in early life to grow up as the
heir, or he might be adopted with the idea of his marrying one of the
daughters later, or there might be no formal adoption but a young man
would marry a daughter and give up his own name and take that of the
family and thus become the heir. The childless wife, if not divorced,
would often care for the adopted child as if her own, which care would
be reciprocated by the adopted son in her old age. In feudal times, in
case a man should die leaving no children, either natural or adopted,
his death was concealed till the lord gave permission for him to adopt a
son, and not till then was his death announced, for otherwise the lands
escheated to the lord.

=Power and Duty of Father.= As in Rome, the family was the unit in
feudal times in Japan, and the head of the family held complete power.
He had the full control of the persons and property of his children and
he could do with them as he chose, only being held back by that most
binding of all laws--custom. Yet, as he had great power, so had he great
responsibilities, as he was responsible to the state for the doings of
his family.

=Amusements.= Old Japan was a realm of sports. It was a nation of
players. There seemed not to have been any distinct line of demarcation
between the amusements of the children and those of the adults. The
grown-up people entered with zest into games which were in many cases
the same and in many others similar to the games of the young people.
There were numerous holidays and festivals, on which days the whole
nation of people seemed to give themselves over to the toy-sellers and
showmen and story-tellers and musicians and games and plays--to a time
of general enjoyment. Perhaps there was never any other people or
country in the entire world at any time that took as much interest in
the pleasures of their children as did the old Japanese.

When the evenings were pleasant they were spent out-of-doors, and on
pleasant moonlight evenings almost the entire population of a town would
be on its streets. At other times the evenings would be spent in the
home, the entire family being together, including the grandparents and
even the servants. Sometimes the father would tell stories of Japanese
history and of folk-lore, sometimes they would play chess and checkers,
but the greatest time was spent with cards. One such game was known as
"The poems of a hundred poets." On one card was written the half of one
hundred famous Japanese poems and the other half on another card, half
of these cards being distributed among the players and the other half
being given to a reader. The reader would call off the half of one poem
and the one having the other half would call back and this would
continue till all the cards were matched. There was dancing of evenings,
usually by the young women, sometimes by the men, but, perhaps, never by
men and women together. In some places of moonlight nights the young
people would dance all night in the streets or open places near the
castle-gates.

"Among the ghostly games intended to test the courage of, or perhaps to
frighten, children, are two plays called, respectively, 'Hiyaku
Monogatari' and 'Kon-daméshi,' or the 'One Hundred Stories' and
'Soul-examination.' In the former play a company of boys and girls
assemble round the hibachi, while they, or an adult, an aged person or a
servant, usually relate ghost-stories, or tales calculated to straighten
the hair and make the blood crawl. In a distant dark room, a lamp (the
usual dish of oil), with a wick of one hundred strands or piths, is set.
At the conclusion of each story, the children in turn must go to the
dark room and remove a strand of the wick. As the lamp burns down low,
the room becomes gloomy and dark, and the last boy, it is said, always
sees a demon, a huge face, or something terrible. In the 'Kon-daméshi,'
or 'Soul-examination,' a number of boys, during the day plant some flags
in different parts of a graveyard, under a lonely tree, or by a haunted
hillside. At night, they meet together, and tell stories about ghosts,
goblins, devils, etc.; and at the conclusion of each tale, when the
imagination is wrought up, the hair begins to rise and the marrow to
curdle, the boys, one at a time, must go out in the dark and bring back
the flags, until all are brought in."[121]

The children had plenty to see to keep them amused. There were visits to
the theaters, sometimes the performances lasted all day, in which were
displayed the doings of historical peoples and lore heroes. There were
all kinds of gymnastic feats and juggling of various kinds. "At the fair
at Asakusa, in addition to the performances of jugglers of all kinds,
there are collections of animals which have been taught to perform
tricks--bears of Yezo, spaniels which are valuable in proportion to
their ugliness, educated monkeys and goats. Birds and fish are also
displayed in great quantities. But the most astonishing patience is
manifested by an old Corean boatman, who has trained a dozen tortoises,
large and small, employing no other means to direct them than his songs
and a small metal drum. They march in line, execute various evolutions,
and conclude by climbing upon a low table, the larger ones forming, of
their own accord, a bridge for the smaller, to whom the feat would
otherwise be impossible. When they have all mounted, they dispose
themselves in three or four piles like so many plates."[122]

Among the leading amusements were the Festivals. These were of frequent
occurrence and of the greatest diversity, so that the young people had
plenty to amuse them. There were five great annual Festivals, which were
the Festival of the New Year, the Festival of the Dolls, the Festival of
the Banners, the Feast of Lanterns, and the Feast of Chrysanthemums.

The New Year Festival occurred on the first day of the first month of
the old Japanese year. At this time congratulations and presents were
much given and taken. This was a time for pleasure and all the members
of the family laid aside their work and their dignity and entered into
the fun and the sport that characterized this festival.

The Festival of the Dolls occurred on the third day of the third month.
This day was especially devoted to the girls, and to them it was the
greatest day of the year. All the dolls belonging to the family were
brought out and which had been accumulating in some families for
hundreds of years. When a daughter was born in a home, two images of
wood or enameled clay were bought for her, with which she played, and
when she was married she took them to her new home and kept them for her
children, as well as any other dolls she might have. "The Tokugawa
collection, of which I have spoken, is remarkably full and costly, for
it has been making for hundreds of years in one of the younger branches
of a family which for two and a half centuries was possessed of almost
imperial power, and lived in more than imperial luxury; but there are
few households so poor that they do not from year to year accumulate a
little store of toys wherewith to celebrate the feast, and, whether the
toys are many or few, the feast is the event of the year in the lives of
the little girls of Japan."[123]

On the fifth day of the fifth month was celebrated the Festival of the
Banners, which was celebrated in honor of the boys, and it was to them
the greatest day in the year. On this day all kinds of military toys
were displayed, such as heroes, warriors, generals, soldiers, etc. Also
there were flags, streamers, banners, etc. A set of these toys was
bought for every son born in the family. So as with the display of
dolls, in old Japanese families the display on the Feast of Banners was
very great. About the houses and on poles in the yards were hung long
paper pennons of every color, banners with coats of arms, and also
attached to a pole by a string was a paper fish, hollow so that as the
wind filled it out it would flop its tail and fins in a most natural
way. This paper fish was to show that a son had been born during the
year or that there were sons in the family.

The Feast of Lanterns occurred on the seventh day of the seventh month.
On this occasion the whole city or town was decorated with lanterns. In
some places little girls would go in crowds through the streets and sing
with all their might while swinging paper lanterns.

"The fifth festival takes place on the ninth day of the ninth month, and
is called the Feast of Chrysanthemums. At all the family repasts during
the day, the leaves of chrysanthemum flowers are scattered over the cups
of tea and saké. It is believed that the libations prepared in this
manner have the power of prolonging life. The citizen of Tokio would
consider that he was wanting in his duty as a good husband and father,
if he should partake sparingly of this specific."[124]

That children enjoyed themselves and that they were helped to enjoy
themselves was well shown in the abundance of toys and toy-shops and
many holidays on which to display them. The streets of the towns and
cities were full of toy-shops, where every kind of toys imaginable could
be found. Too, toys, and especially the religious varieties, were
displayed for sale about the temples on feast days. There were images of
the various gods and of implements and appliances used about the
temples. There were on the streets toys of all kinds of animals, of
wrestlers and acrobats, of soldiers, etc., etc. Dolls were one of the
strongest features of toy-makers and toy-sellers. "Here let me tell you
something you certainly never heard of before in relation to Japanese
dolls,--not the tiny O-Hina-San I was just speaking about, but the
beautiful life-sized dolls representing children of two or three years
old; real toy-babes which, although far more cheaply and simply
constructed than our finer kinds of Western dolls, become, under the
handling of a Japanese girl, infinitely more interesting. Such dolls are
well dressed, and look so life-like,--little slanting eyes, shaven
pates, smiles, and all!--that as seen from a short distance the best
eyes might be deceived by them. Therefore, in those stock photographs of
Japanese life, of which so many thousands are sold in the open ports,
the conventional baby on the mother's back is most successfully
represented by a doll. Even the camera does not betray the substitution.
And if you see such a doll, though held, quite close to you, being made
by a Japanese mother to reach out its hands, to move its little bare
feet, and to turn its head, you would be almost afraid to venture a
heavy wager that it was only a doll. Even after having closely examined
the thing, you would still, I fancy, feel a little nervous at being left
alone with it, so perfect the delusion of that expert handling.

"Now there is a belief that some dolls do actually become alive.

"Formerly the belief was less rare than it is now. Certain dolls were
spoken of with reverence worthy of the Kami, and their owners were
envied folk. Such a doll was treated like a real son or daughter: it was
regularly served with food; it had a bed, and plenty of nice clothes,
and a name. If in the semblance of a girl, it was O-Toku-San; if in that
of a boy, Tokutarō-San. It was thought that the doll would become angry
and cry if neglected, and that any ill-treatment of it would bring
ill-fortune to the house. And, moreover, it was believed to possess
supernatural powers of a very high order.

"In the family of one Sengoku, a samurai of Matsue, there was a
Tokutarō-San which had a local reputation scarcely inferior to that of
Kishibojin,--she to whom Japanese wives pray for offspring. And
childless couples used to borrow that doll, and keep it for a
time,--ministering unto it,--and furnish it with new clothes before
gratefully returning it to its owners. And all who did so, I am assured,
became parents, according to their heart's desire. 'Sengoku's doll had a
soul.' There is even a legend that once, when the house caught fire, the
Tokutarō-San ran out safely into the garden of its own accord!

"The idea about such a doll seems to be this: The new doll is only a
doll. But a doll which is preserved for a great many years in one
family, and is loved and played with by generations of children,
gradually acquires a soul."[125]

There was an abundance of outdoor sports among the Japanese children.
Beginning with the New Year there came the great game with the girls of
battledore and shuttlecock. The girls made a beautiful sight, of which,
no doubt, they were aware. With their gayest dresses, hair arranged in a
most pleasing way, faces powdered and lips painted, the graceful,
rhythmic motion of their bodies, their bright eyes and laughing faces,
all combined to make them and their sport a most attractive scene.
Kite-flying was about as great an amusement in Japan as in China. All
kinds and sizes of kites were used. Some represented birds, others men,
and yet others monsters. Kite-fights were of frequent occurrence. A part
of the kite-string was smeared with glue and then sprinkled with
powdered glass, which prepared it for sawing another kite-string in two,
thus causing it to fall and become the property of the one sawing the
string. To make the fight the more realistic, at the top of the frame of
the kite was set a piece of whalebone, which in vibrating in the wind
made the most blood-curdling howls. Also contests in tops were held, in
which it was the aim to damage one another's tops and stop the spinning.
There was leaping and running and jumping and wrestling and slinging.
They played blind-man's-buff, prisoner's base, and pussy wants a corner,
but in these last two instead of the officer and Puss, the oni, or
devil, was the chief performer. They had stilts and handled them so well
as to play games on them and run races. Where there was snow and ice,
the Japanese children coasted, built snow-forts, fought battles with
snow-balls, and the like. They made snow-men in the likeness of Daruma,
a follower of Buddha, who lost his legs by paralysis and decay from long
meditation and prayer in a squatting position.

The Japanese children in their plays imitated their elders, just as
children everywhere do. Playing the doctor was one of the great
imitative plays of the younger children, and there were dinners and
tea-parties and weddings and funerals. One of the great amusements of
the Japanese was wrestling-matches and the children imitated these with
much precision, as they would stamp their feet, eat their salt, rinse
their mouths, slap their knees, and then clinch and tug till one or the
other was victor. "Another game which was very popular was called the
'Genji and Heiké.' These are the names of the celebrated rival clans, or
families, Minamoto and Taira. The boys of a town, district, or school
ranged themselves into two parties, each with flags. Those of the Heiké
were red, those of the Genji white. Sometimes every boy had a flag, and
the object of the contest, which was begun at the tap of a drum, was to
seize the flags of the enemy. The party securing the greatest number of
flags won the victory. In other cases, the flags were fastened on the
back of each contestant, who was armed with a bamboo for a sword, and
who had fastened, on a pad over his head, a flat, round piece of
earthenware, so that a party of them looked not unlike the faculty of a
college. Often these parties of boys numbered several hundred, and were
marshalled in squadrons, as in a battle. At the given signal, the battle
commenced, the object being to break the earthen dish on the head of the
enemy. The contest was usually very exciting. Whoever had his earthen
disk demolished had to retire from the field. The party having the
greatest number of broken disks, representative of cloven skulls, was
declared the loser. This game has been forbidden by the Government as
being too severe and cruel. Boys were often injured in it."[126]

=Lore.= The lore of Japan is as rich as that of other countries. Only a
few of the things concerning children can be given.

"Japanese papas, who find, as other fathers do, how much it costs to
raise a large family, will not let an infant, or even a young child,
look in a mirror (and thus see a child exactly like itself, making
apparent twins); for if he does, the anxious parent supposes the child,
when grown up and married, will have twins.

"Children are told that if they tell a lie, an _oni_, or an imp, called
the _tengu_, will pull out their tongues.

"If a boy rests a gun on top of his head, he will grow no taller.
Children must not carry any kind of basket on their heads, nor must they
ever measure their own height.

"Children are told if they strike anything with their chopsticks while
at their meals, they will be struck dumb.

"When a maimed or deformed child is born, people say that its parents or
ancestors committed some great sin.

"In Japan, as with us, each baby is the most remarkable child ever
seen, and wondrous are the legends rehearsed concerning each one; but it
is a great day in a Japanese home when the baby, of his own accord,
walks before his first birthday, and mochi (rice pastry) must be made to
celebrate the auspicious event.

"Young girls do not like to pour tea or hot water into a cup of
_kawaméshi_ (red rice), lest their wedding-night should be rainy.

"Little boys, tempted to devour too much candy, are frightened, not with
prophecies of pain or threats of nauseous medicines, but by the fear of
a hideous worm that will surely be produced by indulgence in
sweets."[127]

A peculiar superstition was in connection with the sacred trees, which
were found quite numerous in both city and country. The patron gods of
these trees were thought to inflict great injury upon those who might
desecrate the trees. Believing this, sometimes a young woman whose
affections had been stirred and then set aside used these sacred trees
as a means of avenging herself. Making a rude image of straw to
represent her former lover, at the "hour of the ox," two o'clock in the
morning, she carried this straw man to one of these trees. Having on her
feet the high clogs, worn in Japan, her hair disheveled, dressed in a
loose flowing white night-dress, carrying in her hand nails and hammer,
she proceeded to the tree and crucified on it the straw image of her
lover. Then she beseeched the gods to whom the tree was dedicated to
bring down affliction and even death upon him who mutilated the tree.
These visits were repeated and the same things gone over till her
recreant lover sickened and died. It is not told whether this always
occurred or not.

"The wonderful story of 'Raiko and the Oni' is one of the most famous in
the collection of Japanese grandmothers. Its power to open the mouths
and distend the oblique eyes of the youngsters long after bedtime, is
unlimited. I have before me a little stitched book of seven leaves,
which I bought among a lot of two dozen or more in one of the colored
print and book shops in Tōkio. It is four inches long and three wide. On
the gaudy cover, which is printed in seven colors, is a picture of
Raiko, the hero, in helmet and armor, grasping in both hands the
faithful sword with which he slays the ghoul whose frightful face
glowers above him. The _hiragana_ text and wood-cuts within the covers
are greatly worn, showing that many thousand copies have been printed
from the original and oft-retouched face of the cherry-wood blocks. The
story, thus illustrated with fourteen engravings, is as follows:

"A long time ago, when the mikado's power had slipped away into the
hands of his regents, the guard at Kiōto was neglected. There was a
rumor in the city that _oni_, or demons, frequented the streets late at
night, and carried off people bodily. The most dreaded place was at the
Ra-jō gate, at the southwestern entrance to the palace. Hither Watanabé,
by order of Raiko, the chief captain of the guard, started one night,
well armed. Wearily waiting for some hours, he became drowsy, and
finally fell asleep. Seizing his opportunity, the wary demon put out his
arm from behind the gate-post, caught Watanabé by the neck, and began to
drag him up in the air. Watanabé awoke, and in an instant seized the imp
by the wrist, and, drawing his sword, lopped the oni's arm off, who then
leaped onto the cloud, howling with pain. In the morning Watanabé
returned and laid the trophy at his master's feet. It is said that an
oni's limb will not unite again if kept apart from the stump for a week.
Watanabé put the hairy arm in a strong stone box, wreathed with twisted
rice straw, and watched it day and night, lest the oni should recover
it. One night a feeble knock was heard at his door, and to his challenge
his old aunt's voice replied. Of course, he let the old woman in. She
praised her nephew's exploit, and begged him to let her see it. Being
thus pressed, as he thought, by his old aunty, he slid the lid aside.
'This is my arm,' cried the old hag, as she flew westward into the sky,
changing her form into a tusked and hairy demon. Tracing the oni's
course, Raiko and four companions, disguised as _komusō_ (wandering
priests), reached the pathless mountain Oyé, in Tango, which they
climbed. They found a beautiful young girl washing a bloody garment.
From her they learned the path to the oni's cave, and that the demons
eat the men, and save the pretty damsels alive. Approaching, they saw a
demon cook carving a human body, to make soup of. Entering the cave,
they saw _Shu ten dōji_, a hideous tusked monster, with long red hair,
sitting on a pile of silken cushions, with about a hundred retainers
around him, at a feast. Steaming dishes were brought in, full of human
limbs, cooked in every style. The young damsels had to serve the demons,
who quaffed saké out of human skulls. Raiko and his band pretended to
join in the orgies, and amused the demons by a dance, after which they
presented them with a bottle of saké which had been mixed with a
narcotic. The chief drank a skullful and gave to his retainers. Soon all
the demons were asleep, and a thunder-storm of snores succeeded. Then
Raiko and his men threw off their disguise, drew sword, and cut off
their heads, till the cave flowed blood like a river. The neck of the
chief demon was wider than Raiko's sword, but the blade miraculously
lengthened, and Raiko cut the monster's head off at one sweep. They then
destroyed the treasure, released all the prisoners, and returned to
Kiōto in triumph, exposing the huge head along the streets."[128]

=Religion.= Before the introduction of Christianity into Japan, there
were but three religions: Shintoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. The
first is native to Japan and the other two are importations. Shintoism
teaches nature and ancestor worship, cleanliness, and purity. As is the
nature of the Japanese, so this native religion has some merrymaking in
it. Confucianism teaches implicit obedience to those who are in power,
as emperor, parent, and teacher. Buddhism is somewhat similar to
Christianity in making its followers kind to those in lower life, as,
the poor, and animals. "In a word, 'Shintoism furnishes the object of
worship, Confucianism offers the rules of life, and Buddhism supplies
the way of future salvation.'"[129]

There is no doubt that all three of these religions had much to do in
moulding the character of the young in Japan, for in nearly every house
of the reigning class were the books or emblems or symbols or idols of
these three religions.

The school children had a god all to themselves, who was supposed to aid
them in their study. This god was called "Ten-jin," or "Heavenly Man."
As the boy desired to become a scholar, learned in the Chinese
characters and an excellent penman, so he prayed to Ten-jin to help him
in all these.

=Suicide.= The Japanese did not fear death nor dread the consequences of
a future world, so that suicide was not looked upon as in Europe and
America today. "As for the young lovers of whom I speak, they have a
strange faith which effaces mysteries for them. They turn to the
darkness with infinite trust. If they are too unhappy to endure
existence, the fault is not another's, nor yet the world's; it is their
own; it is _innen_, the result of errors in a previous life. If they can
never hope to be united in this world, it is only because in some former
birth they broke their promise to wed, or were otherwise cruel to each
other. But they believe likewise that by dying together they will find
themselves at once united in another world. Sometimes they make a little
banquet for themselves, write very strange letters to parents and
friends, mix something bitter with their rice-wine, and go to sleep
forever. Sometimes they select a more ancient and more honored method:
the lover first slays his beloved with a single sword stroke, and then
pierces his own throat. Sometimes with the girl's long crape-silk
under-girdle (_koshi-obi_) they bind themselves fast together, face to
face, and so embracing leap into some deep lake or stream."[130]

"Bravery has always been the chief ideal of Japanese character. What
beauty meant to the Greeks, and right to the Romans, and purity to the
Hebrews of old, bravery has meant to Japan."[131] In older Japan one of
the bravest deeds was that of taking one's own life when there was a
need. Thus arose the practice of _seppuku_ (belly-cutting) or
_hara-kiri_, the more common term. This act was performed by cutting
across through one's bowels. This brought into practice the wearing of
two swords, a long one for enemies and a short one for the wearer's own
body. The young men were taught how to perform this deed upon themselves
and they were so impressed that when the time came for its performance
they were able to meet death without a tremor and with perfect
composure. The young women were taught the equivalent duty of _jigai_,
which was the piercing of the throat with a dagger so that a single cut
would sever the arteries.

=Work.= The children were taught to work. The girl was instructed in
household duties and the care of children. She was taught how to receive
and entertain guests, how to take care of the rooms and furniture, how
to cook and prepare and serve the dishes, how to do the marketing, how
to sew, and all such duties, so that when she should enter a home of her
own she would know how to perform the duties of wife and mother.

The apprenticeship system was used in Japan. The boy had to serve a
long apprenticeship with no pay, or but little pay, although his needs
of food, clothing, and lodging were attended to. Somewhat akin to this
was the entering of boys into the homes of those of distinction and
education. The young men performed the services required about the home
and they were cared for by the ones having them in charge and given
instruction in the things needed by them for the future.

=Education.= In the early times of Japan there seems to be nothing to
prove that children received any education other than domestic training,
and the higher classes had a training in the implements of warfare.
Later, schools grew up and children of both sexes and of all ranks
attended the lower schools and those of higher rank went on into schools
of a higher grade. In the eighth century of the Christian era, a
university was established at the capital and branch schools in the
several provinces. In the university instruction was given in Chinese
literature, history, law, music, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy
and astrology. Students were sent to China along with the Japanese
ambassadors to that country and some of these students remained for a
number of years to complete their studies.

The art of writing was brought into Japan from Korea in A. D. 284.
Previous to this it would appear that the Japanese had no way of
recording events, as books and writing were unknown. Writing was at
first with the Chinese characters, which were used to represent Japanese
words. Later a system was devised whereby only parts of the Chinese
characters were used for writing and a syllabry was formed.

In the university mentioned above, "the training of the students in
medicine chiefly consisted in making them familiar with the methods
which prevailed in China. The properties of medicinal plants, the
variations of the pulse in health and disease and in the changing
seasons, and the anatomy of the human body were the chief subjects of
study. The human cadaver was never dissected, but a knowledge of anatomy
was obtained from diagrams which were wholly hypothetical. In early
times medical officers were appointed to experiment with medicines upon
monkeys, and also to dissect the bodies of monkeys. From these
dissections, as well as from the printed diagrams of Chinese books the
imperfect knowledge which they had reached was derived. It was not till
1771 that Sugita Genpaku and several other Japanese scholars had an
opportunity to dissect the body of a criminal, and by personal
observation found the utter falsity of the Chinese diagrams on which
they had hitherto relied, and the correctness of the Dutch books, which
they had, contrary to the laws of the country, learned to read."[132]

A large part of the education of the young samurai was of a military
order. He was well trained to ride a horse, to shoot a bow, and to
handle the spear and the sword. The _hara-kiri_ was an especial part of
this training. "They are instructed as to the proper mode of performing
this act, the ceremonies that should accompany it, varying with the
occasion, and according as it is done publicly or privately, and under
what circumstances a well-bred man should feel himself obliged thus to
destroy himself."[133]

The girls were taught needlework, music, the arranging of flowers, etc.
They were instructed in household duties and the things needed by a wife
and mother. Some girls received higher education, becoming able to
understand the Chinese characters used by the Japanese, and they were
especially well learned in the history of their country. "Plutarch tells
us that the ambition of a Spartan woman was to be the wife of a great
man and the mother of illustrious sons. _Bushido_ set no lower ideal
before our maidens; their whole bringing up was in accordance with this
view. They were instructed in many martial practices for the sake of
self-defense, that they might safeguard their person and their children;
in the art of committing suicide, that in case no alternative opened to
save them from disgrace, they might end their lives in due order and in
comely fashion."[134] There were a number of books, which appeared from
time to time, upon the education of the girl, till a library arose which
were often bound in one volume.

"If the reader will imagine a volume composed of the Bible, 'Ladies'
Letter-writer,' 'Guide to Etiquette,' 'The Young Ladies' Own Book,'
Hannah More's works, Miss Strickland's 'Queens of England,' a work on
household economy, and an almanac, he will obtain some idea of the
contents of the _Bunko_, or 'Japanese Lady's Library.' With text and
illustrations, the volume is very large; but if translated and printed
in brevier with the cuts, it would not probably occupy more space than
one of our largest monthly magazines. The books composing it, in their
order of importance, are the _Ōnna Dai Gakŭ_ ('Women's Great
Learning'--the moral duties of woman, founded on the Chinese classics);
_Ōnna Shō Gakŭ_ ('Woman's Small Learning'--introduction to the above);
_Ōnna Niwa no Oshiyé_ ('Woman's Household Instruction'--duties relating
to furniture, dress, reception of guests, and all the minutiae of indoor
life, both daily and ceremonial); _Ōnna Imagawa_ ('Moral Lessons' in
paragraphs); _Ōnna Yō bunshō_ ('Lady's Letter-writer'); _Nijiu-shi Ko_
('Twenty-four Children'--stories about model children in China). Besides
these works of importance, there are _Hiyaku Nin Isshiu_--a collection
of one hundred poems from as many poets, written in the old Yamato
dialect, and learned in every household, and perpetually repeated with
passionate fondness by old and young; a collection of lives of model
women; household lore; almanac learning; rules and examples to secure
perfect agreement between man and wife; and a vast and detailed array of
other knowledge of various sorts, both useful and ornamental to a
Japanese maiden, wife, widow, or mother. This book is studied, not only
by the higher classes, but by the daughters in almost every respectable
family throughout the country. It is read and reread, and committed to
memory, until it becomes to the Japanese woman what the Bible is to the
inmate of those homes in the West in which the Bible is the first, and
last, and often the only book."[135]

LITERATURE

1. ----, Manners and customs of the Japanese. _Family library_, No. 142
(1841).

2. Bacon, Alice Mabel, Japanese girls and women.

3. Griffis, William Elliott, Japan in history, folk lore, and art.

4. Griffis, William Elliott, The Mikado's empire.

5. Gulick, Sidney L., Evolution of the Japanese.

6. Hearn, Lafcadio, Glimpses of unfamiliar Japan.

7. Kikuchi, Baron Dairoku, Japanese education.

8. Knapp, Arthur May, Feudal and modern Japan.

9. Lloyd, Arthur, Every-day Japan.

10. Lombard, Frank Alanson, Pre-Meiji education in Japan.

11. Mitford, A. B., Tales of Old Japan.

12. Murray, David, Japan.

13. Nitobé, Inazo, The Japanese nation.

14. Scherer, James A. B., Young Japan.

15. Taylor, Bayard, Japan in our day.

CHAPTER VII

THE CHILD IN PERSIA

=Characteristics.= Persia proper was a table-land, lying between the
Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, with deep valleys and rapid rivers. It
was such a country, with such a climate, as required a constant struggle
by mankind for existence. Thus was produced a vigorous race, a race of
our own blood, Aryans, that had one great wave of emigration to the
West, peopling Europe, and a later wave into India. The Persians were
quick, keen-witted, lovers of art and poetry, filled with energy and
courage, and having a very high regard for truth. "He was free and open
in speech, bold in act, generous, warm-hearted, hospitable. His chief
faults were an addiction to self-indulgence and luxury, a passionate
_abandon_ to the feeling of the hour, whatever that might happen to be;
and a tameness and subservience in all his relations towards his prince,
which seem to moderns almost incompatible with real self-respect and
manliness."[136]

=Women and Marriage.= As in other oriental countries, the parties to a
marriage were often betrothed in infancy, and they had never seen one
another till on their wedding-day. Boys sometimes married at the age of
fifteen and girls at twelve, but as a rule men were between the ages of
twenty-five and thirty and women from fourteen to nineteen. Parents
usually arranged for the marriage of their children, but sometimes the
men would get a female friend to select a partner for them. When the
consent of all had been obtained, then a formal betrothal took place and
gifts were exchanged.

A day having been set for the wedding, on that day the women would
gather at the home of the bride and the men at the bridegroom's house.
As soon as it was dark, the bride was escorted to the home of the
bridegroom, amidst the beating of drums, the playing of tambourines, and
the flashing of lanterns. Arrived at his house, a man would grasp the
bride about the waist to carry her within, which would cause a strife
for if this was done by a friend of the bridegroom then he would in the
future be able to maintain due authority over his wife, but if it was by
a friend of the bride then she "would keep her own side of the house."
When the bride had passed into the reception-room, the bridegroom made
his appearance and he would hold a looking-glass before her that he
might get a good look at her face, and he was aided in his decision of
her looks by the ladies present who would strive to get a look also at
her face. "After this, the bridegroom takes a bit of sugar-candy, and,
biting it in two halves, eats one himself, and presents the other to his
bride. He then takes her stockings, throws one over his left shoulder,
places the other under his right foot, and orders all the spectators to
withdraw. They retire accordingly, and the happy couple are left
alone."[137]

There was a form of marriage peculiar to Persia, and which must have
originated in a very early time, in which the contract was only
temporary. In this form a woman would enter into an agreement to live as
a wife with a certain man for a limited period on consideration of
receiving a specified sum. The time might be for a part of a day or for
a long number of years. If the man should leave the woman before the
time had expired, she received the sum of money just the same. But she
had no other claim upon him nor had she the right to inherit property
from him. At the end of the time the woman could not marry again for a
month and if then found to be with child a longer time had to elapse
before her marriage again and the child, as well as other children born
to the union, was acknowledged and supported by the man with whom she
had been living.

It is quite well known that incest existed among the ancient Persians.
They even went further in this than did the Egyptians or Peruvians, as
not only were brothers and sisters permitted to marry but even a mother
and son or father and daughter. As with the ancient Peruvians so with
the ancient Persians, these unions were sometimes required for their
religion called for the offspring of such unions for the sacrifices.

Since the number of sons a Persian had was a source of pride to him,
this made polygamy a desired and necessary thing. Hence in ancient
Persia a man was allowed to have several wives and besides an
additional number of concubines, in order that many sons might be born
to him.

Divorce was permitted almost at will to the husband, custom holding him
in check. Another thing that checked divorce was that the husband had to
restore the dowry with the returning of the woman to her home. The most
usual causes of separation were bad temper, extravagance, or some
complaint of that kind against the wife.

=Dress.= The boy was dressed somewhat as his father. Of the poorer
classes, the males wore a tunic and trousers of leather, with a strap or
belt around the waist, and high shoes tied in front with a string. The
richer classes wore long robes with loose hanging sleeves, sleeved
tunics reaching to the knees, fine shoes, drawers under the tunics,
gloves on the hands, and socks or stockings under the shoes. These were
all of rich material and handsomely made. The principal attire of the
women was a wrapper with trousers beneath, over these was worn a jacket
with a shawl, cloak, or furs, according to the state of the weather,
round the head was wound a silk handkerchief in form similar to a
turban, and on the feet were stockings and slippers. Under Mohammedan
rule, when going out the women put on a long, loose wrap that enveloped
them from head to foot and left only a small opening for the face, which
might be covered with open lacework or a veil. The girls were dressed
similar to their mothers.

=Child and Parent.= The boy remained with the women till his fifth year,
his father never seeing him till then, which was said to have been done
to prevent the father from being afflicted by the loss if the child
should die young. "Children had to yield absolute obedience to their
parents; but so convinced were they of the sacredness of the family tie
as founded on love and reverence that they maintained 'that never yet
did any one kill his father or his mother, but in all such cases they
are sure that, if matters were sifted to the bottom, it would be found
that the child was either a changeling or else the fruit of adultery,
for it is not likely, they say, that the real father should perish by
the hands of the child.' (Herod.)"[138]

=Inheritance.= The Persian was considered to have reached manhood when
he was fifteen years of age. "The offspring of the temporary unions, or
of any sort of union, are all equal before the Persian law, which merely
subjects them to the right of primogeniture. At the death of the father,
the eldest son, though born of a slave mother, takes two-thirds of the
succession. The remaining third of the property is divided amongst the
other children, but in such a way that the share of the boys is half as
large again as that of the girls."[139]

=Amusements.= The chief amusements of the Persians were hunting and
playing at dice. The boys no doubt followed their elders and had
imitation hunts. The boys also played games similar to blindman's buff
and tag. They flew kites and played ball. Boys and girls did not play
together. The girls preferred to sit about and listen to fairy stories,
or at least such was the case in later days. Both boys and girls were
fond of singing.

=Education.= Among the ancient Persians, education does not seem to have
been given other than to the higher classes, except that general
training that comes through religion and custom and institutions that
would be shared in by every citizen. Education was not meant to be
literary or scholastic but principally of such a kind as would produce
warriors.

There were five periods in the life of the Persian. The first ended at
the fifth year, or, as some claim, at the seventh year; the second
period ended with the fifteenth year; the third ended at twenty-five;
the fourth ended at fifty, and the fifth period was the time after fifty
years of age.

During the first period the child was under the care of the mother and
the other women of the family. "'Up to the fifth year,' Herodotus tells
us, 'they are not allowed to come into the sight of their father, but
pass their lives with the women. This is done that if the child die
young, the father would not be afflicted with the loss.'"[140] The child
was not supposed to be capable of distinguishing between right and
wrong, and so he was taught simply to obey the directions given him. A
child was not to be whipped before his seventh year, and he was to
receive only kind treatment.

At the close of this first period, at the end of the fifth year, the boy
left his mother and went into the care of the state. This second period
was a time of physical training. The boy was given exercises in running,
stone slinging, bow shooting, and javelin throwing. He was taught to
ride, and, later, to hunt. He was trained to endure heat and cold and
hunger and fatigue. Through the national traditions, the boys learned of
the doings of the heroes and the meaning of noble deeds. They were
taught to speak the truth and learned to be just and pure and courageous
and to gain self-control. They were instructed in the myths of the gods
and other religious matters, and about the fifteenth year the boys were
invested with the holy girdle.

At fifteen the boy entered the youth period. During this period military
training was the great exercise. The youth received careful training in
the use of military implements, in the knowledge of military terms and
usages, and given the strict discipline of military life. "The Magi
required a higher education. This must have consisted in the study and
explanation of the sacred writings, and may have included a limited
training in philosophy, astrology, medicine, law, and finance, so that
they were able to become advisers to the Great King and his
satraps."[141]

At twenty-five the youth was considered a man and he took his place as a
citizen of the state and he continued in service till his fiftieth year.

Girls received no education other than that of domestic training, such
as was needed in the care of the home, the rearing of the little
children, and the other duties that would come to the women. Women held
a higher place in the family than was granted to them, for the most
part, in other oriental countries.

There was no educational system in Persia. There was no real method of
instruction. Perhaps no other nation gave more care to the moral and
physical training of the young than did ancient Persia, yet this was to
the almost entire neglect of intellectual training. The moral training
came through the mingling of the young with their elders and the
military training through imitation of the men at the various courts.
"We know, however, from Strabo and the general evidence of antiquity
that the boys of the higher classes were brought up together under men
of gravity and reputation at the court of the great king, and also at
the lesser courts of the great nobles and provincial governors."[142]

Persian life and education tended toward individuality. Caste with its
repressive influence did not exist in ancient Persia. The national
feeling was intense. The government was despotic. The ethical aim was
high and the individual was encouraged to high standards of courage,
truthfulness, and purity. But in spite of this,(the education was faulty
in that the individual was trained so strongly in warfare as to
overshadow the ethical side.) As long as Persia was struggling the
ethical standards were maintained alongside the standards of war so that
the individual and the nation could keep right. But when conquests came,
bringing wealth and power and the lower ethical standards of other
nations, the Persians were unable to bear the strain and so degeneration
went forward fast and the nation found itself unable to withstand the
more vigorous peoples that came against it under Alexander and so the
empire fell, leaving but little impress on civilization.

LITERATURE

1. Benjamin, S. G. W., Persia and the Persians.

2. Dean, Amos, The history of civilization.

3. Fraser, James B., Historical and descriptive account of Persia.

4. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the middle
ages.

5. Jackson, A. V. Williams, Persia, past and present.

6. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

7. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

8. McLennan, J. G., Studies in ancient history.

9. Rawlinson, George, The seven great monarchies.

10. Vaux, W. S. W., Persia from the earliest period.

CHAPTER VIII

THE CHILD IN JUDEA

=Historical.= We learn from their own writings that the Jews arose from
peoples that lived in the region of the Euphrates, a particular tribe of
whom, under the leadership of Abraham, near 2000 B. C., migrated to the
land of Canaan or Palestine. Here they lived a nomadic life till a
portion of them, the descendants of Jacob, migrated to northeastern
Egypt, from whence some centuries later they were led forth by Moses and
after wanderings and warrings they entered again into Palestine and
built up a nation. After some centuries internal dissensions arose and
the larger part withdrew and were later forever lost. The smaller
portion continued as a nation and later were carried captives into
Babylon and then restored again to their own country. Then later they
came under the dominion of the Greeks and then under the Romans. Through
this contact with the various civilizations, through the effect of their
environment of both the country itself and the tribes about them, but
more from that something innate in themselves, they developed into a
people that evolved the great religious idea which, it seems, will
dominate the entire world.

=Women and Marriage.= Woman was held in high esteem by the Jews. She
mingled freely in private and in public with others. The Bible is full
of the doings of women--as mothers, as wives, as sisters--showing
courage and devotion and wisdom. She took a leading part in the life of
the nation, especially in religious affairs. She was protected by a
religion that did not debase her but which called for a pure home and a
happy family. Woman was greatly respected in spite of some of the
sayings about her as the following: "It was observed that God formed
woman neither out of the head, lest she should become proud; nor out of
the eye, lest she should be curious; nor out of the mouth, lest she
should be too talkative; nor out of the hand, lest she should be
covetous; nor out of the foot, lest she should gad about; but out of
the rib, which was always covered.... As woman is formed from a rib, and
man from the ground, man seeks a wife, and not _vice versa_; he only
seeks what he lost. This explains why man is more easily reconciled than
woman; he is made of soft earth and she of hard bone."[143]

About eighteen was the age at which men generally married, girls
younger. A man under thirteen years and a day was forbidden to marry,
and a woman under twelve years and a day. Wednesday was fixed as the day
for maidens to marry, and Thursday for widows. If the bride was a maid
each party was allowed twelve months after betrothal in which to prepare
for marriage, in case of a widow but thirty days were allowed. A widower
had to wait over three festivals and a widow three months before
re-marrying. A marriage could not take place within thirty days of the
death of a near relative, nor on the Sabbath, nor on a feast-day.
Marriage was not permitted with those not in their right senses, nor in
a state of drunkenness. "The Mosaic law (Lev. XVIII., 7-17; XX., 11,
etc.) proscribes no less than fifteen marriages within specified degrees
of both consanguinity and affinity. In neither consanguinity and
affinity, however, does the law extend beyond two degrees, viz., the
mother, her daughter, aunt, father's wife, sister on the father's side,
wife of the father's brother, brother's wife (excepting in case of the
Levirate marriage), daughter-in-law, granddaughter either from a son or
daughter, and two sisters together."[144]

It was generally held that all marriages were arranged in heaven and
that it was proclaimed there, forty days before the child's birth, just
whom he or she should marry. Upon earth, the parent assumed this part
and chose for his child the one he was to have in life as a partner.
This duty belonged to the father, and if no father, then the mother. The
son might make a personal choice of his bride, so that the son's wishes
might be consulted, but all proposals, nevertheless, were made by the
father. Girls up to twelve years and a day, minors, could be betrothed
by the father and this was true of all women in the earlier times, but
later, if of age, the woman had to give her own free and expressed
consent, without which a union was invalid. The proposals were offered
usually by the parents of the young man, but if there was a difference
of rank then they were made by the father of the girl.

The betrothal was considered as sacred as marriage and could not be more
easily broken. "For a betrothal to be legal, it has to be effected in
one of the following three modes: 1. By _money_, or _money's worth_,
which, according to the school of Shammai, must be a denar--90 grains of
pure gold--or, according to the school of Hillel, a perutah--half grain
of pure silver--and which is to be given to the maiden, or, if she is a
minor, to her father, as betrothal price. 2. By _letter_ or _contract_,
which the young man either in person or through a proxy, has given to
the maiden, or to her father when she is a minor. 3. By _cohabitation_,
when the young man and maiden, having pronounced the betrothal formula
in the presence of two witnesses, retire into a separate room. This,
however, is considered immodest, and the young man is scourged."[145]

A father was to provide a dowry for his daughter conformable to her
station in life, and should the father not be able to do this the
bridegroom would, before marriage, give her sufficient for the necessary
outfit. In case of an orphan the dowry was provided from public funds.
In earlier times, after the giving over of the marriage price and other
gifts, the bridegroom took the bride with him. At a later period a
marriage-feast was given at the bride's home, and at a later period yet
the wedding-feast was furnished at the home of the bridegroom.

Children were very greatly desired by the ancient Hebrews, and
especially male children, as the more children a man had the more was he
respected. Also the expectance of the Messiah, who might come from any
one of the families, made children all the more wished for. Hence
marriage was a duty with them, and this desire for children was also a
cause for polygamy as thereby more children would be born to a family.
Yet polygamy and concubinage was not the rule with the Hebrews but the
rare exception, so far as the people generally were concerned, so that
they really adopted monogamy and were, probably, the only Semites who
did so. Even where polygamy or concubinage did occur the law insisted
that each wife or concubine should receive her full conjugal rights,
which prevented any extended practice even among the most wealthy.

Divorce was allowed for "any shameful thing," which, necessarily, was
interpreted in different ways. "In fact, we know that it included every
kind of impropriety, such as going about with loose hair, spinning in
the street, familiarly talking with men, ill-treating her husband's
parents in his presence, brawling, that is, 'speaking to her husband so
loudly that the neighbors could hear her in the adjoining house,' a
general bad reputation, or the discovery of fraud before marriage. On
the other hand, the wife could insist on being divorced if her husband
were a leper, or effected with polypus, or engaged in a disagreeable or
dirty trade, such as that of a tanner or coppersmith. One of the cases
in which divorce was obligatory was, if either party had become
heretical, or ceased to profess Judaism."[146] Yet divorces were not so
common as might be thought under so loose a statement for procuring
them. Rather strict laws were drawn up explicitly stating for what
divorce could be allowed, both to man and to woman. Divorce was
discouraged and a conciliation was always tried to be brought about
before divorce proceedings began. The divorced parties could marry other
parties and even could unite again. The bill of divorcement had to be
couched in explicit terms, handed to the woman herself, and in the
presence of two witnesses. In separation of the parents where there were
children, the daughters were placed in charge of the mother and the sons
were given to the father; but should the judge consider it of advantage
to the children, the sons also were given to the mother.

In order that children might be of the best, prostitution was not
allowed and marriage with a prostitute forbidden. "Marriage with a
prostitute was contrary to law, and the sons of such a woman were denied
the political and religious privileges of citizenship unto the tenth
generation."[147]

=Care and Treatment of Children.= Although all children were desired by
the Hebrews, yet there was more rejoicing over the birth of a boy than
over the birth of a girl. The father was not permitted to be present at
the birth of the child, although later the child was given to him, at
which time he placed it on his knees. Sometimes the grandfather was
permitted to be present at the birth of the child.

In the earliest times the mothers nursed their own children, prolonging
this till the child was two and a half and even three years old. In
later times the wealthier classes employed nurses for this duty. It was
the custom for the boys to be under the care of the women till the fifth
year after which the father took charge of them.

Perhaps the most important ceremony in the earlier years of the child
was that of circumcision. The child received its name at this time. Only
males were subjected to this. It was performed on the eighth day of the
child's life, even though it was the Sabbath. If two of the child's
brothers had died from the results of the operation, or if he was
weakly, this was deferred till such a time as there would be no great
danger. This ceremony was of great importance and so the prescribed
rules were strictly adhered to, otherwise it was not valid. Usually the
father performed the operation, yet it might be done by any Israelite,
and even in special cases by women.

The father had full control of his children. He had the power to inflict
the severest of punishment, even death. He had greater power over the
daughter than over the son, as he could annul a daughter's vow but not a
son's. "When a child has attained the age of thirteen years and one day,
he is declared of age by his father in the presence of ten Jews, and
then he possesses the legal capacity of acting for himself, and can make
and perform his own contracts. After that the sins he commits are on his
own account. Previously they were on the account of his father. With
respect to girls, they are accounted women when they arrive at the age
of twelve years and one-half."[148]

=Duties of Children.= "Honor thy father and thy mother," was the great
commandment to the Hebrew child. Undutifulness was almost unknown among
them. Loving consideration for the parents was one of their strongest
marks. Crimes against parents were scarcely heard of. Respect for old
age was another great duty and one which was carefully observed. "The
general state of Jewish society shows us parents as fondly watching over
their children, and children as requiting their care by bearing with the
foibles, and even the trials, arising from the caprices of old age and
infirmity."[149]

=Dress.= The principal garment worn was a tunic, which encircled the
whole body and came down to the knees. Under this was an inner garment
that went down to the heels. Over all was a mantle, which was a piece
of cloth nearly square, several feet in length and breadth, which was
wrapped round the body, or tied over the shoulders. A girdle was worn
about the waist, some of which worn by the women were of costly fabric
and studded with precious stones. A kind of turban was worn on the head.
There were three kinds of veils worn. One hung down from the head, so
that the lady could see all around; a second was a kind of mantilla,
which covered the head and was thrown about the whole person; a third
kind was like the modern oriental veil, covering the face and front,
leaving only the eyes free. Sandals were worn, and the ladies also wore
slippers, some of which were very costly being embroidered or adorned
with gems and so arranged that the pressure of the foot emitted a
delicate perfume.

The hair was considered a chief point of beauty and so it was well cared
for. With the women it was worn long and curled and plaited and adorned
with gold ornaments and pearls. Auburn hair being a favorite color,
sometimes the hair was dyed and again it was sprinkled with gold-dust.
To keep the hair in place, there were hair-pins and combs. Perfumery was
greatly in use as were cosmetics, the ladies painting their cheeks and
blackening their eyebrows. "As for ornaments, gentlemen generally wore a
seal, either on the ring-finger or suspended round the neck. Some of
them had also bracelets above the wrist (commonly of the right arm),
made of ivory, gold, or precious stones strung together. Of course, the
fashionable lady was similarly adorned, adding to the bracelets
finger-rings, ankle-rings, nose-rings, ear-rings, gorgeous head-dresses,
necklaces, chains, and what are nowadays called 'charms.' As it may
interest some, we shall add a few sentences of description. The ear-ring
was either plain, or had a drop, a pendant, or a little bell inserted.
The nose-ring, which the traditional law ordered to be put aside on the
Sabbath, hung gracefully over the upper lip, yet so as not to interfere
with the salute of the privileged friend. Two kinds of necklaces were
worn--one close-fitting, the other often consisting of precious stones
or pearls, and hanging down over the chest, often as low as the girdle.
The fashionable lady would wear two or three such chains, to which
smelling-bottles and various ornaments, even heathen 'charms,' were
attached. Gold pendants descended from the head-ornament, which
sometimes rose like a tower, or was wreathed in graceful snake-like
coils. The anklets were generally so wrought as in walking to make a
sound like little bells. Sometimes the two ankle-rings were fastened
together, which would oblige the fair wearer to walk with small, mincing
steps. If to all this we add gold and diamond pins, and say that our
very brief description is strictly based upon contemporary notices, the
reader will have some idea of the appearance of fashionable
society."[150]

=Amusements.= It is presumed that Jewish children had games as the
children of other nations, yet but slight account is given of such. It
is noted that they kept tame birds and imitated marriages and funerals.
They also engaged in singing and dancing, but males and females did not
dance together, and the dancers performed according to their feelings,
wild and fantastic, slow and graceful, nor were there any set forms for
dancing. The youth must have taken part in the military sports which
took place in public. Another means of entertainment was that of
riddles, Samson's well-known one is an illustration. "Riddles are still
'put forth' at weddings. Here is a common one:

Black as night, it is not night;
It cuts its wings, it is no bird;
Damaged the house, it is no mouse;
It ate the barley and is no donkey.

_Answer_--The ant."[151]

The following is quoted from Jerome: "It is customary in the cities of
Palestine, and has been so from ancient times, to place up and down
large stones to serve for exercises for the young, who, according in
each case to their degrees of strength, lift these stones, some as high
as their knees, others to their middle, others above their heads, the
hands being kept horizontal and joined under the stone."[152]

=Education.= "If we take a general, and at the same time, it is to be
admitted, a somewhat ideal, view of the education of the Jewish race, we
shall find its beginnings and its specific character expressed in the
sixth chapter of Deuteronomy: 'Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one
Lord: And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and
with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I
command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: And thou shalt teach
them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou
sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou
liest down, and when thou risest up....' Accordingly, we may say that a
present God, whom to fear was 'the beginning of wisdom,' the honoring of
parents and elders, a sacred family life, the memory of a great history,
the practical wisdom of proverbs, and a gradually growing lyric
psalmody, constituted the elements of the education of the masses down
to the time of the Exile."[153] Thus the education of the Hebrew child
began at a very early age, as it would be taught these essential things
as early as it could understand. The parents would begin its training in
the home. Higher training, and in fact anything beyond the very
rudiments, was given only to the upper classes. The teachers for the
most part were highly respected. They were expected to be able men, not
too young, and married.

In a general way education among the Hebrews may be divided into two
epochs--pre-exilic, from the foundation of the kingdom down to the
return from the Babylonian captivity, and post-exilic, from the close of
the first period to the fall of Jerusalem and the final dispersion of
the Jews.

During the first period there was no public means of education.
Instruction was given by the parents, the very young child of both sexes
being under the mother's care, but when older the boys went with the
father out into his work and so learned from him. The young people were
taught the history of their own people, their relation to God, the
meaning of the religious feasts, the needed ethical and social training,
and the things necessary for making a living and the care of the home.
"Higher education was scarcely known until after the exile. Even the
priesthood and scribes were limited to a certain knowledge of law, and
of historical and judicial literature. In the schools of the prophets,
besides theological interpretation and the law, they apparently learned
only the arts of sacred music and poetry, whereby they were to be
stimulated to greater ecstasy, and were instructed in the compilation of
maxims, narratives, and annals. It has been claimed that they were
taught some mathematics and astronomy, to mark off the religious
festivals, but this is very doubtful."[154]

During the Captivity, the Hebrews came in contact with the education of
Babylon, so that upon their return to their own country education became
more general and this continued to grow till contact with the Greeks and
Romans brought about more general education and the establishment of
schools for the training of the priests and the youth of the upper
classes, and later public elementary schools began to grow up and became
the most prominent feature of Jewish education. Rich and poor alike
attended these schools. Reading and writing and a little arithmetic were
taught the younger pupils, the older pupils were given instruction in
the law. All pupils were obliged to learn a trade.

In the teaching the children were required to use the memory a great
deal so that frequent repetition was the practice and, as in other
oriental countries, the pupil was to do this work aloud and should he
try to do it quietly he was reproved. In teaching the child to read, he
was first given the alphabet, the letters being placed on a board for
him so that he could see them. The child had to read aloud to his
teacher, who corrected his pronunciation. The Hebrew Bible was begun to
be read by the child at an early age. In learning to write, a copy was
made in a wax tablet which the child traced with a stylus, and after a
while he followed a copy on papyrus or parchment with a pen. In the more
advanced work, interpretation of the law, etc., would be given by the
instructor, the youth, would listen attentively and then strive to
reproduce in exact words what had been given.

In the early period, at least, discipline must have severe. If we are
allowed to form an opinion based on the old Testament, then we must
conclude that the rod took a prominent part in every child's education,
and from the authorities given us it is pretty certain that the ancient
Jewish parent did not spare the rod whether he spoiled the child or not.

In the early epoch, girls received but little training, only such as was
necessary to the carrying on of the domestic duties. At no time did
girls receive such training as the boys, but in the second epoch they
were taught to read and to write with dancing and music and domestic
arts. Yet it would seem that there were some women who showed training
beyond the simple subjects and who were able to take a place alongside
the educated men of their times.

Jewish education was unsystematic, narrow, and selfish, art and science
was scarcely known, and the literature was limited to the ideas
connected with their God. Yet there was produced a beautiful family
life, a thoughtful and kind treatment of children, a higher position for
women than with any other oriental nation, a great reverence for
parents, and a true idea of their relation to the Supreme Being.

LITERATURE

1. Cornill, Carl Heinrich, The culture of ancient Israel.

2. Dean, Amos, The history of civilization.

3. Edersheim, Alfred, History of the Jewish nation.

4. Edersheim, Alfred, Sketches of Jewish social life in the days of
Christ.

5. Ellis, G. Harold, The origin and development of Jewish education.
_Pedagogical seminary_, IX (1902), 50-62.

6. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the middle
ages. 7. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

8. Lees, G. Robinson, Village life in Palestine.

9. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

10. Lewis, Henry King, The child, its spiritual nature.

11. McClintock, John, and Strong, James, Cyclopædia of biblical,
theological, and ecclesiastical literature.

12. Milman, Henry Hart, The history of the Jews from the earliest period
down to modern times.

13. Thwing, C. F., The family.

CHAPTER IX

THE CHILD IN GREECE

=Physical Characteristics.= The country of ancient Greece, as is modern
Greece, was a small peninsula in Southeastern Europe, projecting into
the Mediterranean Sea. It was a mountainous country, with no navigable
rivers, and a broken coast line with many good harbors. There were
differences of climate, varying from the excessive summer heat of the
plains on the coast to the chilling atmosphere of the uplands, and yet
as a whole the climate tended to be mild and even, with a bracing and
pure atmosphere. Although it does seem that the spirit of freedom and
independence was innate with the Greeks, yet the character of the
country and the climate tended to emphasize these innate propensities
and to bring human culture to a high development.

=The People.=. In studying the people of ancient Greece, there are found
two countries, although in neighboring sections, who were almost the
opposite in character and the like. These were Sparta and Athens. In
both these countries there were three classes. In Sparta there were
first the citizens, who were the owners and the rulers of the land; in
the second class were the _periaeci_, who lived in the surrounding towns
and country, and although free yet they paid large sums to the citizens
for the use of the lands and thus largely supported the Spartans; the
third class were the _helots_, who were serfs or slaves and who did all
the menial work for the citizens. The first class in Athens were the
citizens, who controlled the country and who reserved to themselves the
sole right of government and the making of laws; the second class were
the aliens, who had settled in Athens for the purpose of engaging in
trade or commerce, but who had no part in politics or administration;
the third class were the slaves.

The Athenian and the Spartan were almost the opposite in character. The
Athenians were refined, patriotic and brave, but at the same time fickle
and changing. The Spartans were as patriotic and brave, or even braver,
than the Athenians, but they were fixed and knew no change. The
Athenians cultivated letters and the finer arts, while the Spartans
practiced rigid, practical utilitarianism. The Athenians engaged in
employments and amusements, but the Spartans did but little work, had
few amusements, and spent their time mostly in military training. The
Spartans were cruel in disposition, as was shown in their bearing toward
the helots or slaves, as they greatly oppressed them and often put them
to death; while the Athenians treated their slaves kindly.

=The Home.= In the early times the private buildings both in Athens and
in Sparta were simple, but in later times the houses became larger and
more splendid. Yet there were, perhaps, not the extravagances as in
other countries, for in Greece much of the time was spent outdoors and
away from the home, so that public buildings flourished and they were
splendidly built rather than were the private houses.

In the cities the houses were built together, with only party-walls
between them. They were narrow in front but extended back to quite a
depth. They were, as a rule, built on the street but sometimes there was
a small space in front. The door opened out on to the street, instead of
inward, and it was a custom for any one going out to knock on the door
to avoid opening out against some one passing along the street.

The walls of the houses were a framework of wood, sun-dried brick, or
common stone, and covered with stucco. The roofs generally were flat,
made of beams laid close together and covered with cement. In the early
period the walls were plain on the inside and the ground served for a
floor, but later there were decorated walls and mosaic floors.

There were two principal divisions in the interior of the houses, the
one for the men and the other for the women, the women's apartments
being back of the men's. The rooms were built around one or more open
courts, by means of which light and air were admitted to the house. The
homes were furnished with chairs and tables and couches and lamps and
other household furniture and the kitchens were provided with pots and
pans and bowls and sieves and many other articles.

=Girls and Women.= In the heroic age of Greece, women were accorded much
freedom. Yet it would seem that their lot was not much above that found
with women in savagery. They had the heavy household cares and duties of
savage women. They had the management of the provisions--the grinding
of the grain, the preparing of the meals, etc. They had to look after
the clothing, doing the spinning and the weaving and the making of the
garments. They carried the heavy burdens of domestic life along with the
care of the children. Yet the women were well respected and had high
standing with the men of that time.

In Sparta the state was everything. Strong and vigorous men were needed
to protect the state and so must be provided for military life, and the
mothers who were to bear them must be strong and courageous. The girls
and women were allowed much greater freedom than in other parts of
Greece. The girls received vigorous training, such as was given to the
boys, having contests among themselves and even sometimes with the boys.
In some of these contests the girls had to divest themselves of their
apparel and appear thus before the public. This coming in contact with
the males, the great freedom allowed to them, and the vigorous training
did not spoil the purity of the girls, for adultery was scarcely known
in Sparta. Nor did the training impair their physical appearance, as the
Spartan women were noted for their beauty of person, although on account
of the vigorous physical training this beauty was somewhat of a
masculine type.

Women in Athens were treated quite differently to what they were in
Sparta. There was seemingly a contempt by the men for the women and
especially so among the leaders and rulers. "The most enlightened of the
Greeks limited the duties of a good wife, housewife, and mother, to the
following points: 1. That she should be faithful to her husband. 2. That
she should go abroad and expose herself to the view of strangers as
little as possible. 3. That she should take care of what the husband
acquired, and spend it with frugality; and, 4. That she should pay
maternal attention to the younger children of both sexes, and keep an
incessantly watchful eye upon her grown-up daughters."[155]

In Athens the women were closely watched and carefully guarded. They
were usually placed in the back part of the house and in the highest
rooms, and for the most part the women and girls passed their time in
the apartments allotted to them. There was no intercourse between young
men and young women. Women were considered men's inferiors and they were
thought little better than the slaves and they had but little more
influence with the men. Woman was looked upon as an entirely lower
being intellectually than man, and so not a fit companion for him in
public life. When men outside the household were present in the home,
the women were expected to seclude themselves. When a dinner was being
given the company consisted entirely of men and the wife kept herself
and her children in the women's quarters. The young women rarely went
from home. Even if it was necessary for them to appear in public
religious ceremonies, they did not take part in common with the other
sex but acted apart from them.

Thus the training of the Athenian girl and that of the Spartan girl were
quite in contrast and while the Athenian girl grew up to be a pale,
slender lady, but little versed in the ways of the world, the Spartan
girl grew up to be a vigorous, robust, healthy woman, ready even to take
part in public debate if necessary. Yet there was at least one class of
women in Athens not secluded, for "in the London market of Billingsgate
it is the fishwomen who have been notorious for abusive language; at
Athens it was the bread-women."[156]

A discussion of the women of Greece could not be complete without
including the much discussed but little understood class known as the
_Hetairai_, the stranger-women of Athens. Whether they were simply
courtesans or whether they were women seeking freedom from the
restraints and seclusion of the wife or whether they were both
courtesans and seeking freedom and education, they certainly exercised a
remarkable influence in Greece.

There were two classes of women at Athens, the first class being the
wives and mothers, the citizen-women of Athens, and the other class
being the stranger-women. Athens did not exclude strangers and indeed it
was an attractive place to foreigners. "The city itself was full of
attractions for the stranger, with its innumerable works of art, its
brilliant dramatic exhibitions, its splendid religious processions, its
gay festivals, its schools of philosophy, and its keen political
life."[157] Although they did not exclude strangers from the city, yet
they did exclude them from governing citizenship. Nor was a citizen,
male or female, allowed to marry a stranger and severe penalties were
inflicted on those who broke this law. Since the stranger-women could
not marry Athenian men, they had to gain their companionship by other
means. The citizen-women, the native women of Athens, were not allowed
the company of men nor were they given high accomplishments. "The names
of these wives are not to be found in history. But the influence of the
Companions came more and more into play. Almost every famous man, after
this date, has one Companion with whom he discusses the pursuits and
soothes the evils of his life. Plato had Archeanassa, Aristotle
Herpyllis, Epicurus Leontium, Isocrates Metaneira, Menander Glycera, and
others in like manner. And some of them attained the highest
positions.... Some were renowned for their musical ability, and a few
could paint. They cultivated all the graces of life; they dressed with
exquisite taste; they took their food, as a comic poet remarks, with
refinement, and not like the citizen women, who crammed their cheeks,
and tore away at the meat. And they were witty. They also occupied the
attention of historians."[158] "Thus arose a most unnatural division of
functions among the women of those days. The citizen-women had to be
mothers and housewives--nothing more; the stranger-women had to
discharge the duties of companions, but remain outside the pale of the
privileged and marriageable class."[159]

The two most noted of the hetairai were Aspasia and Phryne. "Phryne, the
most beautiful woman that ever lived, attracted the eyes of all Greece;
Apelles painted her, and Praxiteles made her the model for the Cnidian
Aphrodite, the most lovely representation of woman that ever came from
sculptor's chisel."[160] "Aspasia, the beautiful, accomplished, and
highly gifted woman, a native of Miletus, first the mistress and
subsequently the wife of Pericles, exercised an influence and a power in
Greece very greatly superior to any ever exercised there by any other
woman. She was endowed with a mind more beautiful than her beautiful
form. Her genius drew around her all those who had a taste for the
beautiful, or a desire to cultivate their minds. At her house,
eloquence, politics and philosophy were daily discussed, and ladies of
the highest rank resorted thither to acquire some of the accomplishments
by which she was distinguished. Large concessions must certainly be
made to the mind that could be a fit companion for Pericles, and could
teach rhetoric to Socrates."[161]

=Marriage.= In most cases Greek marriage was not an affair of the heart,
for young people had but little opportunity to be with one another for
love-making. Marriage for the man was rather a matter of convenience,
for the purpose of the continuation of his family. This was a duty he
owed to himself and to the state, for the state must have citizens for
its perpetuation. To the Greek public life meant everything, the home
counted but little. The wife's duties were considered to be the
attending to household affairs and the bearing of children.

Marriage had to be with the consent of the parents. The young woman had
no control over her person as she was under the charge of her father,
and upon his death of a brother, and in case of no brother then the
grandfather, and last her guardian. The father not only had power over
his daughter's marriage in his lifetime but also after his death as he
could bequeath her by will. And yet more, for upon his deathbed he could
betroth his wife to another person and even he could bequeath her in his
will to another.

In order for the children to be legitimate both parties had to be
citizens of the state, and equality of birth and wealth were the chief
considerations. The man could not marry in the direct line of his own
descent, yet he could marry his half-sister on his father's side, which
was rarely done. There was usually some years of difference in the age
of bride and groom, the young woman being from fifteen to twenty and the
young man from twenty-four to thirty. Marriages were most frequent in
the winter, January being the favorite month, and when the omens were
favorable, the most favorable being at the time at which there happened
to be a conjunction of the sun and the moon. The selections and
arrangements were usually made by the father or the guardian but often a
professional matchmaker was employed, who was well informed in regard to
the marriageable young people. When the marriage was determined upon,
the betrothal took place, which was made by the legal guardian of the
young woman and in the presence of friends and relatives of both
parties, the dowry of the wife being agreed upon at the time.

In ancient Greece the lover would often write the name of his loved one
on walls and columns and carve it on trees. He would even write the
beloved name on the leaves of the trees. The lover would send verses to
his lady love. He would decorate her door with flowers and garlands. He
would wear a wreath on his head awry or wear it untied, as a token of
his being in love. Sometimes the lover would make an image of wax, call
it by the name of his loved one, and place it near a fire, as the heat
was supposed to melt the hard heart of her he loved as it melted her wax
image.

Love potions were in common use as were also antidotes to love. "Some
herbs were made use of for this purpose, also insects bred from putrid
matter; the lamprey, the lizard, the brains of a calf, the hair on the
extremity of the wolf's tail, with some of his secret parts, and the
bones of the left side of a toad eaten by ants. The bones on the right
side were supposed to cause hatred. Besides these, were also used the
blood of doves, the bones of snakes, the feathers of screech owls, and
bands of wool twisted upon a wheel, more especially such as had been
bound about a person that hanged himself.... The Greeks also professed
to have the means of allaying the passion of love, at least of that
species of it which originated from magical incantations. The antidotes
were of two kinds. The one consisted of those substances which possessed
some natural virtue, to which the production of the effect might be
attributed, as the herbs which were supposed enemies to generation. The
other included all such as wrought the cure by some occult or mystical
power, and by the assistance of demons. As instances of this latter, may
be cited the sprinkling of the dust in which a mule had rolled herself,
and the confining of toads in the hide of a beast lately slain. Another
method of curing love, was to wash in the water of the river
Selemnus."[162]

In the Homeric time in Greece, the suitor paid the father for his bride,
thus purchasing her. But in later times this was entirely changed and
the bride was expected to bring a dowry with her. Among the wealthy this
dowry was supposed to consist partly in cash and partly in clothes,
jewelry, and slaves. The husband had to give security for it, as in case
of divorce it was returned to the bride or to her parents and in case of
her death it did not go to the husband but to the nearest of kin. Where
there was a daughter of a poor, deserving citizen, and especially if her
ancestors had been serviceable to the state, she was provided a dowry
by the state. Sometimes the dowry was given to such a girl by a number
of citizens. The dowry was supposed to give the wife better standing and
thus bring more respect from the husband and greater freedom. A woman
might carry so great dowry to her husband as to make her the stronger
partner and so be able to have her husband in submission to her and her
money.

The day of the wedding having arrived, offerings were made to the
deities that protected marriage, the oath of fidelity was taken, and the
father declared that he gave his daughter to the man. The bride and
bridegroom both were bathed, at Athens the water being taken from a
famous fountain, and they were dressed in their wedding-garments, both
bride and bridegroom being richly adorned and wearing upon their heads
garlands of various herbs and flowers. The bride was then led from her
home and placed in a chariot between the bridegroom and his best man.
They then drove slowly through the streets, the bride's mother following
them and carrying the wedding torches, kindled at the parental hearth,
and a procession of relatives and friends followed. At the bridegroom's
home the axle-tree of the chariot was broken or burned, to designate
that the bride having found a new home would never return to her old
home. The bridegroom's house was decked with garlands and brilliantly
illuminated. The couple were met by his mother bearing torches, and
surrounded by a group of dancing-girls they came to the door, and at the
threshold the bride made a pretense of not wishing to enter, when the
bridegroom seized her and carried her inside, seeing that her feet did
not touch the sill. All then partook of a feast, consisting of wines,
meats, sweetmeats, and wedding-cake, the women with the veiled bride
among them sitting apart from the men. The final ceremony consisted in
the eating of a quince by husband and wife together, to signify,
perhaps, because of the bitter-sweetness, that they should partake of
the sweets and bitters of life together, our "for better or worse." Then
the guests departed and the couple entered the bridal chamber, where for
the first time the bride unveiled herself to her husband. At the last
the bridal hymn was sung before their door by a chorus of maidens. The
next morning the chorus returned and saluted the married couple with
songs. This was the day of "unveiling," as the bride unveiled herself,
and the newly married couple spent the entire day in receiving visits
with salutations and presents from their friends.

"The marriage ceremonies of the Spartans differed from those of all the
other Greeks. Instead of having a public celebration, everything was
there done in as private a manner as possible. When everything had been
settled between the parties, the bridegroom at night made a secret visit
to his bride at her father's house. Before day he returned to his
comrades, at the gymnasia, and never, for a long time, visited his wife
except at night and by stealth, as it was accounted a disgrace to be
seen coming out of his wife's apartment. They sometimes lived in this
clandestine manner for years, not unfrequently having children by their
wives before they ever saw their faces by daylight."[163]

As citizenship was limited in the states of Greece, it became highly
important that the citizens should perpetuate the state by marrying and
having children. So the state would encourage marriage and make it
honorable and likewise almost compulsory and unmarried men would not be
wanted nor would marriage deferred till late in life be considered the
best for the state. In both Athens and Sparta bachelors were subject to
a legal penalty. In Athens those who held public office and were
entrusted with public affairs had to be married, to have children, and
to have estates in land. Sparta was quite severe on the bachelors. If a
man delayed marriage after a specified age, he subjected himself to a
number of penalties. One was for once each winter to go naked around the
market-place and sing a song ridiculing his bachelorhood. Such men were
not permitted to be present at the contests wherein young women engaged
in a nude condition. Upon the celebration of a certain solemnity, the
bachelors were dragged around the altar by the women who beat them with
their fists. When these men became old they were not accorded that high
respect which the young of Sparta was accustomed to pay to the aged.

Monogamy was early established in Greece as the basis of society. There
were some instances of polygamy or rather concubinage in the early ages
and on some occasions where large number of men were lost in war or from
other causes. This might have been resorted to in order to replenish the
state but this was of rare occurrence.

In early times in Greece divorce was in the hands of the husband and he
could exercise it whenever he felt that he was justified but in later
times this right was somewhat restricted. The Spartans seldom divorced
their wives. In Athens divorce was easy for the man, but a bill of
divorce was required to be presented to the magistrate in which the
reasons for the divorce were set forth. They would, no doubt, have been
more frequent had it not been that in divorce the husband had to restore
the dowry to the wife or pay her a sum each month for her support. For a
man to divorce his wife was considered a great dishonor to her. It was
difficult for a woman to procure a divorce, Athens being more favorable
to women in this respect than the other states of Greece. But here she
had to present a bill of grievances to the magistrate and it required
his action before separation could take place. "The terms expressing the
separation of men and women from each other were different. The men were
said to dismiss their wives; to loose them from their obligations; to
cast them out; to send them away; to put them away. If a woman left her
husband, it was termed simply to depart from him."[164]

=Dress.= The articles of dress worn by the Greeks were of two kinds--one
drawn on or got into, a tunic, called by the general term _endymata_;
the other thrown over the person, a mantle, known as the _epiblemata_.
Of the first kind the _chiton_ was the representative garment, which was
worn next to the body. The chiton in its usual form was an oblong piece
of cloth and thrown about the body in such a way as to leave an opening
for one arm to go through, while the two ends of the open side were
fastened over the other shoulder by means of a buckle or clasp.
Sometimes the chiton was made with two sleeves, with one sleeve, or with
short sleeves. In some cases, as with workmen, it was thrown across the
left shoulder with the right arm and shoulder entirely bare, so as to be
left free for action. The chiton was fastened about the waist by a
ribbon or girdle. The representative of the epiblemata was known as the
_himation_. This was also an oblong piece of cloth, one corner of which
was thrown over the left shoulder in front, drawn across the back to the
right side, sometimes below the right arm and sometimes over it, and
then it was thrown again over the left shoulder.

Boys commonly wore only the chiton. The young men, from the age of
seventeen to twenty, called the _ephebi_, instead of the himation wore
the _chlamys_, which was an oblong cloth, thrown over the left shoulder
and the open ends were fastened over the right shoulder with a clasp.
The himation of Sparta was smaller than that at Athens, scarcely
covering the person, and which was called the _tribon_. The women wore
the chiton and the himation and in addition they wore another garment
over the chiton, called the _crocotos_, which sometimes had sleeves and
was of a rich purple or saffron color and frequently had a broad border
of embroidery. The Doric maidens usually wore but a single loose woolen
garment. It was without sleeves and fastened over the shoulders with
clasps. It usually extended about half way to the knees, it was worn
with or without a girdle, and the left side was left open, which might
or might not have been fastened with a buckle or clasp.

The garments were made of linen, cotton, or wool, and in later times
silk also was used. White was, perhaps, the prevailing color and yet
many colors were used, as, purple, red, green, yellow, gray, brown,
olive, azure, cherry, and changeable colors. If the entire dress was not
colored, it might have had colored borders, embroidery, or stripes,
worked in or sewed on, and sometimes there were fringes or tassels. The
undergarment, in time of mourning, was sometimes black.

The Greeks, both men and women, were especially careful of the hair. The
men wore their hair and beard long and they had the hair curled or
braided and bound up in a large bunch on top of the head or it might be
arranged along the forehead and kept in place with golden grasshoppers.
Dandies went to extremes and let their hair grow till it fell down on
the shoulders. Most of the men had thick hair. In the cities the men
usually went bareheaded but sometimes they wore hats or caps, when at
work and on journeys.

The Grecian women for the most part had long, rich hair and, naturally,
they took even more care of it than did the men with their hair.
Sometimes it was allowed to fall loosely down the back; sometimes the
hair was combed over the back in waving lines and a ribbon tied around
the head; it might be that the front hair was combed back over the
temples and ears and tied at the back of the head in a knot, held in
place with hairpins of ivory, bronze, bone, gold, or silver; and there
were many other ways of keeping the hair.

The hair of children was carefully attended to. The girls' hair was
often twisted into artistic curls and then drawn together over the
forehead and held by a fancy comb. In Sparta the boys' hair was kept
short till their majority had been reached, when it was allowed to grow
long. Among the Athenians the hair of the boys was permitted to grow
till they had reached maturity, when it was cut off and burned to some
deity, after which it was allowed to grow long again.

There were oils, perfumes, ointments, and essences for the hair.
Curling-irons were in use for curling the hair. Powders were used on the
hair and especially the kind that gave it an auburn color. There were
dyes for the hair and they were well resorted to. Nets were used by the
ladies to enclose their hair, and veils of a light fabric and of
transparent texture were worn. On festive occasions wreaths and garlands
were worn by both men and women.

Among the Greeks the hands were not usually covered, gloves rarely being
worn. The feet were not covered in the house and even sometimes in the
street there was no covering to the feet. There was a great variety of
foot-wear from the simple sandal to the high boot, the three main kinds
being the sandal, the shoe, and the boot.

The sandal was the simplest form of foot-covering. This consisted of a
sole of wood or leather, or it might be two pieces of leather with a
piece of cork between. This was held on the foot by means of a strap or
thong passing between the big toe and the next and running back along
the top of the foot and fastened to another strap going over the instep
and another that passed round the back of the heel. Occasionally
slippers were worn, which among the women were ornamented with needle
work.

From the sandal was evolved the half shoe, covering the front part of
the foot, and then the shoe, covering all the foot, which arose from the
addition of a closed heel and smaller or larger side-pieces sewed to the
sole. The working-people of both town and country had the soles studded
with iron nails, while the dandy in the city might have had gold or
silver nails in his shoes. The women regulated their stature, increasing
or diminishing the height, by means of high or low heels and soles of
different thickness. The children at Athens began to wear shoes at an
early age. In the boot the covering reached to the calf of the leg, open
in front, and fastened with laces.

In the footwear was where novelty and taste was shown by the Greeks.
There was fashion in shoes and they often were named for those who
originated the styles. They were very careful about neatness of fit and
appearance. It was not considered good taste to wear patched or mended
shoes. Black, white, and colored shoes were worn. Blacking was used,
which was a kind of polish. The material was usually leather but felt
also was used and slippers were sometimes made of linen. Socks and
stockings seem to have been worn, but they were not in common use.

In the heroic times of Greece, as described by Homer, men wore earrings,
necklaces, armlets, fancy girdles, hair ornaments, and finger-rings. In
later times all these were discarded except the finger-rings, and these
were usually signet rings. The women continued to use all kinds of
ornaments. They wore both signet and jeweled rings on their fingers,
some of the latter being set with beautiful and costly jewels; they wore
necklaces of many patterns, varying from the simple ring to elaborate
pendants; they wore armlets, bracelets, and anklets, usually in the form
of spiral snakes; they wore a diadem or fillet to keep the hair in
place; they wore ornamented girdles. The ornaments mentioned above were
usually of gold and adorned with gems, as they used many kinds of
precious stones.

The ladies dyed their hair and bleached it and increased its amount by
adding other hair; they used tooth-powder; they blackened their
eyebrows; a dark complexion was whitened and one too pale was rouged;
their lips were touched with vermillion. To aid in this decorating, they
had mirrors, which were made of bronze and usually circular, either
without a handle or with one richly adorned.

The ladies had parasols, much like the ones at present, which could open
and shut by means of wires, and which they carried themselves or had
servants to hold over them. They had fans of peacocks' feathers or of
thin light wood. Canes were used by the men both in Sparta and Athens,
which were mostly of great length and with crook handles.

The ladies of Old Greek times well understood how to adorn, enhance, and
remodel the human figure. As was stated above, they hung on to the
figure all kinds of ornaments--rings, necklaces, earrings, bracelets,
etc.; they could curl and dye and increase the amount of hair; they
painted and powdered the cheeks and eyebrows and lips; they knew how to
increase or diminish the stature by means of the heels and soles of the
shoes; and they knew the art of enlarging or diminishing the figure by
means of corsets and padding. Not only did they know all these things,
but also they understood how to display to best advantage any part of
the figure that was beautiful, as, a woman having pretty white teeth
knew how and when to laugh to best display them and the handsome mouth.

=Food.= In the earlier times of Greece, when the food supply was limited
to a narrow territory, there was frugality and little variety. As
commerce increased the food supply became greater and of a varied
character, and yet the Greeks were for the most part frugal and
temperate.

There were usually three meals a day--a light breakfast, a heavier meal
near midday, while the principal meal was toward the close of the day.
When the family ate alone, the father reclined on a couch, the mother
sat on a chair near him, and the children sat about them, the younger
perhaps on the mother's lap or on the couch by the father.

The bread was made from wheat and barley and also from rye, millet,
spelt, and rice. The bread sold by the bread-women in Athens had a big
reputation all over Greece. Among their cakes was one made of wheat and
honey, another of rice, cheese, eggs, and honey, and a third of cheese,
eggs, and garlic. Beef, mutton, goat's flesh, and pork, were the most
common meats. Poultry was abundant and eggs were used in various ways.
There was plenty of wild game, as, the partridge, wild pigeons, wild
geese, deer, hares, and wild boars. Hot sausages were greatly liked and
they were sold on the streets of Athens and perhaps in other cities.
Fish were abundant, both fresh-water and salt, and oysters, eels,
mussels, and turtles were used as food. Among the vegetables were
lettuce, spinach, cabbage, peas, beans, radishes, onions, garlic,
turnips, and asparagus. The food was seasoned with salt, mustard,
garlic, onions, and herbs. Honey was used as sugar with us and olive-oil
and cheese took the place of butter. Of fruits there were figs, apples,
quinces, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, and of nuts there were
walnuts, almonds, and chestnuts. Wine was in great use and, perhaps,
there was no other beverage but water as milk was not often drunk except
in the country.

After being weaned, the child at Athens was fed by its mother or nurse
with milk and a weak broth, which consisted mostly of honey. The older
Athenian child no doubt had an abundance and a variety of food, but
such was not the case in Sparta. Taken to the public tables at seven
years of age, the Spartan child was given only very coarse food and not
nearly a sufficient quantity of this. He was permitted, however, to
steal more food, but if caught he was severely punished.

=Child and Parent.= One of the worst things that could happen to a Greek
in the old times was not to have children, and especially not to have a
son. Although daughters were not disliked, yet it was through the son
that the family name and the worship of family gods and ancestors could
be continued after the death of the father. There was more, for the
state considered childlessness and especially no sons in a family
unfortunate, as it was thought such a condition lessened the ties
between citizen and state. So when a boy was born into a family the
outer door was decorated with an olive branch, while for a girl a fillet
of wool was used.

"The Grecian mothers were subjected to certain rules prior to the birth
of their children. Their food and exercises were regulated either by the
laws, or by the manners and customs. In most of the Grecian states they
were required to lead a sedentary, inactive, and tranquil life. In
Sparta, however, it was directly the reverse. There, women while in that
condition were required to be abroad, engaged in their usual athletic
recreations, eating and drinking as at any other period of time."[165]

=Care of Children.= The newly born child was bathed in water and oil and
then it was put into swaddling clothes, a narrow woolen band wrapped
tightly round and round the child from the neck to the feet. In Sparta
the newly born child was bathed in water tempered with wine, as it was
considered strengthening to the child and also that such a bath could be
endured only by strong and healthy infants. The baby was not placed in
swaddling clothes in Sparta, so that it was allowed the freedom of its
limbs and body.

There were two family festivals observed with the young child. The first
was of a religious nature, the ceremony of purification, and it usually
took place on the fifth day after birth. The child was held in the arms
of the nurse, midwife, or some member of the family, who ran round a
fire blazing on the family altar, followed by the members of the
household. This was done that the child might thus be placed under the
care of the household gods. It was ended with a feast. The second
festival was that of the name-day, which occurred on the child's tenth
day after birth. This was a very important event in the life of the
child, as on this occasion the infant was acknowledged by the father as
his own and he committed himself to its rearing and education. A feast
was held, a special cake was eaten, a sacrifice was offered, chiefly to
the goddess of child-bearing, and the baby was given a name. Presents
were given to the child, among them being charms or amulets and which
were hung around its neck to protect it against magical arts and the
evil eye. The favorite name for the eldest son was that of his paternal
grandfather. Sometimes the boy was named for his father or there might
be a shortened form of the grandfather's or father's name. He might be
named for an intimate friend or for some god or for some action or
condition or experience in his father's life. Later in life the boy
might receive a nickname that would take the place of his real name.

In the earlier times the mothers both of Athens and Sparta nursed their
children, but later this was abandoned and nurses were procured.
Wet-nurses were employed for the baby's first year or a half year longer
and then a regular nurse was obtained for the child. In Sparta the
nurses were usually from the women of the perioeci, and the other
peoples of Greece preferred the Spartan nurses because they were strong
and healthy and also gave the children a vigorous training. "When the
child grew to some understanding, the nurse told stories out of the
great wealth of Greek mythology and Æsopian beast fables which
circulated among the Greeks from the earliest times; also ghost stories,
chiefly to frighten and subdue the rebellious: about the horrible
bugaboo called Mormo; about Acco, who carried off bad children in a huge
sack; or Lamia, once a princess, who ate her own and others' children;
or Empūsa, a hobgoblin that took any shape it pleased. If these stories
failed to restrain the naughty child, then the sandal was vigorously
applied."[166]

The earlier cradle was of basket-work, in the form of a flat swing. A
later one was shaped like a shoe, having handles at the sides for
carrying and suspending. In yet later times appeared cradles similar to
those of modern times. Lullabies were sung over children as now. One
cradle-song has come down to us in this form:

"Tenderly she touched their little heads and sang:
Sleep, baby boys, a sweet and healthful sleep;
Sleep on, my darlings, safely through the night,
Sleep, happy in your baby dreams, and wake
With joy to greet the morning's dawning light."[167]

=Infanticide.= If in Sparta the child survived the bath of water and
wine, then it was subjected to an inspection by a council of the state
to decide whether it was fit to live or not. The strong and robust
children were permitted to live, but the weak and sickly and deformed
children were thrown down a precipice or exposed on the mountains. If
any of the helots or perioeci should find the child and take it they
were permitted to keep it, but the child could never become a citizen of
Sparta. This custom of destroying or casting out infants was done in
order to insure strong citizens for the state. No parent was allowed to
pass judgment on the child, such was retained by the state alone.

Infanticide was practiced in Athens, but not by the state. This was
wholly in the hands of the fathers. The fathers at Athens were more
cruel than the state at Sparta, for not only weak and deformed children
were cast aside by the Athenian fathers, but this might be true of other
children, as poverty and other causes might be a motive. This was done
by placing the infant in a basket or earthenware vessel and leaving it
in a temple, or some other public place, so that some one might take it.
This was called "potting" the child. The mother usually placed a token
as a trinket or an amulet with the child so that possibly afterward the
child might be recognized. The party who might take such a child had
full power over it and might rear it as a slave or do with it as he
might wish. The father was sometimes brutal enough to take the baby to
the mountains and leave it to die from exposure or wild beasts.

"From this barbarous custom the Thebans formed an honorable exemption.
They rendered the murder of infants a capital offense. Those who were
born of parents unable to provide for their maintenance were brought up
at the public charge, but in return, when grown up, the public had a
right to their services until they were adequately compensated for what
had been expended in bringing them up."[168]

=Duties of Children.= The boy at Greece was expected to walk along the
street in a quiet manner with head bent, as a sign of modesty, and to
speak to no one. At home he was to be careful of his manners and habits.
He was to be respectful to his elders, making way for them on the
street, keeping silence in their company, and when seated to arise when
they entered the room and to give way to them. It was the duty of
children to be obedient and respectful to their parents, and to care for
them when there was need. But the parents, too, had their duty to
perform and if they neglected the children then the children were
excused from maintaining their parents.

=Adoption and Inheritance.= People not having children of their own were
permitted to adopt other children. If a man had no son he could adopt a
young man and have him marry his daughter. Those adopted were accorded
all the rights and privileges of any children. The children of an
adopted son were regarded as descendants of the adopting father and they
preserved the ancestral worship and paid homage at his tomb. If after
adopting a son the man should marry and have a son from this marriage,
then the two boys received equal shares of the property upon the death
of the father. When there were neither legitimate nor adopted sons, the
estate went to the nearest relatives. In case of death without heirs,
the estate descended to the prince, the commonwealth, or the supreme
magistrate, as the laws directed. Sometimes if the children of noted men
were left without property, they were provided for by the state.
Children could be disinherited, but such had to be done publicly before
certain judges appointed for that purpose. When a parent was unable,
through age or infirmity, to manage his estate the son could bring this
before magistrates, who had the power to turn over the property to the
son, who would care for the property and the parent.

=Toys and Playthings.= The children of ancient Greece had quite a number
of toys and playthings. The infant's first toy was a rattle, made of
metal or wood, having small stones inside. A little older they had
painted clay puppets, representing human beings and such animals as
tortoises, hares, ducks, and mother apes with their offspring. Dolls
were plentiful, made of painted clay or wax, often with movable hands
and feet. "In more than one instance we have found in children's graves
their favorite dolls, which sorrowing parents laid with them as a sort
of keepsake in the tomb."[169] The little girls had houses for their
dolls and dishes and tables. The children had ships and tops and balls
and hoops and carts and swings. They also had pet animals. Sometimes the
toys were bought and again they were made by the children, for, through
instinct and imitation, they were much given to modeling and making
things out of clay or wax or fruit-peel or leather. This is well
illustrated by a passage from "The Clouds" of Aristophanes, wherein he
has a countryman describing the precocious abilities of his son:

"He is a lad of parts, and from a child
Took wondrously to dabbling in the mud,
Whereof he'd build you up a house so natural
As would amaze you, trace you out a ship,
Make you a little cart out of the sole
Of an old shoe, mayhap, and from the rind
Of a pomegranate cut you out a frog,
You'd swear it was alive."[170]

=Games and Plays.= Just as with children in all ages and in all times,
the children of Greece had many plays and games. The little boys and
girls were in the homes together till they were seven years of age and
so they played together, but apart after that. The boys of Athens, just
as in other cities in older times and present times, played on the
streets and pestered the passers-by and kept the guardians of the peace
busy.

The little girls played with their dolls, making houses for them,
setting out dishes before them, hauling them in carts, and swinging them
and themselves in swings. In some of their plays they were joined by the
little boys and they all played in the sand and made mud-pies and had
see-saws and swings and they hitched up one another and dogs and goats
to carts. The children carried one another pick-a-pack and they rode
stick-horses and hobby-horses and they played bob-cherry and
hide-the-rope and many other such games.

They rolled hoops, walked on stilts, played running and catching games,
such as hide-and-seek; they played leapfrog, hopped and jumped, flew
kites; they played games of forfeit, odd or even, how many fingers are
held up; the older boys had the tug of war and tossed one another in
blankets. In one game the boy had to hop with one foot on a skin-bottle
filled with water and greased; they spun coins on the edges; they shot
beans from the fingers as the modern boys do marbles; they threw up five
small stones and caught them on the back of the hand, as boys do
jack-stones now; they played with dice.

There was a game in which a stone was to be so thrown into a circle as
to knock out the stones thrown into it by the other boys and itself
remain in the circle. They would sharpen one end of a heavy peg of wood
and then throw it into a softened place in the earth so that it would
stand upright and also knock out another's peg. They would blacken or
moisten one side of an oyster-shell and would call one side _day_ and
the other side _night_; then the boys would divide into two sides with
these names and would take turns in tossing the shell up into the air
and then note which side was up when it fell to the ground; the winning
side would then pursue the others and take prisoners.

The boys, then as now, found great sport with tops, playing in the house
as well as in the street. They had different kinds of tops, among them
being a humming-top. The Greek boy would tie a long string to the leg of
a beetle and then let it loose and guide its flying by holding to the
string; sometimes the boys would fix a wax splinter to the beetle's tail
and then light it before letting him loose.

The children played blind man's buff. They would bandage a boy's eyes,
who would then go about calling out, "I am hunting a brazen fly." This
would be answered by the others with, "You will hunt, but you won't
catch it." They would then run about and strike him with whips till he
caught one, who would then be blindfolded.

The Greeks were very fond of the ball and ball-playing. The balls were
of all sizes and colors. Some were stuffed with feathers and wool and
others were empty. They were made of leather and of such a size as was
suited to the kind of game to be played with them. There was tossing and
throwing and juggling with balls and also there were regular games.
Mahaffy thinks that he has discovered from the descriptions given that
they played games similar to the present foot-ball, hand-ball, and
lacrosse. He believes foot-ball is shown in this description: "The first
is played by two even sides, who draw a line in the center, on which
they place the ball. They draw two other lines behind each side, and
those who first reach the ball throw it over the opponents, whose duty
it is to catch it and return it, until one side drives the other back
over their goal line." In the following he can see hand-ball: "It
consists of making a ball bound off the ground, and sending it against a
wall, counting the number of the hops according as it was returned."
From another writer he finds lacrosse: "Certain youths, divided equally,
leave in a level place, which they have before prepared and measured, a
ball made of leather, about the size of an apple, and rush at it, as if
it were a prize lying in the middle, from their fixed starting-point (a
goal). Each of them has in his right hand a racket of suitable length
ending in a sort of flat bend, the middle of which is occupied by gut
strings, dried by seasoning, and plaited together in net fashion. Each
strives to be the first to bring it to the opposite end of the ground
from that allotted to them. Whenever the ball is driven by the rackets
to the end of the ground, it counts a victory."[171]

=Sports and Festivals.= Besides the games and plays for the younger
people noted above, there was plenty of amusement of youths and adults
in the way of sports and festivals. The gymnasium, with its palæstra,
and the festivals gave opportunity for exercises and displays of all
kinds.

The most common forms of gymnastic exercises were running, jumping,
throwing the discus, hurling the javelin, and wrestling, and they formed
what was known as the _pentathlon_. They were engaged in at the
gymnasium and at the four great national festivals. Beside these there
were boxing, the pancration, which consisted of boxing and wrestling,
horse racing, and chariot racing.

The gymnasium was originally an athletic ground where all kinds of
sports were carried on and it contained the palæstra, which was
essentially a building for the purposes of wrestling, although both
palæstra and gymnasium came later to stand for other things beside.

There were four great national festivals, known as the Olympian, the
Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian. In these festivals contests in
races and athletic exercises were held and also sometimes in music,
poetry, rhetoric, and the like. The Olympic festival was held at Olympia
every four years, in the summer, and lasted for five days; the Pythian
festival was also held every four years, near Delphi, in the winter, in
the third year of every Olympiad; the Nemean festival was held at Nemea
in the second and fourth year of every Olympiad, alternating in winter
and in summer; and the Isthmian festival was held at Corinth, in the
first and third years of each Olympiad, alternating between spring and
summer. These times were thus arranged so that these national festivals
did not conflict with one another.

The Olympic festival was the most noted. It was so important that in
case of war a truce was entered into among the Grecian states, which
lasted probably for three months during the year of the festival. During
this time all people journeying to and from the festival were granted
protection, and no one was allowed to carry arms within the sacred
territory. The official prize was but a crown of wild olive, not
valuable in itself, but it was perhaps the most coveted honor in all
Greece. Only Greeks were eligible to compete and the winner received the
highest honor from his fellow-townspeople. Poets of high renown composed
odes in his honor, bronze statues were made of him, he rode home in a
triumphal chariot and sometimes a part of the wall of his town was torn
down for his entry, he was generally supported for the remainder of his
life at public expense, and his honor extended to his parents and to his
children, and even to the city of his birth.

Women were not allowed to be present at the Olympian games. The only
exception was in permitting the priestesses of Demeter to be present,
who remained in a temple built for them near the Stadium. All other
women were excluded from the territory for a certain number of days. The
penalty of trespassing on the part of a woman was death, the
transgressor being thrown from the Typæan rock. "Only one instance is
recorded of this rule being broken. Pherenice, a member of the famous
family of the Diagoridæ, in her anxiety to see her son Peisirodus
compete in the boys' boxing, accompanied him to Olympia disguised as a
trainer. In her delight at his victory she leapt over the barrier and so
disclosed her sex. The Hellanodicæ, however, pardoned her in
consideration for her father and brothers and son, all of them Olympic
victors, but they passed a decree that henceforth all trainers should
appear naked."[172] But women were permitted to enter their horses for
the chariot-race, which they did, and won some races, too. The women had
their own festival at Olympia, the Heræa, occurring every four years, at
which there were races for maidens of various years, the course being
one-sixth less than that for men.

Every Greek boy received a thorough physical training. To keep up the
spirit for such training, local festivals were held in which was given
opportunity for the boys' testing their strength and skill. In the 37th
Olympiad were first introduced contests for boys, the names of the
victors being inscribed on the records of the events before the names of
the adult victors. At first there were only two classes of competition,
for boys and for men, later a third class being added, for the beardless
or those between boys and men. It would appear as if the ages for boys
was between twelve and sixteen and for the beardless between sixteen and
twenty. The length of the race-course for boys was but half that for
adults and for the beardless it was two-thirds the full length. In the
races at the Olympic Heræa the girls were likewise divided into the
three ages. In the second century before Christ was introduced the
pancration for boys, which shows that the games were becoming more cruel
and degraded.

=Other Amusements.= The Greeks of the olden times were much given to
entertainments. These might be at the home or on the sea-shore or in the
country. They might be given by an individual, or gotten up by parties,
each one contributing his part or sharing in the expense. It was not
uncommon to have excursions into the country or to the sea-shore, with
food and drink packed and taken along for the occasion.

The entertainments in the home were sometimes simply an informal affair,
while again they were quite formal. A man wishing to give an
entertainment would go out to the market-place or the gymnasium and
invite his friends or he might send the invitations by a slave. After
entrance into the home and the exchange of greetings, the meal was
partaken of and the drinking was entered upon. Toasts were drank to one
another and to absent ones, the young men taking the occasion to drink
to their loved ones and to sing love-songs. Conversation would be
entered upon and jokes and puns made, professional jesters being quite
often hired for the evening. There would be games and conundrums and
riddles and enigmas. A favorite game for such an evening was called
_kottabos_, in which the player would throw the last drops of wine in
his cup on to the head of a small brazen figure, which produced a
clanging sound and a bobbing of the head; the louder the clang and the
more violent the bobbing with the smaller the amount of the wine thrown,
the greater the success of the player. There were dancing-girls and
flute players and jugglers and contortionists. Recitations of passages
from the poets were given and there were pantomimic and dramatic scenes
acted. There might have been little of the kind of entertaining as noted
above and the evening spent in deep conversation upon the important
topics of the day and by the great philosophers and poets and dramatists
and the other great men gathered on the occasion.

One of the very greatest amusements of the Greeks was that of the
theater. These were usually built along a hillside, the seats being cut
into the solid rock. The performances were held in connection with two
of the leading religious festivals, the one in the midwinter and the
other in the spring. The theaters were public and open to all the
citizens and free of expense, the expenses being borne by the state or
by wealthy citizens. There were no playbills nor similar kind of
announcements of the plays, usually the audience not knowing what was to
come till the play opened.

Dancing and music were among the pleasures of the young people. Of these
were mimetic dances, representing mythological scenes. There were also
warlike and choral dances performed at the feasts of the gods. There
were professional dancers and singers and flute-players. There were a
number of kinds of musical instruments. The types of the stringed
instruments were represented by the lyre, the kithara, and the harp; the
wind-instruments were the pipes, clarionets, and trumpets; and the
clanging instruments were the castanets, cymbal, and tambourine.

The young men indulged in horse-racing; they frequented gambling places
where dice was used; and they placed metal spurs on cocks, pheasants,
and quails and fought them thus armed. Hunting was a favorite sport. It
was quite fashionable for rich young men to have fine horses and,
although they did ride some, yet they preferred to drive their horses to
chariots.

The jugglers and acrobats were quite skilful and they were of both
sexes. Outside the help of present day science, they seemed to have
performed as remarkable feats as at the present time. They gave sword
dances; they tossed hoops and balls; they did rope-walking and dancing;
they extracted things from their eyes and ears and noses and mouths.
They would stand on their hands and head and perform feats with their
toes, as filling vessels with water and shooting bows and arrows. In one
feat a woman acrobat would bend back her head till it met her heels,
then she would clasp her feet with her hands and roll off like a hoop.
In one exhibit there was a contrivance, known as the potter's wheel, in
which a young woman would be whirled round rapidly and yet she managed
to read and write while being so twirled.

=Sickness and Death.= In the earlier times of Greece old age was highly
respected in all the states. In Sparta and Thebes this respect was
maintained, but among the smart set in Athens this was not the case. In
the more remote and primitive districts the aged enjoyed the reverence
and affection of the young and middle-aged alike. They were treated with
great respect in both public and private and their opinions were sought
for in affairs of state and of the home. Yet in all Greece there was a
desire for children so that parents might be protected and comforted in
advancing age, and those without children were often in a pitiable
condition in extreme old age. At the age of sixty a man was recognized
to be at least physically old, as he was then exempt from military duty.

Although the Greeks enjoyed an exceptionally fine climate and gave
especial care to the body, yet they were subject to diseases as other
people. Their houses were not in sanitary conditions, the streets were
not in proper order, and the water was not always pure. There were
physicians who had quite good skill in the treatment of diseases and
both medicine and surgery were in a fair condition, although
superstition and folk-lore too often ruled. Athens and other cities
employed physicians at public cost to care for the poor free of charge.

Burial of the dead was a very important function and one demanded by
both custom and religion. Without this final honor, it was thought the
spirit would wander restlessly on forever. So when a man died his family
was bound to give him proper burial. This was considered so important
that when a man died in a foreign land his body was brought home, or, if
that was impossible, then a tomb was erected to him and the burial rites
enacted. It was even considered disgraceful not to let enemies in war
bury their dead and after battles a truce was entered upon that the dead
might be buried.

When dead the body was washed and anointed and clothed in white and
placed on a couch. A wreath was placed on the head and garlands about
the body, which were given by friends. On the floor about the couch were
set pitchers that were to be put into the grave or on the funeral pile.
The burial took place early in the morning, at Athens, at least, before
sunrise. In the earlier times the dead were buried in the houses, but
later they were placed outside the cities, usually along a road, but in
Sparta they were kept in the city, while in the country they were buried
in the fields. The bodies either were buried or cremated, but as the
latter was quite expensive it was used usually by the wealthy only.

In the funeral procession the body was carried in a vehicle or on the
shoulders of friends or slaves. The male mourners marched in front of
the corpse and the female mourners behind it, all dressed in black with
the hair cut short. In the Homeric times there were violent outbursts of
grief and abuse of person by the mourners, but in later times laws were
passed to prevent such. At the grave if the body was to be burnt it was
placed upon the pile and precious ointments and perfumes were poured
over it while burning and the ashes were collected and placed in an urn.
If it was to be interred, the body was placed in a wooden, earthenware,
or metallic coffin and put into the grave, which was usually in the
rock. The mourners then returned to the house and partook of the funeral
meal. On the third and tenth days sacrifices were offered at the tomb
and again on the thirtieth day, which concluded the mourning period. The
graves were well cared for and decorated with flowers and plants. "To
neglect the tomb of your ancestors was so far a crime that no man could
become a chief officer of the state who could be proved to have failed
in this respect."[173]

=Religion.= "An Athenian child begins by listening to the 'old wives'
tales' of his nurse; then is present at domestic rites and sacrifices,
which impress him without his understanding them; afterwards learns his
old-fashioned Homer and his poets, before he has any notion of
questioning their theology; next moves about among altars and splendid
temples and statues of Zeus, Athena, Dionysus, and many another
divinity; is later on initiated into awesome mysteries, which are
addressed to his emotions and not to his reason; and is at all times
trained to undertake no enterprise, public or private, without first
consulting the will of the gods, praying to them, and sacrificing to
them."[174]

The child was introduced into the religious life in the home, as each
house had its own altar and its special household deities, to whom
prayers were offered and sacrifices made, and on occasions of marriage,
birth, death, and the like, special ceremonies occurred. He learned
about both the good and the bad, as amulets were hung about his neck to
ward off harm and he saw sacrifices made to appease the wrath of the
evil ones. In public there were sacrifices and celebrations to the gods,
in some of which the child took part.

Old Greek religion was a worship of the beautiful--the ideal in nature
and human life, and the gods were ideal expressions of human thought,
portraying the divine in man. Religion influenced the old Greek in every
way and on every side he was reminded of the gods by temples, altars,
statues, sacred trees, etc. But with all his religion, strange to say,
the Greek did not connect it closely with his moral life, for his
religion was expressed in his attitude toward the gods, while his
morality was determined by the laws of the land and the customs of
society. This is well shown in his prayers, for these were not offered
for inward betterment, but for some definite outward help.

=Education.= In the early times of Greece there were no real schools,
the young receiving their training from the life of the family and the
community. As this came through contact with living persons and not
through dead precepts in sacred books, which demanded strict obedience
and following, there was opportunity for growth so that progress might
be made by the individual away from fixed and stereotyped ways of doing
things. The purpose of the training of those times was to help the boy
to become a man who would be wise and eloquent in council and strong and
courageous in battle.

Sparta represented a phase of education in Greece. Surrounded as it was
by people who were hostile to its ways and customs, it was necessary
that the young should be trained to be patriotic to the state and
skilled in war. To this end education began before birth, for means were
used for having strong children born and those not strong at birth were
cast aside from the state. If the child at birth was decided by the
council to be fit to grow up to be a Spartan, then he was given to his
mother and remained with her till his seventh year, when he was taken
from her and put under the care and training of state officials.

When at seven years of age the boy was taken over by the state, he was
placed in the care of an officer called the paedonomus. This officer had
supreme power over all the boys and youth and superintended their moral
training and gymnastic exercises and their punishments, having men to
assist in the work.

All the education was at public cost and all the young were placed in
public buildings, eating and sleeping in common, all being placed
together in common, even the younger members of the royal family, the
heir-apparent to the throne being alone exempt. Here they were divided
into three companies according to age--from the seventh to the twelfth
year, from the twelfth to the fifteenth, from the fifteenth to the
eighteenth. The elder and stronger boys were placed over them as,
captains and had them in charge.

When the boy first entered with the others his hair was cut short. The
life was one of continued severe discipline and hardship. In summer and
winter they went without shoes and with but little clothing, after the
twelfth year with only one garment. They slept on pallets of straw
without covering and after fifteen their beds consisted of rushes
collected by themselves without the use of a knife. They were given but
little food. They had permission to steal other food, but if caught
stealing they were considered disgraced and received a severe flogging.

The training of the boys consisted in gymnastic exercises, being
carefully organized and graded. The younger boys were drilled in running
and leaping and ball-playing. The older boys engaged in wrestling,
boxing, throwing the discus, and hurling the javelin. Sometimes the
_pancratium_ was used, consisting of boxing and wrestling and also most
anything to win, as biting, kicking, scratching, gouging. The
contestants generally were naked. Dancing supplemented the gymnastics,
which for the most part were war-dances and also some choral dancing was
given to be used in religious festivals. This was all done to prepare
the young for warfare.

When a boy reached eighteen years of age, he then left the buildings
for boys and entered upon a more distinctive study of warfare. He was
permitted to let his hair and beard grow and was known as a _melleiren_,
"budding youth." These youths were drilled in the use of arms and in
skirmishing. They were given frequent strict examinations. To test their
courage and endurance, there was a custom of each year of whipping a
certain number of youth. They were placed at the altar of Artemis Orthia
and so severely whipped as to cause the blood to stream from them, their
fathers and mothers standing by and urging them to endure it without
flinching or murmuring. Sometimes they endured till they died under the
severity of the whipping. Also there was another test in the way of a
battle of the _melleirenes_, held each year on a small island near
Sparta. These youths were divided into two companies, sacrifices to the
gods were made, they were lined up against one another, and then
commanded to fight. They fought without weapons, but fists and teeth and
body and limbs were most fiercely used, and many were the wounds
received.

At twenty years of age, the budding youth became known as an _eiren_, "a
youth." These remained youths for the next ten years and they lived in
barracks to themselves. They took a public oath of loyalty to Sparta and
entered the army, thus going into real military life. They entered upon
the life of a soldier, lived upon the coarsest fare, were drilled in the
usages of warfare, and were sent out to guard and care for some armed
camps or fortresses on the border. Each year there were festivals in
which was displayed by all the youth their skill in military drill and
gymnastic exercises and in music and dancing, such exhibits being before
the king and the officers and the public.

At thirty years of age, the Spartan was recognized as being a full-grown
man and became a member of the public assembly and was required to
marry. But even then he had to remain with the youths and boys and eat
at the common table with them, so that he had no home and had to visit
his wife secretly in her home. He also continued in military service. It
was the custom for each man to select a boy or a youth as a companion
and to look after his care and training. These men were expected to be
examples to the boys and youths and to correct them in their faults, the
men being punished upon failure to do these things.

The girls of Sparta received a public training similar to that of the
boys. It was the aim to train them so as to become strong, healthy
women, such as could bear robust sons to the state. They were given
gymnastic exercises such as were given to the boys, but not in company
with the boys, and also the girls were permitted to remain at home. They
were exercised in running, wrestling, leaping, throwing the discus,
hurling the javelin, and in dancing and music. On some occasions the
young men and young women danced and sang together in public in
festivals to the gods. This training did produce strong women and who
were as patriotic as the men and who as mothers could give thanks to the
gods in the temples when they learned that husbands and sons had died
fighting for their country.

It may be seen that Spartan education was public and free and open
equally to all free-born children. The Spartan youth received very
little intellectual training. No doubt some acquired reading and
writing, as such was not forbidden, although not encouraged. They
obtained ethical and intellectual training from listening to their
elders at meals and on the street. They gained from criticism of their
conduct, which criticism was severe at all times. Thus they learned
reverence for elders, honesty, and self-respect. All the sufferings and
hardships placed upon the youth were that they might receive training to
make them good soldiers to go out to battle for their native land.
Although Spartan education did produce warriors and patriots, yet it did
not bring out individuality, that which makes most for true progress and
right living. "The state regulated the individual life, and, by so
doing, crushed out individuality, personal initiation, literary and
scientific activity, and ethical freedom."[175]

Athens represented another phase in Greek education. A new conception of
human life developed here and hence there came forth new ideas in regard
to the meaning and end of education. The idea of the significance of the
individual took prominence and, although interests centered upon the
state, yet the state was considered as being composed, of individuals,
each of whose free development made the voluntary giving of his life to
the state all the stronger and better state. The citizens of Athens were
educated for peace as well as for war, so that the aim of education was
to produce all-round men who by being trained to be individuals would
thus make the best citizens.

At birth the child at Athens was judged by the father and upon his
decision it remained in the family or it was taken from the mother and
exposed. If it was returned to the mother, whether a boy or a girl, it
remained in the home till marriage, when the man or woman went to his or
her own home. For the first seven years of the child's life, both boy
and girl, he was under the care and training of the mother and the other
women of the household. The Athenian boy was well cared for and given
plenty to eat and to wear and toys and playthings, so that at least the
early years of his life were easy and pleasant. By hearing the
nursery-rhymes and the stories from folk-lore, and by having related to
him the doings of the gods and god-like men as given in the writings of
the times, his emotional nature was stimulated and he became imbued with
the poetic feeling and dramatic spirit which invaded Athens and with
which later he was to come in close contact through his school training
and in his social and political life.

When the boy became seven years of age, he was sent to school. He was
then placed under the charge of a male slave, known as a pedagogue,
whose duty it was to go back and forth to school with the boy and carry
his things and to have care of the boy's manners and morals, having the
power of discipline, but he did not impart instruction, that being given
by the grammatist (elementary teacher) and the pedotribe (gymnastic
teacher). The state did not provide elementary schools, although they
were under its supervision. The schools were not only private, but the
father had the right to decide what work should be given to his boy, and
yet the law did prescribe instruction in gymnastics and music. If the
father did not give due education to his sons, in his old age he could
not claim support from them. The length of stay in the school and the
amount of education obtained depended upon the will and condition of the
father, but all the boys did receive elementary instruction in reading,
writing, and arithmetic. The physical training consisted in
ball-playing, running, leaping, throwing the discus, hurling the
javelin, and wrestling, the course being graded to the age and size of
the boys. They were also taught dancing and music. Their education was
to train the boy to be able to use his body with ease and grace and to
increase his intelligence rather than to train him solely to become a
soldier.

At fifteen years of age the boy passed out of the elementary training
and from the control of the pedagogue, and if of the higher classes he
entered upon higher training. He now left the private school and entered
the public school, the gymnasium, which was not more than an exercising
ground located in a grove just outside Athens. At this time the youth
was given much more liberty than when a boy, as now he was allowed to go
wherever he wished, that he might become acquainted with what was going
on in the city to prepare him for the duties of public life. He was
still under the care of his father or guardian and through him he had
opportunity for meeting men and hearing the conversations and
discussions and thus learn of the political life of the state and the
moral obligations of a citizen. At this time the youth began to learn to
play a musical instrument and he read and recited poetry and studied
drawing and geometry and grammar. The gymnastic training received much
more attention at this period than the literary, as beauty of person and
health was the great aim. The exercises were about the same as in the
previous period but of a more strenuous nature. Boxing was introduced
now and sometimes the pancratium was used. Hunting and swimming became a
part of the life of the youth.

At eighteen the young man completed the second period of public training
and became known as an _ephebus_, "youth," His father or guardian
presented him for citizenship, and if he showed proper credentials of
legitimate birth, of Athenian parentage, up to standard in body, mind,
and morals, he was registered. He also took an oath of fidelity to the
state. He then entered into military service and continued for two
years. He was thoroughly drilled and then sent to the frontier. At the
close of this second year, when he was twenty years of age, he was
called to Athens and examined for citizenship, and if he made a proper
showing he was then made a full citizen, with all the privileges and
duties pertaining to that office.

The pedagogue was not held in high esteem, as he was usually a slave
that was unable to work, being too old or crippled. The elementary
teacher, too, did not take a high, position, as there were no special
qualifications, so that any one could fill the position and usually only
those entered into this work who were unfitted or unprepared for other
occupations, and too often as the last resort. The elementary schools
were sometimes carried on in a portico or the sheltered corner of a
street, but again there were good buildings and well-equipped for the
times. The furniture of these buildings usually consisted of stools for
the children and a seat with a back for the teacher. The Athenian boy
left home at daybreak for school and he did not get back home till
sunset, but this was somewhat offset by the frequent closing of the
school for holidays and festivals. The discipline was quite severe, the
stick and the strap being much in evidence, and yet the teachers of
ancient Greece do not appear to have been more cruel than those of
Europe and of the earlier days in America.

In reading, the child was first taught his letters and their sounds,
next came the learning of syllables, and this was followed by the
learning of words, and the learning of the sentence came at the last.
After he had learned to read, the boy was given Homer and other Greek
writers. The teacher would recite the selection and the pupil would then
repeat it. The poems were carefully explained to the children and
questions asked them after such explanation.

Paper made from the bark of the papyrus-plant and parchment were used
for writing on. To write on the paper and parchment reeds, split and
pointed-like pens were used. Both black and red ink were used in the
writing. Such were not used by the school-boy, as he had wax tablets,
which were made by covering a small, thin board with a layer of wax. The
boy used an ivory or metal pencil for writing on the tablet. One end of
the pencil was made pointed for this purpose and the other end was
flattened so that the pupil could smooth over the wax when the tablet
was to be used again. The teacher would write letters and words, which
the boys copied. At times he would guide the hand of a beginner. Also
sometimes the copies were made deep in the wax and the children would
trace them.

There was no such thing as school education of girls and young women in
Athens, no public training whatever. The Athenians held that woman's
place was in the home and that she should not take part in public life.
Hence, according to their ideas, the girl needed no education beyond
what would be required for the life within doors, such as would fit her
to perform what they considered the simple duties that would come to her
as wife and mother. The education of the girl, therefore, fell solely to
the mother, aided by the other women of the household. The girl was
taught to sew, spin, knit, weave, etc., and sometimes she learned to
read and to write and to play on the lyre and sing. It is true there
were women at Athens who were educated, and some of them were most
highly learned, but they were not citizens of Athens, being foreigners
and known as the hetairai. These women were discussed in a previous
section of this chapter, so there is no need of further statements here.

Education in Sparta and in Athens comprehended in a general way much the
same, as gymnastic and music were the two basic elements. The gymnastic
education consisted not only in the exercising of the muscles, but also
in the training for endurance to fit the young men for the fatiguing
duties of the life of a soldier. Also music was broadened to include
literary and moral training as well as music in its narrower sense. If
the Spartan education did crush out much of individuality with the men,
yet it did allow advantages to its women as no other education, in that
the public training of the girls and the taking part in public affairs
by the women gave to them great opportunities for growth. If the
Athenian education did allow individual expression to the men, yet in
confining the women to the narrow place of the home at Athens and in not
allowing them to have any part in public education and public life, it
narrowed the life of the woman in Athens more than was narrowed the life
of the man in Sparta. There are things to praise and things to condemn
in the education of Athens as well as that of Sparta.

LITERATURE

1. Anderson, Lewis F., History of common school education.

2. Davidson, Thomas, The education of the Greek people.

3. Davis, William Stearns, A day in old Athens.

4. Dean, Amos, The history of civilization.

5. Donaldson, James, Woman, Her position and influence in ancient Rome
and Greece, and among the early Christians.

6. Duncker, Max, History of Greece.

7. Felton, C. C., Greece, ancient and modern.

8. Gamble, Eliza Burt, The evolution of woman.

9. Gardner, E. Norman, Greek athletic sports and festivals.

10. Gardner, Ernest Arthur, Ancient Athens.

11. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, Before the middle
ages.

12. Guhl, E., and Koner, W., The life of the Greeks and Romans.

13. Gulick, Charles Burton, The life of the ancient Greeks.

14. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

15. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

16. Mahaffy, J. P., Old Greek education.

17. Mahaffy, J. P., Social life in Greece.

18. Tucker, T. G., Life in ancient Athens.

CHAPTER X

THE CHILD IN ROME

=Characteristics.= It is one of the world problems to determine just the
cause for the origin and building up of a great city from which arose a
great nation as Rome. This is one of the great puzzling questions that
seems can never be correctly answered. But whatever the cause of the
origin of the Romans, there is no question about their accomplishments.
From a few mud huts on the bank of the Tiber river filled with savage or
semi-civilized people there grew up one of the very greatest ruling
forces the world has ever known, conquering the known world and
controlling all from the center at Rome with power and wisdom that seem
miraculous. The Romans possessed intense personality and keen power of
organization and control. They believed in the state and that each
individual owed it a duty, and yet they conceived that the state existed
for the individual and needed each one as well as the individual needed
the state. This view of the state and the individual enabled the Romans
to base the state on law and to respect law when once established.
Through this view they became lovers of law and order. They were
essentially practical and from their attacking the problems of the world
in a business and thoughtful way they became strong in administrative
ability and through which they evolved a sound jurisprudence, which was
bequeathed to humanity. The old Romans were men of both moral and
physical vigor and of strong thought; they were utilitarian, proud,
overbearing, selfish, cruel, and rapacious; with strong self-will they
met humanity and nature and conquered both, which is shown on nature by
remains of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and other structures, while their
language yet dominates a large part of the world and their laws a yet
still larger portion.

"Rome was one continual city of noise and bustle. Horace had complained
of the turmoil going on night and day, the scurry and crowding of the
streets from whose 'torrents and tempests' he hastened to escape into
the chaste solitude of the Sabine hills. But during the first century
population and activity increased apace, reaching its zenith, perhaps,
in the days of Martial and Juvenal. Before daybreak the bakers would be
hawking their loaves, and the shepherds, coming into the town from the
surrounding districts, their milk: then the infant schools would begin
intoning the alphabet, and with hammer and saw the rasping workshops
were set going. Creaking wagons would haul huge blocks of stone and
trunks of trees, with the weight of which the ground would quake,
heavily laden beasts of burden jostled the foot-passenger; on all sides
jolting and knocks and trampling, a fine confusion in which pickpockets
reap their advantage. Here, says Martial (100 A. D.), the money-changer
clatters Nero's bad coin down on his dirty table, and there a workman is
hammering Spanish gold on an anvil. A procession of raving priests of
Bellona is shrieking uninterruptedly; a shipwrecked sailor, with a
fragment of the wreck wrapped up in his hand, is begging alms; a Jewish
lad, sent out by his mother to beg; the call of a blear-eyed peddler
from the other side of the Tiber, offering sulphur matches for broken
glass. Jugglers, some with trained animals (Juvenal speaks of a monkey
riding a goat and swinging a spear), Marsian snake-eaters and
snake-charmers are calling for spectators for their craft. Peddlers,
peddling old clothes, linen and what-not, carriers of pea-flour and
smoking sausages, butchers with a reeking quarter of beef, and the foot,
the guts and the blood-red lung,--each, to his own screeching tune,
proclaiming his own wares."[176]

=The People.= In early Rome the population was divided into three
classes, as in Greece, which comprised citizens with full rights and
privileges, aliens with no rights of their own, and slaves who were
regarded as mere property. But Rome, unlike Greece, did not remain a
small territory, but extended its realm to include the parts of Italy
about it and then all Italy and then the land about the Mediterranean,
and then expanded to other parts of the earth, making a vast territory.
Roman citizenship was gradually extended till it reached out into this
territory. So the original three divisions did not continue to be
maintained closely but there grew up three other divisions of the
people. These were the patricians, the equites, and the plebeians, all
of whom were of the free population, enjoying the citizenship of Rome
but not having the same privileges. The patricians, or _ordo
senatorius_, were of the governing class; the equites, or _ordo
equester_, included the middle class, the business people such as
bankers, merchants, contractors, and the like; the plebeians included
the great body of citizens, the common people.

=Slavery.= The greatest development of slavery was at Rome, reaching its
high point in the last century of the Republic. The Romans had slaves
from the earliest history. In the early times those who held slaves
usually did not have more than two or three each, but as the years went
on civic conditions changed and a great demand for slaves arose and the
numbers increased till in the time of Augustus it is estimated that the
whole number of free citizens in Rome might have been a half million or
more and the slave population half that number, one in every three of
the population of Rome at that time being a slave.[177]

The slaves came from the children of slaves, from persons becoming
slaves under the law of debt, from importations from other slave-holding
countries, from kidnappers who snatched up people from other countries
and even from the coasts of Italy, but the great source of all was from
captives in the numerous wars waged by Rome upon other peoples. It is
claimed that in one campaign there were 150,000 people sold into slavery
at its close. Slave-dealers followed the armies and there were
slave-markets at Rome and other cities. Slaves were sold in open market
just as animals and at high-tide prices were very low. There were all
kinds of slaves, as they came from many parts of Africa, Asia, and
Europe. The greatest number were used in agriculture and in domestic
service. There were all kinds of mechanics among the slaves and some
most highly skilled. There were educated slaves coming from Greece and
other countries of the East, so that they were used for the training of
the young and for the carrying on of business for their masters. There
even were physicians and surgeons among the slaves, many households
having one to look after the needs of the free and the slave. There also
were slaves whose duty it was to give amusement and entertainment, such
as musicians, dancers, acrobats, jugglers, rope-walkers, and the like.
Too, there were poor dwarfs and simple-minded among the slaves, who
were used to amuse master and mistress and guests as did the jesters of
the courts in Europe later.

In the early times when each family had but few slaves, they were well
treated and well cared for, being considered as members of the
household. But later, and especially when slaves became so numerous and
cheap, they were often treated very badly and neglected. The slaves were
the absolute property of the masters and unprotected by the law, but
later laws were made for their protection. The punishments were often
extremely severe. They were brutally beaten, legs fettered, heavy iron
collars put around their necks, thrown into dungeons, put at hard labor
till worn out. Their capital punishment was crucifixion, being thrown to
the animals of the vivarium, or set to fight the fierce beasts in the
amphitheater. They were not always treated badly and even some became
greatly esteemed by master and mistress and sometimes master and slave
became friends, as some slaves were highly educated and accomplished
men. Such slaves were usually set free and thus became freemen.

It is not necessary to discuss here the effect of slavery upon the
citizen or the nation, for the world has fully decided that slavery is
not good for the slave nor for the master nor for the state.

=The Home.= "The oldest Italian dwelling was a mere wigwam, with a
hearth in the middle of the floor and a hole at the top to let the smoke
out."[178] As Rome kept growing the houses kept improving until within
the city the buildings became among the most wonderful and beautiful in
the world. Also the Romans built beautiful country residences, _villas_,
out from Rome. Little was known about the houses of the Romans until
Pompeii and other cities were discovered in the middle of the eighteenth
century, having been buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A. D. The
houses and contents in Pompeii were well preserved, as the city was
covered with ashes, while the other places were more or less destroyed
by streams of lava.

When Rome became so filled with people, only the wealthy were able to
have houses of their own, the well-to-do and the poor had to find place
in huge lodging-houses called _insulae_ (islands), because they occupied
the entire block and so were surrounded by streets. Before the great
fire in the time of Nero, the streets were irregular and narrow. In the
earlier times of the Republic the houses were three or four stories high
and the number of stories grew until the time of Augustus, the maximum
height of the frontage of a private building was made 70 feet (Roman
measure), which gave room for six or seven stories which height was
reduced after the fire of Nero to 60 feet, five or six stories. These
houses were erected by speculators and were of poor material and poorly
constructed, so that they were continually crumbling and tumbling and
burning down. Being cheaply constructed and poorly repaired they did not
afford great protection against the weather and so it was fortunate for
the poor people that the climate of Italy for the most part favored an
out-of-door life.

There were three parts in a Roman house, which were arranged in the same
order in almost every house, although there might have been other rooms
attached to them. In front was the _atrium_, partly covered; then came a
center space, the _tablinum_, which was entirely covered; and adjoining
this latter was the _peristylium_, an open court surrounded by columns.

The _atrium_ was the essential feature that marked off the Roman house
from that of Greece and other countries of the East. In the primitive
houses, and in later times with the poor and the middle classes, this
was used for both kitchen and sitting-room, while with the wealthier
people it was the reception-room. This contained the family hearth and
altar. The street door did not open directly from the street but there
was a passage from the street and the door was placed at the end of this
passage. Usually there was a square opening in the roof of the _atrium_
for light and in the floor underneath this opening was a cistern for
receiving the water that rained in and there were pipes under the floor
for carrying off the water.

The _tablinum_ was usually separated from the _atrium_ by curtains. This
contained the family records and archives; the _peristylium_ was a later
addition to the Roman house, coming when Greek architecture became to be
used in the buildings. This became the ornamental part of the house,
with fountains and flowers and shrubbery occupying the center of the
court, surrounded by pillars and open to the sky. There were other
rooms, among them being the _alae_, small rooms at the right and left of
the _atrium_, and from the _peristylium_ opened the _triclinium_, dining
room, the _culina_, kitchen, and the _sacrarium_, chapel.

The street door was of wood, having two leaves (a folding-door), moving
on pivots, and in private houses opening inward and outward in public
buildings. When opening inward the door was secured by a bolt and when
opening outward by lock and key. There were but few windows and in
general only in rooms above the ground floor. Paper, linen cloth, horn,
and mica were used in the windows and glass seems to have come into use
under the early emperors. The walls were decorated with paintings. The
floors of the primitive houses consisted of clay and then came bricks
and tiles and stones and later the houses of the wealthy class had
marble and mosaics.

"The Romans resorted to various methods of warming their rooms. They
made use of portable furnaces for carrying embers and burning coals to
warm the different apartments of the house, and which they seem to have
placed in the middle of the room. They also had a method of heating the
rooms by hot air, which was conveyed by means of pipes through the
different apartments. They also had a kind of stove, in which wood
appears to have been usually burned. It has been a matter of much
dispute whether the Romans had chimneys to carry off the smoke, but it
does not appear that these were entirely unknown to the Romans."[179]

There were four representative kinds of chairs used by the Romans. The
first kind was a folding-stool with curved legs placed crosswise; the
second kind had four perpendicular legs and were without backs; the
third kind were similar to the second but had a back; and the fourth
kind was a chair of state, with high or low back, the back and legs
being ornamented.

The couches were of three kinds. There was the low dining-couch, upon
which they reclined at meals; then there were the beds for sleep at
night or siesta by day; and the third kind had usually two arms but no
back and which were chiefly used for reading or writing at night. With
the bed was the mattress, filled with straw or sheep's wool or the down
of geese and swans; bolsters and cushions, stuffed as the mattress;
blankets and sheets, of simple material or dyed and embroidered; pillows
for propping the head or the left elbow of the sleeping or reclining
persons; and footstools.

They had benches of wood and stone and bronze, some of them being
semi-circular and large enough to hold quite a number of people. There
were square, round, and crescent-shaped tables, some being quite large,
others smaller with three legs, and a one-legged table, often quite
small and made of the rarest material and elegant in design. There were
pots and pans of various kinds, and buckets and dishes and
drinking-vessels, and other kinds of vessels.

The houses at night were lighted with lamps. The lamp consisted of the
oil-reservoir, which contained the oil, the nose, through which went the
wick, and the handle to carry it by. The lamps were put on stands or
were suspended from lamp-holders or they hung down from the ceiling. The
stands and lamp-holders that were used by the poorer people were made of
common wood or metal, while those of the rich were of costly material
and often most beautifully adorned with figures of all kinds of animals
carved upon them. They had lanterns also, which had for covering horn,
oiled canvas, and bladder, and later, glass.

=Women.= There were three classes of women at Rome--the citizen-woman,
the alien, and the slave. Unlike as in Athens, the foreign woman never
rose to prominence at Rome but it was the citizen-woman who took rank
always before any other. Nor was a male citizen allowed to marry an
alien woman, for citizens were wanted and, therefore, both parents
needed to be citizens. But as citizenship was expanded to the parts of
the world outside of Rome, the alien woman became a citizen, and so a
Roman could marry her and still maintain his own and his offspring's
rights.

In the early times the woman remained at home. She engaged in spinning
and weaving and other household duties, and she had supreme control of
household affairs. She was under the authority of her husband and she
had no individual rights in property and she could not make a will.
Later she acquired more rights and privileges. The condition of women at
Rome was quite a deal better than at Athens or in any other country
previous to Roman times. For at Rome women were allowed more freedom and
participation in public affairs, they were allowed more to share in the
joys and pleasures of the husband and other people, and they enjoyed a
greater confidence and esteem of the men.

That Roman women appeared in public and that they were not afraid to
stand up for their rights is illustrated in the following. In 215 B. C.,
when Rome needed resources for the second Punic war, the Oppian Law, was
passed which forbade any woman to have gold trinkets of the weight of
more than half an ounce, to wear a parti-colored garment, or to ride in
a chariot within the city of Rome or a town occupied by Roman citizens
or within a mile of these places, except for a religious purpose. Twenty
years later, when the war was over and prosperity had returned, the
women asked for the repeal of this law. They started a campaign and
talked about it in every place, they interviewed men on the street, and
they stated the case to every one that had a vote. Women from towns and
villages came into Rome to help. On the day of the vote, the women rose
early and filled the streets to the Forum and used every means to gain
their cause. They finally overcame the opposition, the law was repealed,
and the women recovered their liberty of riding and dressing as they had
formerly done.

The Roman women would even go to greater extremes than the conducting of
a political campaign. Over a hundred years before the event recorded
above, when the women had much less privileges, when the despotic
actions of husbands became unendurable, the women sought a way of
rescuing themselves. At the time a number of men of the upper classes
were attacked by an unknown disease, in every case attended by similar
symptoms, and nearly all died. No cause could be found until a female
slave offered to explain upon promise of freedom and to suffer no harm
in consequence. Upon the Senate's guaranteeing such to her, she told
them that the deaths were from poison, that the wives met together to
compound the poison. She took the officials to the place, where they
found the women preparing the ingredients. The women were charged with
the matter, and to prove their innocence they partook of the drugs, upon
which death followed, and with the same symptoms as with the men. Upon
investigation 170 of the women were found guilty and it is held that 300
or more wives had entered into the plot to put their husbands to death.
Some doubts are thrown upon this story by some historians but at any
rate it is stated that the Romans believed it and told it for the truth.

Another story is told of women's appearing in public. At the time of the
second triumvirate, funds being needed, a decree was passed requiring
that fourteen hundred of the richest women should make a valuation of
their property, under severe penalties against concealment or
undervaluation, and that they should turn over such a portion as the
triumvirs might require. The women appealed to the sister of one of the
triumvirs and to the mother and wife of another but with little success.
They then in a body went to the tribunal of the triumvirs, whose acts no
man dared question, making for their spokesman, Hortensia, the daughter
of the famous orator, Hortensius, and protested against the edict. It is
claimed this is the first time to be enunciated the principle of "no
taxation without representation." They succeeded in getting the amount
reduced to a comparatively small sum.

There are some other instances of the public assembling of women. Under
the empire there was an assembly of women known as the _conventus
matronarum_, or the "little senate," as one writer of the time named it.
The Emperor Heliogabalus built on the Quirinal a meeting-place for this
body. This body of matrons met and discussed and voted upon and decided
the various points of court etiquette, such as questions of dress,
precedence, and the use of carriages.

The public standing of the citizen-woman at Athens has been given in the
quotations on pages 179-181, which may be compared with the public
standing of the citizen-woman at Rome as given in the following:

"If we take the period of Roman history from 150 B. C. to 150 A. D., we
shall be surprised at the number of the women of whom it is recorded
that they were loved ardently by their husbands, exercised a beneficial
influence on them, and helped them in their political or literary work.
Many of these women had received an excellent education, they were
capable and thoughtful, and took an active interest in the welfare of
the State. It is well known that it was Cornelia, the mother of the
Gracchi, who inspired her sons with the resolution to cope with the
evils that beset the State, and her purpose did not waver when she knew
they had to face death in their country's cause. Julia, the daughter of
Julius Cæsar, and the wife of Pompey, kept the two leaders on good terms
as long as she lived, and acted with great sweetness and prudence.
Cornelia, Pompey's second wife, was a woman of great culture, and a most
faithful and devoted wife. Plutarch thus describes her: 'The young woman
possessed many charms besides her youthful beauty, for she was well
instructed in letters, in playing on the lyre, and in geometry, and she
had been accustomed to listen to philosophical discourses with profit.
In addition to this, she had a disposition free from all affectation and
pedantic display, which such acquirements generally breed in women.'
The intervention of Octavia, the wife of Antony, in affairs of state was
entirely beneficial and judicious. The first Agrippina displayed courage
and energy, herself crushed a mutiny among the soldiers, and was in
every way a help to her husband. Tacitus praises his mother-in-law, the
wife of Agricola, as a model of virtue, and he describes her as living
in the utmost harmony with her husband, each preferring the other in
love. And Pliny the younger gives a beautiful picture of his wife
Calpurnia, telling a friend how she showed the greatest ability,
frugality, and knowledge of literature. Especially 'she has my books,'
he says; 'she reads them again and again; she even commits them to
memory. What anxiety she feels when I am going to make a speech before
the judges, what joy when I have finished it. She places people here and
there in the audience to bring her word what applauses have been
accorded to my speech, what has been the issue of the trial. If I give
readings of my works anywhere, she sits close by, separated by a screen,
and drinks in my praises with most greedy ears. My verses also she
sings, and sets them to the music of the lyre, no artist guiding her,
but only love, who is the best master.'

"These are only a few of the numerous instances that might be adduced,
in which wives behaved with a gentleness or courage or self-abnegation
worthy of all praise. It is true that they took an active part in the
management of affairs, but, on the whole, it must be allowed that they
acted with great good sense. And there is a curious proof of this in the
times of the Empire. Wives went with their husbands to their provinces,
and often took part in the administration of them. Some of the old stern
moralists were for putting an end to this state of matters, and proposed
that they should not be allowed to accompany their husbands to their
spheres of duty; but, after a debate in the Senate, the measure was
rejected by a large majority, who thereby affirmed that their help was
beneficial.

"No doubt it was their good sense, their kindliness, and their
willingness to co-operate with men, that led to their freedom and power
in political matters. And this power was sometimes very great. Cicero,
in a letter to Atticus, relates an interview which he had at Antium 44
B. C. with Brutus and Cassius. Favorinus was also present, and besides
him there were three women--Servilia, the mother of Brutus; Tertulla,
the wife of Cassius and sister of Brutus; and Porcia, the wife of
Brutus and daughter of Cato. Servilia strikes in twice in the course of
the discussion, and it is evident that her words carried weight. On one
occasion she promises to get a clause expunged from a decree of the
Senate. There must have been many such deliberations where women were
present."[180]

Since women entered into public affairs at Rome, it would be natural to
conclude they would enter upon some of the public vocations that were
occupied solely by men in the earlier times. It would seem that they did
enter into the medical profession but, perhaps, not the better class of
women and maybe not the citizen-women at all. Since medical art was
introduced from Greece, most all the men that followed it were Greek
freedmen and likewise the women were likely of the same nationality and
standing. Whether there were women lawyers or not, it is true women were
permitted to appear in court in their own defense, which some few, at
least, did. In religion the cult of Vesta was entirely in their hands,
they had the leading part in conducting the rites of Ceres and other
female deities, and the wives of priests in some instances held official
positions along with their husbands.

"Women occupied themselves, too, with literature. Very little is known
of their writings and this mostly from the male writers of their period,
who did not place a high estimate upon these compositions of the women,
either prose or poetry. Many of the women who did not take an active
part in literature did interest themselves in the writings of relatives
and friends. Other women became critics and took pride in expressing
their views, while others directed their energies toward philosophy and
science.

"Ladies, when not poets, were critics, and as such, deemed by Juvenal
worse than tipplers. Before they had been five minutes at table, they
began to discourse æsthetically on Homer and Virgil, monopolizing the
conversation, with a hammer and tong-like effect. They paraded their
snacks of knowledge, made quotations from forgotten authors; grammar in
hand, corrected their friends' slips. A woman, says Juvenal, may have
the encyclopædia by heart and yet know nothing. Martial, too, mocks the
purist woman, and yearns, as his life-wish, for a not too learned
wife."[181]

"In the good old days of the legitimate drama under Plautus, Terence,
Accius, and Pacuvius, women never appeared upon the stage. Feminine
rôles were taken by men in female dress. But, with the appearance of the
mime and the farce in the first century before our era, women began to
take part in theatrical and musical performances. Their larger
participation in such matters under the Empire is proved by the
discovery of the burying place of a guild of women mimes, just outside
of Rome, along the highways leading from the city. Women took a very
active part in public musical performances, if we may draw an inference
from the number of epitaphs which we find in honor of women who had been
solo singers and flute players."[182] Women entered, also, into the
commoner affairs of public life, as costumers, seamstresses,
washerwomen, weavers, fishmongers, barmaids, and the like.

"If we make a general survey of the facts which have been noted above,
it is clear that Roman women took an active part in the literary and
religious life of the time, and in many of the cults held priesthoods or
officially recognized positions from very early times. Their interest in
literature, however, was not serious, and they have produced very little
of permanent value. In the practice of law they never succeeded in
getting a sure foothold. Women of the lower classes entered freely into
the medical profession and the trades, but so far as medicine is
concerned women confined their practice to members of their own sex. The
principal branches of business which they took up were those connected
with the manufacture of wearing apparel. The pursuits of the shopkeeper
and the artisan were naturally left to the lower classes, but women of
standing in society engaged in industries organized on a large scale, as
we can see clearly enough in the case of the brick business."[183]

In the early days of Rome, while the people were struggling to maintain
themselves and the nation, the virtue of the women stood out strong. But
as the days of hardships passed and comfort and ease and luxury came in
with the conquests, laxity of morals arose till under the empire, if the
writers of the times may be believed, licentiousness and not virtue was
the dominant trait of the women as well as the men. Yet there were many
good women, as is shown in the quotations a few pages back.

The social vices of Asia found place in Rome and while heretofore only
the foreign women were of evil character, at the time of the empire the
citizen-women entered into the life, and in 19 A. D. even a woman of
prætorian birth registered herself at the ædile's as a prostitute. This
created quite a feeling at Rome and a decree was made by the Senate that
any woman whose grandfather, father, or husband had been a knight should
not be enrolled as a public woman.

The public life of the times, too, tended toward the lowering of the
standard of women. The circus, the theater, and the amphitheater were
open to them and they attended in great numbers and witnessed the
indecent and obscene acts and the debasing fights and slaughters. It
became the fashion for women even of the highest rank to interest
themselves in the actors, athletes, circus-drivers, gladiators,
stage-singers, vocalists, and musicians, and often going into excesses.
Pantomime dancers were the favorites with the women as they "were very
beautiful young men, whose art lent them fresh grace. About 22 or 23 A.
D. they were banished from Italy, on account of the factions they
caused, and their relations with women, who must have been of high rank,
otherwise no such ordinance would have been passed."[184] Also there
were the banquets, which gave further opportunities for the meeting of
the women with the men. With their obscene songs and dances and stories
added to enflaming food and drinks, they helped to debase women and to
arouse their passions.

=Marriage.= In the earlier days of Rome, when religion was purer than in
later times, and children were desired to perpetuate the household
religion, celibacy was looked upon as an undesired state and deserving
censure; but in later times, when high moral and religious tendencies
went down, childlessness was preferred to parenthood and celibacy to
marriage. Marriage was a very important affair as it meant the bringing
of a stranger into the household to enter into the family worship, to
take part in the sacrifices to the household gods, the deities which
presided over the welfare of that particular family. Thus it was a
solemn obligation and one which deserved careful consideration. Up to
the time of Augustus, there were no laws in regard to marriage, except
as to the disposition of the dowries, as previous to that time it was
deemed essentially a private transaction.

To understand marriage at Rome, it is needed to keep in mind that a
woman was always considered to be under the control of a man--father,
husband, or guardian. Marriage might or might not mean the transfer of
this right to the husband, so that there were two general kinds of
marriage contracts. By the one, _cum conventione_, the wife passed from
her father's family into the family of her husband, _in manum convenit_,
and stood in relation to her husband as a daughter, she surrendered her
patrimony and became one of her husband's legal heirs. In the second,
_sine conventione_, the wife remained under the rule of her father, as
before the marriage, and retained her own property and her right of
inheritance in her father's estate. In the first case, the wife became a
_materfamilias_ while in the second she was simply an _uxor_.

In the marriage, _sine conventione_, there was, perhaps, no form
required as cohabitation of the man and woman constituted the marriage.
In the marriage, _cum conventione_, there were three forms--_usus_,
_coemptio_, and _confarreatio_. Marriage by _usus_ prevailed among the
plebian, common people; marriage by _coemptio_ was the one commonly
practised by the middle classes; and marriage by _confarreatio_ was the
favorite form in the highest social circles.

Marriage by _usus_ was the simplest form, in which the wife entered into
her husband's _manus_, if she lived a whole year in the man's house,
both parties agreeing to the relation. In this case then the father's
power was gone and he could not even compel the wife to leave her
husband's home. But should the woman absent herself from the man's house
for three nights in succession during the year, then the bond was
broken. In the times when divorce was denied to the woman, she would
often avail herself of this right of remaining away three nights in a
year, so that if need arose she could have herself claimed by her father
or guardian and in this way she could leave her husband.

In marriage by _coemptio_, there was a kind of mutual purchase, a
fictitious sale, which the couple made to each other of their person, in
which each delivered to the other a small piece of money and repeated
certain words. The father emancipated his daughter in favor of her
future husband and she came to sustain to the husband the relation of a
daughter, took his name, gave up all her goods to him, and declared that
she entered into the union of her own free will.

Marriage by _confarreatio_ was the only form that required religious
ceremonies. This was the most solemn and stately form of marriage as
well as the oldest. By it the wife came into the absolute power of the
husband by sacred laws but likewise she became a partner in all his
substance and in his sacred rights. In case of the husband's death
without will the wife inherited equally with the children and if no
children then she inherited his whole fortune. This was a public
ceremony, conducted by the pontifex maximus or the flamen dialis, in the
presence of at least ten witnesses, and the bridal couple tasted a cake
made of a sort of wheat called _far_, which with a sheep, was offered in
sacrifice to the gods. The priests themselves had to be married by this
ceremony and none but the children of such marriage could ever become
flamen of Jupiter, Mars, or Quirinus, or vestal virgins.

A true marriage could be made only between Roman citizens, but as Roman
citizenship became widely extended there was thus much latitude for
choice. The lowest age for marriage was fixed by law at fourteen for the
males and twelve for the female, but usually the girl did not marry
before fifteen or sixteen and the boy not till he attained manhood, yet
there were a number of instances of early marriages. A woman of twenty
or a man of twenty-five who was not a parent became liable to the decree
of Augustus against celibacy and childlessness. All within the sixth
degree of relationship were originally prohibited from marriage, but
later this was lowered to relatives of the fourth degree and when, in 49
A. D., the Senate permitted the Emperor Claudius to marry Agrippina, the
daughter of his brother Germanicus, it was lowered to the third degree.
But a woman was not permitted to marry her maternal uncle nor a man
either his paternal or maternal aunt.

Marriage was a family arrangement, a matter of family convenience,
hence, although the law made the consent of the girl necessary, yet
really it was wholly in the hands of the parents, for it is well known
that children were sometimes betrothed by the parents at a very early
age, and the girl was married at the beginning of her thirteenth year,
both betrothal and marriage being at an age when the child was wholly
under the control of the parent. In the early times, the betrothal was a
simple affair but later it became quite formal. This occurred at night
or early morning, in the latter case the friends assembling at early
dawn at the home of the girl's father or the nearest relative. The
amount of the girl's dowry having been agreed upon, a contract was
drawn up and signed and sealed by both parties in the presence of
witnesses. The boy then gave the girl, as a pledge, an iron ring without
ornament or jewels, which the girl placed upon the third finger of the
left hand, as from this was believed to be a nerve leading directly to
the heart. This was followed by a banquet or feast. The engagement might
be broken by either party or by the guardians of either with no legal
penalty attached and sometimes this gave the young man or young woman
opportunity to escape a union not desired. But as long as a betrothal
lasted it imposed certain restrictions, one being that betrothed persons
could not testify against one another in the courts. There was usually
quite an interval of time between the betrothal and the marriage, but
that did not affect the relations of the couple, as they were not
together any more than before the betrothal so that really they did not
get to know one another till after they were married.

On the night before her marriage the girl put off her _toga prætexta_
and her mother placed on her a long white garment called a _tunica
recta_ or _regilla_, and her loosened hair was confined in a scarlet
net. The next day, the wedding-day, the girl put on her wedding-dress,
which was a long white robe, gathered in at the waist by a woolen girdle
tied in the knot of Hercules, a true-lover's knot, and said to be a
charm against the evil eye. The _flammeum_, or wedding-veil, was of a
brilliant orange red, or flame-color, quite full, of thin, fine stuff,
and it was thrown over the head from behind, leaving the face exposed,
and then draped gracefully about her. The bride's hair was divided into
six strands or stresses by the bridegroom with the point of a spear, and
then ribbons or fillets were bound between the tresses and the hair was
braided and confined to the head. On these braids and under the veil was
worn a garland of natural flowers which the bride herself had gathered.

"The costume of the bride is a complete allegory. This orange-red veil,
this saffron-colored _flammeum_, which covers her head and allows only
the face to be seen, is the usual ornament of the flamen's wife, to whom
divorce is prohibited; the white tunic represents virginity; the
head-dress raised in the form of a tower, almost like that of the
vestals, with a javelot which runs through it, indicates that the wife
is in submission to her husband; the chaplet of vervain is the symbol
of fecundity, and the girdle of wool which is tied round her waist bears
witness to her chastity."[185]

Weddings could not take place on any day of the year as there were
restrictions in reference to such. As a great number of religious
festivals occurred in the early summer, requiring the constant
attendance of the priests, marriages were forbidden to take place during
the whole month of May and the first half of June. On the _dies
parentales_, from the thirteenth to the twenty-first of February,
marriages could not take place, as on these days there were memorial
services for deceased kindred and offerings to their _manes_.
Wedding-days could not be placed upon August 24, October 5, and November
8, as the underworld was supposed to stand open on these days, so they
were most unlucky days. Nor could such other unlucky days be used as the
kalenda, nones, or ides of any month. Nor was it considered appropriate
for young girls to be married on religious holidays, although widows
could do so. The best time was considered to be that which followed the
ides of June.

The guests having assembled in the early morning at the home of the
bride's father, or of her nearest relative, the bride being decked out
in her wedding garments and the bridegroom having arrived, the wedding
ceremonies began with the taking of auspices. In earlier times this was
done by observing the flight of birds, but later by the examination of
the entrails of an animal, which was conducted by an _haruspex_, a
professional diviner. If the omens were favorable, then the wedding
sacrifice was made, usually a sheep, and the skin was spread over stools
or chairs, on which the bridal pair sat. The right hands of the pair
were then joined by a _pronuba_, a woman who had been married but once
and who thus acted as a kind of priestess, and the bride signified her
willingness to come into the _manus_ of the bridegroom and to take his
name by repeating the formula, "_Quando tu Gaius, ego Gaia_," "You being
Gaius, I am Gaia." The wedding party then went to a temple or public
altar, where offerings and prayer were made to the _flamen dialis_ to
the gods, especially to June as the patron of marriage. During the
offering, the bridal pair sat side by side, while during the prayer they
walked together slowly around the altar. These completed, then all
returned to the house of the bride's father where a great feast was
held.

At nightfall the feast ended and then came the _deductio_, the leading
home of the bride. The bridegroom and his friends made a pretense of
snatching the bride away from her father's house, in commemoration of
the rape of the Sabines. In reality the father was the only one who
could break the bonds that attached the bride to the hearth of her
ancestors, where she was under the protection of the household gods, and
so he handed her over to the husband and his family to enter into the
new relations with them. The bride was escorted by three boys, sons of
living parents, two of them holding her by the hand, the other one going
before her bearing the bridal torch of white thorn, to drive away the
malevolent spirits. Her way was lighted by four married women bearing
pine torches and behind her was borne a distaff, a spindle, and in a
basket the instruments for feminine work. The procession went through
the streets singing, accompanied by flutes, bonfires were lit in the
streets and the streets were lined with people, and specially with
children, as the bridegroom threw nuts to them to show that he had given
up childish things, the bride also having given up her dolls and
playthings by offering them to the household gods who had protected her
childhood.

As the bride came to the door of her new home, she rubbed oil on the
doorposts and then wound woolen bands around them, in order to keep off
baleful spells. She was then lifted up by her companions so that her
feet might not touch the threshold, sacred to Vesta, the virgin goddess.
In the _atrium_, she received from her husband the symbolic gifts of
fire and water. The two then knelt together and with the bridal torch
lighted their first hearth fire, offered a sacrifice, and broke the cake
of _far_, and ate it together. The husband then presented the keys of
the house to the wife to show that henceforth she was to have the
management of the household. The day was ended with a feast given by the
bridegroom to the relatives and friends.

"No one who studies this ceremonial of Roman marriage, in the light of
the ideas which it indicates and reflects, can avoid the conclusion that
the position of the married woman must have been one of substantial
dignity, calling for and calling out a corresponding type of character.
Beyond doubt the position of the Roman materfamilias was a much more
dignified one than that of the Greek wife. She was far indeed from being
a mere drudge or squaw; she shared with her husband in all the duties
of the household, including those of religion, and within the house
itself she was practically supreme. She lived in the atrium, and was not
shut away in a woman's chamber; she nursed her own children and brought
them up; she had entire control of the female slaves who were her maids;
she took her meals with her husband, but sitting, not reclining, and
abstaining from wine; in all practical matters she was consulted, and
only on questions politically and intellectual was she expected to be
silent. When she went out arrayed in the graceful _stola matronalis_,
she was treated with respect, and the passers-by made way for her; but
it is characteristic of her position that she did not as a rule leave
the house without the knowledge of her husband, or without an
escort."[186]

The wife was expected to lament for her husband upon his death and
during the time of mourning certain prohibitions were imposed upon her,
but these were not imposed upon the widower. Severe penalties were
placed upon a widow who married within ten months after the death of her
husband. When a widow married, if the husband went to live in her home,
the bed upon which the former husband died was removed, the door of the
bed-chamber was changed, and the things in the rooms were moved about,
that there might be as few reminders as possible of the former husband.

Concubinage existed, but not polygamy, as monogamy was strictly enforced
at Rome. This was so closely guarded that a divorced man could not marry
again unless the divorce was an effective one. Concubinage was usually
between parties that could not enter into a legal marriage, and thus the
concubine was usually a woman of low estate, often a freedwoman. The
offspring were considered illegitimate and could not enter into the
inheritance.

In the early times there were no divorces in Rome. It is claimed that
there were no divorces during the first five hundred years from the
founding of the city, the first divorce occurring about 231 B. C., when
Spurius Carvilius Ruga put away his wife because she was barren. But
divorces increased till in the last years of the republic and under the
empire they became very frequent. "Seneca says, some women counted their
years, not by consuls, but by their husbands; and Juvenal, that some
divorced before the green bays of welcome had faded on the lintels, and
they might have had eight husbands in five years; Tertullian, that
women marry only in order to divorce; these exaggerations must have a
foundation in truth.... Ovid and Pliny the younger had three wives;
Cæsar and Antony four; Sulla and Pompey five; such cases must have been
frequent."[187]

There were a number of causes for divorce, in the later days, the most
common one being incompatibility of temper. In the divorce, the tablets
of the contract were broken in the presence of seven witnesses, all
adult Roman citizens. Repudiation was a less solemn act and took place
quietly in the family. In the early times, when a woman was divorced she
lost her dowry. In later times, a sixth was kept back for adultery and
an eighth for other crimes. Then, still later, it came about that if the
husband was divorced by the wife he lost the dowry, but if the wife
divorced him without a cause the husband retained a sixth of the dowry
for each child, but only up to three-sixths.

=Dress.= The Romans had two principal articles of dress--the _toga_ and
the _tunica_. The toga was made of white woolen cloth. On festival days
a new one was worn or one newly cleaned. It was woven in an oblong form
and the corners were clipped off till it took the form of an ellipse.
Its length was about three times the height of the wearer, exclusive of
the head, and its breadth at the middle about twice the same height,
although the breadth varied with time and fashion, as, in the early
period it was rather narrow, while in later times a fashionable toga was
nearly circular. In putting it on, the toga was folded in its long way
nearly in the middle and one end was thrown over the left shoulder from
behind and allowed to fall to the feet in front. The other end was then
brought across the back and under the right arm and the folds were
spread out to cover the right side of the body to the calf of the leg
and then gathered and carried across the breast and thrown backward over
the left shoulder. Thus one-third of the toga would cover the left side
and front of the body, the middle third would cover the back and right
side, and the remaining third would cover the chest and go over the left
shoulder. The diagonal folds across the breast formed the sinus, which
was often used as a pocket. It would seem that a girdle was not worn
with the toga nor pins or clasps to fasten it, but in later fashionable
times small pieces of lead were placed in the ends and hidden by tassels
which served to preserve the drapery. The white toga, without color,
_toga pura_, was the ordinary garment worn. Boys wore the _toga
prætexta_, which had a purple border, and which was discarded when
manhood was reached at fifteen or sixteen for the _toga virilis_, _pura_
or _libera_. The toga for mourning was black and in later times dark
blue also was used. Beside these there were other kinds. Only Roman
citizens were allowed to wear the toga.

The tunica was worn indoors, when the toga was thrown off, and also
outdoors, when the toga was worn over it. In the later times in cold
weather two or more tunics were worn. The tunica was a kind of woolen
shirt, at first without sleeves, then with short sleeves reaching to the
elbows, and in the time of the empire long sleeves were attached to it.
It reached down to the calves and even to the ankles. It was often
fastened to the waist by a girdle, which was used as a purse for holding
money.

Another garment was the _pænula_, a kind of cloak made of thick wool and
leather, and worn over the toga in traveling in bad weather. Another
kind of cloak, worn over the toga or tunica, was the _lacuna_, which was
made of lighter and more costly material and was worn for show as well
as for use. To both pænula and lacuna could be added a hood (_cucullus_)
for further protection from the weather.

The women in the early times wore the toga and the tunica the same as
the men. The tunica continued to be worn but there arose as distinct
apparel for women, the _stola_ and the _palla_. The stola was an oblong
garment worn over the tunica and extended to the feet. It was open at
the top on either side for the arms to go through and fastened on both
shoulders with clasps or brooches (_fibulæ_), which often were quite
costly articles. A girdle was drawn around it at the waist and then it
was pulled up and allowed to fall over the girdle till the girdle was
covered by the folds and then the lower part of the stola was pulled
down till it just touched the ground. At the bottom there was an
ornamental border. Sometimes there were sleeves to it, which were open
below and fastened together with gold or jeweled buttons or clasps. The
stola was a special garment that was permitted to be worn only by
married women of unblemished reputation. "The common courtesans were not
allowed to appear in the stola, but were compelled to wear a sort of
gown, resembling the habit of the opposite sex, and which was regarded
as a mark of infamy."[188]

The palla was a kind of cloak worn out of doors over the stola. It was
somewhat similar to the toga, as it was a square or oblong piece of
cloth. Like the toga, too, it was thrown forward over the left shoulder
and let fall to the feet, and then drawn over or under the right
shoulder and pulled across the breast and thrown over the left arm or
shoulder. When necessary to protect the head, the palla could be drawn
up over it like the toga.

The prevalent material of Roman clothing was always woolen and up to the
end of the republic the only materials used were wool and linen.
Sheep-raising for wool was one of the very most important industries.
Foreign wools, however, were imported, because the supply of native wool
was not sufficient to meet the demand and also by importing foreign wool
a variety of natural colors could be obtained, as brown, red, black,
golden-brown, reddish, and grayish. Goats' wool was not often used for
wearing apparel, usually only for coarse cloaks and overshoes. It was
woven into rough and heavy cloths for tent-coverings, blankets, and the
like, and goats' hair was used for making ropes and cables.

Linen was used for the under-garments of both men and women and for
women's belts and girdles and also linen thread was made. In the later
times the finer grades of linen for handkerchiefs, table-cloths,
napkins, bedding, and suits were all imported. Cotton and cotton fabrics
were introduced from the far East into Greece and thence into Rome. Silk
began to be used by the women toward the end of the republic and by men
under the empire.

The color of clothing was originally white, which was prescribed by law
for the toga. Poor people, slaves, and freedmen had their clothing of
the natural brown or black color of the wool. The mourning garments of
the upper classes were of dark color--black or dark blue. In later
periods the women got to using a variety of colors, selecting such as
the mode directed or as suited their particular taste, as scarlet,
violet, purple, yellow, blue, and many other colors. In imperial times
the men adopted a variety of colors for their garments, too. The wearing
of genuine purple, however, remained the exclusive privilege of the
emperors.

In early times the spinning and weaving was done at home under the
direction of the mistress of the house. But it was not long till the
work of the home did not suffice to supply the demand and large
factories (_officionæ_) were established for the weaving of both woolen
and linen goods. The garments were prepared with needle and scissors,
each wealthy household having several tailors among its slaves. Before
they could be used for garments, the woolen cloths had to be finished by
the fuller, who not only finished new cloths but also cleansed and
restored old garments.

The Romans, usually, whether indoors or out, went bareheaded, both men
and women. In case of heat or cold or rain, the men would pull the upper
part of the toga up over the head and the women used the palla in the
same way. There were times, however, when they did wear coverings upon
their heads, as, at the sacrifices, at the public games, at the
Saturnalia, upon a journey, or upon a warlike expedition. Also the
working-classes exposed to the weather wore a head-covering. These
coverings were the _pileus_ and the _petasus_. The pileus was a
close-fitting felt cap and the petasus was a felt hat with a round brim.
Sometimes the _cucullus_, a hood, was worn in place of the pileus. For
ornamentation the women would wear a veil, which was fastened to the top
of the head and drooped over neck and back in graceful folds. They also
wore the _mitra_, which was a cloth wound round the head to form a kind
of cap. They also wore a head-covering in the form of a net made of
gold-thread.

In the early times men wore their hair long and this was continued for a
long time and the wearing of short hair made slow progress and only
among the higher classes. In the late empire the close-cropped hair
became the fashion. Before the time of cropped hair it was sometimes
worn in wavy locks and again, by means of the curling-iron, it was
arranged in short curls and perfumed. Also false hair was used. The
ancient Romans wore their beards very long. The wearing the beard long
continued till the later years of the republic when it became the custom
to shave the face, but full beards came into fashion again in the later
empire. "The first hair cut from the head of a child, and a youth's
first beard, were consecrated to the gods; but the coins of the late
republican period show plainly that young men usually wore a beard,
though carefully trimmed and dressed, and were seldom clean-shaven
before forty."[189] There were barber-shops among the Romans and they
were the gathering-places of idlers and the centers of male gossip.
Among the furnishings were razors, tools to pull out the beard,
scissors, pomatums to remove hair where not desired, combs,
curling-irons, mirrors, towels, etc.

The ways of arranging the hair by the women varied in the different
periods. In the first centuries of the republic, there seems to have
been two general fashions. The hair was either parted or unparted and
then combed back in wavy lines and gathered together in a knot at the
back of the head, low down on the neck, and fastened with ribbons or
clasps, or it was wound round the top of the head like a crown. In
another way the hair was carried around the head in long curls, or the
front hair was plaited and connected with the back hair, etc. These
simple ways of arranging the hair gave place to many variegated ways and
hair-dressing became a science and the women employed special
maid-servants for the purpose or had in their employ female
hairdressers. In one fashion there was a tower-like headdress, the
natural hair being helped out with artificial hair or with wigs. The
hair was frizzled and curled and perfumed and dyed. It was kept in place
by means of ribbons and pins and hair-pins of metal or ivory and adorned
with gold ornaments and pearls and jewels. The hair was sometimes
gracefully adorned with wreaths of flowers or of branches with leaves
and blossoms.

The Romans wore shoes (_calcei_) and sandals (_sandalia_). There were
several kinds of shoes worn, as every Roman order and every tribe or
gens had a distinctive kind of shoe. The _sutor_, or shoemaker, had a
particularly respectable calling at Rome. The _pero_ was for wet and
snowy weather; it was made of raw hide and it was similar to a boot,
reaching up to the middle of the leg. The _calceus senatorius_ was of
black leather with four straps. The _calceus mulleus_ was made of red
leather, with a high heel, and with straps to fasten it about the ankle.
It had on its front a crescent-shaped piece of ivory, the _lunula_,
which was of very ancient origin, and, like the _bulla_, may, perhaps,
have had the force of a charm. The _caliga_ was worn by the soldiers,
which was a kind of boot, reaching to the middle of the leg, and the
sole was of wood and stuck full of nails. There seemed to have been
worn, too, a kind of sock or stocking that reached to the middle of the
leg and tied with laces from the instep to the calf. The ladies of the
upper classes, for outdoors wore shoes made of fine leather and richly
embroidered in silk and gold. In the house both men and women wore
sandals (_soleæ_). The sandals and shoes were tied on with straps, which
were wound round the foot and the leg upward from the ankle.

The Roman ladies wore many different kinds of ornaments, made of
precious metals, ivory, jewels, and pearls. They wore earrings, a very
common form being pearls and jewels attached to hooks of gold and then
fastened to the ears. There were hair-pins of metal and ivory, made in
various forms, some of which contained eyes for the fastening of strings
of pearls. They had necklaces of gold with jewels and pearls attached to
them. Bracelets, made in the form of snakes, simple ribbons, plaited
gold threads, and other styles, were worn at the wrist or above the
elbow, with a sleeveless tunic. They had rings adorned with jewels and
cameos. They wore chains of gold around the neck, sometimes five or six
feet in length. They fastened their girdles and other parts of the dress
with buckles and brooches, made of silver and gold and frequently
studded with jewels and cameos. Some of these ornaments were also worn
by the men, as, rings and bracelets. All the principal precious stones,
diamonds, rubies, emeralds, opals, were known to the Romans. They prized
the pearl above all other gems and often paid great prices for them.
"Julius Cæsar is said to have given to Servilia, the mother of Marcus
Brutus, a solitaire pearl for which he paid six million sesterces
($262,500), while Caligula received with his wife, Lollia Paulina a
complete _parure_ of pearls and emeralds, which was an heirloom in her
family; a part of the spoils taken in Eastern war by her grandfather,
Marcus Lollius, in the year 2 B. C., and valued at forty million
sesterces ($2,180,000)."[190]

"About the mysteries of the toilette of the Roman ladies, mercilessly
laid bare by the authors of imperial times, we shall say little. Great
care was particularly bestowed on the complexion, and on the artificial
reproduction of other charms, lost too soon in the exciting atmosphere
of imperial court-life. During the night a mask (_tectorium_) of dough
and ass's milk was laid on the face, to preserve the complexion; this
mask was an invention of Poppæa, the wife of Nero, hence its name
_Poppæana_. Another mask, composed of rice and bean-flour, served to
remove the wrinkles from the face. It was washed off in the morning with
tepid ass's milk and the face afterwards bathed in fresh ass's milk
several times in the course of the day. Poppæa was, for the purpose,
always accompanied in her travels by herds of she-asses. The two chief
paints used for the face were a white (_creta cerussa_) and a red
substance (_fucus minium purpurissum_), moistened with spittle. Brows
and eyelashes were dyed black, or painted over; even the veins on the
temples were masked with lines of a tender blue color. Many different
pastes and powders were used to preserve and clean the teeth. Artificial
teeth made of ivory and fastened with gold thread were known to the
Romans at the time when the laws of the twelve tablets were made, one of
which laws prohibited the deposition of gold in the graves of the dead,
excepting the material required for the fastening of false teeth."[191]

As an aid in the preparation of the toilet and the like, the Romans had
mirrors. These were not made of glass but of polished metal. They were
square or round and of various sizes, some being equal in size to a
grown-up person. Some of the mirrors had handles for holding with the
hand, some were made so as to hang on the wall, and others could be
placed upright.

=Food.= The Romans of the early times had a simple fare, living chiefly
on pottage, or bread and pot-herbs. They sat at their meals, using a
long table. As the nation grew and wealth increased and they came in
contact with older nations, they gave up this simple life and entered
among the most luxurious nations in their manner of living.

The Romans had three meals a day. The first meal was in the morning, the
_ientaculum_, or breakfast, which was simple, consisting of bread
flavored with salt or dipped in wine, olives, grapes, eggs, and cheese.
The second meal was at midday, the _cena_, or dinner, which with the
country people was the principal meal. In the city this midday meal was
a lunch, the _prandium_, while the _cena_, dinner, was taken later in
the day, toward evening, and often became quite an elaborate affair.
There was sometimes a fourth meal, _comissatio_, served late at night,
which really was but little more than a drinking-bout.

The meals were usually served in the _triclinium_, or dining-room. In
this was a square dining-table, having on three sides one-armed couches,
the remaining side being left open for serving. Each of these couches
had room for three persons, who reclined upon the left arm, with the
feet outward. About the end of the republic, round tables came into use,
with semicircular couches. Some of these tables were quite valuable,
being made of rare imported woods. The guests used napkins, which they
might have brought themselves or were provided by the host. In later
times table-cloths came into use. The principal ornament on the table
was the _salinum_, or salt-cellar, as salt was used not only for
seasoning, but also for sacrifices, and the salinum also held the
sacrificial cakes. The chief implements for eating were two kinds of
spoons, the _ligula_, shaped very much like the table spoon of the
present, and the _cochlear_, which had a small circular bowl, flat or
slightly hollowed, with a pointed handle. Knives and forks seem to have
come into use during the later times of the empire.

The chief dish of the poorer classes was porridge, made of a farinaceous
substance and which served them as bread. They had such vegetables as
the cabbage, turnip, radish, leek, garlic, onion, cucumber, and pumpkin.
Meat was rarely eaten, perhaps only on festival occasions. The market
afforded all kinds of foods. Among the animals were the rabbit,
pheasant, guinea-fowl, common poultry, peacock, kid, pig, and boar;
there were various kinds of fish and oysters and snails; beside the
plants mentioned above were rue, lettuce, cress, mallow, and sorrell. It
would seem that they had quite a number of different kinds of grain;
among the fruits were the apple, pear, plum, cherry, quince, peach,
pomegranate, fig, olive, and grape; there were lemons and oranges and
nuts of various kinds.

Wine was the only drink of an intoxicating nature that the Romans had.
It was customary to mix the wine with water, and to drink the wine
without putting water into it was considered a sign of intemperance. For
a number of years the water-supply was such as could be obtained from
the Tiber, wells, and natural springs, and it was not till the time of
the republic that the water was brought from outside of Rome, for which
means aqueducts were built and which continued to be built until there
was an abundant supply of water.

=Child and Parent.= The Romans practiced the exposure of infants as in
Greece. This was begun in the early times and carried down into the
later times. The children so exposed were usually feeble or deformed,
but the father had the power to use it on any child and this was
sometimes done when the father considered the child to be illegitimate.
The new-born child was laid at the feet of the father and it was his
duty to take the child up into his arms and declare it to be his child
and that he would rear it and support it. In case the father did not so
claim it, the child was carried away and placed at some cross-roads,
where it would die unless taken up by a slave-merchant to rear it to
sell.

The relation which existed between the father and the child was known as
the _patria potestas_. This power of the father was very great in early
times. He could sell his children, disinherit them, select a wife for a
son or a husband for a daughter, and he even had the power to put them
to death. This power ceased only at death or if the father lost his
rights of Roman citizenship. The father himself could emancipate his
son. Also this power over the son ceased should he become a _flamen_, or
priest, and it ceased over the daughter if she married or took the
vestal vows.

=Names.= The Romans had three names: These were the _prænomen_, the
individual's own first name; the _nomen_, the name of the _gens_ or
family to which he belonged; and the _cognomen_, or surname, which
distinguished the particular branch or division of the tribe from which
he sprung. Thus in the name Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marcus was the
prænomen, Tullius the nomen, designating the Tullian family, and Cicero,
the cognomen, showing that he was from the Cicerones branch of the
tribe.

The boys received the nomen, family name, on the ninth day after birth
and girls on the eighth day. On such day the ceremony of purification
took place, which was by sprinkling with a branch of olive or laurel
dipped in water, the burning of incense, and the offering of sacrifice.
The boy was given his prænomen when he put on the toga virilis at
sixteen or seventeen and the girl when she was married. The wife at
marriage took the nomen of her husband's family, but this was not often
a change from her own family as usually marriages were between members
of the same gens. In later times, when marriage did not mean so much,
and divorces became frequent, the wife did not take her husband's nomen
but she was known by the nomen of her father's gens.

=Care and Treatment of Children.= The birth of a son was a happy day in
a Roman household and the door of the house was decorated with flowers
and green branches. The boy's ninth day after birth and the girl's
eighth day was the day of purification, the _lustratio_. A branch of
laurel or olive was dipped into water and used to sprinkle the child,
incense was burned, a sacrifice was made upon the family altar for the
child's welfare, and he was carried to one or more of the temples and
placed under the protection of the gods. Also, as stated above, the
child's name was bestowed upon him at this time. Usually a private
record was made of the time of the lustratio, which was sometimes
offered in cases of identification. Under Marcus Aurelius there was
begun a public registry of births, as it was decreed that within thirty
days after birth the name of each child, born free at Rome, should be
placed in the public records in the archives of the treasury in the
temple of Saturn. The birthday was religiously observed by every Roman,
rich or poor, high or low, at which time the members of his family were
brought together and offerings were made to the household gods and a
festive time made of the day. Many mothers turned over their children to
the care of nurses and the wealthy employed wet-nurses. Each Roman child
wore round his neck a _bulla_, which was a small locket of gold or some
other metal, sometimes of leather, usually heart-shaped, or circular,
and attached to a ribbon or chain. This was a charm against the evil
eye. The boy wore his bulla till he put on the toga virilis at manhood
and a girl wore hers till her marriage.

"Identical with modern times were the anxious care of mothers,
relatives, and nurses, the words of endearment (such as birdie, little
dove, little crow, little mother, little lady), and the lisping childish
language and the lullabies ('sleep, my child, or suck'), rattles and
other means of soothing (such as beating the stone that had hit the
child), and the many superstitions, at all ages: such as binding on
teeth of horses and boars to alleviate the teething, and old wives'
simples and amulets against the evil eye. As a preservative against the
_strigæ_, or vampires, garlic was wrapt up in the swaddling-clothes and
hawthorn planted in the windows. A mother, who was passing a temple of
Venus, would mumble a prayer for her daughter's beauty and make a vow.
The figure of the girls was made artificially perfect. They wore tight
stays from early childhood, so as to raise the hips into relief, and
nurses' carelessness often produced rounded backs or unequal
shoulders."[192]

=Citizenship.= At seventeen years of age the Roman boy became liable
for military duty. In earlier times this was the age at which he assumed
the toga virilis. In the later times the age for taking the virile robe
varied, usually taking place between the fourteenth and seventeenth
years, but there were cases where boys were invested with the toga
virilis as early as twelve and where it was withheld until nineteen. The
time of year for this ceremony was not fixed, although a favorite date
was at the time of the _Liberalia_, or feast of Bacchus, which occurred
on March 17th.

"To make the gods propitious, the youth has passed the last night of his
infancy covered, like a bride on the eve of her nuptials, with a white
material and a saffron-colored sort of net-work. Is not this a betrothal
which is now to be completed: the indissoluble union of the new citizen
to the city?"[193] The bulla was removed from the boy's neck and the
toga prætexta taken off him and both were consecrated to the lares, a
sacrifice was made, and then the boy was invested with the toga virilis.
Then the boy was conducted to the Forum by his father or guardian,
accompanied by relatives and friends, and formally presented to the
public. He was, probably, also taken to the _tabularium_ under the
Capitol and his name enrolled among the list of full citizens.

This was a very important event in the life of the boy, as it freed him
from the control of others, as he became by law a man, capable of
looking after his own affairs and of holding property. After this he
entered upon the affairs of life. If he was of the middle or lower
classes, he entered directly into business or work; if of the upper
class, he began to prepare for public life or the army.

=Inheritance.= Every citizen had the right to make a will and to leave
his property to the ones he wished to receive it. There were two kinds
of wills recognized, the one made in civil life before the public
assembly, and the other was in military life, made when an army was
drawn up ready for battle and while the auspices were being taken.

Instead of a written will there might be an oral declaration, which had
to be made before the proper authorities and witnesses and recorded in
the city registers. If the will of the soldier dying in battle was
unfinished, it was valid if there was no doubt as to his intentions.
Those by law who could not make a will, or whose will was invalid, were
persons under the power of another, minors, the insane, people not
capable of managing their own affairs, the civilly dead, and the
banished. Where there was no will, the law provided an order of
inheritance, the children taking precedence. In case there was neither
will nor legal heir, the estate went into the public treasury.

=Adoption.= It was a sacred duty for a Roman family to preserve its
name, its domestic sacrifices, and its traditions. These were
transmitted from one generation to the next, so in case there was no
son, the head of the family was authorized by law to adopt a son. There
were three kinds of adoption. The first was adoption properly so-called;
the second was the _arrogatio_, adrogation; and the third was adoption
made by will or testament, to be confirmed by the proper authorities
after the death of the testator.

There were three conditions necessary to adoption. The first requirement
was that there were no sons in the family, nor hopes of any, and that
the father should be about eighteen years older than the one to be
adopted as a son; the second condition was that the honor, religion,
domestic worship, or sacrifices of the two families, should not in any
way be injured; and the third, that there should be no fraud or
collusion.

Adoption proper was for minors. The two fathers, the natural and the
adoptive, arranged the matter between them and then, with the child,
went before the proper authorities and in the presence of witnesses was
legally carried out. The adopted son took the rank and the name of the
family into which he entered, he was introduced to the domestic
sacrifices, and he became a full heir. If there was a daughter in the
family, she became his sister and he could not marry her.

Adrogation was the form of adoption used with citizens who were their
own masters. This required the consent of the people assembled for the
purpose. Under this act a citizen with his property and all persons
subjected to him passed into another's power.

"These adoptions finally led to abuse. The patrician, to obtain the
tribuneship, would be adopted by some plebeian, and those who were
without children, that they might enjoy office to which only fathers of
families could be elected, adopted children, whom, after obtaining the
offices, they emancipated. This finally required, to remedy it, a decree
of the senate in the reign of Nero."[194]

=Sickness and Death.= Throughout the time of Rome, medicine was largely
in the hands of slaves and freedmen. Those engaged in the medical
practice were mostly Greeks and orientals, especially Egyptians. Up to
the middle of the republic, they treated their patients according to
certain old prescriptions and nostrums. In the later days of the
republic, the practice of medicine began to take on more the form of a
profession and later the profession became to be divided into
physicians, surgeons, and oculists, and also there were dentists, ear
specialists, and the like. There were, too, women physicians and
midwives. As those engaged in medicine were not required to be examined
and were not held by law to much responsibility, quackery prevailed. The
practice of medicine was quite remunerative and the physicians who were
successful made large salaries.

Among the Romans the duties to the dead were carefully attended to. They
believed that the souls of those who had not received the proper honors
accorded to the dead were condemned to wander for a long number of years
along the banks of the Styx before they were permitted to cross over
into the realms of the dead. The dying person was surrounded by his
relatives and when he had breathed his last his eyes and mouth were
closed by the nearest relative present and the _conclamatio_ was made,
all calling out loudly three times to the deceased as though he might be
in a trance. Upon his not awakening, the relatives and friends retired
and left the body to the professional undertaker.

The body was washed, anointed, and clothed, the coin to pay Charon, the
ferryman of the Styx, was placed between the teeth, and then the corpse
was laid upon a couch in the atrium, with feet turned toward the
entrance door. Flowers were placed about the couch and the decorations
and crowns, if any, of the deceased were displayed about the body. To
show that the house was in mourning, branches of cypress or pine were
hung in front. The body lay in state for seven days for visitations of
kindred and friends.

The day of the funeral having arrived, the funeral procession took
place. In ancient times all funerals were in the night time, but later
they were held in the day time, yet still later the procession went with
lighted torches.

The order of the procession was arranged by the _designator_, master of
ceremonies, and it closely resembled a triumphal procession. At the head
marched the musicians, which might have been a single flute-player or a
band of musicians with trumpets and pipes and horns; then came the
mourning-women, hired for the occasion; next came dancers and mimes, one
of whom was dressed up to resemble the deceased, and who acted out his
character, imitating his style of speaking, his manner, and exaggerating
his peculiarities. Following these came professional actors dressed in
the garbs of the ancestors of the deceased and wearing wax masks
representing their features, who strove to imitate them in speech and
actions. Then were displayed the crowns and rewards the deceased had
been honored with and the spoils and standards he had taken in war. Then
came the torch-bearers and lictors, with lowered faces, followed by the
nearest relatives or friends or slaves set free by the will, bearing
upon a lofty bier the corpse extended and exposed in rich garments. Then
the family of the deceased followed, the sons with veiled faces and the
daughters with heads uncovered and hair loosened. Last came the
freedmen, slaves, clients, friends, and the general public.

There were demonstrations of grief displayed by the mourners, the
nearest relatives tearing their clothing, pulling out their hair, and
covering their heads with dust, the women smiting their breasts,
scratching their faces, tearing their hair, and the like.

If there was to be a funeral oration, the procession went to the forum,
the bier being set down in front of the rostrum and surrounded by the
wearers of the ancestral masks. A near relative, usually, mounted the
tribune and delivered a eulogy upon the deceased and his ancestors. An
informal eulogy might be given at the place of interment, in which case
the procession did not stop at the forum. At the close of the oration
the procession passed on. The burial place might have been public, along
some one of the great highways leading out of Rome, or it might have
been private, upon the suburban estate of the deceased. The vestal
virgins had the right of burial within the city itself. The body was
placed in the tomb, those present were then sprinkled, in order to
purify them, three times with a branch of olive or laurel dipped in pure
water, and then all returned from the funeral.

The above description refers to the funeral of the wealthy and
illustrious. The bodies of the middle classes were placed in the
_columbaria_, which were built up or cut out of rock, being
super-imposed niches. These were often built by joint-stock companies
who would keep them in order, letting out the niches as they were
wanted. The poor were given a place in the common burial-ground, their
bodies being carried out at night by the _vespillones_, carriers of
corpses. Persons killed by lightning were buried at the place they fell,
which was enclosed with a wall. The bodies of malefactors were left
unburied, exposed to the elements and to the birds and the beasts.

The earlier Romans interred their dead. Burning the body gradually came
into practice and became general near the close of the republic and
almost universal under the empire. As Christianity grew, cremation
gradually fell into disuse and interment became the practice.

In one way of cremation, perhaps the earlier form, a grave about three
and a half feet deep was made and filled with fuel. The body was placed
on the fuel and as it burned the bones and ashes of the body fell into
the pit with the coal and ashes of the fuel. The remains of the body
were gathered up and put into an urn which was set up in the grave and
the dirt heaped around so as to form a mound and then a wall was built
around the place.

In another way, a funeral pile, made of wood and in the form of an
altar, was built up outside the city and near the family burial place.
The eyes of the corpse were opened and it was wrapped in a shroud and
laid upon the pile. The nearest relative impressed a last kiss upon the
lips of the deceased and then with a burning torch and head averted set
fire to the pile, the others present raising a _conclamatio_. While the
pile was burning there was thrown upon it incense, perfumes, clothing,
ornaments, weapons, and other things, as last presents to the deceased.
When the body was consumed, the fire was extinguished with wine. The
bones and ashes of the body were collected, dried, sprinkled with
perfumes, and put into an urn, which was placed in a tomb. The last
farewell was spoken, those present were purified with a sprinkling of
pure water, and then all departed.

Relatives and friends came together the day after the funeral and
partook of the funeral feast. If the deceased had been a great or
wealthy man, scenic games were given and raw meat distributed among the
people. The mourning continued for ten days, during which time none of
the relatives could be summoned to a court of justice. On the ninth day
a banquet was held, bringing the whole family together again, and on
the tenth day the house was purified and the funeral ceremonies ended.

"The purification of the house ended the funeral ceremonies, but the
'paternal Manes' had three festivals which brought together again
families: in March, the three nights of the _Lemuralia_, to appease the
Manes whom forgetfulness might irritate; in February, the _Parentalia_,
'the day of the dear kindred,' which Ovid calls also the festival of the
_Caristies_, and in the summer, that of roses, _Rosalia_, which were
then scattered around the tomb. On this day all the relations were
united at the same table, _socias dapes_, in order that the festival
might lead to forgetfulness of quarrels: 'This is the time,' says the
poet, 'when concord takes pleasure in descending among us.'"[195]

=Industries.= Agriculture was the most important industry of the early
Romans. The farms were small and many of the leading citizens followed
the calling of farming. Later there arose large landed estates, which
greatly changed the manner of farming. The proprietors did not work
themselves and most of the work was done by slaves. Large tracts of land
were used for parks and pleasure grounds and others were kept in
pasturage. Thus agriculture decreased or changed and as the population
grew the people of Rome were no longer able to supply their own food and
food-stuffs were imported from other countries. The time came when
immense supplies of grain were brought in by the government and
distributed free among the people or sold at a nominal price.

On a great estate the dwelling of the master, the villa proper, stood
apart from the other buildings, which were built around a court-yard and
all were enclosed with only one entrance which was guarded by a porter
with a fierce watch-dog. The slaves that could be trusted worked out in
the fields and the others were kept within the enclosure, often in
underground chambers, and did indoor work. A great deal of the farm work
was done by hand and for which they had a number of implements, such as
spades, mattocks, rakes, hoes, and forks. They had different kinds of
plows to suit the nature of the soil. They usually used oxen for
plowing.

The Romans understood about fertilizing and drainage and rotation of
crops. It seems they had many different kinds of grain and practiced
both fall and spring sowing. Next in importance to the grains were
various kinds of pulse, the most useful being the _faba_, some variety
of bean. They raised turnips as food for cattle and sheep.

Among the animals raised on the farms were cattle, bred mostly for
draught rather than for beef; horses and mules, race-horses commanding
the highest prices; sheep and goats and hogs. Poultry-raising was quite
important. Doves and thrushes and peacocks were raised and for which
there was quite a demand. Since honey took the place of sugar, great
attention was given to bee-culture.

Two of the greatest industries were the raising of grapes for wine and
olives for oil. Market-gardening employed quite a large number and it
was quite profitable, especially near cities and large towns. There were
various kinds of fruit-trees and grafting was a common practice. Beside
fruit-trees other trees were raised, in particular trees for shade and
ornament.

"In considering the Roman farmer's year as a whole, we find that he
computed rainy days and festivals at forty-five and reckoned on thirty
days after the sowing when there was no field labor to be done. But on
these thirty days, and on the stormy ones, there were ropes to make,
baskets to weave, and other home-made utensils to prepare; while all the
other instruments of the husbandman--his 'mute servants,' as Verro calls
them--had to be repaired and thoroughly cleaned. Even on feast-days
certain kinds of work were allowed, such as the cleaning of drains and
the mending of highways, so that only the December Saturnalia seem to
have afforded a complete holiday to the slaves.

"On New Year's day, a little work of every kind was done for good luck;
but then followed a time of complete relaxation. In the latter half of
January, the ground was cleared of brambles, and the trimming of the
vineyards completed; while the autumn-sown grain and the beans, if they
were sufficiently grown, were hoed for the first time. Early trees were
now grafted, and the stock was planted. Vineyards were also cultivated,
and young orchards set out, grass sown and ground broken, fields manured
and osier-beds renewed. Vine-sets were also transplanted, if needful and
the late fruit trees grafted.

"In March, the vegetable garden was prepared, the autumn grains received
their second hoeing, and the spring grains were sown. In April, came
weeding, sheep-washing, the setting out of new vineyards, the trimming
of old vines, and the olive-grafting.

"May brought the earliest mowing, and in this month the earth was first
spaded up about the olive-trees, and the vineyards dug over, this latter
process being repeated each month until cold weather. The olives were
also trimmed, the vine-shoots nipped; in warmer latitudes the sheep were
shorn, and the lupins, which had been sown as fertilizers, were ploughed
in. In June the first ploughing was finished and the second done, the
threshing-floor was made ready, vetches mown, beans picked, and honey
taken from the hives.

"Grain-harvest took place in July, and the cutting of the straw and
gathering of leaves for the winter fodder of cattle. In August, figs and
grapes were dried for winter use, and brakes cut for litter.

"September was, _par excellence_, the month of the vintage, and then,
too, turnips were planted, and the later grains harvested. In October,
winter grains were sown and harrowed in, trees trimmed, and the
olive-picking begun.

"November was devoted to a general cleaning-up of autumn work. The
making of oil was finished in December, and the vines trimmed, and we
may close the brief _résumé_ of the work of the Roman agricultural year
by a few general precepts from the natural history of the elder Pliny:
'He is no farmer who buys what his estate can supply. He is a bad head
of a household who does by day what can be done by night--except in case
of foul weather; he is a worse who does on working-days what is
permitted on holidays; the worst of all is he who on a pleasant day
chooses to work within doors rather than in the field."[196]

The upper classes in Rome held in low esteem, and even in contempt, the
tradesmen and mechanics. This might have been because these people
performed for the masses the duties that slaves did for the higher
classes, and so all were put on the same footing. These people were,
with few exceptions, debarred from serving in the legions and in
consequence they became cowardly and likewise at times unruly. Yet the
laboring class, as everywhere and in all times, were greatly needed at
Rome and did perform a large amount of honest and useful labor. The
great commerce carried on needed a large number of sailors and in the
ports dock hands and porters and clerks. The city, too, needed a large
number in the trades, as, bakers, tailors, shoemakers, potters,
carpenters, and various kinds of smiths. There were needed plenty of
small shops where the people could procure the things necessary for life
and such shops would call for the employment of many people.

People of the same trades would naturally associate together and
attachments would be formed, so that guilds came into existence at an
early date, both from this natural instinct of association and for the
protection of their trades. Among the crafts represented in the guilds
were weavers, carpenters, dyers, leather-workers, tanners, smiths,
porters, and a number of others. They were modeled after the gens or
family, with a religious center and a patron deity. They had separate
inns for their meetings. They had festive days at which times they went
in procession through the streets carrying their emblems and banners.
They provided for the funerals of their members, they had their widow's
fund, and in other ways they looked after the interests of the ones
belonging to the guilds.

Rome had an extensive commerce. Traders went along with the soldiers or
quickly followed after them to open trade with the conquered provinces.
Thus London in 61 A. D., only eighteen years after the conquest, had a
large number of Roman merchants among its people. The roads built from
Rome into all parts of the world greatly promoted commerce. The traders
did not stop with the boundaries of the empire but went out among
peoples not under Roman sway. As an instance of this was their going out
into the North of Europe to the Baltic for amber and at one time there
was quite a trade in this and in other articles. Even before Cæsar's
conquest of Gaul, Roman traders had entered it over the St. Bernhard
pass and had even gone among the Belgæ. The Mediterranean, the Black
Sea, and the Atlantic were full of Roman ships trading with the various
provinces and countries. The conquest of Egypt opened up a great trade,
not only with that country but through it also with Arabia, Ethiopia and
even India.

=The Spectacles.= The public games, or Spectacles, were the greatest
amusements the Roman people had. Originating in early times as religious
celebrations, they became so fixed as to make them a public necessity, a
means of keeping the mass of the people busy so as to keep their
attention away from affairs of state. As it became a duty of the
government to provide grain free or at a nominal cost, so it became its
duty to furnish free entertainment for the masses. These games were
provided by the officials and made free to the public. There were four
phases of the spectacles. Horse and chariot races were held in the
circus, gladiatorial fights and fights with animals and also sea fights
in the amphitheater, scenic representations in the theater, and athletic
and musical contests in the stadium.

The Circus Maximus was located in Rome in the valley between the
Palatine and Aventine hills. It was of an oblong circular form, about a
mile in circumference, and seated 150,000 or more people. Among the
displays were exploits on horseback, such as leaping from horse to horse
while running, picking up things from the ground with the horse in full
gallop, and the like. Young men in full armor gave mock-fights, and
sometimes there would be military drills, and again boys from senatorial
families and young princes went through cavalry exercises in glittering
armor. The greatest displays of all were the chariot races. Factions
arose with their colors, at first but two with white and red, and then
four with white, red, blue, green, and later gold and purple were added
but soon dropped out, leaving the four factions and colors. Heavy bets
were made by the factions and there were fierce contests and often
fights between them. Sometimes two chariots raced, usually four, and
again at times six, and there were two or four horses to each chariot,
rarely three. The victor in the race was crowned and received a cash
prize and his was greeted with great applause.

The amphitheater was an elliptical building with an arena in the center
and with tiers of seats leading up all around. The Coliseum at Rome was
the greatest of all, being computed to have contained 87,000 seats. In
the amphitheater were held the gladiatorial fights. Just how these
originated is unknown but the first public exhibition of gladiators at
Rome was given in 264 B. C., by the brothers Marcus and Decimus Brutus
at their father's funeral. Such continued at funerals and then they were
given at other times, the number of days and number of fighters
gradually increasing, till Trajan, upon his return after a victorious
campaign on the Danube, gave gladiatorial games for 123 days, in which
10,000 fighters took part. The gladiators were captives, slaves, and
criminals, and under the empire knights and senators and even women were
enrolled among them. There were schools for the training of gladiators.
Emperors, senators, and all classes of people attended these fights and
although women at first were excluded, later they were admitted freely.
The gladiators wore helmets and had leather coverings for their legs and
they carried shields. Their weapons were the lance, dagger, sword, and
rapier. There were others who used the trident and the net for
entangling their opponents. They were usually matched by pairs and when
one was overcome his life depended upon the people, who would turn down
their thumbs for his life to be spared and upon the turning up of their
thumbs the wounded gladiator was slain by his opponent. The victor
received a palm crown, sometimes money, and he might be given his
freedom.

"These gladiatorial exhibitions proclaim the true nature of the Roman
character. When the vestal virgin, the Roman matron, and the young lady
could find amusement in such scenes of human slaughter, it can certainly
surprise no one that the Roman character, in its constituent elements,
possessed so much hardihood, and could remain such firm proof against
every tender feeling of humanity. The school of blood in which the young
were reared, and the old matured, was eminently calculated to form
precisely the character which the Roman possessed. It is thus that the
manners and customs of a people are influenced by, and in their turn,
influence the character from which they originate."[197]

Another great amusement of the Romans was the _venatio_, or exhibit of
wild animals. The first known display of wild animals at Rome was given
by Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, the conqueror of Ætolia, in 186 B. C.,
eighty years after the first gladiatorial exhibit. These displays grew
until all parts of the world were searched to find animals. There were
bears, elephants, deer, hares, stags, boars, bulls, crocodiles,
hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, lynxes, apes, giraffes, tigers, ostriches,
hyenas. They were made to fight with one another. They were starved to
make them fierce with hunger and then driven into the arena against one
another with whips, pricked with lances, burnt with hot irons, and in
other ways tormented to make them extremely angry. There were also
fights between men and beasts. These were often captives and criminals
compelled to fight, but there were others, _bestiarii_, who were
trained, as the gladiators, in schools to fight against animals. These
men sometimes were assisted by dogs trained to hunt and to fight wild
animals. In some exhibits, captives and criminals were bound to stakes
and animals set upon them or they were sent unarmed or poorly armed
against the wild animals. There were, too, exhibits of trained animals
and animal-training became a regular profession under Augustus.

Another form of the spectacle for the entertainment of the Roman public
was the _naumachia_, or naval battle. As in the other contests, usually
the combatants were captives and criminals. These were held in the
amphitheater, in which case the arena was flooded with water, or great
ponds were dug for the purpose. The first naval battle on a large scale
was given by Julius Cæsar in 46 B. C., the two sides having biremes,
triremes, and quadriremes, with 1,000 marines and 2,000 oarsmen on each
side. Claudius in 52 A. D. gave a naval contest in which there were 100
triremes and quadriremes and 19,000 warriors and oarsmen. Other large
naumachiæ were produced by Augustus, Nero, Titus, and Domitian. In these
conflicts real fighting took place and large numbers were killed.

There were no theatrical entertainments in the early times of Rome. In
364 B. C., during a plague which could not be stopped, to appease the
wrath of the gods scenic performances were first introduced into Rome.
Actors from Etruria were brought to Rome, who gave mimic dances to the
accompaniment of a flute. For a long time there were no theaters erected
at Rome, a temporary wooden stage being erected for the occasion. Later
wooden theaters were built and then torn down after the performances
were over, being used but one time. The first stone theater was built on
the Campus Martius in 55 B. C. by Pompey, and which was large enough to
hold 40,000 people. Comedies, tragedies, and pantomimes were given.
Tragedy was never popular with the masses as they were too much used to
seeing real tragedies enacted in the arena for any great impression to
be made upon them by the imitations of the stage. Pantomime attained to
the most significance of all performances upon the Roman stage and
especially under the empire. The professional actors were mostly slaves
and freedmen or natives of other countries, as there was a prejudice
against the profession in Rome. Noted actors were paid high fees for
their performances. Many of the most famous actors belonged to the
imperial households.

The last of the great spectacles were the athletic, literary and musical
contests. These contests were not common under the republic but they
grew on the people till they became popular under the empire. Athletic
contests were first introduced into Rome at the same time as the exhibit
of wild animals and by the same person, in 186 B. C., by Marcus Fulvius
Nobilior, who brought athletes from Greece for the purpose. These
contests continued to be given and they increased in popularity till a
stadium for them was built in 28 B. C. on the Campus Martius and the
demand from the people became so great that the officials who provided
the state games included athletic contests with the other games. The
Capitoline Agon was instituted by Domitian in 86 A. D., and it took rank
with the Olympian. For these contests he built a stadium large enough to
accommodate 30,000 or more spectators. There were contests in oratory
and poetry, in music, and in athletics. The oratorical contests ceased
in later times, but those in poetry increased in importance and the most
talented poets in the empire competed for the prize of oak-wreath,
bestowed by the emperor upon the winner after the decision of the
judges. The gymnastic contests for men and boys were the same as in
Greece. The Spartan custom of races for girls was introduced but soon
discontinued because of the feeling against it.

=Other Amusements.= Among the sports of the Romans was that of hunting.
They kept parks for this purpose and they also hunted in fields and
forests. They used dogs in hunting and they were trained for hunting
various kinds of animals, as, the lion, the bear, the stag, the hare,
and the like. Boar-hunting was one of their most common pastimes. They
had hawks and other birds of prey trained for hunting. Fishing was
another sport and they made use of rod and line and net. In winter when
the water was frozen over they would cut holes through the ice for
fishing. They had large fish-ponds on their country estates.

Walking was used as a means of exercise and as a pastime. This was done
in the open air and also there were covered walks built at different
places and in particular about the Campus Martius and the Forum. There
were also places provided for horseback riding and for pleasure driving
in vehicles.

There was a game similar to chess in which the chess men were glass,
ivory or metal colored. Dice were in great use and gambling with dice
prospered in spite of laws against it. Under the empire there arose an
entertainment similar to a lottery, in which tickets were distributed
free to the guests or sold to them and a drawing was made for the
prizes. At their banquets and elsewhere the guests were entertained with
musicians, mimics, dancers, jugglers, acrobats, rope-dancers, and other
kinds of performers.

=The Bath.= The Romans in early times took their baths in the Tiber.
Later, the _lavatrina_, or washhouse, connected with the kitchen by a
heating apparatus, served as a bathroom. In those days they bathed only
for health and cleanliness. Under the empire, bathing became a fashion
and it was carried to excess. When the supply of water became abundant
by means of the aqueducts, baths multiplied rapidly and public baths
were established. The public baths were at first arranged for and used
only by the common people, but their importance grew gradually until all
classes used the public baths and they were enlarged and beautified and
different kinds of baths provided, as, hot, tepid, cold, and shower. The
usual time for the bath was in the afternoon shortly before the evening
meal. It also became the custom to take a bath after the meal and then
the number was often increased till the bath was taken seven or more
times during the day and evening.

The _thermæ_, baths, at Rome, under the empire, covered large spaces,
with magnificent structures adorned with paintings and sculptures, the
walls lined inside with marble, with marble columns, and silver
mouthpieces for the water pipes. There were rooms not only for bathing,
but also large halls for swimming, and rooms for places of meeting for
conversation, for listening to the reading of poems by their authors,
for gymnastic exercises, and the like, and provided with libraries and
museums. Thus these thermæ became centers for gatherings of various
kinds and places of amusement.

=Games and Plays.= Children in Rome played a great deal, just as do
children everywhere. They had their dolls and hobby-horses and
toy-houses. They played with carts and used them very much as the
children of the present. They skipped stones and walked upon stilts and
spun tops. They used nuts for playing a number of games, one being
called _ludus castellorum_, in which three nuts were to be so arranged
that a fourth nut could be placed upon them without displacing them, the
winner receiving all the four nuts. They played _par impar_, odd or
even. The boys and even sometimes the young men would roll a large iron
hoop, which had iron or brass rings fastened around it and kept up
quite a clatter while the hoop was rolling. Some of these hoops were
five or six feet in diameter and required quite a little skill to roll
them, being rolled and guided by means of an iron rod.

Ball was a game especially liked by the boys and young men of Rome.
There were three kinds of balls used--a large hollow ball, a small
hollow ball, and a ball stuffed with feathers. At the country villas
about Rome there was usually a place for ball-playing. The boys used the
streets and squares of Rome for ball-playing, particularly before the
butchers' shops in the Forum Romanum. They played ball alone or with a
few or with many. In one game the ball was thrown up into the air and
all tried to catch it. The _trigon_, or _pila trigonalis_, was a
favorite way of playing ball, the players being placed in a triangle and
they were to fling the ball at one another, the one failing to catch it
and return it being the loser. There was a game in which they would
choose sides and have the ground marked out as for lawn-tennis.

=Religion.= The Romans were of a deeply religious nature even down into
the times of the empire. Religion entered into the life of the Romans in
a practical way and touched upon the civic duties and social relations,
as the events of life were held to be of a sacred nature. The Roman life
was closely connected with religion, as every activity of life was
presided over by a deity, whom it was necessary to worship properly in
order that the activity might prove successful.

The child came in contact with religion at his very earliest life in the
home in the worship of the household gods, the Penates and Lares, the
former being the gods of the hearth, who guarded the stores and
provisions of the family, and the latter were the spirits of departed
ancestors, who were the protectors of the family. In the atrium was the
image of the chief lar between two penates, to whom were offered
sacrifices each morning by the father as priest, and birthdays and
marriages and the putting on of the toga virilis by the boy and the
return of a member of the family after a long absence were occasions of
special religious exercises. The young people, too, were led further
into religion as the gens and the state carried on similar sacrifices
and ceremonies for the common good, for the state had its common hearth,
presided over by the Vestal Virgins, who guarded the sacred fire upon
the altar, which symbolized the home.

=Vestal Virgins.= In Rome was a worship in which was preserved a common
hearth, having always burning on it the domestic fire of the whole
nation. This was in the temple of Vesta, the goddess of the home. The
goddess being herself a virgin, it was considered necessary that this
fire should be cared for by virgins.

This temple of Vesta went through a purification on June first of each
year and a renewal of the fire was made on March first. In case the fire
went out it was kindled again by the rubbing together of two pieces of
"lucky wood," thus producing a fire, and in later times by use of a
concave mirror to focus the sun's rays. This was the most sacred of all
worship at Rome and the letting this fire go out was considered a great
evil, as this was emblematic of the state and its extinction meant the
extinction of the nation, hence the Virgin who, through carelessness or
negligence, permitted this was severely scourged in the dark by the
pontifex.

There were six Vestal Virgins. When chosen, the girl was not to be
younger than six nor older than ten; she was to be the daughter of
freeborn parents, alive at the time of her selection and residing in
Italy, and not engaged in any dishonorable calling; she was to be free
from mental and physical defects.

At the time of the admission of a Vestal, her hair was cut off, and a
very solemn ceremony was gone through with, after which she was dressed
in white and admitted to the work of the Virgins. It appears that her
hair was allowed to grow again and to be worn long. Her dress was always
white and she wore round her forehead a broad band which had ribbons
fastened to it. In processions and at sacrifices she wore a white veil,
buckled under the chin.

The term of service was thirty years, the Vestal being a novice during
the first ten years, an active priestess the second ten, and a teacher
of novices the remaining period. At the end of the term of service of
thirty years, the vestal could go back to her family and even get
married, but most of them remained in the service of the goddess.

The Virgins had four important duties to perform: (1) Tending the sacred
fires; (2) Bringing water daily from the sacred spring, for ceremonial
sprinkling and sweeping; (3) Offering sacrifices of salt and cakes, and
pouring libations of wine and oil on the sacred fire; (4) Guarding the
seven sacred objects on which the stability of Roman power was supposed
to stand, the chief of these being the Palladium.

The Vestals were very jealously guarded. Death was inflicted on any one
committing an offense against one of them. No man was allowed to go near
the temple of Vesta at night nor at any time permitted to enter the
dwelling of these Virgins. If a breach of chastity occurred on the part
of one of them, she was severely punished by being cruelly beaten and
then buried alive. The one sharing her disgrace met a violent death.
Twelve Vestals were so punished.

The privileges of a Vestal were very great. She was entirely free from
the control of her parents; she could make a will; could give evidence
without taking an oath; had the seat of honor at banquets and games; one
who was convicted of a crime, if he accidentally met her, was given his
liberty. She was treated with the utmost respect and reverence; a consul
meeting her on the street, always made way for her; and all the people
gave great homage to her. In all the troublesome times between
patricians and plebeians neither party disturbed the Vestal Virgins but
on the contrary greatly respected them.

=Education.= As long as Rome was in its full strength, education was
wholly of a practical nature, its aim being to prepare its young that in
manhood they might be of most service to the state. It was more of the
Spartan idea than the Athenian, but unlike Sparta the Roman state did
not undertake the education of the young but left that wholly to the
home, and it was not till the time of the empire that education was
taken up by the state, for before that time the state did not even
assist in education, let alone control it. Although the state did not
concern itself with education, yet love of country and obedience to its
laws were so instilled into the minds of the young that no other nation
has ever got its citizens to quite so high a pitch of patriotism as the
Roman people reached under the republic. As conquest grew and wealth
increased under the empire, the Romans came more and more under the
influence of Greece until Greek methods and models and ideals dominated
Roman education.

In the early times of Rome there were probably no public schools,
education being wholly in the hands of the parents. The early years of
the child were under the mother, and he received his training from her.
These early years of the child could not have been passed better than
under the care and training of the old Roman mother, for she was a woman
of purity and dignity and industry, qualities fitted for the training
of the child's younger years. As the boy grew older he would be
permitted to be in the atrium of a morning when his father received his
clients and so the boy would receive training in custom and law as he
would hear the counsel given by his father to the clients. The boy would
also gain much from the discussions of the men at the banquets and other
gatherings as he would attend with his father. The child of these times
did not learn through instruction so much as by informal training and in
imitation of his elders.

Reading and writing were taught to the boy by the father and also simple
calculations, such as would be needed in everyday affairs. Ballads,
national songs, and religious hymns and deeds of the men of the past
were learned by the Roman boys. Physical training of the boys came
mostly through games while the young men practised gymnastic exercises,
but only to prepare them for military life. Such training made warriors
and loyal citizens but also made these Romans selfish, overbearing,
cruel, and rapacious, without lofty ideals or enthusiasm for the higher
things of life.

Literary education may have said to have begun at Rome during the third
century before Christ. In 260 B. C., according to Plutarch, a school was
opened by Spurius Carvilius at which fees were charged, the first of the
kind. This man was a freedman and he had been a domestic tutor to the
consul of the same name, Spurius Carvilius, who, as mentioned before,
was the first man at Rome to divorce his wife. From this time education
increased and there became three kinds of schools--elementary, grammar,
and a higher school, the rhetor's school. The first was presided over by
the litterator, or ludus magister; the second by the literatus, or,
grammaticus; and the third by the rhetor. Added to these kinds of
schools were those of the various philosophies, which were given to the
adherents in form of lectures. The child entered the elementary school
at about the seventh year of age. Near his twelfth year he went into the
grammar school and at fifteen or sixteen, if he had determined on
politics or law, he would enter the rhetor's school.

As stated above, the child entered school at about seven years of age.
The term _ludus_ was used to designate the elementary school and
_schola_ the higher school. In the elementary schools, reading, writing,
and arithmetic of a very elementary nature were taught. In learning to
read, the child was first taught his letters and then syllables, which
were followed by words and then came the sentences. At the first of the
elementary schools the reading was taught by means of exercises given by
the teacher on account of the scarcity of books. But during the second
century before Christ large numbers of slaves were put to copying books
so that from this time there were plenty of copies to be had at
reasonable cost, and no doubt each child had his own reading book, which
contained, perhaps, a Latin version of the Odyssey and the standard
Latin poets. Special attention was given to correct pronunciation and
intelligent expression. After the child had learned to read he was then
taught to write. In the beginning the teacher would make the letters
with a stylus on a waxen tablet and then he would give the stylus to the
child to trace the letters, the teacher guiding the child's hand. In
arithmetic but simple calculations were taught in the elementary
schools, the children learning to count and to calculate on the fingers
or by means of pebbles and after using these means till they gained some
facility an abacus with pebbles was used. Also the waxen tablet with the
stylus was used for calculation.

It is quite probable that for a large number of the children school
education ceased with the end of the training in the elementary schools.
At twelve years of age the boy who went on with his education entered
the grammar school. There were two kinds of these schools--the Greek and
the Latin. In the Greek schools the language used was Greek with Greek
literature and methods of instruction, and at first the teachers were
Greek. The Latin schools differed in that the language used was Latin
and while at first the literature was Greek translated into Latin later
there was a Latin literature. Too, the Latin schools laid more stress
upon the practical side of the work rather than the theoretical. The
head of each grammar school determined what the curriculum should be but
these were quite uniform after all, as all were striving for the same
end. The principal studies were grammar and literature, but also were
included mathematics, geography, history, and music.

In the study of grammar there were studied the divisions of the letters
into vowels and consonants with the divisions of the vowels, the sounds
of the letters or phonics, philology in a simple way, the parts of
speech, the inflections of the parts of speech, and the like. In
literature in the Greek schools, the study of Homer took the leading
part as did the study of Vergil in the Latin schools, and also other
authors were studied. Geometry was studied along the practical lines of
mensuration and astronomy. Likewise geography and history were entered
into for practical purposes. Music was taken up to aid in getting proper
intonation and rhythm in oratory and for learning the religious chants.
There was but little training in gymnastics, only for hygienic purposes
and as an aid to military training. Dancing was not taught in the
schools but in the home. This was not as with us, but more of the form
of calisthenics. There was nothing such as the round dance with us,
which would have been thought shockingly vulgar by the Romans.

When the youth, at about sixteen years of age, assumed the toga virilis,
his further education depended upon what his life's work was to be. If
it was to be war, then he at once entered the army. If he was to enter
public life, then he attended the rhetorical school and studied oratory
and law. Also he frequented the places where he could hear the public
orations and he might have attached himself to some orator or jurist.

In the rhetor's school those things were studied which would help the
young man in his public career. Oratory and rhetoric were the leading
studies, and, as he sought, too, to gain a wide knowledge, mathematics,
philosophy, law, and literature would be included in the course. The
youth usually remained in these higher schools for two or three years.
Then he might go on with his studies through travel and attendance at
centers outside of Rome.

"Youths of higher intellectual ambition did not rest satisfied with the
instruction obtainable at Rome, but (at least after 80 B. C.) resorted
to Athens and other philosophical and rhetorical centers. In the last
decade of the Republic there were many famous schools of this higher
class. In addition to Athens, the mother city, we have the great
university schools of Rhodes, Apollonia, Mitylene, Alexandria, Tarsus,
Pergamus, and afterwards, in imperial times, Smyrna and Ephesus. In the
time of Cicero Marseilles also was already a widely known school."[198]

The elementary schools were poorly provided for, as they were not held
in regular school houses for there were no buildings for such
educational purposes. The school-rooms were sometimes on the street or
in the market-place, wherever a quiet, convenient corner was found;
they were, too, in sheds or booths in front of a house like a lean-to;
again they were in places similar to a veranda of a house. If the
school-room was the street, the children sat on the stones; in
buildings, they sat on the floor, or they might have had benches. The
grammar schools were better cared for, as they were generally in covered
places attached to large buildings and opening on the street. They had
benches for the children and the teacher sat on a chair on a raised
place. There were often placed in grammar schools sculptures of marble
or plaster and also paintings. All school-rooms were open to the public
and frequently the parents and friends went in to see the work and at
times there were great "speech days."

The pedagogue was used in Rome, as in Greece, to have charge of the boy
and to accompany him to and from school. Although the Romans used the
Greek term _pedagogue_, yet the Latin terms _custos_, guardian, and
_pedisequus_, attendant, were, perhaps, most commonly used and, too,
were used _comes_, companion, and _rector_, governor. The Romans were
more careful in the selection of a slave for pedagogue than were the
Greeks, and yet he was too often too old or too much physically disabled
for the best performance of his duties. These slaves often were
manumitted when their duties were completed in a satisfactory manner.

The elementary teacher, litterator, was usually a slave or freedman, and
too often quite ignorant, in consequence these teachers were held in
little esteem and almost with contempt. Although the grammaticus was
better educated and received more esteem yet he did not have a high
standing. It was only the rhetor who was respected and praised in Rome.
The elementary teacher received very poor pay and the grammar teacher
did not fare much better. Yet in later times the grammaticus and rhetor
were both well paid and there were some who even became wealthy.

The school year, at least for the elementary schools and probably, also,
for the grammar schools, consisted of eight months, with a vacation from
July to October inclusive. There was a holiday in whole or in part every
eighth day, market day, and there were numerous other holidays
throughout the school year. The school day began at daylight, often
before, and continued till evening, with a recess for dinner. There
were, however, no home lessons.

The discipline at school was very severe. The ferule, whip, strap, and
rod were very liberally used. There must have been quite a good deal of
such punishment, as many wrote protests against it, Quintilian, perhaps,
most of all.

"Roman boys, like boys in our times, occasionally shirked school, or
contrived to feign illness in order to avoid reciting their lessons. The
master hung up, where all might read it, a board with names of pupils
who absented themselves or had run away. Persius tells us that when a
boy he used to rub his eyes with olive oil to give him the appearance of
illness, though how oil would have that effect is not apparent. Pliny
says that school children took cumin to make them pale."[199]

In the early days the education of the girls was for the most part that
gained from the mother in the home. They were taught spinning and
weaving and sewing and other household arts, and, no doubt, they also
learned to read and write, the same as the boys. When education became
common, girls had about the same studies as the boys but whether they
attended the same schools with the boys is a disputed question. It is,
perhaps, true that the girls of the common people attended the
elementary schools with the boys, while the girls of the higher classes
had tutors at home. It was more difficult for women to get higher
education as they must have obtained it through private instruction and
possibly, after marriage, from their husbands.

LITERATURE.

1. Abbott, Frank Frost, Society and politics in ancient Rome.

2. Abbott, Frank Frost. The common people of ancient Rome.

3. Anderson, Lewis F., History of common school education.

4. Church, Alfred J., Roman life in the days of Cicero.

5. Clarke, George, The education of children at Rome.

6. Dean, Amos, The history of civilization.

7. Dill, Samuel, Roman society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius.

8. Donaldson, James, Woman: Her position and influence in ancient Greece
and Rome and among the early Christians.

9. Duruy, Victor, History of Rome and the Roman people.

10. Fowler, W. Warde, Social life at Home in the days of Cicero.

11. Fowler, W. Warde, The Roman festivals of the period of the republic.

12. Friedländer, Ludwig, Roman life and manners under the early empire.

13. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of Education, Before the middle
ages.

14. Guhl, E., and Koner, W., The life of the Greeks and Romans.

15. Ihne, W., Early Rome.

16. Lanciani, Rodolpho, Ancient Rome in the light of recent discoveries.

17. Laurie, S. S., Historical survey of pre-Christian education.

18. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

19. Mommsen, Theodor, The history of Rome.

20. Payne, George Henry, The child in human progress.

21. Preston, Harriet Waters, and Dodge, Louis, The private life of the
Romans.

22. Shumway, Edgar S., A day in ancient Rome.

23. Wilkins, A. S., Roman education.

CHAPTER XI

THE CHILD IN EARLIER AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE

=Historical and Critical.= We come now to a time in Europe when there is
an overturning of the greatest nation, perhaps, that has ever arisen in
this world and with the highest civilization the world had reached up to
its time and we enter upon a period where barbarians rule and where
civilization lies stagnant for a long number of years. The question ever
arises why these great civilizations should be overthrown and pass away
as it would seem with their preservation the world would go on toward
higher progress and better living while their tearing down leaves the
world in ignorance and darkness till another civilization gradually
arises.

Yet the very fact that these civilizations are overthrown would imply
that the people themselves are weakened or else they could not be
overcome. So it would seem that the nation has reached a place where it
no longer can prove most useful to the people composing it or to the
people of the world, and it must be overthrown and caused to cease to
exist in order that new, fresh elements may be allowed to enter into the
life of the people that stagnation may not come upon the whole race of
people.

The old Romans disappear and a new race enters upon world activity, a
race of barbarians, and not only a new people but likewise a youthful
people, which must promise much for the race. But this new people begins
at quite a lower plane of civilization than the old nations of Greece
and Rome had reached and so there is entered upon a long, slow upward
climbing but there is a civilization attained that not only reached to
that of Greece and Rome but even surpassed these nations and it is still
going upward.

It would seem that it does a world good at times to slow down and even
to lie dormant for in the end it will surpass its former self. Humanity
is the same always and the dominant traits, though they may be checked
and held passive for a long time, in the end will show themselves,
strengthened by the rest. The best things that a nation produces are
not lost in the nation's passing away for the conquering people will in
a slow way absorb and work over the essentials and they will come forth
among the new people all the better and stronger for race progress. What
if the time be long and the regeneration slow, the world can pass away
its time in no better way than in getting ready for progress and it has
plenty of time for such.

"The larger part of all that the ancient world had gained seemed to be
lost. But it was so in appearance only. Almost, if not quite, every
achievement of the Greeks and the Romans in thought, in science, in law,
in the practical arts, is now a part of our civilization, either among
the tools of our daily life or in the long-forgotten or perhaps disowned
foundation-stones which have disappeared from sight because we have
built some more complete structure upon them, a structure which never
could have been built, however, had not these foundations first been
laid by some one. All of real value which had been gained was to be
preserved in the world's permanent civilization. For the moment it
seemed lost, but it was only for the moment, and in the end the recovery
was to be complete. By a long process of education, by its own natural
growth, under the influence of the remains of the ancient civilization,
by no means small or unimportant, which worked effectively from the very
first, by widening experience and outside stimulus, the barbarian
society which resulted from the conquest was at last brought up to a
level from which it could comprehend the classic civilization, at least
to a point to see that it had very much still to learn from the
ancients, and then, with an enthusiasm which the race has rarely felt,
it made itself master in a generation or two of all that it had not
known of the classic work--of its thought and art and science--and from
the beginning thus secured, advanced to the still more marvelous
achievements of modern times."[200]

=Feudalism.= Feudalism was a form of society and government which arose
during the Middle Ages and became one of the great institutions of that
time, whose legal principles and social ideals are still prevalent in
the fundamentals of law and society of the present. "It is itself a
crude and barbarous form of government in which the political
organization is based on the tenure of land; that is, the public duties
and obligations, which ordinarily the citizen owes to the state, are
turned into private and personal services which he owes to his lord in
return for land which he has received from him."[201] The feudal system
was not confined to Europe, for it existed as well in Japan and in
Central Africa and among the Mohammedans, for if the conditions that
underlie this system arise then human nature, whatever the place or
time, is likely to take on this form of government.

The feudal system grew up from the conditions of society of the time,
which caused the people to organize themselves about earlier
institutions whose remains still existed among them. In Rome there had
grown up a system where the great man had clients attached to him, who
consulted him, who helped him and in turn were helped and directed by
him. This system must have somewhat been taken up by the conquerors and
carried through the years in a modified form, so that when there was no
longer a strong central power able to care for the people as a whole, it
was natural for them to turn to the strong men about them and to attach
themselves to the ones who could bestow upon them land to hold in tenure
and likewise who was strong enough to protect them in the use of this
land or of their own land. The constituent elements of feudalism were
those referring to land and its tenure and to the relations which
existed between the protector and the one protected, or, vassalage,
beneficies, and immunities.

The term vassal was originally applied to servants not free, but it
gradually grew to mean a free man and a vassal was of the same condition
as his lord, so that the term held an honorable meaning. The relation of
the vassal to the lord was that of homage and fealty. There were two
parts to the ceremony of vassalage. In the first ceremony, the man
kneeled before the lord, laid his hands in those of the lord, and
promised homage to him, upon which the lord lifted him up and gave him
the kiss of peace. In the second ceremony, an oath of fealty to the lord
was taken upon the Gospels or upon some relic or relics of saints. At
the time of this ceremony the lord performed the ceremony of
investiture, when he handed to the vassal some material object to
symbolize that the man was invested with a fief. The vassal owed to his
lord military, civil, and financial duties. He had to give military
service for a certain length of time each year, usually forty days, at
his own expense, which, if continued, was at the expense of the lord.
The vassal was bound to attend the court of his lord and to aid him in
administering justice. In cases where the lord was taken prisoner in war
and a ransom was demanded or his son was knighted or his eldest daughter
married, or if he went to the Crusades, the vassal was to give financial
aid. The lord owed the obligation to his vassal to support him in his
fief and to defend him against every enemy.

On the death of the lord the inheritance passed to his children. At
first only male heirs could inherit lands, but later the daughter shared
with the son all the privileges of succession except that of
primogeniture.

The benefices were bestowed by the lord upon the vassal, the land to be
held by tenure, and thus the vassal was placed under obligation to the
lord. There were some lands that were held freely and not by tenure,
such being known as allodial lands, but these freeholds decreased until
finally they wholly disappeared and all the land was held by tenure.

The immunities were grants of privileges to churches or to private
individuals. These included the exemption from certain dues or certain
obligations.

In his domain the lord was a kind of sovereign. He administered justice,
levied taxes, coined money, and declared war for himself and for his own
benefit. The revenues of the lord were of various kinds. He received a
certain part of the crops from his vassals and he received the judicial
fees and other fees of various kinds. Property left after death where
there were no heirs went to him.

=The Feudal Castle and Its Life.= As has been stated, when the central
power became weak and no longer able to protect the common people, they
began to cluster about strong men for protection. These men occupied
places that could be defended or else they sought out places of strength
and security, usually, heights and places which were difficult of
access. Here they built castles and fortified them. These were at first
wood, making a kind of wooden blockhouse, but gradually stone came to be
used and they were built exceedingly strong, and often considered
impregnable.

The feudal village lay beneath and about the castle. There was a
complete social separation between the life in the castle and that in
the village surrounding it. They pursued a different life, as the lord
and his retainers were engaged in war or the chase or lived in idleness,
while the people of the village were laborers. There became a wide
separation between the village and the castle and special privileges
grew up about the dwellers of the castle and, through inheritance, a
nobility arose that lived in idleness and came to looking down upon and
really despising the common people.

This isolation of the castle did, though, bring a closer relation
between the members composing its family. However much the lord might go
out for war or for adventure, in the end he must return to his castle,
as it was his home. Here he found his wife and children, with whom he
must spend his time, mostly alone with them, so that close relations
grew. When the lord was away from the castle, his wife must, naturally,
have had charge of affairs and this would produce in her characteristics
which would cause her to be respected by her lord and often to be
considered his equal. It thus arose that domestic life came to mean much
in that time and the family became the center of social relationship.
The importance of the woman increased and the value of wife and mother
became to be recognized beyond what had been known up to that time.

=Chivalry.= Chivalry arose in the Middle Ages, reaching its height
during the Crusades. It constituted the moral and social law and custom
of the ruling classes in Europe between the eleventh and sixteenth
centuries. It grew out of old Teutonic customs, was modified by the
feudal system, and brought into existence a distinction between men of
noble rank and the common people about them. The chivalric person was
expected to devote himself to the service of God, to his feudal lord,
and to his lady. The knight was trained to service and obedience. He was
to give his services to the weak, especially of his own rank, to give
himself over to the protection of the church, to be reverent and
obedient to his superiors, and to hold womankind in high esteem.

In the training of a knight, the boy remained at home till his seventh
or eighth year under the care of his mother, who began his religious
education and gave him his early training in respect and obedience to
his superiors. He was then placed under the care of some nobleman or
churchman, in whose castle he lived and took his place with the members
of the household. He was known as a _page_ and he waited upon his lord
and lady. He learned to play chess and other games and in most cases to
play the harp and to sing and likewise to read and write. He was
trained in running, wrestling, boxing, and riding and some knightly
exercises that went with the riding. At fourteen or fifteen the youth
became a _squire_ and entered into more intimate relations with the
knight and his lady. With other squires he played chess and walked and
hunted with the lady of the castle, and they attended to the personal
wants of the knight, such as caring for his bed, helping him to dress,
grooming his horse, and attending upon him at the tournament and in war.
During this time the youth learned the arts of war--to exercise in
armor, to ride and to use the shield, and to handle the sword and lance
and battle-axe. As he neared the end of his squireship, the young man
chose his lady-love, to whom he was ever to be devoted. She was usually
older than he and often married and he was expected to remain devoted to
her even though he should marry.

At twenty-one the young man became a knight, after the ceremony of
knighthood. When the time for the ceremony arrived, the candidate put in
a season of fasting and purification and prayer, and then he passed the
night in a church in prayer and meditation. In the morning came the
confession and the absolution and the eucharist. He then placed his
sword upon the altar, the priest blessed it and returned it to him,
after he had taken the solemn oath of knighthood. His armor was placed
upon him and his sword buckled about him and then he knelt before his
lord, who laid his sword upon the candidate's shoulder and dubbed him
knight. The new knight then arose and mounted his horse and displayed
his skill and strength in handling his horse and in the use of his
weapons.

The knight's great occupation was that of war. For this he lived and for
this he trained throughout life. For practical training in war the
tournament came into existence, wherein there were actual combats waged
with the weapons of war, and when there were good numbers on each side
it became a real battle, even to the wounding and killing. This gave
opportunity for displaying knightly powers and courage, for gaining the
smiles and good-will of the ladies, and likewise for the settling of
private quarrels. The tournament, too, was the greatest of all
amusements during feudal times and brought together the largest
gatherings and the greatest displays. Fairs were held in connection with
them in which there was great merry-making, where jugglers and
strolling players and musicians found place and drunkenness and gambling
and the like prevailed.

A level piece of ground was chosen on which an oval enclosure was made,
with rows of seats and covered galleries all round. The knights who were
to engage in the fights pitched their tents at either end, where they
stationed themselves with their squires. Heralds had charge of affairs
and arranged the ceremonies and rules of procedure. There were jousts,
in which two opponents met one another on horseback with lances, and
after the jousts was a general fray, in which there were a number of
champions on each side who fought with swords and sometimes even with
battle-axes, usually on horseback, but on some occasions some on horse
and some on foot. The evening before the tournament there was a try-out
of arms of squires and young knights, blunt weapons being used, the
winners being allowed to enter the general fray of the next day.

All being ready, the lists were cleared and the two knights, on
horseback with lances, were placed at some distance opposite each other.
At a signal from the herald they lowered their lances and rushed at each
other, each striving to knock the other from his horse. In case both
knights kept their seats unhurt, they tried it again, till one or both
were unhorsed. Then they fought on foot with swords till one was
overcome. At the close of all the jousts the general fray took place. In
the jousts sometimes one or the other knight was badly wounded and
sometimes even killed. In the general fray the fight might have become
so fierce that a number would be wounded and killed on both sides. In
the evening after the close of the tournament a great feast was held,
which was attended by the ladies and the knights who participated in the
tournament and other members of the nobility.

The mounted knight was a great fighter and could overcome quite a number
of unarmed and unarmored peasants. As long as fighting was done at close
quarters no other fighter could equal him or expect to overcome him. But
when the common people began to be armed with the bow and the pike an
army could be raised that did not always have to fight at close quarters
and so armor did not mean so much. War, too, was becoming a mercenary
trade and a king could obtain an army by paying for mercenary cavalry
and by arming his yeomen and peasants and forming them into pliant
infantry. While the barons wasted their strength in fighting and robbing
one another, the king swept down upon them with his army of infantry and
mercenary cavalry and defeated them one by one, thus doing away with
petty baronies and their private quarrels and uniting them under one
strong power. When gunpowder came into general use, the knight and his
armor vanished in smoke and the chivalry of the middle ages passed away
and through the transforming influences of the printing press and steam
power and the many other arts of modern times it was refined, and became
the basis of the civilization of the present day. Chivalry is still
extant, but it has a different meaning than that of feudal times, for
where the feudal system had its _knight_ the present age has its
_gentleman_.

The age of chivalry most naturally aroused poetic and musical fancies
and during that time arose the trouveurs of Northern France, with whom
may be placed the minstrels of the British Isles, and the troubadours of
Southern France and the minnesingers of Germany. These poets and singers
were from all classes--nobility, artisans, clergy--and although most of
them were of noble rank, yet there were some noted ones from the common
people. They would go about the country reciting and singing their poems
and they were welcome everywhere. They would sing of war and of love,
many of the productions being based upon heroes of the past and again
others being of imaginary characters.

=The Peasantry.= During feudal times there arose a great distinction
between noble and ignoble service. The noble service was that performed
by the knight in armor on horseback, that of the unpaid warrior, while
ignoble service was that of the field laborer. Since feudal life was
mainly agricultural, the artisan, the dweller in the town, counted but
little, but there came a time when he did count much for the overthrow
of feudalism. The mass of the laboring people were serfs and they were
treated sternly by their masters, the noblemen, and they were not much
more than slaves.

Slavery, so prominent under the Roman rule, gradually disappeared during
the middle ages. Yet the serf at first was but little better off, for,
although he could not be sold, he could not leave the land. He did have
some control of his person, for he had allotted to him a bit of land
upon which he could work without being driven by an overseer. Later he
was permitted to go out elsewhere for work, but for this he must possess
a legal permit. This led to the custom of allowing him to pay his lord
in money for his services in lieu of work upon the land or returns from
the land, and then followed his being permitted to purchase his freedom,
so that the serf could become a freedman.

During the early part of the period the laboring and the trading classes
did not count as political, military, or social factors. They are
scarcely mentioned in the records of the time. They were robbed by the
nobles, their persons maltreated, and their wives and daughters
dishonored. There were exactions of all kinds. They had to pay annual
dues for the use of the land, they had to give a certain number of days
free each year to the repair of the public roads and to the cultivation
of the lord's domains, and they had to be ready, when called upon, to
render military service of such an inferior kind as they could do. "He
was bound to bake his bread at the lord's oven, grind his grain at the
lord's mill, and press his grapes in his lord's wine-press, paying, of
course, for the privilege; if he wanted to chase or cut wood in the
forest, or fish in the stream, or feed his cattle in the pasture, all of
which were reserved seigniorial rights, he must pay his tax. He must pay
the lord for the use of his weights and measures, or for a guarantee
against changes in his coinage. He may not even sell the remnant of
crops which survived this accumulation of taxes until those of the lord
have been sold at the highest market price. After the lord had squeezed
the peasant almost to the point of extinction, came the church with its
even more effectual agencies of terror and superstition. Its principal
exaction was the tithe, a tax of one-tenth upon the products of
agriculture, a burden sufficient, if rigidly enacted, to ruin any field
industry. But not content with this, the church, like the feudal
seignior, profited by every special occasion, birth, baptism, marriage,
death, to collect new contributions."[202]

Even in the seventeenth century the life of the laboring man was very
hard, as is shown in the following in reference to the British peasant
of that time. "At the first setting out of the plough after Christmas,
which was the time to begin fallowing, or breaking up the pease earth,
the teams-man rose before 4 a. m., and after thanks to God for his
night's rest, proceeded to the beast house. Here he foddered his cattle,
cleaned out their booths, rubbed down the animals, currying the horses
with cloths and wisps. Then he watered his oxen and horses. He next
foddered the latter with chaff, dry pease, oat hulls, beans, or clean
garbage, such as the hinder parts of rye. While they were eating their
meal, he got ready his collars, hames, treats, halters, mullers, and
plough gears. At 6 a. m. he received half an hour's liberty for
breakfast. From seven till between two and three in the afternoon he
ploughed. Then he unyoked, brought home his oxen, cleansed and foddered
them, and, lastly, partook of his dinner, for which he was again granted
another half hour's spell of leisure. By 4 p. m. he was again in the
stable. After rubbing down his charges and re-cleansing their stalls, he
went to the barns, where he prepared the fodder for the following day's
bait. He carried this to the stable, and then watered his beasts and
replenished their mangers. It was now close on 6 p. m. He therefore went
home, got his supper, and then sat by the fireside, either mending his
and the family's shoe-leather, or knocking hemp and flax, or picking and
stamping apples and crabs for cider or vinegar, or grinding malt on the
quern, or picking candle rushes, till 8 p. m. He then lighted his
lanthorn and revisited the stable, where he again cleansed the stalls
and planks, and replenished the racks with the night's fodder. Then,
returning to his cottage, he gave God thanks for benefits received
during the day, and went to bed."[203]

=The Town People.= In the early part of this period the artisans, like
the field serfs, were grouped under a lord to whom their products
belonged. Later they grouped themselves into communities and began to
deal with the lord more as a body and not as separate individuals,
although at first there was not much organization. There was a
continuous growth, though, toward closer organization till there arose
the great free city with its charter of freedom obtained from the lord
for services rendered or funds furnished in a time of his great need.

The growth of commerce, too, aided in the formation of these cities, as
for the carrying on of trade it was necessary to have centers where the
people might come together. These places might at first have been a
fair, a temporary affair, but gradually these centers became permanently
established or old ones revived. For the carrying on of trade it was
necessary to have a medium of exchange and the amount of money was
increased by the cities through accumulation and coinage. This gave to
the cities a strong means for obtaining freedom, as the lord was ever in
need of funds and the cities by accumulating money and having the power
to raise a general fund could from time to time buy rights from the lord
as his need of money became urgent.

In Italy and Germany the cities formed themselves into corporations, the
most noted perhaps being the Hanseatic League. In England, however, the
cities did not join together, but each stood apart and cared for itself
alone. They became really more interested in the welfare of the town
itself than in that of the nation and the prosperity of the town was of
the most importance. The town could not set aside the law of the land,
but it could add to it as far as the government of the town itself was
concerned and ordinances were passed relative to the welfare of the
town. The officers of these towns considered themselves as very
important personages and on occasions of state they arrayed their
persons in gorgeous robes and carried themselves with great dignity.
These towns erected stately churches and other public buildings and
adorned them magnificently.

A striking feature of town life of the Middle Ages was the formation of
guilds. This was not original with this period for, as told under the
chapter on Rome, there were organizations at Rome similar to the guilds
of the middle ages and likewise there were similar organizations in
Greece. In the medieval period there were two kinds of guilds. The first
kind was of a general nature and it was organized for mutual protection
or aid, such as protection against thieves and aid in times of sickness,
old age, and the like. The second kind was the trade guild, such as
formed by merchants and craftsmen. Guilds formed a very important
element in the town life of the Middle Ages, as almost all professions
and occupations had guilds.

The craft guild embraced all the members of a craft--the apprentice, who
was bound for service for a number of years to learn the trade; the
journeyman, or skilled laborer, who received wages for his work; and the
master, who controlled the journeyman and the apprentice. The function
of the guild was to regulate and protect the craft and also to help one
another and to care for the orphan and the widow and the aged. Officers
from their own body were appointed to carry out the regulations and to
have general oversight of the organization.

"The medieval townsman was very narrow in his aims, very selfish, and
sometimes very cruel in his exclusiveness, but his whole-hearted
affection for his town, his anxiety for its welfare, and his pride in
its beauty are delightful: they must have made his life very real and
absorbing to him, and they make it very attractive to us."[204]

=The Aristocracy.= As was stated before, during the middle ages in
Europe there grew up a sharp distinction between the noble and the
commoner, which was strongly emphasized by inheritance till there became
the grouping of people into hard and fast classes. The nobility
possessed two characteristics that distinguished them from the common
people which were the right to inherit landed estate and the right to
knighthood. Thus arose a class born to estate and chivalry which
hardened into an aristocracy that was almost impossible for the man born
of the public to enter. Yet there were two ways by which he might enter
into nobility, by the purchase of an estate to which the quality of
nobility was attached, which his children inherited, and through the
creation of new nobles by the king, which, though, was rarely done
during medieval times.

The love of show and magnificence was great during the middle ages and
was greatly displayed by the aristocracy of the period. The most
impressive and lavish displays were centered round the person of the
king. This was shown in the gorgeous ceremonies and settings of his
coronation, in court etiquette and regulations, and in the large
establishment of his household. Some of the great nobles had
establishments that rivaled and even excelled that of the king. The
great lord had a large body of retainers who wore his livery and badge,
a great number of whom were members of his household and ate at his
table. These great lords were lavish in their entertainment and
sometimes impoverished themselves through their hospitality, and were
thereby compelled to obtain money, which, as mentioned before, gave to
the cities the opportunity of securing privileges from them. In England
such nobles sometimes repaired their fortunes by marrying the daughters
of rich merchants or by engaging in trade, but in France the old
noblesse, whose social standing depended upon their ancient origin,
preferred poverty to such means of enriching themselves, which they
would regard with holy horror, and they kept their respect and dignity
through all the vicissitudes of misfortunes, without thus endangering
their pure strain of noble blood by mixing it with that of the common
herd or soiling their sacred persons with the vulgar touch of trade.

=The Home.= As time went on in the Middle Ages, the houses built as a
means of defense grew less, so that the castle began to disappear and
the home to take its place. The houses began to assume proportions of
grandeur and forms of beauty, the outgrowth of the love of magnificence
and display of the times. In England the manor houses were grouped
around a courtyard with the entrance through a gate-house. In the house
was a great hall, made to accommodate a large number of people. The
kitchen was a large room, sometimes having three or four large
fireplaces. Leading from the hall were chambers for the lord and lady
and guests. There were also the bake-house, brew-house, stables,
granaries, ox-stalls, pig-sties, and other buildings.

The town houses had usually been no higher than two stories, but later
went up to three or four stories in height. They often had gardens about
them. They were built of stone, brick, or wood, sometimes having a
cellar of stone while the upper part was wood. They were thatched with
straw, but often tiles were used. Thin horn, talc, and canvas were
placed across windows, but glass was coming into more common use, so
that many houses had glass in their windows. The rooms were lighted by
candles, sometimes torches were used, the candles being set in standing
or hanging candlesticks of iron, wood, or latten. The heating was done
by a fire built in the center of the hall, the smoke escaping through an
opening in the roof, or there was a fireplace in the corner or the side
of the room. The fuel used was wood, charcoal, ling, peat, or coal.

In the hall the furniture consisted of tables, seats, and a cupboard. In
the chamber was a bedstead with curtains around it and the bedding
consisted of a straw mattress, a feather bed, bolster, pillows, sheets,
and blankets. There were chairs in the room, a table, and a clothes
chest. The walls were painted or hung with tapestry. The floors were
bare or strewn with rushes or straw, some floors being of tiles, and
carpets came into use late in the period.

=Women.= At the time of the beginning of Christianity women had reached
a high position at Rome, having great freedom, power, and influence. At
the first women played an important part in the activities of the
Christians, but later they were relegated to quite a subordinate place.
The old church fathers even went farther and claimed that woman was a
source of evil and that she should live in continual penance on account
of the curses she had brought upon the world. So it became her duty to
remain at home secluded, going out into public only when visiting the
sick or attending church, and then she must be veiled. Nor should she
enhance her beauty, which was only a snare, by dress but such should be
simple and grave and of plain color, not for the purpose of ornament but
for protection alone.

"The influence of Christianity tended at once to elevate and to narrow
the position of women. It elevated her position, for, while the pagan
ideal of life is essentially masculine, the Christian ideal is in part
feminine. Justice, energy, strength, are the pre-eminent qualities of
the pagan ideal; and mercy, love, gentleness, and humility, of the
Christian. The coincidence of the characteristics of Christianity with
the characteristics of the female heart resulted in the elevation of
woman. This result was also achieved in other ways. In the realm of the
emotions, and especially of the religious emotions, woman is superior to
man. If she is inferior to him in her power of apprehending a system of
truth, she is his superior in respect to her loyalty to individuals.
Christianity demanded personal loyalty to a personal Christ as the first
and comprehensive condition of admission to its church. Thus the
influence of Christianity ennobled the position of woman. This increased
power was manifest in various ways. Women flocked to the Church in large
numbers, and were important factors in the conversion of the Empire.
They embraced martyrdom with unflagging zeal and fortitude. Although not
usually admitted to the priesthood, they performed ecclesiastical
functions of minor importance. As deaconesses--an order for which may
justly be claimed apostolic sanction--they were of peculiar usefulness
in the great and arduous work of charity and of philanthropy. Of the
asceticism which so early sprang up they were ardent defenders. In their
households, their influence was more pervasive than in the Church. For
the conversion of their husbands and sons and daughters they labored
with constancy, if not always with wisdom, and often with success. The
wife of Theodosius the Great was one of the most distinguished defenders
of the faith. Augustine writes of the influence of his mother in the
formation of his Christian character. The mother of Constantine bore an
important part in the conversion of her royal son. In dignity and in
useful influence, in social rights and family prestige, Christianity
tended to elevate the place of woman. For force or passion as the basis
of marriage--elements which when exercised degrade the husband more than
the wife--was substituted love. The New Testament teaching was the
foundation of practice.

"But in one respect the position of the married woman was narrowed by
Christianity. It has been already noticed, that in the civil marriage of
the period of the later Republic and Empire, the wife remained in the
guardianship of her own family. She did not pass into the control of her
husband. The consequence of this method was that the power of her
guardian became less and less, and that the power of her husband did not
increase. She, therefore, came to occupy a situation of great
independence as to both person and property. Against the loose marital
bond of the civil marriage, which was indeed a mere species of wedlock,
the Church uttered its protest. It was contrary to the teachings of the
New Testament; it was opposed to Christian practice. In their
repudiation of the civil marriage, the Christian moralists also
repudiated that liberty and independence of the wife which were among
its essential elements. Thus the legal position of the married woman was
narrowed by the Church."[205]

Among the early Germans, women were greatly respected. Woman was
considered man's inferior only in physical nature and this very physical
weakness was the one great cause of her being so well respected. The
wife was not thought inferior to the husband in morality, courage,
prudence, and wisdom, but his equal. Although this was somewhat changed
by contact with the Romans, yet it appears to be the basis for the
building of the high honor paid to women in chivalry. During the time of
feudalism the wife tended to become the husband's peer and companion. In
the age of chivalry women were held in high esteem, or at least women of
the noble class, and they were subjects of great devotion by the
knights and squires.

During the Middle Ages many women possessed property and because of this
they had a social standing they would not otherwise have had. But riches
brought disadvantages as well, as heiresses were in danger of being
carried off and compelled to marry their captors or to give them large
sums of money. If single a woman's property was more or less under the
control of her guardian and when married her husband had control of her
belongings. On the other hand, the wife had a certain right in her
husband's possessions and upon his death she had her portion as dower.

Women entered into industrial affairs, as they engaged in the
manufacture and sale of many articles. They occupied themselves in
spinning and weaving, in making ribbons and laces, in making shoes and
candles, and other articles; they sold fruit, bread, fish, poultry, and
wares of different kind; they were employed in farm work and in
unskilled labor such as carrying clay and water, gathering moss and
heath, and waiting on thatchers and masons. Women carried on foreign
commerce, in England exporting goods to France, Spain, and other
countries. They were permitted to become members of guilds, although
they did not take a very prominent part in them.

=Marriage.= In the early Christian church marriage was made to mean a
great deal. Surrounded as the Christians were by the moral rottenness of
the decaying Roman state, it became necessary for the sustenance of
their religion that the marriage vow should be a sacred obligation. To
this end marriage became a religious ceremony. A Christian could not
marry a pagan, as this vow could only be properly taken between parties
of the same religious belief and could thus receive the benediction of
the bishop. This idea of marriage made chastity the all-important thing
in woman and thus created the home and gave to children a pure
parenthood and made childhood mean more to children than the world had
given before.

Among the Germans, and likewise other northern nations of earlier
Europe, monogamy was prevalent and almost the universal practice. There
was a kind of purchase of the wife, as the man in the presence of her
parents offered a dowry to the bride, which if accepted sealed the
match. The parties to the contract both had to be mature people, the
bridegroom having to be old enough to be invested with arms and to
become a member of the state. Before the woman could marry she had to
have the consent of her father or nearest relative, and if a widow,
having been purchased, she had to have the approval of the relatives of
her deceased husband.

"Marriage ceremonies (among Anglo-Saxons) consisted in the assemblage of
friends, the consuming of the great loaf (made by the bride as an
introduction into house-keeping, and the ancestor of our wedding-cake);
some special barrels of beer were brewed--the 'bride ale,' hence our
modern 'bridal.' This beer was drunk to her health and to that of the
bridegroom (originally _brydgumma_, bridesman). The Anglo-Saxons paid a
regular sum, agreed upon beforehand, to the father before the wedding;
the consent of the lady being obtained, the bridegroom then gave his
promise and his 'wed.' 'Nor,' adds Sharon Turner, 'was this promise
trusted to his honor merely, or to his own interest. The female sex was
so much under the protection of the law that the bridegroom was
compelled to produce friends who became security for his due observance
of the covenant.' In this we have the origin of 'groomsman,' or 'best
man,' of our time. The parties being betrothed, the next step to take
was to settle by whom the _fosten-léan_, or money requisite for the care
of the children, was to be supplied. The bridegroom pledged himself to
do this; his friends became security for him. These preliminaries being
arranged, he had to signify what he meant to give her for choosing to be
his wife, and what he should give her in case she survived him. This was
the _morgen gifu_, being given by the Anglo-Saxon husbands to their
wives on the morning after the wedding.[206] The old law says that it is
right that she should halve the property, or the whole of it should
become hers if she had children, unless she married again. The friends
of the bridegroom became surety for his conduct and those of the bride
for hers. A priest--when Christianity was introduced--blessed the union;
and after many points of law had been settled for the protection of the
wife under all circumstances, 'her relations wedded her to him.' But in
all these instances no mention is made of the wedding-ring, which came
later. The English, regarding the wife in her capacity of ruler of the
household, placed a ring upon her finger as a badge, not of servitude,
but of authority, as in the case of the consort of Ethelred the Second,
who before receiving the crown was anointed and distinguished by this
symbolic act of adornment."[207]

There was a time during the Middle Ages when betrothal and even marriage
took place at a very early age, even between quite young children. In
England boys could be married at fourteen and girls at twelve, but these
ages were sometimes disregarded and children were married at even
younger ages. Betrothals were made by parents or guardians for children
of very young age, one such case is on record as having been entered
into when the little girl was but four years of age, the child having
been given in charge to her future father-in-law. This custom was by far
most common among the upper classes, for, as a rule, the men and women
of the middle classes did not enter upon marriage till of more mature
age. These early marriages or betrothals were probably the result of
guardians having under their charge children who were heirs and so they
arranged the marriage to their own advantage or sold their rights for a
sum of money, and even parents were known to have sold the marriage of
their children to gain money.

The idea of the early Christians that marriage should not be civil but
religious gradually prevailed till not only was the ceremony performed
by the church alone, but also breaches of marriage vows were punished
not by the state but by the church. But this did not prevent marriage
from becoming a business affair, where the material advantages to be
gained were closely looked into and the amount of property or money to
be gained on either or both sides was the most important and chief
consideration. Nor did this prevent informal marriages, for men and
women did join themselves together without priest or religious ceremony
by a simple declaration that they would take each other as husband and
wife. This was not accepted by the church nor always recognized by the
state, but such unions did take place nevertheless.

"It is sometimes thought that in the Middle Ages men were always obliged
to hold to their wives for better or worse to their lives' end. There
are some grounds for this opinion, but it is not quite correct. The
Church did not allow divorce in the modern sense of the word; that is to
say, she taught that a valid marriage could not be dissolved; but
marriages could be, and often were, annulled on the ground that some
impediment existed which rendered them invalid."[208]

There was no regular marriage among the serfs of the earliest times. As
marriage became more a church ceremony, this institution established,
about the twelfth century, the legality of this ceremony among the
serfs. This, of course, caused difficulties when the serf of one lord
married the serf of another, and especially so when such parties had
children. Sometimes money satisfied this, sometimes other marriages, and
even sometimes the children were divided among the two estates.

=Dress.= The simple and beautiful dress of the Greeks and Romans was
displaced during the Middle Ages by changing costumes, which sometimes
were of the most fantastic designs and colors, sometimes ugly, and
sometimes beautiful. It is impossible to give here in detail the dress
of all the nations or even in a general way to depict the changes that
took place, and but one nation, England, will be considered, and that
only in a hurried way.

The early Britons used a mantle that covered the whole body, which was
fastened in front with a clasp or with a belt about the waist. These
mantles were of skins of animals, the hair being left on for the outside
of the garment. Sometimes also they wore a woolen jacket. Their shoes
were made of coarse skins, the hair being left for the outside as with
the mantle. The women wore chains and rings and bracelets, and their
hair was left loose upon the shoulders without braiding or tying.

The Anglo-Saxons had a linen undergarment over which they wore a linen
or woolen tunic, reaching to the knees, with long, close sleeves, the
tunic being fastened at the waist with a belt. Over these garments they
wore a short cloak, fastened with clasps. They wrapped bands of cloth,
linen, or leather about the leg from the ankle to the knee, and their
shoes opened down the instep and were fastened with a thong. The women
wore a long, loose garment, like a tunic, reaching to the ground, and
over this a mantle. They wrapped about the head and neck a kind of veil
made of a long piece of silk or linen. The men wore the hair and beard
long.

The Normans made quite a display in dress. They wore a long, close gown,
reaching to the feet, often embroidered with gold at the bottom, and
fastened at the waist with an ornamental girdle. Over this they wore a
cloak with a hood, fastened across the breast by a gold or silver
brooch. The women wore a loose dress, trailing on the ground, with
girdle round the waist, and a cloak over the dress. The men wore their
hair long, sometimes curling it like women, but they wore no beard,
shaving the face clean.

During the Middle Ages dress was a distinguishing mark of very great
importance. The king needed to be arrayed in gorgeous robes of rich
texture and color, as his dignity require such; the city officers, in
keeping with the pride of the city, must be clothed in brilliant attire;
the sign of power and greatness of the nobles was displayed in the showy
livery of their retainers; and the uniform of the craft-guilds was a
badge of their importance in the life of the people and of the nation.
During the most of this period there was great luxury in dress among the
noble and wealthy. Silks, satins, velvets, scarlet cloths, fine cloths
of gold and silver, and rich furs were used in the apparel of both
sexes, and not only was the finest and best of their own land used, but
also fine materials were brought in from other countries. Not only was
the clothing very costly, but also there was a striving for a large
amount, so that the expenditure for dress was very great.

The men dressed as fanciful and elaborately as did the women and the
styles changed quite as often and as differently. At one time they wore
a close-fitting tunic with tight or short sleeves and a short cloak; at
a later time they wore a long gown with long, full sleeves, and again
their clothing was padded, the shoulders being made as broad as
possible. Sometimes the colors of the garments would be of one hue or
well matched, and again there would be one garment of one color and
another of an entirely different color, and even the parts of the same
garment would not be of the same color. "A dandy of the fourteenth
century is thus described: 'He wore long pointed shoes, fastened to his
knees by gold or silver chains; hose of one color on one leg, and of
another color on the other. Short breeches, not reaching to the middle
of the thigh; a coat, one-half white, and the other half black or blue;
a long beard, a silk band buttoned under his chin, embroidered with
grotesque figures of animals, dancing men, etc., and sometimes
ornamented with gold, silver, and precious stones.'"[209]

The women wore long dresses reaching to the ground and sometimes with
long trains. At times the bodices fit closely and were low in the neck,
while in another time the body was encased in whalebone to the hips and
the shoulders supported an enormous ruff, as much as three feet or more
in width. Men also wore the ruff. The ladies used paint on their faces
and adorned them with black patches as "beauty spots."

Men and women of the working classes dressed more simply than the upper
classes, usually wearing short tunics with small sleeves and with hoods
for outdoors. But they, too, dressed up for special occasions and at
times they were arrayed in highly-colored and costly garments and even
at times vied with the upper classes, in spite of laws passed to prevent
people from dressing above their stations.

Children were clothed in about the same manner and the same styles as
their elders, there being no great distinguishing marks in the dress of
the younger and older people.

The girdles, which were so necessarily an important part of the dress,
were often highly ornamental and very costly. They were sometimes made
of silk, lined with fine leather, and ornamented with gold and silver
and precious stones. The garments of both men and women were at times
embroidered, having armorial devices, mottoes, initials of the owners,
and other designs. They were also lined and trimmed with fur, many kinds
of fur being used.

The men wore their hair long and then again very short; it was cut off
short at the forehead and at another time allowed to grow long till it
almost fell into the eyes. Sometimes they wore a full beard and
sometimes they were clean shaved. At a late time in the period wigs came
into use, and they were thought to be indispensable by every man of
social standing. They wore hoods and then caps and hats of various
styles. The women wore their hair loose down the back or braided and
coiled and put into a net of gold wire. At one time great headdresses
were the fashion, one style rising up horn-like from the head, another
being like a steeple, running to a high point. There were also
heart-shaped erections, turban-shaped, crescent-shaped, one like an
inverted lamp-shade, and still another shaped like a butterfly.

Shoes were of various styles, one style having very sharp-pointed toes
and even projecting far beyond the foot and then turned up and fastened
to the knee with a silver or gold chain. Then the shoes were changed
from length to breadth, till Parliament passed a law limiting the width
of the toes to six inches. There was one kind made of fine, soft leather
cut into beautiful designs and worn over bright-colored stockings that
showed through the openings.

Jewelry was used quite a great deal. Caps and girdles and other garments
were sometimes decorated with precious stones. They wore chains about
the neck with pendants in the shape of crosses, medallions, and the
like. Reliquaries (little cases containing relics) were also sometimes
hung on neck-chains. There were beads of gold and silver and ivory.
Brooches and clasps and rings of gold and silver studded with jewels
were quite common and other jewelry was worn.

"Very extraordinary ideas were current as to the properties of jewels;
talismanic and medicinal powers were attributed to many of them--it was
thought that the jaspar, agate, and toad-stone neutralized or detected
poisons, that pearls dissolved in powder cured stomachic complaints, and
that coral acted as a charm. Great importance was attached to engraving,
because it was held that if a gem were engraved by a skilful person
under the right planetary influence its virtue was greatly increased.
If, for example, an engraving depicting Ophinclius, the constellation
which had the power of resisting poison, were cut on an agate its
efficiency would be doubled. Even substances which had in themselves no
talismanic qualities could acquire them if they were inscribed with
words or symbols possessing them, and consequently sacred names and
mystic signs were frequently placed not only upon gems, but also upon
all kinds of jewelry, and sometimes upon other things, such as drinking
cups, as well."[210]

=Food.= Eating and drinking was a most important function of the middle
ages. Banquets were held to celebrate great events and feasting occurred
on all occasions, both public and private. Good things to eat were so
well thought of that it was the custom to send gifts of food to friends
and patrons and the very highest in the land, as was often shown in
England, did not think it undignified to give or to receive such
presents, from whomever they might come. Towns in order to gain favors
would send out as presents large quantities of food to royal personages,
and loyalty shown by towns and individuals was sometimes rewarded by the
king in the same way.

As artificial light was hard to get, the meals were usually partaken of
during daylight. The cooks of the time showed great skill in the
preparation of foods and in decorating their dishes, being fond of
coloring all kinds of food and displaying branches and flowers about the
food and table. The table was covered with a cloth and each guest
furnished with a napkin, knife, and spoon but no fork, the fingers being
used instead. Good manners prohibited the putting of the knife into the
mouth, but it was all right to dip sops or morsels into soups or sauces,
and it was a mark of good breeding to be able to carry such to the mouth
without letting any drops fall upon the tablecloth or the person.

There were many different kinds of bread; among the meats were beef and
pork, poultry and game of all sorts, among such eaten being peacocks,
gulls, swans, herons, and cranes; many varieties of fish were to be had;
there were many different kinds of fruits and vegetables used, among the
fruits being quinces, pears, cherries, strawberries, apples, peaches,
plums, and grapes, and of the vegetables, peas, leeks, cabbages, onions,
turnips, parsnips, and beets. Soups and broths were very common, and the
mixing of ingredients in dishes was much in use, as, meat was cut up
into small pieces, boiled, ground in a mortar, passed through a
strainer, and then mixed with spice, salt, sugar or honey, almonds,
dates, raisins, and grated bread, all being blended together with the
yolk of eggs.

The poorer classes sometimes fared badly, but usually in England the
peasants had sufficient food, although often of the cheaper sort and not
of great variety. "The methods of preparing the raw material for baking
differed in various parts of this island. For a very long period it was
imperative on the manorial populations in both England and Scotland that
they should take their corn to be ground at the lord's mill. But when
this regulation fell into disuse, all sorts of contrivances for grinding
crept in. The most primitive was undoubtedly that of the Highland
peasant. The first process was the separation of the grain from the ear.
This was not threshed, but graddaned--that is to say, it was burned out
of the ear in much the same fashion as the parched corn of Boaz. Either
whole sheaves or several ears were fired on the cottage floor. Though
the burning of the entire sheaf was the most expeditious process, it was
a sad waste of manure and thatch. Sometimes oats were beaten out of the
straw with a rude mallet, and kiln-dried. But usually both they and
barley underwent the burning treatment. The housewife knelt before the
fire, holding a few stalks in her left hand. Setting the ears alight,
she deftly beat out the grain with a stick, just when the husk was quite
consumed. The grains, blackened like coal, were picked off the floor
with the hand and placed in the quern. This consisted of two stones, 1½
ft. in diameter, the lower slightly convex, the upper slightly concave.
In the middle of each was a round hole, and on one side of it a long
handle. The Scotch housewife shed the grain into the hole with one hand,
and worked the handle round with the other. The corn slid down the
convexity of the lower stone, and by the motion of the upper one was
ground in the passage."[211] "Hasty pudding was a great favorite among
the poorer sort. Indeed, all spoon meat of a sweet description was
popular, as Houghton proves by a delightful little anecdote. Two Norfolk
boys once were overheard discussing the kind of treat in which either of
them would indulge if he became King of England. The one decided that he
would have pudding every day for dinner; the other burst into tears,
because his comrade's wish had left him nothing good from which to
choose."[212]

=Children of the Ancient Britons.= "It seems to have been the custom of
the Celts to plunge their new-born infants into some lake or river in
order to try the firmness of their constitutions and to harden their
bodies--this even in the winter season. The Scandinavians used, it is
said, to pour water upon the heads of their children as soon as they
were born, and this long before the introduction of Christianity; but
there is no certainty that this custom was observed in Britain. Before
the introduction of Christianity the inhabitants of the northern part of
Britain did not give names, it is said, to their sons before they had
performed some brave action, or given some indication of their
disposition and character....

"The early British matron, even of the highest rank, always nursed her
infants, and would have resented in the greatest degree the delegation
of this parental office to another woman. We know little of the bringing
up of the children. There is a story of Solinus to the effect that his
first morsel of food was put into the infant's mouth on the point of the
father's sword, with a prayer that he might prove a great and brave
warrior and die on the field of battle. This seems more likely to apply
to the races who succeeded them and the Roman occupation than to the
veritable Britons. ... The Ancient Britons were accustomed almost from
infancy to handle arms and to sing the glorious actions of their
ancestors. The young were thus inspired to feats of strength and to be
engaged in war. As they advanced in years they were, while being
instructed in martial exercises, also taught that everything in life
depended on their valor--the praises of the bards, the favor of the
great, and the applause of the people, and that happiness after death
was the reward only of those who were daring in war. It may be
considered certain that the youth of Britain at this period were not
delicately nurtured; a rough and hardy people would not educate their
children in a manner unfitting for their surroundings and way of life,
and doubtless--as in Germany--the families of the nobler sort were
brought up with no more delicacy or tenderness than the common people.
Tacitus says of the Germans, 'In every house you see the little boys,
the sons of lords and peasants, equally sordid and ill-clothed, lying
and playing promiscuously together on the ground and among the cattle,
without any visible distinction. In this manner they grow up to that
prodigious strength which we behold with admiration.' The sons of the
ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britains of all ranks were allowed to run,
wrestle, jump, swim, climb, and to engage in vigorous exercises at their
will and without restraint until they approached manhood. To this
continued exercise, together with the simplicity of their diet, is
ascribed by Caesar the great strength of body and boldness of spirit to
which these nations attained. Caesar says that when the youth of
Germany, Gaul, and Britain began to approach the manly age, some more
attention seems to have been paid to them by the public and their
parents than previously, for when the son was younger it was accounted a
shame for a father to be seen in his company. Children who were designed
for the priestly order were then put under the direction of the Druids
for their instruction in the sciences and in the principles of law,
morality, and religion, while those who were intended for a warlike
life--according to Caesar--had arms put into their hands by their
fathers, or nearest kinsmen, in a public assembly of the warriors of the
state or clan. Some vestiges of this custom continued till later
times--especially with respect to the eldest sons of the lairds or
chieftains--in some parts of the Highlands and western isles of
Scotland."[213]

=Children among the Early Christians.= The old church fathers were so
much given to ascetism that it would appear as if there was really an
antagonism to marriage in their time and which must have had a great
influence on family life. Donaldson states[214] that children are seldom
mentioned in the Christian writings of the second and third centuries,
and that almost nothing is said of their training, as if there were but
little attention given to their instruction. And yet infants were
considered with a much higher standard than among the Greeks and Romans,
for, as given in the chapters dealing with children among these nations,
infanticide was practiced by them, as the father had the right to expose
his children, so that infants on their birth might be abandoned and left
to perish, and this was particularly the case with weakly and deformed
children and often with female children without blemish. From the very
first Christianity condemned the practice and denounced it as murder.
They even went further, for the church forbid the practice of the
destruction of children before birth. Thus Christianity protected the
lives of infants and especially of female infants.

=Child and Parent.= In England at least there did not at times seem to
have been a great, strong affection between parents and children. This
may have been caused in part from the custom of boarding out the
children or sending them out to be servants or ladies-in-waiting to the
persons with whom they were sent to live, as children who would thus go
out from parents at an early age and not getting to see them often would
not have the opportunity of showing affection for them and they would
naturally take up with the people with whom they came in daily contact.
The children who were sent to boarding-school were there throughout the
entire year, being at home only a few days at a time, on holidays.
Another cause for the lack of affection between parents and children may
have been from the custom of the remarriage of parents, the new husband
or the new wife drawing the affection away from the children. Although
the children showed outward respect to their parents, which was well
portrayed in the letters they wrote to them, yet it would seem there was
not so deep an inward respect.

=Care and Treatment of Children.= Children were brought up quite
strictly during the Middle Ages. They were punished very much, minor
offenses often bringing a severe punishment, for it was held that every
child needed correction and that quite frequently. The children of the
poor were usually put to work when very young and had to undergo much
suffering. Orphans had the hardest lot of all, for if parents cared so
little for their own children and often neglected them, they would care
still less for the children of other people, and so would neglect them
or treat them cruelly. If the orphans were heirs, they were often
despoiled of their possessions by their guardians or married to parties
unfit for them in order to have control of their estate. Of course, all
parents were not lacking in affection and all guardians were not knaves.
Yet it would seem that children during the Middle Ages did not have the
happiest of times and they often lived miserable lives.

=Apprenticeship.= There arose during the Middle Ages a belief that every
child should be trained to do something. As was stated under feudalism,
it was the custom for boys of the upper classes to be sent into the
homes of nobles and churchmen to serve a number of years in order to
become learned in chivalry and to acquire the use of arms. In like
manner there grew up for the boys of the common classes the
apprenticeship system, whereby they were placed under a master to spend
a number of years to learn a trade or to carry on agriculture.

It was held, at least in England, that all able-bodied men should work
and to that end they should be trained as boys, so that when grown up
they would be able to work at a trade or farming and thereby earn their
own living and not become a burden upon the state. During the sixteenth
century it became a law that every child should have such training as
would fit him for business or a calling. Some were apprenticed to trades
and some to agriculture. If a parent could prove that he was able to
furnish a maintenance for his children they were not apprenticed, but
otherwise, if the children were found to be growing up in idleness, the
authorities had the power to apprentice them.

There was a fee charged for apprenticeship to a trade, sometimes only an
entrance fee and again an annual due, but not very large in either case.
The term of service varied, in France being from three to thirteen
years, while in England it generally lasted seven years. The apprentice
probably secured no pay at any time, but was cared for by the master in
the way of food, lodging, clothing, and other needs. After he had
completed his years of service, the apprentice became a journeyman and
then entered regularly into the trade, receiving wages for his labor. In
the earlier times the journeyman could easily become a master, but later
when capital began to be amassed and the carrying on of the manufacture
of goods required much capital, the journeyman did not have very good
opportunity for becoming a master. In the early days master, journeyman,
and apprentice all lived and worked together and were in the same guild,
and so there was not any great separation among them. But later when a
large amount of capital was required to carry on business and a large
number of men used, there became a wide difference between master and
workmen and strife grew up between them and journeymen formed guilds for
themselves alone, which guilds were sometimes suppressed by the
authorities. Such a guild came in time to prohibit aliens from becoming
apprentices, and thus from learning the trade, and even to restricting
apprenticeship to the children and relatives of its members who were
working in the trade.

=Military Training for the Young.= In order to bring back the old
military training in England, in 1511 an act was passed "that every man
being the king's subject, not lame, decrepit, or maimed, being within
the age of sixty years, except spiritual men, justices of the one bench
and of the other, justices of the assize, and barons of the exchequer,
do use and exercise shooting in long bows, and also do have a bow and
arrows ready continually in his house, to use himself in shooting. And
that every man having a man child or men children in his house, shall
provide for all such, being of the age of seven years and above, and
till they shall come to the age of seventeen years, a bow and two
shafts, to learn them and bring them up in shooting; and after such
young men shall come to the age of seventeen years, every one of them
shall provide and have a bow and four arrows continually for himself, at
his proper costs and charges, or else of the gift and provision of his
friends, and shall use the same as afore is rehearsed."[215]

=Amusements.= The people of medieval times were much given to
amusements. This was particularly true of the people of England and what
follows here is for the most part about that country.

The greatest pastime of the nobility was that of war, and the joust and
the tournament were the most attractive amusements because they most
resembled war. The young men engaged in a sport known as tilting at
quintain, which was designed to prepare them for warfare. The figure of
a Saracen with a saber or club in its right hand and a shield on the
left arm was hung up so that it would turn about very readily. A young
man on horseback with a lance or something similar, as in a joust, would
ride at the figure and strive to strike it between the eyes or on the
nose, for if some other part was struck the figure would be turned round
so as to give the rider a blow on the back with the saber or club, which
not only brought a laugh at his expense, but also helped to teach the
young candidate for knighthood to aim accurately another time. This was
practiced on other objects, as, tilting at a tree or post or at a ring.
Another military exercise was throwing the spear or javelin, which might
be at the quintain or some other object or to throw it to the greatest
distance. Learning to throw with the sling was also another military
exercise. Another great sport in the early times of this period was that
of archery. Foot-races took place and likewise wrestling.

Hunting has ever been a great sport in England. The ancient Britons were
hunters, as were the Saxons and also the Danes in England. But it
remained for the Normans to bring hunting to a system, for they were not
content to hunt in an open country, but took up thousands of acres and
enclosed them in parks and stocked them with game and prohibited the
common people from hunting within them, passing severe laws against
such. There was a form of hunting that is most striking and became a
great rage, which was hawking or falconry. This was greatly indulged in
by both men and women and the birds they used for taking the other
birds were highly trained and brought great prices. This was _the_ sport
of the gentility and common people were not at all allowed to partake of
it. Fishing was another sport, as was horse-racing and bull-baiting and
cock-fighting. Throwing at cocks was another brutal amusement, wherein a
heavy stick was thrown at a bird and if knocked over it belonged to the
thrower if he could run and catch it before it could get to its feet.

The people managed so as to get quite a bit of pleasure out of their
religion. One pastime was the wakes. On an evening preceding a saint's
day the people went with lighted candles to the church, which was
originally for the purpose of worship, but later it came to be a time
for dancing and singing and eating, hawkers and peddlers congregating
about the church to serve the crowd. Another church affair was the
church ales. The church officials would brew a large quantity of ale
before a holiday when there would be gatherings of people who bought and
drank the ale, the profits being used for the good of the church.
Another amusement was hocking, which took place on the Monday or Tuesday
following the second Sunday after Easter. Men would hold a rope across a
road and take toll of every woman passing or else women would have
charge of the rope and collect toll off the men, the receipts going into
the church treasury. The miracle and morality plays and the like, too,
though intended as a means of instruction, became really a form of
amusement for the masses.

Christmas was a great time for merry-making. One of the affairs at the
time was mumming. Masks were used and disguises put on so as to
impersonate all kinds of people and even animals. These mummers would
make calls on people and sometimes even on high personages, making their
entrances and exits without saying anything. May-day was a great
occasion. Upon this day the houses would be decorated with flowers and
branches from trees. There would be the dance about the May-pole and
many games and plays. There were fair days, when people came together
for traffic and for sports. There were sack races for the young men and
smock races for the young women. Also there were wheelbarrow races and
other kinds of races and contests. One such contest was the grinning
match, where each person in the contest would thrust his head through a
horse's collar and they would then vie with one another in grinning. In
the yawning match, they would wait till late at night when all were
tired and sleepy and then each would try to yawn the greatest. The one
that yawned the widest and the most naturally and would thereby cause
the most yawns from all present would win the prize.

It was a custom during this period for kings and great nobles to have
Fools, who were the butt of all and who made all the butt of their
jokes. They also kept minstrels in their households. Sometimes these
minstrels played on different kinds of musical instruments and formed a
musical band. Among the musical instruments were the ruible (a
two-stringed instrument played with a bow), the veille (an instrument
somewhat like a violin), the gitern (a kind of guitar), the harp,
bagpipe, trumpet, pipe, lute, dulcimer, tambourine, and cymbals. There
were a number of other kinds of entertainers, as, acrobats,
rope-walkers, jugglers, contortionists, and conjurers. There was
wire-dancing, rope-dancing, ballet-dancing, and sword-dancing. There
were dancing bears and trained monkeys. There were entertainers who
disguised themselves as birds and other animals and imitated their
actions and cries. Dancing was, also, an amusement of the middle ages
and it was indulged in by the nobility and all classes of the people.

There were plays acted in the castles and the towns and the colleges and
the schools and even in the churches in the way of mysteries and
moralities. There were strolling bands of players that attended wakes
and fairs and played in barns and taverns and even in the farmhouse
kitchen, wherever they might find place. "I shall transcribe out of Hall
a description of a play which was acted by the boys of St. Paul's
School, in 1527, at Greenwich. The occasion was the despatch of a French
embassy to England, when Europe was outraged by the Duke of Bourbon's
capture of Rome, when the children of Francis I. were prisoners in
Spain, and Henry, with the full energy of his fiery nature, was flinging
himself into a quarrel with Charles V. as the champion of the Holy See.

"At the conclusion of a magnificent supper 'the king led the ambassadors
into the great chamber of disguisings; and in the end of the same
chamber was a fountain, and on one side was a hawthorne tree, all of
silk, with white flowers, and on the other side was a mulberry tree full
of fair berries, all of silk. On the top of the hawthorne were the arms
of England, compassed with the collar of the order of St. Michael, and
in the top of the mulberry tree stood the arms of France within a
garter. The fountain was all of white marble, graven and chased; the
bases of the same were balls of gold, supported by ramping beasts wound
in leaves of gold. In the first work were gargoylles of gold, fiercely
faced, with spouts running. The second conceit of this fountain was
environed with winged serpents, all of gold, which griped it; and on the
summit of the same was a fair lady, out of whose breasts ran abundantly
water of marvellous delicious savour. About this fountain were benches
of rosemary, fretted in braydes laid on gold, all the sides set with
roses, on branches as they were growing about this fountain. On the
benches sate eight fair ladies in strange attire, and so richly
apparelled in cloth of gold, embroidered and cut over silver, that I
cannot express the cunning workmanship thereof. Then when the king and
queen were set, there was played before them, by children, in the Latin
tongue, a manner of tragedy, the effect whereof was that the pope was in
captivity and the church brought under foot. Whereupon St. Peter
appeared and put the cardinal (Wolsey) in authority to bring the pope to
his liberty, and to set up the church again. And so the cardinal made
intercession with the kings of England and France that they took part
together, and by their means the pope was delivered. Then in came the
French king's children, and complained to the cardinal how the emperour
kept them as hostages, and would not come to reasonable point with their
father, whereupon they desired the cardinal to help for their
deliverance; which wrought so with the king his master and the French
king that he brought the emperour to a peace, and caused the young
princess to be delivered.'"[216]

The game of dice was found in England from an early period, as the
Saxons, Danes, and Normans were much given to it, and during the Middle
Ages dice were in great force and much used in gambling. There were also
chess and draughts and domino and backgammon. Cards came into use late
in this period, perhaps not earlier than the latter part of the
fourteenth century, and seem not to have been much used in England
before the middle of the fifteenth century. Gambling was very common
among all classes, so much so that one of the restrictions in the
indenture of apprentices was that they should keep from places where
gambling was carried on. Some of the guilds had to pass laws that no
help would be given a member who got into trouble or fell into poverty
through playing dice.

Ball-playing was engaged in during the Middle Ages, just as in all ages
and in all countries. The ball was, perhaps, more of a favorite in
England than in any other country in Europe. They had club-ball, one
player throwing the ball and another striking it with a straight club;
cambuc or bandy-ball was probably a kind of golf, as the ball was struck
on the ground with a curved club, called a bandy; pall-mall must have
been a kind of croquet, as a wooden ball was used which was struck with
a mallet and driven through arches of iron, there being an arch at each
end of the grounds; in hand-ball the ball was struck with the palms of
the hands against a wall or over something, being somewhat like tennis
without a racket, and then later tennis with net and racket came to be
played; there was foot-ball, the ball being kicked about by the foot.

Tip cat was a game played with a piece of wood called a cat, pointed at
each end much like a double cone, which was laid on the ground in the
center of a large ring; the player would strike one end of the cat with
a stick, causing it to fly upward, which he then tried to strike to
knock it out of the ring. There was bowling, many villages having
bowling-greens. They also played quoits, fox and geese, and other kinds
of outdoor games.

Young people played in the games and indulged in the sports mentioned in
the foregoing and children played many of them, and also they had many
other sports, such as spinning tops, catching butterflies and beetles,
playing blind man's buff, and the like.

=Education.= The early Christians, surrounded as they were with pagan
thoughts and ideas found it necessary to withdraw themselves from such
influences, and, as they were without schools of their own, they became
largely illiterate, having no training beyond what was obtained through
their religion. Although they received but little literary education,
yet they were given moral training of the very highest and best. As the
church grew there was found the necessity of instructing those who were
being brought into it, as well as the young, and so there arose what
were known as the catechetical schools.

These schools began more and more to come under the influence of the old
pagan culture and to drift away from their original purpose of giving
religious instruction and to enter more upon the intellectual side. To
counteract this they were finally taken away from the laity and brought
under the influence of the clergy and came to be established in
connection with the churches and then these schools became to be known
as cathedral schools. They then gradually grew to become used for the
training of the clergy. When monasteries arose in connection with the
Christian church, there grew up in them schools for the training of
those who were to become monks or priests. Thus education became to be
less common than under Roman civilization and the schools to be used
mostly for those who were to enter more directly into the work of the
church.

One of the marked characteristics of the Middle Ages was the growth of
the idea of education for all classes. In the early part of the period
education was not considered highly important for any one, then came the
idea of education for those who were to enter into clerical duties, and
then last of all began to grow up the idea of education for all,
whatever the future life work might be. That classical learning in its
essential features was preserved to Europe was due to the Christian
church, for keeping up the use of the Latin language the churchmen were
thus given access to the written works of Roman culture and through them
much was retained, especially in the monasteries. While the Roman
civilization was almost annihilated in the central part of the empire,
the extreme eastern and western parts were relatively undisturbed and
classical learning was maintained in them, Ireland being the chief
center in the West, from whence later this learning was returned to the
central part of Europe. There were three distinct outbursts of learning
following the darkest time of the period, the first being under
Charlemagne (742-814) in France and Central Europe, the second in
England under Alfred the Great (849-901), and the third under the
Mohammedans in Spain.

The course of study in the schools of the Middle Ages was primarily
designed to train the clergy to be able to participate in the church
services and also to conduct them. The instruction was given in the
elementary or song school which was followed by the grammar school and
then by higher instruction. In the elementary school reading, writing,
music, arithmetic, and Latin were taught. In reading the beginner was
taught by the alphabetic method and when reading was begun careful
attention was given to enunciation and accent and often boys were taught
to read well without knowing the meaning of the words of the Latin they
were reading. In writing wax tablets were used in the earlier times and
then there came into use pen, ink, and parchment. This was an important
phase of education because of the need of copying books. Music was an
important subject because of its use in the church service. Arithmetic
was begun by counting and then simple operations on the fingers, adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing being drilled into the pupils
through oral work, but little written work being done. Latin was only of
an elementary form, a beginning in conversation being made. The student who
went on with his studies took up the subjects of the trivium--grammar,
rhetoric and dialectic. If he wished to pursue his studies further
he entered into the subjects of the quadrivium--arithmetic, geometry,
music, and astronomy.

There were three kinds of medieval church schools--the monastic school,
the cathedral school, and the parish school. The monastic school
occupied a place within the monastery and it was primarily intended for
those who were to enter into monastic life; there were no charges for
tuition, the school being maintained through gifts from pupils,
sometimes such being quite large; the poor pupils were supported by
charity or they paid their way by copying books or by doing other
things. In the cathedral school there was usually a song school, for
elementary instruction, and a grammar school, for those who should want
more advanced education. As assistants in the smaller churches needed
instruction, parish schools were established, in which there was but
little training given beyond that needed for participation in the church
services.

Lay education arose in this period in three ways. In the first place it
came through the education and training of those intended for
knighthood, as such produced standards of deportment that impressed
themselves upon the upper classes in such a way that as civilization
advanced and means of intercourse widened there came a need of
systematic instruction so that there arose the great public schools of
England and similar schools upon the continent. In the second place the
growing importance of the cities in industry and commerce led to the
establishment of schools for the training of the city youth, so that the
burgher school was produced. Under the guild system there arose a kind
of industrial education and the need of means of instruction of the
young of the guild members so that guild schools were formed.

During the period following the fall of Rome, the culture and learning
of Greece and Rome were almost entirely lost to central and western
Europe. Only here and there was a little retained, usually in some
monastery where some of the old manuscripts were stored away. Yet
learning was never entirely lost, and when the Crusades arose and the
people of the West came in contact with the old Greek culture in eastern
Europe and with the scientific learning of the Moslems, and who brought
learning again into Spain, they brought back with them a widening
interest in learning. Too, as commerce grew and wealth increased there
became more leisure for learning and there grew up a desire for further
knowledge and, so to the education as discussed in the foregoing
paragraphs there was added a still higher form, that of the university.

The university arose during the Middle Ages. In its beginning it came
neither directly from church or state. The awakening of a scientific
spirit and the spreading abroad of discussion through scholasticism
caused to arise centers around which learned men gathered about them the
young men of the times. The earliest of these were the universities of
Bologna and Salerno in the twelfth century. The former was for the study
of law and the latter for medicine. The University of Paris originated
near the same time and in it arose the four faculties--theology,
philosophy, law, medicine--which are still extant to-day in the
universities. Oxford, Cambridge, Vienna, and many other universities
were formed during this period.

From the very first, special privileges were conferred upon the
universities by the authorities. Sometimes they were allowed to have
full control of their own affairs, having their own special courts.
Again those connected with the universities were exempt from military
service, except in time of great need, and from paying taxes. There were
a number of other privileges granted. These privileges were not always
granted because of the high regard in which the university was held but
sometimes they were gained by the university threatening to remove to
another place and even doing this, for there were no great plants in
those days demanding permanent residence as now, as professors and
students were about all there was to a medieval university as the
buildings usually were furnished for them and there were no great
libraries or laboratories or other equipment. These privileges often led
to abuses on the part of the students for many of them led dissolute
lives and others became bullies and adventurers. Whatever may have been
the cause, it is too true that the moral tone of the medieval university
was low.

The medieval university in its organization was similar to the guild,
the term signifying a company of persons that were joined together for
study. There came to be a natural grouping together of the students from
the same part of the world so that there arose the nations, and each
year each nation elected a councillor, who was to be the chief to act
for the nation. The university was organized into faculties, the
complete number being four, of arts, law, medicine, and theology. Each
faculty elected a dean, as its representative, and then deans and
councillors elected the rector, the head of the university. In the South
the rector was usually a student while in the North he was generally
elected from the body of professors.

At first the courses offered differed in the various universities, but
later the courses were fixed either by a papal decree or by the faculty.
The student was not only to acquire the subject, but to be able to
debate upon it. He was expected to memorize the professor's lecture and
to prepare himself in debate so as to be ready to cope with students
taking the other side of the question.

Usually the courses in arts were taken by the younger students as a
preparation for the professional training. At first the bachelor's
degree meant only that the one receiving it was granted the privilege to
enter upon the work leading to the other degrees, but later it became a
separate degree. Master and doctor at first were about of equal rank,
and then later doctor represented a higher period of learning.

The Church Fathers were quite severe in their ideas of education. The
most famous writings among them on the subject are by Saint Jerome on
the education of girls, being letters to a mother. Some of the
admonitions are as follows:

"Do not allow Paula to eat in public, that is, do not let her take part
in family entertainments, for fear that she may desire the meats that
may be served there. Let her learn not to use wine, for it is the source
of all impurity. Let her food be vegetables, and only rarely fish; and
let her eat so as always to be hungry.

"For myself, I entirely forbid a young girl to bathe.

"Never let Paula listen to musical instruments; let her even be ignorant
of the uses served by the flute and the harp.

"Do not let Paula be found in the ways of the world (emphatic paraphrase
for _streets_), in the gatherings and in the company of her kindred; let
her be found only in retirement.

"Do not allow Paula to feel more affection for one of her companions
than for others; do not allow her to speak with such a one in an
undertone.

"Let her be educated in a cloister, where she will not know the world,
where she will live as an angel, having a body but not knowing it, and
where, in a word, you will be spared the care of watching over
her."[217]

Whatever we may think of the foregoing, we must agree that the following
advice is most wholesome:

"Do not chide her for the difficulty she may have in learning. On the
contrary, encourage her by commendation, and proceed in such a way that
she shall be equally sensible to the pleasure of having done well, and
to the pain of not having been successful.... Especially take care that
she do not conceive a dislike for study that might follow her into a
more advanced age."[218]

There is not very much given on education of women during the medieval
period. It is no doubt true that girls received even less education than
did boys. During the time of chivalry the young women, like the young
men, were often educated in the castle of some knight or lord, being
trained in household management, music, and gentle manners. It would
seem that sometimes girls had in their own homes governesses for
training them. Sometimes girls and little boys were sent together to
nunneries to be educated. Here and there are found references which
imply that some women were well educated for their times and
particularly so in languages, reading and writing and speaking English,
French and Spanish. But in the main it was considered that all the
training necessary for the girls was a little elementary education and
such knowledge of housework and management as would fit them for wives.

=The Children's Crusade.= Among the greatest events in medieval Europe
were the Crusades, and perhaps the most striking was the Children's
Crusade. This occurred in 1212 A. D., in France and Germany. The early
Crusades had been successful in taking Palestine away from the Saracens
and a Christian kingdom had been established with Jerusalem as its
center. But at the time of the Children's Crusade, Palestine had nearly
all again fallen into the hands of the Mohammedans. It is true there had
been three later crusades, but they were not successful and they had for
a time ceased against Palestine and had been turned against parts of
Europe. One such was made on Germany, a second was against the Saracens
in Spain, and a third was against the Albigenses in southern France.
People became indifferent in reference to Palestine, so the church sent
out chosen ones to arouse enthusiasm and to strive to bring about
another Crusade. Amid such scenes arose the Children's Crusade.

Never was there at any other time such an arousing of children. All
classes of children were included. Children came from the hovel of the
peasant, the hut of the shepherd, the home of the merchant, and the
castle of the lord. Most of them enrolled in the Crusade from religious
fervor, but many went only to get away from the restraints of home. Sad
it is, too, that many worthless characters, both men and women, flocked
to the standard of the children. Many girls were included in this
movement, but the very greater part were boys under twelve years of age.
The children seemed to be filled with the fervor and nothing could
restrain them. When the procession of children went along it made the
others wild to join. If by any means children could be detained by their
parents, they pined so that they had to be given their freedom and be
allowed to join the throng.

In France the leader was Stephen of Cloyes, who at the time of the
Crusade was about twelve years of age. He was the son of a poor peasant,
a shepherd. When old enough, Stephen was sent out to tend sheep and for
some years he spent his summers upon the plains near his home. As in
other parts of Europe, so at Cloyes means were taken to arouse the
people to another crusade into Palestine. Among such were processions in
which was shown the condition of the Christians in Palestine and with
entreaties for the people to strive to redeem the Holy Land. As with all
the others, Stephen must have witnessed these scenes and have listened
to the portrayals of affairs in Palestine, which he must have greatly
considered while tending his sheep.

One day a stranger appeared before him and stated that he was a pilgrim
from Palestine, and asked for food. Stephen fed the stranger and asked
in return to be told about the Holy Land. The stranger told his stories
and he must have seen that Stephen was greatly affected as he finally
declared himself to be Jesus Christ and to have come to appoint Stephen
to lead the children in a crusade, and gave him a letter to the king of
France. Stephen at once entered into his holy mission and told his story
to parents and neighbors, showed the letter he had to the king, and
declared himself to be called to go forth as a leader in the Crusade.

Stephen called the children to his crusade and there flocked about him
the children of his neighborhood, but he soon saw that he could not
arouse the nation, from this out-of-the-way place. So he determined to
go to the greatest religious center in France, the city of St. Denis,
the place of burial of the martyr Dionysius, whose tomb was the great
shrine of the land, to which great crowds went on pilgrimages. To this
place Stephen went, attired in his shepherd's dress, crook in hand, and
wallet by side. He went from crowd to crowd, before the church door and
in the market place, showing his letter to the king and preaching his
Crusade. It was not long before he attracted attention and aroused
enthusiasm in the young. The people carried news of him throughout
France as they returned to their homes and the young people gathered
together their fellows and returned with crowds of children to Stephen.
As the numbers increased, Stephen led them through the towns and
villages till he had all the children wild to join him. This did not go
on without some opposition. Some of the more intelligent men, among them
some from the clergy, thought it should not go on, and even the king,
Philip Augustus, was in doubt about it. He asked an opinion concerning
it from the University of Paris, and after due deliberation its members
advised the king that the movement should be stopped even if vigorous
means had to be used. The king then issued an edict, commanding the
children to give up the enterprise and to return to their homes. This
edict had but little effect, as the movement went right on, and the king
did not dare enforce the edict.

The crowds of children gathered more and more over France and Stephen
designated Vendôme as the central place in which to assemble and to get
ready to depart for Palestine. This was a good selection as it was an
important place and with roads coming into it from all directions. The
bands of children came into Vendôme in great numbers, one chronicler
stating that there were fifteen thousand children under twelve years of
age from Paris alone, and although in all probabilities this is an
overestimation, yet it shows there was a vast assembly of children, so
much so that Vendôme could not contain them and they had to encamp
outside its walls, each band to itself so that those from the same city
or community were together. The children were from all parts of France,
varying in language and dress, but not in zeal. Whether they all wore a
uniform is not known, but they did put on the Cross of the Crusaders,
made of red woolen cloth and sewed on the right shoulder of the coat by
some one of the leaders, and of which emblem the children were all very
proud. Finally all the bands had gathered and Stephen was ready to make
the start for the sea, which was to open and let them march through to
the Holy Land. The number assembled at Vendôme was about thirty
thousand.

The message of the pilgrim delivered to Stephen must have come the last
of April or the first of May, 1212, as it occurred shortly after Stephen
had observed in the city of Chârtres the procession to commemorate the
sufferings of those who had died in defense of the Holy Land and which
was held on St. Mark's day, April 25th. He went to St. Deny's in the
month of May and to Vendôme, perhaps, the last of May or the first of
June and the start for the sea was made the last of July or the first of
August, all of the same year.

And now all was ready for the departure from Vendôme. Their leader
Stephen had become so great that there was provided for him a carriage,
decorated with flags and tapestries of brilliant colors, and over him
was a canopy of rich draperies as a protection from the heat of the sun.
About his carriage was a band of youths of noble blood, on horseback,
and equipped as knights, acting as his body guard. Good-byes were said
and the procession, singing their songs, with flags and oriflammes,
started. At the beginning of the journey Stephen was given great honor
and gladly obeyed, they even vied with one another in showing him
adulations and tried to secure a piece from his clothing or from the
trimmings of the carriage or from the trappings of the horses which was
kept as a relic and used as a charm. But as days went on and hardships
and sufferings came upon them and their journey lengthened out, they
became little more than a straggling crowd without order or discipline,
and then Stephen's authority was no longer regarded by them. Their
journey was to Blois, where they crossed the Loire, and then to Lyons,
where the Rhone was crossed, and thence to Marseilles. As they were
asked on the way where they were going they all answered: "To
Jerusalem." This was an unusually hot summer and the children suffered
greatly from heat and thirst and many of them from hunger, although the
people along the way sympathized with the movement and aided them. At
last they came to Marseilles. They asked for shelter in the city for the
night only, as on the morrow God was to open the sea for them and they
would proceed on their way to the Holy Land.

The city granted their request and the children entered the gates and
went into the city, singing their songs as they marched through the
streets. They passed the night and in the morning they went to the sea
to go on with their journey. The sea did not open that day nor the next
day nor on any day. This discouraged them and many gave up, but others
remained, hoping for a way to Palestine. And a way did come, for two
merchants of Marseilles, Hugo Ferreus and William Porcus, so their Latin
names read, offered "for the cause of God, and without price," to
provide ships for their transport. Preparations then were made, and
seven ships furnished and it is estimated that about five thousand
children went on board these ships to proceed on their way to Palestine.
Nothing further was heard of these children who sailed from Marseilles
on that August day in 1212, till in 1230, eighteen years afterward, when
a priest came to Europe from Palestine and told that he was among those
who were on the vessels with the children. He stated that two of the
ships were wrecked off the coast of the island of San Pietro and all on
board perished. The other five ships were taken to Bujeiah and
Alexandria and the children were sold to the Saracens. Upon learning of
this, Pope Gregory IX. had a church built on the island where the wreck
occurred and had the remains of the children interred in it and named it
the ECCLESIA NOVORUM INNOCENTIUM--_The Church of the New Innocents_.

The story of Stephen at St. Denys was not only carried all over France,
but likewise to the neighboring countries, spreading to the Rhine
provinces in Germany. It reached a village near Cologne where lived a
boy who was about the same age as Stephen and by the name of Nicholas.
Like Stephen he, too, was a shepherd boy, and he had heard the stories
about the Crusades. When he learned about Stephen there arose a desire
to do as he, and aided by his father, some say induced by him, he took
upon himself the preaching of a children's crusade for Germany. He, too,
had been called to the work, as he stated while with his flocks he saw a
blazing cross in the sky and there came to him a voice that told him the
cross was to lead him to victory in his undertaking to recover the Holy
Land. Like Stephen, too, Nicholas went to a great religious center, the
city of Cologne, as at this time this city was a great center for
pilgrimages, as in its cathedral rested the bones of the "Three Kings of
the East" who came "with a great multitude of camels to worshippe
Christ, then a little childe of thirteen dayes olde," so the old legend
ran.

Nicholas related his story and preached his crusade before the cathedral
to the pilgrims who came to view the relics. These pilgrims carried the
story of Nicholas back to their homes and there soon came a number of
children to him at Cologne. He also sent out assistants to preach the
crusade in different parts of the land. The excitement became even
greater than in France for bands of children came into Cologne in even
greater numbers than to St. Denys. This was a more mixed crowd than that
of Stephen, as there were more girls and more adults and especially more
lewd women, so many of these latter that the chroniclers referred to
them often and attributed to them the greater part of the evils that
came upon the multitude. These crusaders had a uniform, which consisted
of a long gray coat, with a cross sewed upon the breast, and they wore
broad brimmed hats and carried a palmer's staff. In about a month the
host had gathered and was ready to start for the sea, which was to let
them pass through to the Holy Land, as with the army of Stephen. But
there arose a division and only a part started under the leadership of
Nicholas.

Those who remained with Nicholas left Cologne for Genoa in June or July,
1212. The number that started was said to have been twenty thousand, the
majority being boys under twelve years of age. Nicholas took his place
at the head and at a signal the start was made, with banners flying and
the singing of hymns. But this was not true of all the parents and
friends, for many of them were in great distress over the leaving of
their children, and they followed for some distance pleading for them
to give up and return to their homes. One of the songs of this band
comes down to us. Gray[219] states that an account of the discovery of
this hymn may be found in a magazine, the _Evangelical Christendom_ for
May, 1850, and that Hecker asserts it was used by the children. It was
in German, coming from Westphalia, and had been used before by Crusaders
on their journey to Palestine. The English translation is as follows:

"Fairest Lord Jesus,
Ruler of all nature,
Thou of Mary and of God the Son!
Thee will I cherish,
Thee will I honor,
Thee my soul's glory, joy, and crown!

"Fair are the meadows,
Fairer still the woodlands,
Robed in the blooming garb of spring;
Jesus is fairer,
Jesus is purer,
Who makes our saddened heart to sing.

"Fair is the sunshine,
Fairer still the moonlight,
And the sparkling, starry host;
Jesus shines brighter,
Jesus shines purer,
Than all the angels heaven can boast."

They took their way along the Rhine, they entered into Switzerland going
by way of Geneva, their route through the Alps was over Mont Cenis,
entering Italy in what is now Piedmont, and from thence to Genoa. At
that time the region along the Rhine was not much peopled, a feudal
castle rising here and there on some prominent crag with hamlets below,
but most of the way was almost a wilderness and with plenty of wild
animals such as stags and boars and wolves and bears. The children
suffered much, especially from lack of food and shelter. The children
also were carried off by the robber barons. The children were preyed
upon by the hangers-on and thieves and the degraded men and women and
they were soon without control, and the band became but little more than
a rabble. But their sufferings along the Rhine were quite small as
compared with what took place in traversing the Alps. The trials and
sufferings were so great that many of them succumbed and a large number
gave up and turned back. The summit was reached and in the monastery
there they were helped with food and shelter and afforded a time to rest
before going on with their journey. They went on and came into Italy
where they had hoped to receive kind treatment, but instead they were
treated harshly, robbed, refused entrance into the towns, seized by the
lords and carried away as slaves. Finally they came to a place where
they saw Genoa from a mountain and then they felt that their sufferings
were over. They again recognized Nicholas as their prophet and leader
and with crosses aloft, banners unfurled, and hymns sung in praise, they
hurried down to the sea to enter the path that surely would be opened to
them to go over to the Holy Land.

As was stated, twenty thousand started with Nicholas at Cologne, but
after the hard journey of seven hundred miles, there were only seven
thousand that reached Genoa in August, 1212. But these were the very
best for only the strongest kept on and could endure the hardships. Like
the children at Marseilles, they asked to remain in Genoa but one night
as on the morrow God was to open the sea to them that they might
continue on their journey. The authorities at first granted them
permission to remain six or seven days but on the very same day this
time was shortened to one day, as it was feared they might become
lawless and again there was fear of famine, but most of all the Genoese
feared the displeasure of the Pope, who at that time was in conflict
with the German Emperor, and of course these children were subjects of
the Emperor. The children agreed to this, as they said they wanted but
one night as they would go on through the sea in the morning. The gates
were then opened and the children entered and marched through the
streets singing, with crosses uplifted and banners flying. The night was
passed and in the morning they rushed to the seashore, but as with the
other children so with these, for they waited in vain for the sea to
open.

When the senate at Genoa had taken back their offer to let the children
remain six or seven days and gave them permission to remain but one day,
they did extend an invitation to all those who would like to make Genoa
their permanent home to do so, and they would be received as citizens.
At the time the offer was made it was rejected by all as they were
anticipating that on the morrow the sea would open and a path would be
provided for a way to Palestine. After the sea did not open, many of the
children were convinced that their journey was ended and they decided to
accept the offer and to remain at Genoa. There were quite a number that
so decided, and they became citizens and some of the youth grew to
become wealthy and prominent men and some joined themselves with
patrician families, being of noble German birth, and several great
families were so founded, among such being one great princely house.

Those who did not wish to remain at Genoa left on the following day
after their entry. Outside the gates a council was held and they decided
to go on their way by land to Palestine as far as they could. After this
there was no further organization, and Nicholas is not heard of again.
They went to Pisa and from here two shiploads of children set sail for
the Holy Land, but there is nothing known of them further. The remnant
went on to Rome and were received by the Pope who talked to them kindly
and advised them to give up their march, but he held them to their vows
and told them that when they reached manhood they should go forth to
fight for the redemption of the Holy Sepulcher. These young people then
gave up their enterprise and prepared to return home.

It is not known who was the leader of the band that separated from that
one led by Nicholas. It is thought that when this band left Cologne it
was as large as that which went out with Nicholas. They took a different
route, going through Swabia to Switzerland and crossing the Alps at the
Pass of St. Gotthard and entered Italy in Lombardy. They traversed the
entire length of Italy to Brindisi. This company was composed of about
the same elements as the other one and they met with even greater
difficulties and hardships and became even more lawless. They were
treated very badly everywhere in Italy. At Brindisi a number of them
embarked on ships and sailed away for Palestine and that was the last
ever heard of them.

The return of the German children was sadder than their going. In Italy,
having to obtain food and clothing in any way possible, they contracted
the worst of vices. So on their return they were no longer a religious
throng hurrying on to save the Cross, but a rabble, with no respect for
any one and no one had respect for them. Hence they were treated badly
on the way back and only found a refuge when arriving each one in his
own home.

This Crusade shows the great danger to which child-nature may be
subjected in times of great excitement and teaches the need of the
careful guarding of children from such. In this Crusade it is estimated
that more than thirty thousand children never saw their homes after
leaving. In all near a hundred thousand children went from their homes,
leaving sixty thousand sorrowing families behind them. Perhaps not one
of these children who returned home came back with the purity with which
he or she started.

=Other Child-pilgrimages.= "The _second children's pilgrimage_ falls
only twenty-five years later; so that the assumption of a morbid
excitability of the child-world at all this time appears to be
justified. It was confined to the city of Erfurt, and the phenomenon was
very transient, but not the less presents all the distinctive marks of a
religious convulsion, and exhibited more of disease than other
child-pilgrimages, as far at least as has come down to posterity. On the
15th July, 1237, there assembled, unknown to their parents, more than
1,000 children, left the town by the Löber Gate, and wandered, dancing
and leaping, by the Steigerwald to Armstadt. A congress such as this, as
if by agreement, resembles an instinctive impulse as in animals, when,
for instance, swallows and storks collect for their migration; the same
phenomenon has doubtless taken place in all children's pilgrimages, it
was also remarked by eye-witnesses of the first of them, in a manner
characteristic of the Middle Ages. It was not till the next day that the
parents learned the occurrence, and they fetched their children back in
carts. No one could say who had enticed them away. Many of them are said
to have continued ill some time after, and in particular to have
suffered from trembling of the limbs, perhaps also from convulsions. The
whole affair is obscure, and so little account has been taken of it by
contemporaries, that the chronicles only speak of the fact, and say
nothing of its causes. The only probable conjecture is that the many
noisy and pompous festivities connected with the canonization of St.
Elizabeth, the Landgravine of Thuringia, had excited in the child-world
of Erfurt this itch for devotion, which sought to relieve itself by
displays of spinal activity. For this child-pilgrimage is in very near
proximity to the Dancing Mania.

"Still much more obscure is a child-pilgrimage of 1458, of which the
motives were quite clearly religious. It is probably, at present, almost
impossible to trace the chain of ideas which occasioned it; it is
enough that it was in honor of the Archangel Michael. More than 100
children from Hall, in Suabia, set out, against the will of their
parents, for Mont St. Michel in Normandy. They could not by any means be
restrained, and if force was employed, they fell severely ill, and some
even died. The mayor, unable to prevent the journey, kindly furnished
them a guide for the long journey, and an ass to carry their luggage.
They are said to have actually reached the then world-renowned Abbey,
and to have performed their devotions there. We have absolutely no other
information of them, and it appears that this child-pilgrimage, which
falls to the time when chorea was very frequent and widely spread in
Germany, has excited even much less attention than the migration of the
children of Erfurt in the year 1237."[220]

LITERATURE.

1. Abram, A., English life and manners in the later middle ages.

2. Adams, George Burton, Civilization during the middle ages.

3. Anderson, Lewis F., History of common school education.

4. Bémont, Charles, and Monod, G., Medieval Europe.

5. Bury, J. B., A history of the later Roman empire.

6. Compayré, Gabriel, A history of pedagogy.

7. Cornish, F. Ware, Chivalry.

8. Davidson, Thomas A., A history of education.

9. Davis, H. W. C., Medieval Europe.

10. Dean, Amos, The history of civilization.

11. Donaldson, James, Woman: Her position and influence in ancient
Greece and Rome and among the early Christians.

12. Emerton, Ephraim, Medieval Europe.

13. Finck, Henry F., Romantic love and personal beauty.

14. Froude, James Anthony, History of England from the fall of Wolsey to
the death of Elizabeth.

15. Garnier, Russell M., Annals of the British peasantry.

16. Graves, Frank Pierrepont, A history of education, During the middle
ages.

17. Gray, George Zabriskie, The children's crusade.

18. Guizot, Francis Pierre Guillaume, General history of civilization in
Europe.

19. Hallam, Henry, View of the state of Europe during the middle ages.

20. Hecker, J. F. C, The epidemics of the middle ages.

21. Laurie, S. S., The rise and early constitution of universities.

22. Lacroix, Paul, Manners, customs, and dress during the middle ages.

23. Letourneau, Ch., The evolution of marriage.

24. Michaud, Joseph François, The history of the crusades.

25. Mullinger, J. B., The schools of Charles the Great.

26. Neal, Daniel, The history of the Puritans.

27. Payne, George Henry, The child in human progress.

28. Rait, Robert S., Life in the medieval university.

29. Sheldon, Henry D., Student life and customs.

30. Thwing, Charles Franklin, The family.

31. Traill, H. D., Social England.

CHAPTER XII

THE CHILD IN EARLIER UNITED STATES

=Customs Relating to Land.= The settlers in the United States brought
with them many of their old-world customs and some of these early
customs relating to land seem to us now most curious. Society has ever
been influenced by the manner of holding, transferring, and inheriting
land, and this all the more in a new country and especially where
greatly influenced by customs and laws transferred from other countries.

One very old and peculiar custom was brought over from England and used
by the first colonists. This was the transferring of land under the old
ceremony of the _livery of seizin_, a feudal ceremony. When land was
being sold, the owner would stand upon it and he would pluck a twig from
the tree or bush and place it in the hand of the purchaser, or he would
take a small piece of the turf and stick a twig in it and give over to
the purchaser. If a house was sold, the owner would take hold of the
ring or latch of the door and formally give over the house to the
purchaser.

In Virginia once every four years between Easter and Whit Sunday, the
owner of a piece of ground had to go over the boundary and renew the
marks, and when a piece of land had been thus traced three times, the
right to possess it by the owner was never afterward disputed. Another
custom was feudal in its nature. The land of the new country was given
out in grants by the King and the owners acknowledged allegiance to him
and paid annual dues and these proprietors established a system of
land-tenure in which they let out the land, and an annual due was always
expected. This was sometimes paid in money and again in produce from the
land, sometimes being a very small amount, just sufficient to show
acknowledgment of feudal service, it might be a few pounds of butter or
a couple of loads of wood or a pair of chickens. In Virginia the first
tenants were little better than villains of feudal times, as when they
received land they were bound to remain seven years on it and to pay
one-half of the whole produce as rent.

In New England and also in some parts of New York and New Jersey, there
was the custom of holding land in common--upland, meadow, and woodland
were apportioned out for use to the different members of the community.
The church was a great binding force among them, so that the
meeting-house was the center about which the people settled, and they
were kept all the more closely together by the hostile savages.

But in a new country where land was plentiful and easy to obtain and
laws difficult of enforcement, the customs of an old and thickly peopled
country could not long hold, and particularly so if unsuited to the
needs of the new country. Yet such were enduring enough in this country
as to have wielded quite an influence.

=The People.= Only a fringe along the eastern part of this country was
settled at this time. Too, this part was not all peopled by the same
nationality as there were English, Dutch, Swede, German, and French, and
there was not much if any mixing among them. When all this territory
came under England, then there was more intercommunication but not even
then a great deal on account of the difficulties of travel. There, too,
grew up, quite a distinction between the people of the northern part and
those of the southern part. The southern part was much better suited for
cultivation under the systems of that time and it became a farming
community, with large farms and the people were not close together and
there were not many towns and cities. In the northern part farming could
not be carried on nearly so successfully, and so manufacturing and
commerce grew, both of which demanded that people should live in towns
and cities. The separation of the people in the South and the wealth
obtained through agriculture made them most generous and hospitable. In
the North and especially in New England the hard struggle for
maintenance and the living together in communities narrowed the people,
till there was a selfishness displayed by each town for its own. In the
South strangers were welcome and really wanted as there often was not
great opportunity for the people being much together or of learning of
outside affairs, so that the stranger could tell them of the doings of
the outside world and thus give entertainment for hospitality. In New
England, especially among the early people, there grew up a suspicion
of all newcomers and particularly strangers, and often it went so far
that a stranger could not acquire property in a town and so could not
gain a legal residence. It went yet further in some places, for the
people of a town were not encouraged even to have their relatives from
outside visit them.

"The primitive land systems lasted long enough to exert a considerable
influence upon the people. If we consider extreme examples this becomes
evident. The inhabitant of the town community was trained to association
with his fellows. Measures were taken to promote village life; laws were
made in Connecticut, in 1650, against consolidating house-lots, and the
dwellers in Andover were forbidden to live upon their plow-land, lest
their hogs and cattle should injure the common meadows. Artisans were
secured by the community. Newark, for example, reserved a lot for the
miller, another for the town's tailor, another for the boatman, and so
on. A town in one case kept a flock of sheep for the public benefit. The
habit of coöperation promoted voluntary associations. We find one New
England mill owned by seven shareholders, another by thirteen, and a
third by fourteen. The towns in New England and New York made by-laws,
and regulated their internal concerns in field and town meetings. The
system was productive of no end of petty wrangling and neighborhood
feuds, but it cultivated a democratic feeling and taught each man to
maintain his right.

"On the other hand, the Southern planter lived in some isolation, but
his public interests were as extensive as his county or his province.
This state of society begot self-reliance, and produced more leading
statesmen than the other; but the people lacked the New England cohesion
and susceptibility to organization, without which the statesmanship of
the Revolution would have been in vain. The Southerner, from his
isolation and from other causes, became hospitable, eager for society,
and in general spontaneously friendly and generous; the New England
people became close-fisted and shrewd in trade, it is a trait of village
life. But the benevolence of New England was more effective than that of
the South, because it was organized and systematic. The village life of
the extreme North trained the people to trade, and led to commercial
development; and it made popular education possible. The sons of the
great planters at the South were averse to commerce; they were also the
most liberally educated and polished in manners of all the colonists;
but the scattered common people could have no schools, and were
generally rude and ignorant, even when compared with the lower class of
New Englanders, who stood a chance of getting some rough schooling,
besides a certain education from the meeting-house and the
ever-recurring town debates."[221]

=Slavery.= In 1619 the first negroes were brought to the colonists. They
were carried to Jamestown by a Dutch ship and fourteen of them were
bought by the people and remained at Jamestown. They were kept as slaves
and their work proved so profitable that more were brought in and this
continued till there were quite a number in the colonies. Not only in
Virginia, but in all the colonies, both North and South, slaves from
Africa were used. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the
colonies tried to put a check on the slave-trade but it had proved so
profitable to the English ship owners who carried on the traffic in
African slaves, that the mother-country favored them and would not allow
laws of the colonies against the slave trade to be enforced.

For a long time but a few women were brought over in the slave ships and
many of the slaves were from wild tribes in Africa and so they were
fierce and dangerous. They committed many crimes and were severely
punished. Some of the punishments were most cruel, as the hanging in
chains, and burning. Other punishments were whipping, cropping the ears,
hamstringing, branding in the face, and slitting the nose. As slavery
could be much more profitably used in the South, there were, of course,
more negroes taken there, and so it was the home of much of the cruel
treatment. But the North had it share in such, as is shown in the
following quotations:

"In colonies where the statutes did not warrant extraordinary penalties
on slaves, the administration of law went to the limit of severity. In
Massachusetts hanging was the worst penalty for murder, but the obsolete
common-law punishment specially assigned to women who were guilty of
petty treason was revived in 1755, in order to burn alive a slave-woman
who had killed her master in Cambridge; earlier still the old _lex
talionis_ had been put in force, that a negro woman might die by fire in
Boston for arson causing death. In New Jersey, even in that part of the
province in which Quakerism should have softened the spirit of the
people, negroes were burned in many instances. New York, without the
excuse of serious danger--for her negroes were not more than a sixth of
the population--had a code barely less fierce than that of South
Carolina, where the multitude of the slaves was a perpetual danger to
the whites. Some of the revolting penalties inflicted on slaves in New
York with the sanction of law-courts are striking proofs of the small
advance the men of that time had made from positive barbarism."[222]

"Though in the beginning he refused to harbor or tolerate
negro-stealers, the Massachusetts Puritan of that day, enraged at the
cruelty of the savage red men, did not hesitate to sell Indian captives
as slaves to the West Indies. King Phillip's wife and child were thus
sold and there died. Their story was told in scathing language by Edward
Everett. In 1703 it was made legal to transport and sell in the
Barbadoes all Indian male captives under ten, and Indian women captives.
Perhaps these transactions quickly blunted whatever early feeling may
have existed against negro slavery, for soon the African slave-trade
flourished in New England, as in Virginia, Newport being the New England
center of the Guinea trade. From 1707 to 1732 a tax of three guineas a
head was imposed in Rhode Island on each negro imported--on 'Guinea
blackbirds.' It would be idle to dwell now on the cruelty of that horrid
traffic, the sufferings on board the slavers from lack of room, of food,
of water, of air. But three feet three inches was allowed between decks
for the poor negro, who, accustomed to a free, out-of-door life, thus
crouched and sat through the passage. No wonder the loss of life was
great. It was chronicled in the newspapers and letters of the day in
cold, heartless language that plainly spoke the indifference of the
public to the trade and its awful consequence. I have never seen in any
Southern newspapers advertisements of negro sales that surpass in
heartlessness and viciousness the advertisement of our New England
newspapers of the eighteenth century. Negro children were advertised to
be given away in Boston, and were sold by the pound as was other
merchandise. Samuel Pewter advertised in the Weekly Rehearsal in 1737
that he would sell horses for ten shillings pay if the horse sale were
accomplished, and five shillings if he endeavored to sell and could not;
and for negroes '_sixpence a pound_ on all he sells, and a reasonable
price if he does not sell.'"[223]

The Dutch of New Netherlands had negro slaves but it would seem they
differed from the English colonists in that they treated their slaves
with kindness. Masters were placed under bonds and they were not
permitted to whip their slaves without authorization from the
government.

When more slave-women were brought in and negro families were
established, the slaves became less fierce and more willing to accept
their lot. Too, the children born to them learned to use the English
language as their own and took up the ways of their masters and families
and the old savage doings were for the most part forgotten. Cruelty to
the slaves then decreased and new and less cruel laws were made for
their government and control or the old laws and barbarous punishments
were not enforced or used against them. The revolutionary movement did a
great deal toward giving the negroes a better legal standing. This was
particularly true in reference to free negroes and Indians, for many of
the discriminations against them were abolished.

=Servants.= With the settlement of this country, there came a great need
for laborers. As was given in the foregoing, the slave trade arose and
negroes were brought over and sold as slaves, and also Indians taken in
war were used as slaves. But these sources were not sufficient to meet
the demand for laborers and this caused the importation of white help
from Europe. These people were brought to America and bound out for a
term of service, which, before 1650, was sometimes as long as ten years
and often for seven or eight years, and then the time was made four or
five years for all the colonies. These people were of three
classes--those who because of debt in the old country or of poverty or
from other causes bound themselves out for a term of years in which they
were to pay their way, and were known as "redemptioners"; the second
kind were those who had been trapped or induced to go on board ship and
then carried off to America, and were known as "kids"; and the third
class were criminals, convicted and transported for crime.

In the first class, the redemptioners, were found English laborers who
bound themselves to service in America, hoping thereby to better their
condition. Men and women in domestic trouble, men having wives with whom
they could not or would not live and women having unbearable husbands,
placed themselves in this number. Men who were in debt and threatened
with imprisonment sold themselves out to save themselves. Beside these
there were many others who wished to go to America, but did not have the
funds for the passage, who bound themselves out for service and thus
secured the passage and a place for work, with the opportunity to redeem
themselves within four years.

The second class, "kids," were obtained through people who were called
"spirits." These parties had been engaged in spiriting away men who were
turned over to the military authorities to become soldiers, and when the
demand for laborers for America became such as to offer opportunities
for great profit, these "spirits" turned their trade into procuring
people to satisfy this want of the new county. These men were
particularly active in kidnapping children. Among a shipload of such
children offered for sale in Boston one day in 1730, there was a boy who
had sailed from America with his uncle who was the captain of the ship.
The uncle died at sea and the mate and crew sold the boy to a
transport-ship which was passing them bound for this country. The boy
served out his term and later became an officer in the wars with the
Indians. One noteworthy case was that of James Annesley, son and heir of
Lord Altham. When thirteen years of age he was taken from Dublin, at the
instigation of his uncle, and carried to America and he served twelve
years of bondage in Pennsylvania. After this service he returned to his
native land and brought suit to recover his father's titles and estates.
This suit was successful but it was appealed to the House of Lords and
the young man died before the decision was reached.

Not only were criminals that were convicted sent to America, but when a
man was on trial for a small crime the officers of the court would make
him believe that he would suffer severe punishment, perhaps hanging, so
that he would beg for transportation. Then these prisoners were sold and
the money would be kept by the officers. They even went further, for
innocent persons were arrested and condemned that they might be sold
into the colonies. However strong were the needs of the colonists for
laborers, yet they did not want these convicts and protested against
their coming in. Some of the colonial assemblies passed laws against
such importation but England would not accept such laws as this course
afforded too good a way of getting rid of criminals. "The hardest words
said against the mother country in colonial prints, a quarter of a
century before the Revolution, sprang from the bitter resentment excited
by this practice of forcing criminals on the plantations in spite of
their utmost endeavor to keep them out. One of the most pungent
newspaper writers of the time compared England to a father seeking to
spread the plague among his children, or emptying filth upon their
table; and Franklin proposed to send a present of rattlesnakes for the
king's garden, as a fit return for the convicts out of English
jails."[224]

Not only were English laborers sent to the colonies, but also great
numbers of Germans were got to sell themselves, sailing from Dutch ports
to Philadelphia. Some of these Germans were of such a saving turn that
though they had sufficient funds to pay their fare to America, they
preferred to sell themselves out for a number of years in order to get
free transportation. Others would pay half their fare, while still
others would pay their passage by selling some of their children to
service during their minority. As the country developed out from
Philadelphia, these Germans with others would be taken out in droves of
fifty or more by the "soul-drivers," men who would peddle them out to
those needing such service. Also there were a large number of Irish
imported.

The colonists themselves helped to meet the demand for help, as they
would sell the town-poor out to the lowest bidder, the one who would
agree to take the least from the town for their support. They, too, sold
the criminals into service to work out their sentences. Children from
the almshouses were likewise bound out for a term of service. Beside all
these kinds of help, there were servant-girls and serving-men, sometimes
from well-to-do families, and this was particularly true before there
were so many slaves and bondsmen sent into the colonies from over the
sea.

The laborers that were brought into the colonies from Europe were not
altogether the most desirable persons. Even if not from the criminal
classes they were too often people not of great account in their old
homes and they carried to their new homes the elements that made them
shiftless and continued so to keep them. Too, they were often a source
of moral corruption, the degradation of the women-servants being a
continued source of evil. The thrifty New Englanders complained a great
deal about these servants, as being lazy and trifling and of a thieving
and lying disposition, anything than worthy help. Too, there were many
runaways. Yet among these there were many who were valuable and of good
disposition and upright in character. This class gave to this country
some families of honorable distinction. As women were scarce in the new
country, many of these bondmaids married those who purchased them or
married into their families. The larger part of these people, when their
time of bondage was completed, entered into the class of small farmers
or free laborers. There was another element that pushed out across the
frontier of settlements to get away from law and civilization and built
up centers where lawlessness has ever prevailed. Still others became the
ancestors of shiftless and pauper and criminal families which prevail in
different sections of this country, both North and South.

It is surprising at the number of bond-servants that were in the
colonies. They were used in all kinds of business and it seemed
impossible to do without them. It is stated that in Virginia in 1670
there were six thousand English servants and but two thousand negroes.
When it is considered that these bondmen served but for four years, the
importations must have been great to keep up the numbers.

When there were not a great number of bond-servants, they became well
known to the families with whom they lived and they were well treated
and well cared for. As the numbers increased, and especially when
convicts and other evil characters were brought in, the treatment
changed and often was quite cruel. As flogging was one of the main
punishments of the world at that time, it was greatly used in the
colonies, the servants being whipped naked with hickory rods and then
rubbed with brine. There were also other ways of punishment, one being
the use of thumb-screws.

The sick servant, too, might not be cared for, especially if quite ill
and likely to die, as he was not considered worth the physician's bill.
Often the slaves were treated better than the servants, for the slaves
were property while the servants were freed at the end of four years.
Later laws were enacted in the colonies for the protection of the
servants and cruel punishments prohibited. There were plenty of
instances of fair treatment of servants by masters and sometimes even
they were treated quite kindly and generously.

=The Home.= When the first colonists came to America, they were poorly
equipped for preparing dwelling places for themselves. There were plenty
of trees for boards, abundance of clay for brick, limestone in plenty
for plaster and mortar, and rocks of all kinds for building purposes,
but the settlers did not possess implements with which to put these
natural materials into forms for their use. Consequently they lived at
first in primitive fashion. Some would take for their home the dense
foliage of a tree, living under its protection, while others dwelt in
hollow trees. Some made for themselves caves, by digging into a bank or
hill, supporting the sides with brush and poles, and covering it with
poles over which were laid sod or bark or rushes.

It was natural for the early settlers to imitate the dwellings of the
native inhabitants, and so wigwams were used by them. They made them of
bark or of plaited rush or grass mats or of deerskin, all placed over a
frame, or even they might simply pile brush about the frame, and in the
far South these frames were covered with layers of palmetto leaves. In
the Middle and Southern states, with their milder climate, these wigwams
sometimes were left open on one side--the "half-face camp"--the fire
being built in front of the opening. Sometimes this half-face camp was
made more substantial by being built of logs, and again in some cases it
was only a booth, with sides and roof of palmetto leaves.

The early settler did have one implement which became wonderfully useful
to him, which was the ax. He soon learned to use this in making for
himself and family a more permanent dwelling-place, the log cabin. At
first the log cabin was of round logs, notched at the ends, and fitted
together at the corners, roofed with logs or with bark on poles, having
a door of rough slabs and hung on wooden hinges or straps of hide, and
if a window, with a shutter similar to the door, and without floor or
loft. Then came a floor of rough puncheons hewn out with ax and the
cracks between the logs were chinked with pieces of wood and daubed over
with clay. A chimney was made at one end out of sticks of wood with ends
crossed and held together with clay and well plastered inside with clay,
called in New England, a "katted" chimney. It was not very long till
better houses were built. The logs were hewn and squared, clapboards
were made for covering, and oiled paper was used in the windows. Then
came the use of boards and stone and brick and plaster and nails and,
later, paint and glass, and some substantial houses were built. There
grew up a style of home for the different parts of the country,
corresponding to the needs of each section and, no doubt, aided by
imitation of the old country, as, in the South, in Pennsylvania and
neighboring parts of New Jersey and Delaware, with the Dutch in New York
and in New England.

The most notable Southern home was that of the wealthy planter, which
would seem to have been fashioned somewhat after the old English manor.
This Southern home was in a spacious home-lot or yard, with a large lawn
in front and usually with fine trees about it. There was a large,
pretentious house, the home of the owner, and grouped about it were more
or fewer smaller buildings, as, kitchen, overseer's house, negro cabins,
stable, coach-house, hen-house, smoke-house, dove-cote, milk-room,
tool-house, brew-house, spinning-house, and not far away, a cider-house.

The Quakers and Germans of Pennsylvania and neighboring parts were quite
different people from the Southerners and lived quite a different life.
The manor style of home did not exist with them. The country houses were
substantial but not pretentious, made of hewed logs and some of stone or
brick, while the barns were large, sometimes vast. By each house was a
clay oven and nearby a smoke-house. There was usually a small building
enclosing a spring, known as the spring house, for caring for the milk
and butter and other things during warm weather. Often there was no
shade about the dwelling-house, being open to the sun.

In New York the homes took the form of those the Dutch were used to back
in Holland. The houses were built near the sidewalk with the gable-end
to the street, the top of the gable showing in corbel-steps. They were
built of brick, or at least the gable-ends were, imported from Holland,
and the date of erection and the owner's initials were shown by bricks
of different colors from the others. The roof was quite steep and at
first thatched but later tiles were used, and with a metal gutter
projecting well out into the street. There was a weather-vane at the top
of the house, which might have been a horse, lion, goose, or fish, but
the prevailing fashion was a rooster. The front door was usually divided
in the middle horizontally, making an upper and a lower half, hung on
leather hinges and, later on, heavy iron hinges, and in the upper half
were placed two bull's-eyes of heavy greenish glass. Often the front
door had a knocker of iron or brass. The Dutch farmhouse was similar to
the town house, as described above, but the cellar was built more
carefully as it was necessary to be cool in summer and warm in winter to
care for the great supply of food that was stored in it. After the
English came to New York, the Dutch styles were changed to English
styles and the houses of the landed gentry became quite similar to those
of the Southern planters.

After the primitive sheltering as described in the first paragraphs
under this section, "The Home," the people of New England built log
houses, as in the other colonies, and for near a half century, there was
scarcely any house larger than a cottage. These houses were thatched and
had the katted chimneys. Oiled paper was used for admitting light, glass
coming into use later. Paint was not used at all at first and very
little used for quite awhile, either without or within the house.

After half a century, particularly in the older settlements in New
England, they began to build larger houses--many of two stories and also
an attic story. In building these the second story was made to project a
foot or two out over the first story and the attic story also projected
out over the second story, which was like their old homes in England.
Later came another form of house, which was almost peculiar to New
England. In this the house was two and a half stories in front, with a
sharp gable, then with a long slope back to a low story. The low back
part of the house was called the "lean-to" or _linter_. A later style of
house was that with the gambrel roof, in which the upper part of the
roof was of a rather flat slope and then there was a change to quite a
steep slope for the lower part of the roof. There was usually a chimney
in the center of these larger houses, of whatever style of house, made
of stone or brick. "Some of the dwellings of the rich were very
commodious; the house of Eaton, the first governor of New Haven colony,
had nineteen fire-places, and that of Davenport, the first minister of
New Haven, had thirteen."[225]

In the very early times of the colonists there was but little furniture
in their homes and that of the rudest kind. As wealth came to them and
their houses grew in size and splendor, the furniture increased in
amount and value. The following well portrays this.

"The inventories of the household effects of many of the early citizens
of New York might be given, to show the furnishings of these homes. I
choose the belongings of Captain Kidd to show that 'as he sailed, as he
sailed' he left a very comfortable home behind him. He was, when he set
up house-keeping with his wife Sarah in 1692, not at all a bad fellow,
and certainly lived well. He possessed these handsome and abundant house
furnishings:

One dozen Turkey work chairs.
One dozen double-nailed leather chairs.
Two dozen single-nailed leather chairs.
One Turkey worked carpet.
Three suits of curtains and valances.
Four bedsteads.
Ten blankets.
One glass case.
One dozen drinking-glasses.
Four tables.
One oval table.
Three chests of drawers.
Four looking-glasses.
Four feather beds, bolsters, and pillows.
Two dressing boxes.
One close stool.
One warming pan.
Two bed pans.
Three pewter tankards.
Four kettles.
Two iron pots.
One skillet.
Three pairs of fire irons.
One pair of andirons.
Three chafing dishes.
One gridiron.
One flesh fork.
One brass skimmer.
Four brass candlesticks.
Two pewter candlesticks.
Four tin candlesticks.
One brass pestle.
One iron mortar.
Five carpets or rugs.
One screen frame.
Two stands.
One desk.
2½ dozen pewter plates.
Five pewter basins.
Thirteen pewter dishes.
Five leather buckets.
One pipe Madeira wine.
One half-pipe Madeira wine.
Three barrels pricked cider.
Two pewter salt-cellars.
Three boxes smoothing irons.
Six heaters.
One pair small andirons.
Three pairs tongs.
Two fire shovels.
Two fenders.
One spit.
One jack.
One clock.
One coat of arms.
Three quilts.

Parcel linen sheets, table cloths, napkins, value thirty dollars. One
hundred and four ounces silver plate, value three hundred
dollars."[226]

The floors were not carpeted in colonial times till late in the period,
and, really, a carpet in those days was not to place on a floor but it
was a cover for a table or cupboard. Sometimes sand was placed over the
parlor floor and marked off into ornamental figures. The walls of the
rooms were wainscoted and painted. In some of the houses of the wealthy,
there were hung on the walls rich cloths and tapestries and sometimes
leathern hangings and in later times there were paper-hangings of strong
and heavy material. The ceilings were usually left entirely open,
showing the beams and rafters, often rough hewn. Prints were placed on
the walls, beings pictures of ships, battle scenes, and the like, and
there were paintings, usually portraits of ancestors.

Cupboards were found in all the houses and they were of various kinds
and sizes, to fit into different places and for many uses. One parlor
piece was a kind of writing-desk, the scrutaire, spelled in many ways in
old inventories and at present time secretary. There were tables of many
kinds. There were dressers and dressing-glasses in frames of walnut and
olive-wood and with gilt and japanned frames. The chest was an
indispensable piece of furniture and there were all kinds and sizes and
of different woods and some had most beautiful carvings and inlayings.
These chests were greatly needed for each household had an abundance of
household linen and many a goodly quantity of silver. The time was told
by means of sun-dials and hour-glasses, but there were also numbers of
watches and clocks among the colonists and later there were all kinds of
clocks for sale.

Chairs were in use very little, if at all, in early colonial days, as
stools and benches took their place. Later chairs were greatly in use
and of many kinds. There were three general kinds--turned chairs, in
which the seats were often of flags and rushes; wainscot chairs, being
all of wood, including backs and seats; and covered chairs, sometimes
covered with leather and again with rich cloths, velvets, etc. Cane
chairs were not introduced into the colonies till quite a late period.

The one piece of furniture that more than any other was a distinguishing
mark of class was the bed, which graded from none at all in the cabin of
the very poor to the great bed of state in the parlor of the very
wealthy. There was, sometimes from poverty, sometimes from other causes,
no bed in the house of a colonist, all sleeping on the floor, usually
though, having placed on it deer, buffalo, or bear skins. Sometimes a
pallet of bed-clothing was spread on the floor. In other homes there was
but one bed for the father and mother, the rest of the family sleeping
on the floor. Sometimes the bed was nothing more than a wooden box with
bedding on it. The primitive fashion of sleeping on the floor might have
occurred in any or all of the homes of the very early settlers and
especially so when they lived in caves and wigwams and under trees, but
it was not very long till beds were brought in from Europe or made in
this country and there became a great variety in style and price.

The trundle-bed was used, being pushed under a high bedstead in the
daytime. There were sometimes two standing and two trundle beds in one
room. A common form of bed in the early times of the colonists was one
that was built into an alcove or recess in a room, somewhat like a
bench, with doors about it, which were kept closed to shut the bed off
from view when not being used. Another form of bed was the slawbank. The
slawbank was a frame with a cord bottom, fastened to the wall of the
room on one side with hinges and on the other side having two legs to
hold it up from the floor. When not in use this bed could be pulled up
and hooked against the wall and there were closet-like doors to shut it
in or curtains to drop down over it to hide it from view. The bed of all
beds was the state-bed, the household idol, kept in the parlor, and not
even shown to vulgar eyes and used only on very rare occasions. This was
a great carved four-poster, very costly, with richly embroidered
coverlets and hangings of brilliant hues.

There was no lack of bedding after the early struggles, as there were
good feather beds with coverlets of all kinds, an abundance of linen
sheets, and also flannel sheets were used, but cotton sheets were not
plentiful. There were bolsters and pillows and coverings for them. "Such
poor people in the colonies as had tastes too luxurious to enjoy a
deerskin on the hearth were accustomed to fill their bed-sacks and
pillows with fibrous mistletoe, the down of the cat-tail flag, or with
feathers of pigeons slaughtered from the innumerable migrating flocks.
The cotton from the milkweed, then called 'silk-grass,' was used for
pillows and cushions. In the houses of the prosperous, good feather and
even down beds were in use. The Pennsylvania German smothered and
roasted himself between two of these even in summer nights and sometimes
without sheets or pillows."[227]

The furniture of those early days was usually set up from the floor on
legs, as, chests of drawers, dressing-cases, side-boards, and the like
were often a foot off the floor, so that they could be thoroughly swept
under. Cooking utensils, too, were often set on feet, such as pots,
kettles, gridirons, skillets, and the other sorts, which was for the
purpose of placing them above the coals and ashes of the open fireplace.

The early dining-table was a board placed on trestles, which was called
a table-board. As boards were quite scarce, often these table-boards
were made from boxes and chests which came from England containing
goods. It was not long, however till there were tables of different
kinds. One kind, called a drawing-table, had leaves so that it could be
extended, a kind of extension-table. Another kind had flaps at either
end which could be turned down on hinges or held up by means of
brackets. There was another kind in which by the use of hinges the top
could be fixed for a table or turned about to form the back of a chair.
Usually a long, narrow bench, without a back, was used with the
table-board instead of stools or chairs, and the children did not always
get to use this bench as they often had to stand behind the older people
while eating.

As the table was called a table-board so the table-cloth was called a
board-cloth. Although the table-cloth might have been coarse it was
bleached out as white as any at present and later there were quite a
variety imported from the old country. Napkins were in plenty, as many
or more were in use as at present. The principal article on the table
was the trencher, which ordinarily was a block of wood about a foot
square and three or four inches thick and hollowed out in the middle
into a sort of bowl. Into this the food was placed--porridge, meat,
vegetables, etc.--and two people ate from one trencher, or there was a
trencher for each person if the family were quite extravagant in their
ways. The next important article was the salt-cellar, which was set in
the center of the table and quality folks were seated "above the salt,"
that is, toward the end where sat the host and hostess. The abundance of
napkins may be accounted for by the fact that forks were not known to
the early colonists. Spoons were in general use and took the place of
forks, as most of the food was prepared for the use of the spoon.
Porringers, little shallow dishes with handles, were in great use and
especially by the children, and there was a kind, often without a
handle, called a posnet.

The cooking of the early times was done in fireplaces. There were
various kinds of utensils for cooking, as pots, kettles, gridirons,
skillets, toasting-forks, frying-pans, and the like. A very important
utensil was the Dutch oven, with which was used a long-handled shovel,
the peel or slice, for placing the food to be cooked well within the
oven. One important function of cooking was the proper roasting of
meats. At the first the roast was suspended from a string over the fire,
the string being given an occasional twist, usually the task of a child.
Then there was invented a metal suspensory machine, which had clockwork
to turn the roast regularly. Also the turnspit dog was introduced into
the colonies, this dog being trained to work in a revolving cylinder and
thus keep the roast turning before the fire.

Many of the articles for the table were made of wood, such as trenchers,
tankards, bottles, cups, and dishes. The shells of cocoanuts were made
into goblets and dippers and often mounted in pewter and sometimes even
in silver. Horn was used for spoons and drinking-cups. Pitchers,
bottles, drinking-cups and jugs were made of leather, which sometimes
were tipped with silver. Gourds were used for drinking-cups and dippers.
There were very few tin vessels among the colonists and even iron was
not so greatly in use, being used for andirons and pots and pans and
some other vessels. There were brass and copper pots and kettles, which
were quite costly and highly prized by the owners and well cared for.
Silver was not greatly in use and yet quite a number of the families had
silver spoons and others also had silver drinking-cups, salt-cellars,
candle-sticks, and other kinds of silver vessels. Pewter was _the_ metal
of the colonists. Much of the tableware was made of this metal and found
in each household. There were spoons and plates and dishes and cups and
porringers and many other vessels of pewter. Often a family prided
itself on having a full pewter set and would keep it as bright and
shining as they would silverware, if they had such. A good thing about
pewter was that when dishes and plates became worn they could easily be
recast into new pewter spoons. Glass was but little in use among the
early colonists, perhaps nothing beyond bottles, which though were of
different shapes and kinds and the glass was of a very coarse, poor
quality. Little chinaware, if any at all, was found among the early
colonists, and this, perhaps, only among the Dutch settlers. Later,
china was brought in and it increased in use till in Revolutionary times
it became to be common and to take the place of pewter. In the earlier
times there were some vessels of stoneware, such as drinking-jugs.

The colonial houses were heated by means of fireplaces and in the
kitchen the fireplace was also used for cooking. Some of these
fireplaces were very large, "sometimes wide enough to drive a cart and
horses between the jambs.... Logs were sometimes drawn on to the ample
hearth by a horse."[228] "In the old Phillips farmhouse at Wickford,
Rhode Island, is a splendid chimney over twenty feet square."[229] As
fuel grew scarce, sometimes these fireplaces were made smaller by
closing them up in part and building a "little chimney" within them. For
holding the fuel in the fireplace were andirons, which sometimes were of
three sizes to hold logs at different heights, and there were fire-dogs
or creepers, which were smaller than the andirons and were placed
between them. In the kitchen fireplace there also were cob-irons, on
which were hooks to hold the spit and dripping-pan, and a crane or chain
with pot-hooks to hold kettles. In Pennsylvania the Germans had stoves.
While the English colonial house would have two chimneys, one at either
end and with a fireplace in each, the German house would have a single
chimney in the middle and use stoves. These stoves were of different
kinds. One kind was built from the outer wall into the house, with the
opening for feeding the stove on the outside of the house and the back
of the stove inside the house. In the second story they sometimes had
drums, connected with the stoves, for heating the rooms there. Stoves
were later introduced into the other colonies, and especially so as fuel
became scarce. In 1742 Benjamin Franklin brought out his "New
Pennsylvania Fireplace," a rather complicated affair, in which both wood
and coal could be used, and which later grew into the form now known as
the "Franklin Stove." As the bedrooms of the colonists were freezing
cold in winter, a warming-pan was used to heat up the bed before getting
into it for the night. The warming-pan was round, about a foot wide and
four or five inches deep, with a perforated metal top and a long wooden
handle. This was filled with hot coals from the fireplace and placed
between the bed-linen and moved rapidly about for warming without
scorching the bedding. Wood, of course, was very plentiful at first and
it was used quite freely, the immense fireplaces consuming vast
quantities of it. As the forests disappeared and wood became scarce,
especially in the towns, coal was brought from across the ocean as it
sometimes was found to be cheaper when used with stoves than was the
wood.

"The discomfort of a colonial house in winter-time has been ably set
forth by Charles Francis Adams in his 'Three Episodes of Massachusetts
History.' Down the great chimneys blew the icy blasts so fiercely that
Cotton Mather noted on a January Sabbath, in 1697, as he shivered before
'a great Fire, that the Juices forced out at the end of short billets of
wood by the heat of the flame on which they were laid, yet froze into
ice on their coming out.' Judge Sewall wrote, twenty years later, 'An
Extraordinary Cold Storm of Wind and Snow. Bread was frozen at Lord's
Table.... Though 'twas so Cold yet John Tuckerman was baptized. At six
o'clock my ink freezes so that I can hardly write by a good fire in my
Wives Chamber'--and the pious man adds (we hope in truth) 'Yet was very
Comfortable at Meeting.' Cotton Mather tells, in his pompous fashion, of
a cold winter's day four years later. ''Tis Dreadful cold, my ink glass
in my standish is froze and splitt in my very stove. My ink in my pen
suffers a congelation.' If sitting-rooms were such refrigerators, we
cannot wonder that the chilled colonists wished to sleep in beds close
curtained with heavy woolen stuffs, or in slaw-bank beds by the kitchen
fire.

"The settlers builded as well as they knew to keep their houses warm;
and while the vast and virgin forests supplied abundant and accessible
wood for fuel, Governor Eaton's nineteen great fireplaces and Parson
Davenport's thirteen, could be well filled; but by 1744 Franklin could
write of these big chimneys as the 'fireplace of our fathers'; for the
forests had all disappeared in the vicinity of the towns, and the
chimneys had shrunk in size. Sadly did the early settlers need warmer
houses, for, as all antiquarian students have noted, in olden days the
cold was more piercing, began to nip and pinch earlier in November, and
lingered further into spring; winter rushed upon the settlers with
heavier blasts and fiercer storms than we now have to endure. And, above
all, they felt with sadder force 'the dreary monotony of a New England
winter, which leaves so large a blank, so melancholy a death-spot, in
lives so brief that they ought to be all summer-time.' Even John Adams
in his day so dreaded the tedious bitter New England winter that he
longed to hibernate like a dormouse from autumn to spring."[230]

The early settlers learned from the Indians to use for light the
pine-knots of the pitch-pine. This was called _candlewood_ in New
England and _lightwood_ in the South. This wood was split into pieces so
as to be used as a kind of torch and because of the smoke and the pitch
droppings as it burned, it was usually placed in a corner of the
fireplace. As fish was abundant in the streams, oil was obtained from
them and used in a rude kind of lamp, but it would seem that this fish
oil was not greatly used for light. Wax from bees was also used, which
was made into a kind of candle by heating the wax and pressing it around
a wick. Tallow and grease were used in making rush lights, wherein the
pith from the common rushes was used, the outer covering being stripped
off, and then the pith was dipped into the heated tallow or grease and
this was then let harden. Deer suet, moose fat, and bear's grease were
saved and tried out for candles, but they were not greatly used. Quite a
good deal of wax from the wax myrtle tree was gathered and used for
candles, whose berry has a thick coating of wax, and this tree was also
called the bayberry tree, tallow shrub, and candle-berry tree. One great
source for light came from the whale-fisheries, the oil from the
spermaceti whale furnishing quite an important material for the making
of candles. The most common of all material and the greatest used was
the tallow from the cattle, which increased in number and became quite
an important industry in the colonies.

In the making of tallow candles there were candle-rods, sticks about
fifteen to eighteen inches long, and to each stick were tied six to
eight candle-wicks. The tallow was melted and the wicks in the rods
allowed to drop down and then were dipped into the melted tallow. The
rod was then placed across the backs of two chairs or hung across two
poles placed across chairs or stools, and then a second stick would be
dipped and hung up to drip, and so on, and when the first rod had dried
sufficiently it was dipped a second time and it was so continued to be
dipped till the required sized candle was made. Later moulds came into
use, made of tin or pewter, a half dozen individual moulds being joined
together, sometimes a dozen and sometimes as many as two dozen. The wick
was fastened to a nail or wire and then let down into the center of the
mould, the nail holding across the top, and the melted tallow was then
poured in around the wick. The making of candles in the first way
required a good deal of care and skill and it was slow work, two hundred
candles a day being considered an extra good day's work. When moulds
came into use, there were candle-makers who would go from house to house
with their moulds to make the needed supply for the home. On account of
the trouble in making candles, the colonists were very careful of them.
They were carefully packed away and all pieces saved and also a little
contrivance, called a save-all, made of pins and rings, was used to hold
up the candle to the last till all was used. The candles were sometimes
placed in a rough candlestick made of four pieces of wood fastened to a
small piece of board so as to form a receptacle for the candle, and also
in rude chandeliers, candle-beams, made of crossed sticks of wood. There
were candlesticks of pewter, iron, brass, and silver. There also were
sconces, called candle-arms or prongs. Snuffers were used, and snuffers
trays.

Lamps were in use by the colonists but the early ones were of rude form.
Among the earliest in use was the betty-lamp, which consisted of a
shallow basin, two or three inches wide and an inch deep, with a nose or
spout an inch or two long. They were rectangular, oval, round, or
triangular in shape. They were set on the table or stand but often
suspended from a nail on the wall by a hook and chain attached to the
lamp. They were filled with tallow, grease, or oil and a cotton rag or a
coarse wick was placed in the contents and hung out from the nose of the
lamp. The phœbe-lamp was similar to the betty-lamp, but some had a nose
at either end and used a double wick. The lamps were made of iron or
pewter and some of brass. Later glass lamps came into use and were of
various shapes and sizes.

The colonists had to be quite careful not to let the fire go out in the
fireplace for there were very poor means for striking a light. In case
there was no fire or light in the house, some one would go to the home
of a neighbor with a shovel or covered pan, and sometimes with only a
piece of green bark, and get coals to bring back for relighting the
fire. This was usually the task of a small boy. For striking a light, a
flint and steel with tinder were used. By striking the flint with the
steel a spark was produced which was caught by the tinder and was then
blown into a flame. Another means was by setting off powder in the pan
of a gun of that time which would set a piece of tow on fire. Later,
matches were made by dipping small pieces of wood into melted sulphur,
which could be set on fire by placing them in contact with the blaze on
the hearth or of a light and then they could be carried about to light
fires and candles and lamps. Such means of obtaining light were in use
down to a late time, for friction matches did not come into use until
the nineteenth century.

=Women.= During the earlier times in the settlement of America, the
women had a hard time. They had to endure the hardships of a new country
and to forego many of the things that in an old country make women's
lives the more easy. They were never thought to be quite the equals of
men and the following well portrays how they were looked upon by the men
of the time:

"If some of our foremothers were intelligent and thoughtful, it was
rather by natural gift than from instruction. Men of cultivation seem to
have found it a little irksome to get down to the level of topics deemed
sufficiently simple for the understanding of women. 'Conversation with
ladies,' says William Byrd, 'is liked whipped syllabub, very pretty, but
nothing in it.' The most accomplished gentlemen of that time thought it
necessary to treat their lady friends to flattery so gross that it would
not be bearable now. Byrd, great lord that he was, repaid his lady
friends for courteous and hospitable entertainment at their houses by
kissing them at his departure, and excused himself for leaving one
gentleman's house by assuring the lady that her beauty would spoil his
devotions if he remained."[231]

"Yet the colonial usage kept women in retirement, the colonial South had
notable women that vied with their assertive sisters of the North in the
world of affairs. There was no marked difference between the sections in
the extent to which women took up independent careers, or assumed
responsibilities beyond housewifery."[232]

"In South Carolina women took an active part in all sorts of affairs and
seem to have enjoyed a certain standing not gained by women elsewhere in
the colonies. The men often had to be absent and it was not uncommon for
a woman to be alone for several months in charge of a great plantation
with hundreds of slaves with no white man to assist her save the
overseer. Women often taught their own children. Eliza Lucas studied law
and while studying it drew up two wills and was made trustee in another.
In the Revolution the women were often more stalwart than the men,
urging husbands and fathers not to give in in order to save their
property and bearing cheerfully hardship and banishment. In all the
Southern colonies there were keen gentlewomen that took up tracts of
land and cleared and cultivated their estates. Southern women were not
outdone by the business women of the North."[233]

In the old Dutch times in New York, possibly women touched closer to
equality with men than in any other colony or at any other time. They
occupied so high a place that they sometimes sat on juries. They engaged
in business of various kinds. They traded with the Indians, they engaged
in commerce with other colonies and the old country, they conducted
stores, and they entered into other kinds of businesses. They proved
themselves quite as shrewd as the men and well able to look after their
own affairs.

At least there was one woman of a scientific turn of mind. "Jane Colden,
the daughter of Governor Cadawallader Colden, was of signal service, not
in trade, but in science. A letter written by her father explains her
interest and usefulness:

'Botany is an amusement which may be made agreeable to the ladies who
are often at a loss to fill up their time. Their natural curiosity and
the pleasure they take in the beauty and variety of dress seem to fit
them for it.

'I have a daughter who has an inclination to reading, and a curiosity
for Natural Philosophy or Natural History, and a sufficient curiosity
for attaining a competent knowledge. I took the pains to explain
Linnæus' system, and to put it into an English form for her use by
freeing it from technical terms, which was easily done, by using two or
three words in the place of one. She is now grown very fond of the
study, and has made such a progress in it as, I believe, would please
you, if you saw her performance. Though she could not have been
persuaded to learn the terms at first, she now understands to some
degree Linnæus' characters--notwithstanding she does not understand
Latin. She has already a pretty large volume in writing of the
description of plants. She has shewn a method of taking the impression
of the leaves on paper with printer's ink, by a simple kind of rolling
press which is of use in distinguishing the species. No description in
words alone, can give so clear an idea, as when assisted with a picture.
She has the impression of three hundred plants in the manner you'll see
by the samples. That you may have some conception of her performance,
and her manner of describing, I propose to enclose some samples in her
own writing, some of which I think are new genera.'

"Peter Collinson said she was the first lady to study the Linnæan
system, and deserved to have her name celebrated; and John Ellis,
writing of her to Linnæus in 1758, asks that a genus be named, for her,
Coldenella. She was also a correspondent of Dr. Whyte of Edinburgh, and
many learned societies in Europe. Walter Rutherfurd enumerates her talents,
and caps them with a glowing tribute to her cheese-making."[234]

=Marriage.= There never occurred in the colonies the very early
marriages of children, such as had been in vogue in England some years
before the colonies arose in America but which had grown very much less
in England at this time. Yet they occurred early enough in the colonies,
as there were marriages at fifteen and sixteen and less, for being a new
country women were scarce and they were rarely allowed to become very
old before they were in demand as wives. A young woman who passed twenty
years of age without being married was rare indeed and it could not be
understood why such should be the case.

Wooing in those days was done under much difficulties. In Boston a young
man had to be very particular to get the consent of the young woman's
parents or guardians before he entered upon his wooing, and even then he
had to proceed cautiously or else fines, imprisonments, or the
whipping-post would be applied to him. Yet it was not always demurely
done in Old New England, as, in 1660 in New Haven, one day, "they sat
down together; his arm being about her; and her arm upon his shoulder or
about his neck; and hee kissed her and shee kissed him, or they kissed
one another, continuing in this posture about half an hour, as Maria and
Susan testified."[235] In New London in 1670 two lovers were accused and
tried for sitting together on the Lord's Day under an apple tree in an
orchard. On account of the difficulties of wooing, there came into use
two most peculiar modes of courting, known as "bundling" and the
"courting-stick."

The courting-stick was six feet or so long, about an inch in diameter,
hollow, and with an enlargement at each end for speaking into and for
hearing from. A picture in Harper's Weekly for November 29, 1900, no
doubt historically correct, represents the father seated in the
fireplace, the mother busy spinning, by the mother the daughter sitting
on the bench knitting, while the young man is sitting across the room,
with cider mug and pitcher beside him, and he is just in the act of
raising the courting-stick to his mouth, the other end of which is lying
in the lap of the young lady. To complete the picture, a younger sister
is crouched behind the high back of the settee upon which her sister is
sitting, ready to overhear what the young man would send over through
the stick, so as to be prepared to tease her sister on the morrow.

According to the only one who has given us a general history of the
subject "bundling was practiced in two forms; first between _strangers_,
as a simple domestic make-shift arrangement, often arising from the
necessities of a new country, and by no means peculiar to America; and,
secondly between _lovers_, who shared the same couch, with the mutual
understanding that innocent endearment should not be exceeded."[236]
Webster's New International Dictionary gives the following: "To
bundle--To sleep or lie in the same bed without undressing:--said of a
man and woman, esp, lovers." The Century Dictionary defines it thus: "To
bundle--In New England (in early times) and in Wales, to sleep in the
same bed without undressing; applied to the custom of men and women,
especially sweethearts, thus sleeping."

Writers upon the subject are at a loss to account for bundling having
been permitted among a people so austere as were the early New
Englanders; who highly esteemed virtue and severely punished unchastity.
Yet bundling was openly practiced and perhaps "in its open recognition
lay its redeeming feature. There was no secrecy, no thought of
concealment; the bundling was done under the supervision of mother and
sisters."[237] It is a question whether such a custom showed coarseness
and viciousness in the people or if it really showed a hospitality in
that the guest was thus found a place to rest for the night,
nevertheless the smallness of the dwelling or the crowded condition of
the rooms. Again, the severe New England climate would make it next to
impossible for the lover otherwise to have been made comfortable through
the night without a great outlay of fuel, and a corresponding waste of
lights, which would be carefully considered by the frugal colonists. Yet
this custom was not altogether confined to the lower and poorer classes.
In all probabilities this did not originate with the colonists but was
brought over from the mother country, as it existed in Ireland,
Scotland, and Wales, and in a form in Holland.

Bundling, it would seem, did not exist among the colonists outside of
New England and Pennsylvania, while among the Dutch in New York the
somewhat similar form of "questing" was known. It was not considered to
any great extent wrong until the young colonial soldiers returning to
their homes after the French and Indian wars took with them the vices of
the camp and thus brought this practice into disrepute. Jonathan Edwards
preached against it and other ministers joined in and the custom finally
died out. It was at the greatest height among the colonists in the
middle of the eighteenth century, and yet it reached down into the
nineteenth century, being found in the region of Cape Cod as late as
1827, and in Pennsylvania even as late as 1845, such being shown by a
court record, "and where it probably still lingers in out-of-the-way
places among people both of English and of German extraction."[238]

Wooing was not always so difficult as to need the courting-stick or
bundling to help it along, for some times it was done in a hurry and in
most any place. There were cases in New England where a man would seek
out a woman, call at her home, tell her his need of a wife, get her
consent, and send in their desire for marriage to the town clerk to be
published, and all this accomplished in one day or even a few hours. In
the time of the Dutch in New York, one day a widower saw a young lady
milking and falling in love with her told his love at once. Before she
had finished milking, he jumped on his horse and rode in a great hurry
to town, obtained his license, and hurriedly returned and took off his
bride.

Love was not the only motive for marriage in New England, for it was
quite customary to make inquiries concerning the bride's portion, and
before marriage to arrange what should go with her. Sometimes a
father-in-law was sued by his son-in-law for this portion.

There were, too, other ways of getting wives beside wooing them, as is
shown by the following advertisement, which appeared in the _Boston
Evening Post_ for February 23, 1759:

"To the Ladies. Any young Lady between the Age of Eighteen and twenty
three of a Midling Stature; brown Hair, regular Features and a Lively
Brisk Eye; Of Good Morals & not Tinctured with anything that may Sully
so Distinguishable a Form possessed of 3 or 400£ entirely her own
Disposal and where there will be no necessity of going Through the
tiresome Talk of addressing Parents or Guardians for their Consent: Such
a one by leaving a Line directed for A. W., at the British Coffee House
in King Street appointing where an Interview may be had will meet with a
Person who flatters himself he shall not be thought Disagreeable by any
Lady answering the above description. N. B. Profound Secrecy will be
observ'd. No Trifling Answers will be regarded."[239]

Among the New England colonists there was a formal ceremony of
betrothal, called a pre-contract or contraction. There was made a solemn
promise of marriage between the couple before two witnesses and often
there was a sermon preached in the church upon it by the minister,
wherein it was the custom to permit the bride to select the text. The
wedding-bans in New England were published three times in the
meeting-house. This might be at any of the meetings--Sunday service,
lecture, or town meeting. The names of the parties and their intention
to marry were read by the minister, the town clerk, or the deacon at any
of the meetings and on the church door or on a "publishing post" was
placed a notice containing this information. In New York, under the
English, this custom was considered not genteel and was very little
practiced, as there a marriage license was issued. In Virginia both
customs were in practice, as a license was required and also the bans
had to be published for three several Sundays in the parish church where
the contracting parties dwelt.

In the early days of the colonists in New England, marriage was
considered a civil contract and the minister was not permitted to
perform the marriage ceremony, the law requiring that all marriages
should be conducted by a civil magistrate. But even as it was, the
marriage ceremony was really of a religious nature as psalms were sung
by the guests and prayers offered. Gradually the prejudice against
ecclesiastical rites passed away and by the close of the seventeenth
century ministers were authorized by law to perform the marriage
ceremony. In the early times the wedding occurred in the home and was
quietly conducted, but after a time feasting was added to the singing of
psalms and the offering of prayers. In Virginia the custom was just the
opposite, for civil marriage was not permitted by law, the ceremony
having to be of a religious character and according to the rites of the
Church of England. There was never a civil marriage before a magistrate
permitted by law till near the close of the eighteenth century and then
only allowed in very exceptional cases.

Among the Puritan colonists in New England the rude and really brutal
wedding customs of the old country were entirely suppressed or greatly
modified. Sack-posset was drunk at weddings and although this might have
occurred within the bridal chamber, yet a psalm was sung before
partaking and the drinking was followed with a prayer, which made a
rather solemn affair out of it. There must have been, though, some
weddings that were not so solemn, as in 1651 a law was passed that there
should not be dancing at taverns at the time of a wedding on account of
abuses and disorders that had occurred at such times. Among the Germans
in Pennsylvania at a wedding the guests strove to steal a shoe off the
bride's foot and the groomsmen tried to prevent this and if they did not
the shoe was redeemed with a bottle of wine. In some parts the guests
tried to obtain a garter of the bride as it brought luck and a quick
marriage to the one getting it. In the Connecticut Valley the custom
prevailed of stealing the bride. This was done by a group of young men,
usually made up of those not invited to the wedding, who would rush in
at the close of the marriage ceremony and seize the bride and carry her
off to the tavern, where she was redeemed by the groom and his friends
with a supper to the abductors. In some places it was the custom to tie
wild grape-vines across the path of a wedding-party or to fell trees
across the road to delay them, while at other times they would be
greeted by a sudden volley fired from ambush.

"Isolated communities retained for many years marriage customs derived
or copied from similar customs in the 'old country.' Thus the settlers
of Londonderry, New Hampshire--Scotch-Irish Presbyterians--celebrated a
marriage with much noisy firing of guns, just as their ancestors in
Ireland, when the Catholics had been forbidden the use of firearms, had
ostentatiously paraded their privileged Protestant condition by firing
off their guns and muskets at every celebration. A Londonderry wedding
made a big noise in the world. After the formal publishing of the bans,
guests were invited with much punctiliousness. The wedding day was
suitably welcomed at daybreak by a discharge of musketry at both the
bride's and the groom's house. At a given hour the bridegroom,
accompanied by his male friends, started for the bride's home. Salutes
were fired at every house passed on the road, and from each house
pistols and guns gave an answering 'God speed.' Half way on the journey
the noisy bridal party was met by the male friends of the bride, and
another discharge of firearms rent the air. Each group of men then named
a champion to 'run for the bottle!'--a direct survival of the ancient
wedding sport known among the Scotch as 'running for the bride-door,' or
'riding for the kail' or 'for the broose'--a pot of spiced broth. The
two New Hampshire champions ran at full speed or rode a dare-devil race
over dangerous roads to the bride's house, the winner seized the
beribboned bottle of rum provided for the contest, returned to the
advancing bridal group, drank the bride's health, and passed the bottle.
On reaching the bride's house an extra salute was fired, and the
bridegroom with his party entered a room set aside for them. It was a
matter of strict etiquette that none of the bride's friends should enter
this room until the bride, led by the best man, advanced and stationed
herself with her bridesmaid before the minister, while the best man
stood behind the groom. When the time arrived for the marrying pair to
join hands, each put the right hand behind the back, and the bridesmaid
and the best man pulled off the wedding-gloves, taking care to finish
their duty at precisely the same moment. At the end of the ceremony
everyone kissed the bride, and more noisy firing of guns and drinking of
New England rum ended the day."[240]

One peculiar custom was that of the "coming out" of the bride. On the
Sunday after the wedding, the bride and groom and, sometimes, also the
other members of the bridal party, would attend church in their wedding
clothes. It was a common and an expected thing for the bridal couple to
occupy some conspicuous place and in the midst of the sermon stand and
slowly turn about to show their clothing. The peeking of the
congregation can well be imagined when the groom was dressed in a velvet
coat, lace-frilled shirt, and white broadcloth knee-breeches and the
bride in a gorgeous peach-colored silk gown and a bonnet with sixteen
yards of white ribbon on it. One groom was not content with showing off
on one Sunday when he came out in white broadcloth for the next Sunday
he was attired in brilliant blue and gold and the third Sunday in
peach-bloom with pearl buttons.

An engagement of marriage was a very important matter and when once
properly entered into it could not be lightly broken. There are records
of a good number of breach of promise suits in New England and New York.
Sometimes the suit was brought by the woman or her father against the
man; sometimes, too, it was the man that brought the suit against the
woman. Although the father had great control over his daughter in
reference to her choice of a husband, yet if he permitted a contract to
be entered into with his daughter he could not break off the engagement
without good reason, such as a court would accept. There are a number of
cases on record where the young man brought suit against the girl's
father for breach of contract, sometimes for loss of time in paying
court to the daughter. In some cases the young man in his suit included
both the father and the mother and also the girl, claiming that all
joined in against him.

Since there was civil marriage in New England it would seem naturally to
follow that there would be civil divorce, which was the case. Not only
were church courts not established in New England but also there were
none in any of the colonies. As in Virginia marriage was by the church
and as there were no church courts, there were no statutes on divorce
enacted in that colony. There were separations, though, and the courts
acted upon them when brought before them. The causes allowed for divorce
in New England were such as desertion, cruelty, and breach of the
marriage vow. Usually the husband and wife were dealt with as equals
before the law. "Female adultery was never doubted to have been
sufficient cause; but male adultery, after some debate and consultation
with the elders, was judged not sufficient."[241] This has reference to
Massachusetts, being from Governor Hutchinson.

The bearing of husband and wife was rather carefully regulated by law in
New England. A husband could not keep his wife on frontiers where there
was much danger, nor could he leave her for any long while, nor could he
whip her, and he was not even allowed to use harsh words with her. A
wife must not scold her husband too much nor strike him, lest she be put
in the public stocks or pillory. Nor could they be too publicly
demonstrative. "Captain Kemble of Boston sat two hours in the public
stocks (1656) for his 'lewd and unseemly behavior' in kissing his wife
'publicquely' on the Sabbath upon his doorstep when he had just returned
from a voyage of three years."[242] In old New York it was the custom to
strive to reconcile all difficulties and even in some cases it seems
that force was almost, if not quite used to have the husband and wife
live together. In no case was the father of the wife to permit his
daughter to have refuge in his home against the wishes of her husband.

"In spite of the hardness and narrowness of their daily life, and the
cold calculation, the lack of sentiment displayed in wooing, I think
Puritan husbands and wives were happy in their marriages, though their
love was shy, almost somber, and 'flowered out of sight like the fern.'
A few love-letters still remain to prove their affection: letters of
sweethearts and letters of married lovers, such as Governor Winthrop and
his wife Margaret:

"'MY OWN DEAR HUSBAND: How dearly welcome thy kind letter was to me, I
am not able to express. The sweetness of it did much refresh me. What
can be more pleasing to a wife than to hear of the welfare of her best
beloved and how he is pleased with her poor endeavors! I blush to hear
myself commended, knowing my own wants. But it is your love that
conceives the best and makes all things seem better than they are. I
wish that I may always be pleasing to thee, and that these comforts we
may have in each other may be daily increased so far as they be pleasing
to God. I will use that speech to thee that Abigail did to David, I will
be a servant to wash the feet of my lord; I will do any service wherein
I may please my good husband. I confess I cannot do enough for thee; but
thou art pleased to accept the will for the deed and rest contented. I
have many reasons to make me love thee, whereof I shall name two: First,
because thou lovest God, and secondly, because thou lovest me. If these
two were wanting all the rest would be eclipsed. But I must leave this
discourse and go about my household affairs. I am a bad housewife to be
so long from them; but I must needs borrow a little time to talk with
thee, my sweetheart. It will be but two or three weeks before I see
thee, though they be long ones. God will bring us together in good time,
for which time I shall pray. And thus with my mother's and my own best
love to yourself I shall leave scribbling. Farewell my good husband, the
Lord keep thee.

'Your obedient wife,
'MARGARET WINTHROP.'"[243]

In the good old colonial days of New England it was not only a man's
duty to marry but also a necessity, so a widower did not remain single
as a usual thing nor was it usual to remain in that condition very long,
as for instance, "the father and mother of Governor Winslow had been
widow and widower seven and twelve weeks respectively, when they joined
their families and themselves in mutual benefit, if not in mutual love.
At a later day, the impatient Governor of New Hampshire married a lady
but ten days a widow."[244] "Peter Sargent, a rich Boston merchant, had
three wives. His second had had two previous husbands. His third wife
had lost one husband, and she survived Peter, and also her third
husband, who had three wives. His father had four, the last three of
whom were widows."[245]

One poor widower had quite a time after his wife's death as depicted in
his diary, and to the cares and troubles of this poor old man, Judge
Sewall of Boston, Mrs. Earle devotes thirteen pages of her _Customs and
Fashions in Old New England_, and they are truly most unlucky pages. The
Judge lost his wife on October 19, 1717, with whom he had lived
forty-three years and they had seven sons and seven daughters, and on
February 6th, of the following year (he was 66 at the time) is found in
his Diary: "'Wandering in my mind whether to live a Married or a Single
life.' Ere that date he had begun to take notice. He had called more
than once on Widow Ruggles, and had had Widow Gill to dine with him; and
looked critically at Widow Emery, and noted that Widow Tilley was absent
from meeting; and he had gazed admiringly at Widow Winthrop in 'her
sley.'"[246] Nor were the good old Dutch of New York far behind their
Yankee neighbors in this matter, although they didn't want to allow
their wives the same privileges without encumbrances, as, "John
Burroughs, of Newtown, Long Island, in his will dated 1678 expressed the
general feeling of husbands towards their prospective widows when he
said: 'If my wife marry again, then her husband must provide for her as
I have.'"[247] In 1673 a husband in making a joint-will with his wife
enjoined loss of property if his wife married again. "Perhaps he thought
there had been enough marrying and giving in marriage already in that
family, for Brieta had had three husbands--a Dane, a Frieslander, and a
German--and his first wife had had four, and he--well, several, I guess;
and you couldn't expect any poor Dutchman to find it easy to make a will
in all that confusion."[248]

"The precocity of colonial marriage allowed time for repetitions of the
act. Many of the Virginia girls that married in childhood and assumed
the burdens of family at so immature an age became broken in health and
after bearing a dozen children died, leaving their husbands to marry
again and beget new broods perhaps as large as the first. On the eastern
shore of Virginia in the seventeenth century it was not remarkable for a
man to have three or four successive wives. There were instances of
Virginians married six times. It is not unusual to find a colonial dame
that was married four times. Few conspicuous colonial men in Virginia,
at least, lived beyond middle life; most died short of it. The malarial
climate, exposure, and reckless habits cut them off. The young and
attractive widows need not remain long forlorn in a country with a
preponderance of males, at least if the feminine charms were
supplemented by a fine plantation. Sometimes the relay was so close that
the second husband was granted the probate of the will of the first. In
one case funeral baked meats furnished the marriage table. One husband
left all the estate to his wife's children by her next marriage.
Quickness of remarriage does not indicate callousness but rather the
woman's need of protection on the plantation and of an overseer for the
work.

"A noticeable feature of colonial Virginia was the belleship of widows.
Maidens seem not to have been 'in it.' As we come toward the Revolution
the widows still reign supreme. It may be that the larger social
experience of the widows magnified their charms or made them more adept
at handling bashful lovers. Washington belonged in this class if we may
trust the sentimental poems that he wrote to the unknown maiden that he
loved when he was fifteen. After several unsuccessful affairs he
probably was sufficiently experienced not to dally in his wooing of Mrs.
Custis. Patrick Henry's father married a widow; so did Jefferson and
James Madison."[249]

In New Netherlands there prevailed a custom, borrowed from Holland, that
when a man died and left a number of debts the widow could be relieved
from all demands or claims of his creditors by giving up her rights of
inheritance. In one form this giving up of rights was shown by the
widow's laying a key and a purse on the coffin of the deceased husband.
There was another peculiar custom in both New England and New York for
the purpose of getting out of paying debts. In this the widow was
married in her shift, often at cross-roads, and sometimes at midnight.
Later the custom was for the widow to be in a closet with no clothing on
and put out her hand through a hole in the door for the marriage
ceremony. Under such a marriage it was held that the new husband was
exempt from paying the debts of the former husband and even of those of
the wife contracted before her marriage to the new husband. After her
marriage, whether on road or in closet, the new bride would deck herself
out in clothing furnished by the new husband, usually these were with
her in the closet, and then she would come forth resplendent and
unencumbered to her new man.

As in all new countries, in the early times of the United States, women
were fewer than men and very few women remained unmarried. Too, it was
quite necessary for a woman to marry as she needed some one to care for
her and protect her more than would be the case in an old and
well-settled country. Yet there were some few women who preferred
maidenhood to marriage, but for the most part such women had a hard
time, for they were not well considered by the colonists as they
believed it to be the duty for every man and woman to marry. At least
one such woman persevered in this state for quite a time as there is a
record of her death in her 91st year.

"The state of old maidism was reached at a very early age in those early
days; Higginson wrote of an 'antient maid' of twenty-five years. John
Dunton in his 'Life and Errors' wrote eulogistically of one such ideal
'Virgin' who attracted his special attention.

"'It is true an _old_ (or superannuated) Maid in Boston is thought such
a curse, as nothing can exceed it (and looked on as a _dismal_
spectacle) yet she by her good nature, gravity, and strict virtue
convinces all (so much as the fleering Beaus) that it is not her
necessity but her choice that keeps her a Virgin. She is now about
thirty years (the age which they call a _Thornback_) yet she never
disguises herself, and talks as little as she thinks, of Love. She never
reads any Plays or Romances, goes to no Balls or Dancing-match (as they
do who go to such Fairs), to meet with Chapmen. Her looks, her speech,
her whole behavior are so very chaste, that but once (at Governor's
Island, where we went to be merry at roasting a hog) going to kiss her,
I thought she would have blushed to death.

"'Our _Damsel_ knowing this, her conversation is generally amongst the
women (as there is least danger from that sex), so that I found it no
easy matter to enjoy her company, for most of her time (save what was
taken up in needle work and learning French, &c.) was spent in Religious
Worship. She knew time was a dressing-room for Eternity, and therefore
reserves most of her hours for better uses than those of the Comb, the
Toilet and the Glass.

"'And as I am sure this is most agreeable to the Virgin modesty, which
should make Marriage an act rather of their obedience than their choice.
And they that think their Friends too slowpaced in the matter give
certain proof that lust is their sole motive. But as the Damsel I have
been describing would neither anticipate nor contradict the will of her
Parents, so do I assure you she is against Forcing her own, by marrying
where she cannot love; and that is the reason she is still a
Virgin.'"[250]

Even if the Puritan did tolerate the unmarried woman he scarcely did the
unmarried man, for it was considered almost a crime for a man to remain
single. They went so far that to encourage bachelors to marry they were
given home lots upon which to build if they married. Whatever the cause,
there were very few bachelors among them. Bachelors were treated almost
as criminals as they were spied upon by the constable, the watchman, and
the tithing-man. In some places they had to pay a stipulated sum per
week, or other time, for the privilege of remaining single, while in
other places they were not permitted to live alone. An order issued in
1695 in Eastham, Mass., reads: "Every unmarried man in the township
shall kill six blackbirds or three crows while he remains single; as a
penalty for not doing it, shall not be married until he obey this
order."[251] "Bachelors were not in good standing among the Dutch, at
least in Albany. The colony had no laws, as in New England, to regulate
these misfits and they shared in the benefit of Dutch tolerance toward
misguided folk. But where marriage was so spontaneous, bachelors were
almost pariahs. They did manage to find shelter but not home. Mrs. Grant
describes them as passing in and out like silent ghosts and seeming to
feel themselves superior to the world. Their association was almost
exclusively with one another though sometimes one took part in the
affairs of the family with which he lived."[252]

=Dress.= In the very early days there was quite a difference of feeling
in reference to dress among the various colonies. In Virginia there was
no horror of fine clothing and they dressed as far as they could as in
the home country. In New England and Pennsylvania this was different, as
in the former the Puritans were much against fine dress and in the
latter the Quakers dressed demurely. In New York saving was such a grace
with the Dutch that the clothing was quite durable, whatever the style.
Yet even among the early colonists there was a disposition to dress
according to rank and hence finery was not altogether excluded from any
of the colonies. This is shown in the laws, as, in Virginia in 1623 only
those of the governor's council were allowed to wear silk, and, in 1651
the General Court of Massachusetts set forth its "utter detestation and
dislike that men or women of meane condition, educations and callinges
should take uppon them the garbe of gentlemen, by the wearinge of gold
or silver lace, or buttons, or poynts at theire knees, to walke in
greate boots, or women of the same ranke to weare silke or tiffany
hoodes or scarfes."[253]

As the colonies grew and wealth increased, display in dress grew and
continued up through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. There was
a constant succession of rich and gay fashions patterned after those of
Europe. This was not only true of women's clothing but of men's as well.
There were importations from Europe, among which were gauzes, silks,
laces, velvets, and fine cloths of bright colors. Too, when trade
widened, goods were brought from China and the East Indies. Although the
colonists might wear rich clothing they were not wasteful, for the gowns
and ribbons were turned and dyed and well cared for, and much of the
clothing was passed on to other generations. This passion for dress was
not even stopped by the Revolutionary War as is shown from a letter by a
Hessian officer of that time:

"They are great admirers of cleanliness and keep themselves well shod.
They friz their hair every day and gather it up on the back of the head
into a chignon at the same time puffing it up in front. They generally
walk about with their heads uncovered and sometimes but not often wear
some light fabric on their hair. Now and then some country nymph has her
hair flowing down behind her, braiding it with a piece of ribbon. Should
they go out even though they be living in a hut, they throw a silk wrap
about themselves, and put on gloves. They also put on some well made and
stylish little sunbonnet, from beneath which their roguish eyes have a
most fascinating way of meeting yours. In the English colonies the
beauties have fallen in love with red silk or woolen wraps. The wives
and daughters spend more than their incomes allow. The man must fish up
the last penny he has in his pocket. The funniest part of it is the
women do not seem to steal it from them, neither do they obtain it by
cajoling, fighting, or falling in a faint. How they obtain it is a
mystery, but that the men are heavily taxed for their extravagance is
certain. The daughters keep up their stylish dressing because their
mothers desire it. Nearly all articles necessary for the adornment of
the female sex are very scarce and dear. For this reason they are
wearing their Sunday finery. Should this begin to show signs of wear I
am afraid that the husbands and fathers will be compelled to make peace
with the Crown if they would keep their women folk supplied with
gewgaws."[254]

This growth in the richness of apparel did not escape the eyes of the
lawmakers, for sumptuary laws were passed in order to restrain and even
prohibit luxury and extravagance in dress, but needless to say all such
laws failed in the end. In 1634 the General Court of Massachusetts gave
out the order:

"That no person either man or woman shall hereafter make or buy any
apparel, either woolen or silk or linen with any lace on it, silver,
gold, or thread, under the penalty of forfeiture of said clothes. Also
that no person either man or woman shall make or buy any slashed clothes
other than one slash in each sleeve and another in the back; also all
cut-works, embroideries, or needlework cap, bands, and rails are
forbidden hereafter to be made and worn under the aforesaid penalty;
also all gold or silver girdles, hatbands, belts, ruffs, beaverhats are
prohibited to be bought and worn hereafter."[255]

"In 1639 'immoderate great breeches, knots of ryban, broad shoulder
bands and rayles, silk ruses, double ruffles and capes' were added to
the list of tabooed garments."[256] In 1651 came the utterance of the
Court as given before.

Nor were these idle laws, for many people were tried and punished. In
Northampton in 1676 there were thirty-eight women brought up at one time
before the court for their "wicked apparell." Not only did the courts
and lawmakers try to stop the increase for showy clothing but also the
ministers took up the refrain and preached against the display of
finery.

"After a while the whole church interfered. In 1679 the church at
Andover put it to vote whether 'the parish Disapprove of the female sex
sitting with their Hats on in the Meeting-house in time of Divine
Service as being Indecent.' In the town of Abington, in 1775, it was
voted that it was 'an indecent way that the female sex do sit with their
hats and bonnets on to worship God.' Still another town voted it was
the 'Town's Mind' that the women should take their bonnets off in
meeting and hang them 'on the peggs.' We do not know positively, but I
suspect that the bonnets continued to grace the heads instead of the
pegs in Andover, Abington, and other towns."[257]

In the early times in New England the men wore breeches of leather or of
heavy woolens lined with leather with waistcoats, jackets, and doublets
of leather, being plain and durable. But even at that early time there
were scarlet caps and scarlet coats. In the country the clothing of the
men was usually plain and made by the people themselves, the cloth being
spun, dyed, and woven at home. Sometimes trousers were worn instead of
the conventional short-clothes and shoes and hose dispensed with, the
men going barefooted. Among the frontiersmen there were suits of
deer-skin and coats made of bear-skin and raccoon-skin.

"The frontiersmen and hunters did not quite escape the prevailing
fondness for the decorative and fanciful in dress. That some of them
clubbed and some of them queued their hair, I have already remarked.
Their 'hunting-shirt,' which served for vest and coat also, was of
linsey-wolsey or buckskin in winter and of tow-linen in the summer. It
had many fringes and a broad belt about the middle. The hunter wore
either breeches of buckskin or thin trousers; over these he fastened
coarse woolen leggins tied with garters or laced well up the thigh, as a
defense against mud, serpents, insects, and thorns. He wore moccasins,
and covered his head with a flapped hat of a reddish hue, or a cap. The
sharp tomahawk stuck in his belt served for a weapon, for hatchet, for
hammer, and for a whole kit of tools besides. The shot-bag and
powder-horn completed his outfit; the powder-horn was his darling, and
upon it he lavished all the resources of his ingenuity, carving it with
whimsical devices of many sorts. And there was probably less that was in
false taste in the woodman's outfit than in any costume of the
period."[258]

Whatever way the New England Puritan may have dressed himself in the
early colonial times, he did not hesitate to bedeck himself in the later
times. "Picture to yourself the garb in which the patriot John Hancock
appeared one noon-day in 1782:

"'He wore a red velvet cap within which was one of fine linen, the last
turned up two or three inches over the lower edge of the velvet. He also
wore a blue damask gown lined with velvet, a white stock, a white satin
embroidered waistcoat, black satin small-clothes, white silk stockings
and red morocco slippers.'

"What gay peacock was this strutting all point-device in scarlet
slippers and satin and damask, spreading his gaudy feathers at high noon
in sober Boston Streets!--was this our boasted Republican simplicity?
And what 'fop-tackle' did the dignified Judge of the Supreme Court wear
in Boston at that date? He walked home from the bench in the winter time
clad in a magnificent white corduroy surtout lined with fur, with his
judicial hands thrust in a great fur muff.

"Fancy a Boston publisher going about his business tricked up in this
dandified dress--a true New England jessamy.

"'He wore a pea-green coat, white vest, nankeen small-clothes, white
silk stockings and pumps fastened with silver buckles which covered at
least half the foot from instep to toe. His small-clothes were tied at
the knees with riband of the same color in double bows, the ends
reaching down to the ancles. His hair in front was well loaded with
pomatum, frizzled or creped, and powdered; the ear locks had undergone
the same process. Behind his natural hair was augmented by the addition
of a large queue, called vulgarly the false tail, which, enrolled in
some yards of black riband, hung halfway down his back.'"[259]

The dress of the women among the colonists is shown in such lists as in
the will of Jane Humphrey, who died in Dorchester, Mass., in 1668:

"Ye Jump. Best Red Kersey Petticoate, Sad Grey Kersey Wascote. My
blemmish Searge Petticoate & my best hatt. My white Fustian Wascote. A
black Silk neck cloath. A handkerchiefe. A blew Apron. A plain black
Quoife without any lace. A white Holland Appron with a small lace at the
bottom. Red Searge petticoat and a blackish Searge petticoat. Greene
Searge Wascote & my hood & muffe. My Green Linsey Woolsey petticoate. My
Whittle that is fringed & my Jump & my blew Short Coate. A handkerchief.
A blew Apron. My best Quife with a Lace. A black Stuffe Neck Cloath. A
White Holland apron with two breadths in it. Six yards of Redd Cloth. A
greene Vnder Coate. Staning Kersey Coate. My murry Wascote. My Cloake &
my blew Wascote. My best White Apron, my best Shifts. One of my best
Neck Cloaths, & one of my plain Quieus. One Calico Vnder Neck Cloath. My
fine thine Neck Cloath. My next best Neck Cloath. A square Cloath with a
little lace on it. My greene Apron."[260]

"Vrouentje Ides Stoffelsen, the wife of a respectable and well-to-do
Dutch settler in New Netherlands, left behind her in 1641 a gold hoop
ring, a silver medal and chain and a silver under-girdle to hang keys
on; a damask furred jacket, two black camlet jackets, two doublets--one
iron gray, the other black; a blue, a steel-gray lined petticoat, and a
black coarse camlet-lined petticoat; two black skirts, a new bodice, two
white waistcoats, one of Harlem stuff; a little black vest with two
sleeves, a pair of damask sleeves, a reddish morning gown, not lined;
four pairs pattens, one of Spanish leather; a purple apron and four blue
aprons; nineteen cambric caps and four linen ones; a fur cap trimmed
with beaver; nine linen handkerchiefs trimmed with lace, two pair of old
stockings, and three shifts."[261]

The list of the wardrobe of the widow of Dr. Jacob De Lange, of New
York, in 1682, showed the following:

"One under petticoat with a body of red bay; one under petticoat,
scarlet; one petticoat, red cloth with black lace; one striped stuff
petticoat with black lace; two colored drugget petticoats with gray
linings; two colored drugget petticoats with white linings; one colored
drugget petticoat with pointed lace; one black silk petticoat with ash
gray silk lining; one potto-foo silk petticoat with black silk lining;
one potto-foo silk petticoat with taffeta lining; one silk
potoso-à-samare with lace; one tartanel samare with tucker; one black
silk crape samare with tucker; three flowered calico samares; three
calico nightgowns, one flowered, two red; one silk waistcoat, one calico
waistcoat; one pair of bodice; five pair white cotton stockings; three
black love-hoods; one white love-hood; two pair sleeves with great lace;
four cornet caps with lace; one black silk rain cloth cap; one black
plush mask; four yellow lace drowlas; one embroidered purse with silver
bugle and chain to the girdle and silver hook and eye; one pair black
pendants, gold nocks; one gold boat, wherein thirteen diamonds & one
white coral chain; one pair gold stucks or pendants each with ten
diamonds; two diamond rings; one gold ring with clasp back; one gold
ring or hoop bound round with diamonds."[262]

There was no ready-made clothing in the colonies till late, for men
appearing about the middle of the eighteenth century and for women not
till near the close of the same century. The women's clothing was made
by themselves or by dressmakers, who had establishments in the town and
went from home to home in the country. Sometimes the women would send to
the home country for garments, which would be passed about among
themselves as models. A rather striking way of introducing the new
styles was by importing dolls fully and carefully dressed in Europe in
the newest fashions. The notice of the arrival of such a doll is found
in an advertisement in the _New England Weekly Journal_ of July 2, 1733.

"To be seen at Mrs. Hannah Teatts Mantua Maker at the Head of Summer
Street Boston a Baby drest after the Newest Fashion of Mantues and Night
Gowns & everything belonging to a dress. Latilly arrived on Capt. White
from London, any Ladies that desire to see it may either come or send,
she will be ready to wait on 'em, if they come to the House it is Five
Shilling & if she waits on 'em it is Seven Shilling."[263]

They did not have a great deal of jewelry. Bracelets and lockets were
worn by a few of the women and some of the men had gold and silver
sleeve-buttons, and also men sometimes wore thumb-rings, which seems in
keeping with their using muffs. Rings were common, which were for the
most part mourning-rings, as these were given to all the chief mourners
at funerals. Silver buckles for the knees and ankles were quite common
among the men. Paste brilliants were very much in use, being worn on
shoe buckles by the men, and women wore paste combs and paste pins.
Watches appeared in England about the middle of the seventeenth century,
but it was quite a little later before they were found among the
colonists, and even then they were used only by the wealthy. Umbrellas,
made of oiled linen, came into use late in the colonial period, but
before that the ladies had learned to protect their faces from the sun
by sun-fans of green paper, and green masks were worn while riding. In
New England black velvet masks were used as a shield from the cold,
being held in place by means of a silver mouthpiece. Hoopskirts came
into fashion and they became quite big affairs about the middle of the
eighteenth century. To set off the coats and breeches of gaudy colors
the men wore shirts with highly ruffled bosoms. The stylish shoes of the
women were frail affairs, being of very thin material and with paper
soles which were protected by overshoes known as goloe-shoes, clogs,
pattens, etc.

In the colonies the customs in reference to the wearing of the hair
prevailed as in use in the old country, the Puritans in New England
keeping their hair short, as did their brethren in England, and so
nicknamed Roundheads, while in Virginia the hair was worn long, as was
the custom with the Cavaliers of England. As hard as the New Englanders
fought against long hair, going as far as to offer men under sentence
release from punishment if they would cut off their long hair, the
Virginians went further and made short hair disgraceful by making it a
brand and a mark of identification for indentured servants when caught
and returned to their masters after running away before their time of
service had expired.

But Puritan and Cavalier and Quaker all succumbed to the wig. The rage
for wearing wigs by the beginning of the eighteenth century seemed to
have possessed the colonists, as wigs were worn by men of all ranks and
conditions, by children, servants, prisoners, and even sailors and
soldiers. The styles varied greatly, sometimes they swelled out at the
side, sometimes they hung in braids or in curls or in pig-tails, and
again they were in great puffs or were turned under in heavy rolls. They
were made of human hair, horsehair, goat's-hair, calves' and cows'
tails, thread, silk, and mohair. Some of them were quite costly, even as
much as the equal of a hundred dollars today. There were a great variety
of styles of wigs, known as the tie, the brigadier, the spencer, the
major, the albemarle, the ramillies, the grave full-bottom, the giddy
feather-top, the campaign, the neck-lock, the bob, the lavant, the
vallaney, the drop-wig, the buckle-wig, the bag-wig, the Grecian fly,
the peruke, the beau-peruke, the long-tail, the bob-tail, the fox-tail,
the cut-wig, the tuck-wig, the twist-wig, the scratch.[264]

"Soon after 1750, perhaps, the decline of the wig set in; but the
exuberant fancy of the age still made the heads of gentlemen to blossom.
The wig-maker's tortures fell upon the natural hair: it was curled,
frizzled, and powdered; it was queued or clubbed. The man of dignity,
even the fashionable clergyman, sat long beneath the hands of the barber
every day of his life. Side-locks and dainty little toupees were
cultivated. The 'maccaroni'--type and pink of the most debauched English
dandyism--made his appearance in 1774 in the fashionable assemblies of
Charleston, and even in Charleston there were two varieties of these
creatures: the one wore the hair clubbed, the other preferred the
dangling queue. The rage for growing the longest possible switch of hair
infected the lower classes; sailors and boatmen wrapped in eel-skin
their cherished locks, and the back-countryman in some places was
accustomed to preserve his from injury by enveloping it in a piece of
bear's-gut dyed red, or clubbing it in a buckskin bag."[265]

The women of the colonies, like the men, tried to keep up with the
fashions of Europe. The manner in which they wore their hair brought
upon them the wrath of the parsons, one of whom, Increase Mather, even
included a notice of such in his great sermon upon the comet in 1683:
"Will not the haughty daughters of Zion refrain their pride in apparell?
Will they lay out their hair, and wear false locks, their borders, and
towers like comets about their heads?"[266] These towers grew out of
style, but they came back again near a century later, in Revolutionary
times. At this later time the front hair was drawn up over a roll or
cushion and stiffened with powder and grease and then the back hair was
drawn up in a similar way. The pile was then built up with ribbons,
pompons, aigrettes, jewels, gauze, flowers, and feathers till it arose
near a half yard in height. This process took a long time, as is told in
1771 by a bright little Boston school girl, eleven years of age, who saw
a hairdresser at his work. "How long she was at his opperation, I know
not. I saw him twist & tug & pick & cut off whole locks of grey hair at
a slice (the lady telling him she would have no hair to dress next time)
for the space of a hour & a half, when I left them, he seeming not to be
near done."[267] "One may judge of the vital necessity there was for all
this art from the fact that a certain lady in Annapolis about the close
of the colonial period was accustomed to pay six hundred dollars a year
for the dressing of her hair. On great occasions the hairdresser's time
was so fully occupied that some ladies were obliged to have their
mountainous coiffures built up two days beforehand, and to sleep sitting
in their chairs, or, according to a Philadelphia tradition, with their
heads inclosed in a box."[268]

The contents of such a tower is shown in a description of an accident to
a young woman in the streets of Boston, as found in the _Boston Gazette_
of 1771. "In an infaust moment she was thrown down by a runaway, and her
tower received serious damage. It burst its thin outer wall of natural
hair, and disgorged cotton and wool and tow stuffing, false hair, loops
of ribbon and gauze. Ill-bred boys kicked off portions of the various
excresences, and the tower-wearer was jeered at until she was glad to
escape with her own few natural locks."[269]

These dressings of the hair called for material to use and they had
powdering puffs and powdering bags and powdering machines and several
varieties of powder to use in them, such as brown, maréchal, scented,
plain, and blue. Pomatums came into use, one of which in a book dated
1706 is shown to be made thus: "The Dutch way to make Orange-butter.
Take new cream two gallons, beat it up to a thicknesse, then add half a
pint of orange-flower-water, and as much red wine, and so being become
the thicknesse of butter it has both the colour and smell of an
orange."[270] There were hair-restorers and hair-dyes, all promising
much to those using them correctly and carefully, one such formula
coming down to us from 1685: "A Metson to make a mans heare groe when he
is bald. Take sume fier flies & sum Redd wormes & black snayls and sum
hume bees and dri them and pound them & mixt them in milk or
water."[271]

In early colonial times not much attention was given to the teeth. The
following is in line with their knowledge and care of the teeth. "If you
will keep your teeth from rot, plug, or aking, wash the mouth
continually with Juyce of Lemons, and afterwards rub your teeth with a
Sage Leaf and Wash your teeth after meat with faire water. To cure Tooth
Ach. 1. Take Mastick and chew it in your mouth until it is as soft as
wax, then stop your teeth with it, if hollow, there remaining till it's
consumed, and it will certainly cure you. 2. The tooth of a dead man
carried about a man presently suppresses the pains of the Teeth."[272]
The tooth powders were such as to be quite injurious to the teeth. One
such had in its combination cuttle-bone, brick-dust, and pumice-stone.
Another was to contain coral reduced to a powder, and if no coral was to
be had, then coarse earthenware might be broken up and powdered for use.
Their instruments for pulling teeth were crude and caused the greatest
of pain, often breaking the jaw. The artificial teeth of that time may
have helped the looks, but they were of very little value in eating, if
any at all. There was used an ingrafting process wherein sound teeth
were extracted from one person and inserted in another person's mouth.
"I cannot find any notice of the sale of 'teeth brushes' till nearly
Revolutionary times. Perhaps the colonists used, as in old England,
little brushes made of 'dentissick root' or mallow, chewed into a
fibrous swab."[273]

After the first years of hardships, and wealth began to come to the
colonists, there not only arose among the women the desire for fine
dress, but also a love of cosmetics. As early as 1686 it was said of a
woman of Boston, "to hide her age she paints, and to hide her painting
dares hardly laugh." One of the ministers of New England about that same
time stated to his congregation: "At the resurrection of the Just there
will no such sight be met as the Angels carrying Painted Ladies in their
arms." In the newspapers are advertisements of washes for the skin, face
powders, face paints, compositions to take off "Superficious Hair," face
patches, and the like. One of the leading cosmetics was the wash-ball, a
substitute for soap. They loved perfumes and not only used them about
their persons, but also to scent their linen chests, closets, and rooms.

"With regard to the bathing habits of our ancestors but little can be
said, and but little had best be said. Charles Francis Adams writes,
with witty plainness, 'If among personal virtues cleanliness be indeed
that which ranks next to godliness, then judged by the nineteenth
century standards, it is well if those who lived in the eighteenth
century had a sufficiency of the latter quality to make good what they
lacked of the former.' He says there was not a bathroom in the town of
Quincy prior to the year 1820. And of what use would pitchers or tubs of
water have been in bedrooms in the winter time, when, if exposed over
night, solid ice would be found therein in the morning? The washing of
linen in New England homes was done monthly; it is to be hoped the
personal baths were more frequent, even under the apparent difficulties
of accomplishment. I must state, in truth, though with deep
mortification, that I cannot find in inventories even of Revolutionary
times the slightest sign of the presence of balneary appurtenances in
bedrooms; not even of ewers, lavers, and basins, nor of pails and tubs.
As petty pieces of furniture, such as stools, besoms, framed pictures,
and looking-glasses are enumerated, this conspicuous absence of what we
deem an absolute necessity for decency speaks with a persistent and
exceedingly disagreeable voice of the unwashed condition of our
ancestors, a condition all the more mortifying when we consider their
exceeding external elegance in dress. This total absence of toilet
appliances does not, of course, render impossible a special lavatory or
bathroom in the house, or the daily importation to the bedrooms of
hot-water cans, twiggen bottles, bathtubs, and basins from other
portions of the house; but even that equipment would show a lack of
adequate bathing facilities. Nor do the tiny toilet jugs and basins of
Staffordshire ware that date from the first part of this century point
to any very elaborate ablutions."[274]

=Infants' Clothing.= Some articles of clothing of infants of colonial
times have been preserved. These are not the common every-day dress, as
they were worn out or not thought nice enough to lay away, but these
remaining are the finer sort such as their christening robes and their
finer shirts, caps, and petticoats, such as would not be worn very much
and kept put away till baby outgrew them and they were so pretty that
they were still preserved and have come down to us to show us what
beautiful apparel our baby forefathers wore.

All the under-garments of the colonial baby were made of linen--little
low-necked shirts with short sleeves, made of thin, fine linen. The
little hands were enclosed in linen mitts, one pair, though, that comes
down to us were made of fine lace and there were some of silk, and some
even of stiff yellow nankeen. The baby-dresses are little,
straight-laced gowns for display, or, rather shapeless large-necked
sacks and drawn into shape at the neck with narrow cotton ferret or
linen bobbin. The poor little head was covered summer and winter with a
cap, which must have been quite warm in summer as they were often warmly
padded. Mrs. Earle states that she had never seen a woolen petticoat
which was worn by an infant of pre-Revolutionary days. But there were
infants' cloaks of wool. There were also beautifully embroidered long
cloaks of chamois skin. The baby was kept warm by little shawls placed
around the shoulders and the body was enveloped in quilts and shawls,
which also included the head and shoulders.

=Boys' Clothing.= In the early colonial times as soon as the boys became
old enough to get about, they were dressed like their fathers. In
Massachusetts the boys' clothing consisted of doublets, which were warm
double jackets, leather knee-breeches, leather belts, knit caps, while
in Virginia, because of the warmer climate, their clothing was of
lighter material. Sometimes the boys had deerskin breeches.

When cotton goods became to be imported from Oriental countries, about
the latter part of the eighteenth century, the clothing of children, as
well as of grown-folks, were made of it. This became so important in
dress that it was worn in winter as well as in summer. We find that boys
wore nankeen suits the entire year and that jackets and trousers for the
boys were made of calico and chintz. It is hard for us to believe that
boys in New England ever wore nankeen suits in winter and even calico
pants in snow time.

"There is an excellent list of the clothing of a New York schoolboy of
eleven years given in a letter written by Fitz-John Winthrop to Robert
Livingstone in 1690. This young lad, John Livingstone, had also been in
school in New England. The 'account of linen & clothes' shows him to
have been well dressed. It reads thus:

"Eleven new shirts.
4 pr laced sleves.
8 plane cravets.
4 cravets with lace
4 stripte wastecoats with black buttons.
1 flowered wastecoat.
3 pr silver buttons.
2 pr fine blew stockings.
1 pr fine red stockings.
4 white handkerchiefs.
2 speckled handkerchiefs.
3 pair gloves.
1 stuff coat with black buttons.
4 new osinbrig britches.
1 gray hat with a black ribbon
1 gray hat with a blew ribbon.
1 dousin black buttons.
1 dousin coloured buttons.
3 pr gold buttons.
1 cloth coat.
1 pr blew plush britches.
1 pr serge britches.
2 combs.
1 pr new shoes.

Silk & thred to mend his clothes."[275]

In 1759 George Washington ordered from England for his step-son--Master
Custis--six years of age, the following:

6 Pocket Handkerchiefs, small and fine.
6 pairs Gloves.
2 Laced Hats.
2 Pieces India Nankeen.
6 pairs fine Thread Stockings.
4 " Coarse " "
6 " Worsted " "
4 " Strong Shoes.
4 " Pumps.
1 Summer suit of clothes to be made of something light and thin.
1 piece black Hair Ribbon.
1 pair handsome Silver Shoe & Knee Buckles.
1 light duffel Cloak with Silver Frogs.[276]

=Girls' Clothing.= The little girl of the early settlers must have been
dressed very plainly, as was her mother. As the colonists grew wealthy
and cities arose, the little girl's dress grew to be quite elegant and
stiff and formal and hampering, nearly as much so as that of her mother.

In 1759, in the same list mentioned above for his step-son, George
Washington ordered from England for his step-daughter--Miss Custis--four
years of age, as follows:

8 pairs kid mitts.
4 " gloves.
2 " silk shoes.
4 " Calamanco shoes.
4 " leather pumps.
6 " fine thread stockings.
4 " " worsted "
2 Caps.
2 pairs Ruffles.
2 tuckers, bibs, and aprons if Fashionable.
2 Fans.
2 Masks.
2 bonnets.
1 Cloth Cloak.
1 Stiffened Coat of Fashionable silk made to packthread stays.
6 yards Ribbon.
2 Necklaces.
1 pair Silver Sleeve Buttons with Stones.
6 Pocket Handkerchiefs.[277]

"A little girl four years of age, in kid mitts, a mask, a stiffened
coat, with pack-thread stays, a tucker, ruffles, bib, apron, necklace,
and fan, was indeed a typical example of the fashionable follies of the
day."[278]

The school girl in a fashionable boarding-school dressed extravagantly
fine. One of the daughters, twelve years of age, of General Huntington
of Norwich, Conn., was placed in a boarding-school in Boston. She had
twelve silk gowns but her teacher wrote that the girl must have another
gown of a "recently imported rich fabric," which was got for her so that
she might dress "suitable to her rank and station."

Another Boston school girl, twelve years of age, in 1772, describes her
own evening dress thus:

"I was dress'd in my yellow coat, black bib & apron, black feathers on
my head, my past comb, & all my past garnet marquesett & jet pins,
together with my silver plume--my loket, black mitts & 2 or 3 yards of
blue ribbin, (black & blue is high tast) striped tucker and ruffels (not
my best) & my silk shoes compleated my dress."[279]

This same school girl, in her diary four months later, tells us of her
famous headdress:

"I had my HEDDUS roll on, aunt Storer said it ought to be made less,
Aunt Deming said it ought not to be made at all. It makes my head itch,
& ach, & burn like anything Mamma. This famous roll is not made _wholly_
of a red _Cow Tail_, but is a mixture of that, & horsehair (very course)
& a little human hair of yellow hue, that I suppose was taken out of the
back part of an old wig. But D---- made it (our head) all carded
together and twisted up. When it first came home, aunt put it on, & my
new cap on it, she then took up her apron & mesur'd me, & from the roots
of my hair on my forehead to the top of my notions, I mesur'd above an
inch longer than I did downwards from the roots of my hair to the end of
my chin. Nothing renders a young person more amiable than virtue &
modesty without the help of fals hair, red _Cow tail_ or D---- (the
barber)."[280]

The little girl's complexion had to be protected by a mask of cloth or
velvet from the healthy coloring of the sun. "Little Dolly Payne, who
afterwards became the wife of President Madison, went to school wearing
'a white linen mask to keep every ray of sunshine from the complexion, a
sunbonnet sewed on her head every morning by her careful mother, and
long gloves covering the hands and arms.'"[281]

These little girls wore vast hoop-petticoats. They wore high-heeled
shoes made of silk, morocco, or light stuff. They wore stays and
corsets, and even the poor little boys had to wear them.

"I have seen children's stays, made of heavy strips of board and steel,
tightly wrought with heavy buckram or canvas into an iron frame like an
instrument of torture. These had been worn by a little girl five years
old. Staymakers advertised stays, jumps, gazzets, costrells, and
caushets (which were doubtless corsets) for ladies and children, 'to
make them appear strait.' And I have been told of tin corsets for little
girls, but I have never seen any such abominations. One pair of stays
was labelled as having been worn by a boy when five years old. There
certainly is a suspicious suggestion in some of these little fellows'
portraits of whalebone and buckram."[282]

"From the deacons' records of the Dutch Reformed Church at Albany, we
catch occasional hints of the dress of the children of the Dutch
colonists. There was no poorhouse, and few poor; but since the church
occasionally helped worthy folk who were not rich, we find the deacons
in 1665 and 1666 paying for blue linen for _schorteldoecykers_, or
aprons, for Albany _kindeken_; also for _haaken en oogen_, or hooks and
eyes, for warm under-waists called _borsrockyen_. They bought linen for
_luyers_, which were neither pinning-blankets nor diapers, but a sort of
swaddling clothes, which evidently were worn then by Dutch babies.
_Voor-schooten_, which were white bibs; _neerstucken_, which were
tuckers, also were worn by little children. Some little Hans or Pieter
had given to him by the deacons a fine little scarlet _aperock_, or
monkey-jacket; and other children were furnished linen _cosynties_, or
night-caps with capes. Yellow stockings were sold at the same time for
children, and a gay little yellow turkey-legged Dutchman in a scarlet
monkey-jacket and fat little breeches must have been a jolly
sight."[283]

=Food.= The early colonists in the United States fared poorly at first
in the way of food and there was a scarcity of food among them for some
time. Yet there was an abundance of fish and oysters and clams and wild
nuts and berries and wild game. After they had learned how to gather
these in and also what to plant and how to plant there was a plenty if
not abundance. Not having a great number of cooking utensils, they
learned from the Indians and devised ways of cooking without utensils.
They broiled meats and fish on the bare live coals; they roasted Irish
potatoes, sweet potatoes, green corn, and squashes by burying them in
the hot ashes; apples and eggs and green corn were baked by laying them
on the hearth between the andirons; they would bake cakes of Indian corn
meal and of buckwheat and rye flour before the fire on a flat stone, a
hoe, an oak board, or a pewter plate. The breakfast was usually a frugal
one, consisting of a porridge of peas and beans, with a savor of meat,
cheese, maybe beer or tea, but often milk and bread. One peculiar custom
with the dinner, generally served exactly at noon, was that usually
there was a pudding and which was eaten first. This might have been an
Indian pudding, made of Indian corn meal mixed with dried fruit. Among
some of the more frugal the supper was often of mush and milk. In some
parts of the country at least, it was a custom on the occasion of a
dinner to which guests were invited to send to those who could not be
present a "taste" of the different dishes, and this was done
particularly to sick neighbors.

Wheat did not do well at first but oats grew all right and quite a good
deal was raised, so that oatmeal was used and oatmeal porridge became a
rather popular dish. Indian corn, maize, was the staple grain of the
colonists. When they first came to America they found this grain growing
and they learned from the Indians how to plant it, raise it, grind it,
and cook it. The foods made from this corn still retain their Indian
names, as samp, supawn, pone, succotash, hominy.

Samp was the corn pounded to a coarsely ground powder. Supawn was a
thick corn-meal and milk porridge. Another way of preparing the corn by
the Indians was called _nocake_ or _nookick_, in which the corn was
parched in the hot ashes, then taken up and the ashes sifted out, and
then beaten into a powder. This was used on journeys, being put into a
pouch, and it was quite sustaining as a small amount of it sufficed for
a meal. Johnny-cake was made of corn-meal boiled with water, probably
the same as our mush now. They also roasted the green corn,
roasting-ears, and parched the dried corn.

A corn-husking of 1767 in Massachusetts is thus described in a diary of
that time. "Made a husking Entertainm't. Possibly this leafe may last a
Century and fall into the hands of some inquisitive Person for whose
Entertainm't I will inform him that now there is a Custom amongst us of
making an Entertainm't at husking of Indian Corn whereto all the
neighboring Swains are invited and after the Corn is finished they like
the Hottentots give three Cheers or huzza's but cannot carry in the
husks without a Rhum bottle; they feign great Exertion but do nothing
till Rhum enlivens them, when all is done in a trice, then after a hasty
Meal about 10 at Night they go to their pastimes."[284]

The corn was shelled by hand or by raking the ear across the edge of a
shovel or other piece of sharp iron and then ground in stone mortars
with pestles or in wooden mortars. Later came "querns," hand-mills,
which from the descriptions, must have been similar to the ones used by
the Scotch housewives of the earlier times, as described in another
place in this book. Then in Massachusetts came the first wind-mill in
1631 and the first water-mill in 1633.

When the colonists came to this country, they found the rivers and seas
abounding with fish. It is stated that some of the rivers were so full
of fish that horses ridden into them would step on the fish and kill
them. The Indians killed them in the brooks by striking them with sticks
and the colonists scooped them out alive with pans. In 1614, after
having left Virginia, John Smith went to New England for whale and he
found cod instead and in one month he caught sixty thousand of the cod.
Two popular fish today, the shad and the salmon, were so common that the
colonists were really ashamed to be seen eating them in their homes. A
writer in 1636 stated that, "I myself at the turning of the tyde have
seen such multitudes of sea bass that it seemed to me that one might goe
over their backs dri-shod."[285]

Not only were there great numbers of fish, but also a great many
different kinds, one writer of 1672 told of over two hundred kinds that
were caught in the waters of New England. Not only was there great
quantity and great variety but also great size. Writers of these early
times tell of lobsters weighing twenty-five pounds and five and six feet
long, and of oysters that were a foot or more across.

At the first the settlers were poorly provided with fishing-tackle, but
it was soon brought in from across the sea and a great industry arose.
Fishing-vessels were fitted out and the product sold to the colonies and
Europe. "With every fishing-vessel that left Gloucester and Marblehead,
the chief centres of the fishing industries, went a boy of ten or twelve
to learn to be a skilled fisherman. He was called a 'cut-tail,' for he
cut a wedge-shaped bit from the tail of every fish he caught, and when
the fish were sorted out the cut-tails showed the boy's share of the
profit."[286]

There was likewise a great abundance of wild game. Deer were found
everywhere. They were at first without fear and came in droves near to
the colonists. But this was not for long as the colonists began to kill
them in great numbers, both for the food and for the hides. Wild turkeys
were likewise plentiful at first and of great size, as they weighed
thirty and forty and even sixty pounds. They came in flocks of a hundred
or more and were destroyed as the deer, and in a short time they had
disappeared from the settled parts, by 1690 rarely found near the coasts
of New England. Wild geese were found in flocks of thousands. Doves were
very plentiful. There were wild pigeons in vast quantities, so much so
that in their flight the sun would be obscured and the sky darkened for
some length of time, and where they roosted the limbs were broken off
the trees and sometimes even the largest limbs and again the trees might
be almost stripped of their limbs by the weight of the pigeons. There
were many other kinds of game birds, as the pheasant, quail, woodcock,
plover, snipe, curlew, and the like. Rabbits and squirrels were so
numerous as to be a very great pest and in many places bounties were
paid for their heads. "The Swedish traveler, Kalm, said that in
Pennsylvania in one year, 1749, £8,000 was paid out for heads of black
and gray squirrels, at three pence a head, which would show that over
six hundred thousand were killed."[287]

There was an abundance of wild nuts which could be gathered and used,
such as walnuts, hickory-nuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, and the like. There
were plenty of wild berries, as huckleberries, blackberries, and
strawberries, and likewise wild grapes. The colonists used the pawpaw
and other wild fruits found in the woods. "The North Carolinians even
made puddings and what they called tarts of the American pawpaw."[288]
They planted out apple-trees and peach-trees and other kinds of fruit
trees and it was not many years till there was plenty of these
cultivated fruits. The apples were especially valuable to them and used
in various ways, applesauce, and apple-butter were made in great
quantity by each family. "They made preserves and conserves, marmalets
and quiddonies, hypocras and household wines, usquebarbs and cordials.
They candied fruits and made syrups. They preserved everything that
would bear preserving. I have seen old-time receipts for preserving
quinces, 'respasse,' pippins, 'apricocks,' plums, 'damsins,' peaches,
oranges, lemons, artichokes, green walnuts, elecampane roots, eringo
roots, grapes, barberries, cherries; receipts for syrup of clove
gillyflower, wormwood, mint, aniseed, clove, elder, lemons, marigolds,
citron, hyssop, liquorice; receipts for conserves of roses, violets,
borage flowers, rosemary, betony, sage, mint, lavender, marjoram, and
'piony;' rules for candying fruit, berries, and flowers, for poppy
water, cordial, cherry water, lemon water, thyme water, Angelica water,
Aqua Mirabilis, Aqua Cœlestis, clary water, mint water."[289]

The natives not only gave to the colonists the valuable Indian corn, but
also with it three vegetables that are yet to this day raised in the
field with this grain, being the pumpkin, the squash, and the bean. They
also got the potato, both Irish and sweet, from the natives, but the
colonists did not learn for quite a time how to prepare the Irish potato
properly and so at first it was not liked and not greatly used. They
supplemented the native list of vegetables with those grown in Europe,
and so it was not long till they had growing peas and turnips and
parsnips and carrots and cucumbers and many others.

Another product which they obtained from the natives, although not food,
almost seemed to take its place as food, which was tobacco. This became
about as great a necessity with the colonists as food and its use became
general in all the colonies and among all classes of people, and even
with women. If there was one people above all the other colonists in the
use of tobacco it was the New York Dutch, who smoked incessantly, and
yet the New Englanders were not far away from the lead. "Boston was the
best market for snuff. The early lawmakers of Massachusetts had sought
to put tobacco under ban, or at least to hamper it, after the example
set in England, where tobacco was forbidden in ale-houses because it was
believed to excite a thirst for strong drink. But revered preachers
became fond of the pipe, and the restrictions were quite broken down by
their example. Groups of New England ministers were wont to fill a room
so full of smoke that it became stifling. Long before the close of the
seventeenth century, ladies of social standing in New England 'smoked
it,' as the phrase ran; and in 1708 one finds the Governor of
Massachusetts showing friendly feeling by sociably smoking a pipe with
the wife of Judge Sewall."[290]

The colonists found another food in the woods that helped them out
greatly and that was wild honey, which helped to fill the need of sugar
which was very scarce with them. They also got a supply of sweetening
from the sugar-maple tree, whose sap they learned to use in making sugar
and syrup. This became quite an important industry and helped to give a
greater variety of cooked foods. This sugar making was important enough
in Virginia to have it written about by Governor Berkeley, wherein he
called the maple the sugar-tree. "The Sugar-Tree yields a kind of Sap or
Juice which by boiling is made into Sugar. This Juice is drawn out, by
wounding the Trunk of the Tree, and placing a Receiver under the Wound.
It is said that the Indians make one Pound of Sugar out of eight Pounds
of the Liquor. It is bright and moist with a full large Grain, the
Sweetness of it being like that of good Muscovada."[291]

But the colonists did not altogether rely upon honey and maple-sugar for
their sweetening as many families did keep a supply of sugar, and
especially to sweeten the tea. This was in the form of a loaf or cone,
called loaf-sugar, which weighed nine or ten pounds, and one cone would
usually last a family an entire year. The sugar was cut up into lumps of
equal and regular size by the women of the household, for which purpose
they had sugar-shears or sugar-cutters.

The colonists began to raise cattle and hogs and sheep and so when wild
game became scarce the domestic animals furnished the meat. There were
no ways for keeping meat fresh for any length of time after it was
killed and so it had to be preserved by being salted and pickled. They
had smoke-houses for smoking and curing beef, ham, and bacon. They made
sausage and head-cheese and rendered out the lard and the tallow.
"Sausage-meat was thus prepared in New York farmhouses. The meat was cut
coarsely into half-inch pieces and thrown into wooden boxes about three
feet long and ten inches deep. Then its first chopping was by men using
spades which had been ground to a sharp edge."[292]

With the raising of Indian corn and the clearing of ground so that grass
might grow abundantly, the number of cows increased till in the
eighteenth century milk and its products became quite an important
industry. Mrs. Earle concludes that butter was not made by many families
in the seventeenth century because of there being so few churns, as she
states that in the inventories of the property of the early settlers of
Maine there is but one churn named. But by the eighteenth century the
care of cream and butter-making went on in every household in the
country and with many in the town. Cheese, too, became a leading product
and one of the staple foods.

=Drink.= At the time of the settlement of America, water was not used in
Europe as a constant drink, and hence the colonists were used to other
drinks and one of their greatest complaints upon their first living in
the new country was on account of their being deprived of the old
country drinks. Governor Bradford of the Pilgrims in Massachusetts
complained loudly and frequently of this deprivation while the Salem
minister, Higginson, in 1629, boasted of his ability to drink water.
"Whereas my stomach could only digest and did require such a drink as
was both strong and stale, I can and ofttimes do drink New England water
very well."[293] The colonists were not long without their beverages for
one of their very first importations from England was beer, and soon
they were manufacturing ale and beer themselves, and in 1675 Cotton
Mather stated that every other house in Boston was an ale-house.

Although for a short time the colonists might have had to use water, yet
that did not change their taste for other drinks, and through
manufactures and importations, the country became flooded with liquors
and the drink-habit became universal. There was no class of people among
the colonists that would be considered temperate according to
present-day standards. Drink was a part of every transaction, of every
doing in both public and private life, as, auctions, buyings and
sellings, signing a deed, drawing up a contract; house-raisings, the
moving into a new house, the arrival and departure of friends; the
election of officers, the assembling of a court, the arbitration of a
suit; funerals, weddings, the birth of a child; the ordaining of
deacons, the induction of a new minister, the assembling of a body of
clergymen, the opening of a yearly Quaker meeting, and even religious
meetings in private houses.

"In Boston, and perhaps elsewhere, the great punch-bowl came on the
table first of all; the master of the house, after setting an example,
sent around the table the cup that he had drunk from, that each guest
might drink in turn. A 'generous bottle' of fiery Madeira topped off
every dinner among the gentry in New York. In Virginia a host now and
then showed his hospitality by locking the door and cheerily notifying
his guests that no man might depart until all were drunk."[294]

As was stated above, before coming to this country the colonists were
unaccustomed to the use of water as a constant beverage and upon
arriving in America they complained bitterly at having to drink water.
They not only considered it a hardship to be deprived of their
accustomed drinks, but also they had been trained to consider it
dangerous to health to drink water. Water was believed to contain matter
injurious to health and so they really seemed to have dreaded its use
and all the more so because in those days there was no analyzing of the
water to learn of its ingredients and the mystery and lore surrounding
it made it seem all the more dangerous. Being compelled to use water
upon their arrival in America, the Puritan settlers were greatly
surprised that instead of being injurious it was found to agree with
them and that there was improvement in health instead of deterioration.
This fact so impressed Governor Winthrop that he continued water as a
constant drink in his family and in 1630 he stopped the custom of
drinking healths at his table. This example of their chief officer must
have had its influence, for laws were passed against excessive drinking
and drunkenness and against drinking healths in public and thus was
tried to keep down so great drinking. These laws had some good effects
for during the seventeenth century, judged at least by the standards of
their times, it would appear for the great part that the New Englanders
were sober and law-abiding.

It must be recognized that at the time of the settlement of America by
European colonies, alcoholic stimulants were considered a necessary part
of living, about as necessary a provision as bread, and, further, that
water was looked upon as really dangerous to health. So it need not be
so greatly wondered at that the colonists were so much given to drink
almost anything and everything but water and also it may account
somewhat for the many kinds of drinks, for not only were they seeking
drinks that were palatable but also that were healthful. They not only
imported all kinds of drinks but manufactured them here and likewise
experimented with materials that were found here but not in Europe, as
the Indian corn and other plants. Yet the above does not hide the fact
that the colonists were great drinkers and that they drank because they
wanted to and would have drank, excuse or no excuse. Nevertheless, there
were efforts made against drunkenness even in those days and some good
starts made, too.

The colonists made whisky from rye, wheat, barley, and also from
potatoes and Indian corn. They imported rum from the West Indies and,
too, imported the molasses and made the rum themselves. "The making of
rum aided and almost supported the slave-trade in this country. The poor
negroes were bought on the coast of Africa by New England sea-captains
and merchants and paid for with barrels of New England rum. These slaves
were then carried on slave-ships to the West Indies, and sold at a large
profit to planters and slave-dealers for a cargo of molasses. This was
brought to New England, distilled into rum, and sent off to Africa. Thus
the circle of molasses, rum, and slaves was completed."[295] Beer was
the first drink, and even among the very first articles imported from
England by the Puritan settlers. They soon learned to make beer from the
Indian corn and "the pious Puritans quickly learned to cheat in their
brewing, using molasses and coarse sugar."[296] The Dutch established
breweries at New York and Albany and they were great beer-drinkers. The
English colonists, both in New England and in Virginia, were not such
great users of beer, but found other drinks to take its place. One such
drink was metheglin or mead, made from honey, yeast, and water in
England, while in this country it was learned as well to make it from
the sweet-bean of the honey-locust and also by a concoction of honey and
a liquid from a mixture of various herbs, and which was considered a
fine drink. In Virginia a home-made beer was made from Indian corn meal,
from the green stalks of the Indian corn, from baked cakes of a paste of
persimmons, from potatoes, and from artichokes. In New England the small
beer was made by a mixture of a decoction made from spruce or birch or
sassafras twigs and molasses and water or by boiling the twigs in the
sap of the sugar maple. There were plenty of wines imported and
vineyards were planted and wines were made by the colonists. Also
brandies were imported and manufactured.

As apple orchards increased and apples became plentiful, cider became
the great drink in New England. It became the common drink of the people
and it was made in vast quantities. It was very cheap and used
everywhere, being used in large amounts by students at college, given to
children at meals, furnished to travelers and to Indians, and indeed to
any one who wished it. "Beverige" was another common drink, mild in its
character, made in various ways, one way being of water flavored with
molasses and ginger. Another such drink was sillabub, in one form made
of cider with sugar, nutmeg, and cream added. There were many other
kinds of drinks, as, switchel, similar to beverige, ebulum made from the
juice of the elder and juniper berries mixed with ale and spices, perry
made from pears, peachy made from peaches, apple-jack distilled from
cider, flip made of small beer and sweetened with sugar or molasses or
dried pumpkin and rum added and also made in other ways. Beside all the
drinks enumerated here there were various other kinds.

"A terrible drink is said to have been popular in Salem--a drink with a
terrible name--whistle-belly-vengeance. It consisted of sour household
beer simmered in a kettle, sweetened with molasses, filled with
brown-bread crumbs and drunk piping hot."[297]

In the early years of the colonists, they did not have tea or coffee or
chocolate as drinks since they were not in use in England at the time.
It was not till about the last third of the seventeenth century that
these drinks were introduced into the colonies and it was not till the
first part of the eighteenth century that their use had become any ways
general. About this time came the porcelain ware specially designed for
the use of tea and lacquered tables on which to serve it and
tea-drinking became fashionable throughout the country. In Virginia upon
the calling of the young men of afternoons the young ladies served them
with tea. The Dutch of New York served tea with a lump of sugar at each
cup, which was placed in the mouth and kept there while the tea was
being sipped. In the early introduction of tea into New England, it was
not understood just how to prepare it. Sometimes the tea was boiled
quite a while till it was bitter and then drank without milk or sugar.
Again, after the boiling of the tea the liquid was poured off and the
cooked leaves eaten and to make them more to the taste the leaves were
buttered and salted. It is unexplainable how people who were not afraid
of any drink whatever providing it was not water should have feared to
drink tea, and yet such was the case. "When tea-drinking began to be
general there were many utterances against it, such terms being used as
"detestable weed," "base exotick," "rank poison far-fetched and dear
bought," "base and unworthy Indian drink." Many ill effects were
ascribed to tea-drinking, such as the frequent decay and loss of teeth
in America and ill-health in general and as being especially injurious
to the mind. During the time just before and at the Revolution tea was
proscribed by the women loyal to the cause of America and many
substitutes arose, as, the raspberry, loose-strife, goldenrod, dittany,
blackberry, yaupon, sage, strawberry, currant, thoroughwort, ribwort,
and many others. Of all the substitute tea-drinks, Liberty Tea was the
most esteemed. "It was thus made: the four-leaved loose-strife was
pulled up like flax, its stalks were stripped of the leaves and boiled;
the leaves were put in an iron kettle and basted with the liquor from
the stalks. Then the leaves were put in an oven and dried. Liberty Tea
sold for sixpence a pound. It was drunk at every spinning-bee,
quilting, or other gathering of women."[298]

"At the time of the Stamp Act, when patriotic Americans threw the tea
into Boston harbor, Americans were just as great tea-drinkers as the
English. Now it is not so. The English drink much more tea than we do;
and the habit of coffee-drinking, first acquired in the Revolution, has
descended from generation to generation, and we now drink more coffee
than tea. This is one of the differences in our daily life caused by the
Revolution."[299]

In 1670 a license to sell coffee and chocolate was granted for an inn in
Boston, which seems to be the first mention of the use of coffee. From
this time on, other innkeepers obtained license to sell coffee and then
came the establishment of regular coffee-houses. This drink also came
into use in private families and coffee-pots and coffee-mugs and coffee
dishes were brought in expressly for this use. As with tea, some people
did not know at first how to prepare the coffee and so sometimes the
whole beans were boiled without being crushed or ground. It is presumed
that then the liquor was poured off and the cooked beans eaten as in the
case with the leaves of the tea, but no statements are made that such
was really the fact. Chocolate, too, came into use at this time, and it
soon became quite a popular drink and mills to grind the cocoa were
established in Boston.

Whatever prejudice the colonists may have had against the use of water
as a drink, they certainly had none against the use of milk. Milk was
used from the first and cows were increased in number and milk became
very cheap, as in 1630 the statement was made by a minister of that time
that milk cost but a penny a quart in Salem. It is found that writers
among the colonists placed as being used together milk and bread, milk
and hasty pudding, milk and baked apples, and milk and berries.

=Food and Drink of Children.= There is not a great deal left to us in
the writings preserved from colonial times in reference to the food and
drink of children of those days. But it is safe to judge that very much
what the adults had the children would have had, modified to suit the
needs of the different ages and added to such would be some things that
are used mostly in childhood, as sweetmeats and the like.

There was an abundance of food for children but not so great a variety.
Among the good things were the cereal foods, which were plentiful and
varied, many of such having been made from the Indian corn, as, samp,
hominy, supawn, pone, succotash, described in another part of this
chapter. Beans also were common and made good food for children. There
were fruits, as, pears, apples, peaches, and cherries, and also prunes,
figs, currants and raisins. There were several kinds of berries, some
ripening in the summer and others in the fall, which the children
gathered, and, too, there were plenty of nuts for them to gather in.

Sweetmeats for children were plentiful among the colonists even in the
early days. There were sugar and molasses from which to make sweet
things for the children, not omitting maple sugar. Raisins were brought
in by the ships in large quantities for they were quite a dainty with
the colonial children and in great demand. There was not a great variety
of candy, among such being lemon-peel candy, angelica candy, rock candy,
sugar candy, Black Jack, and Gibraltar Rock. It would be surmised that
this latter named candy must have had lasting qualities like the all-day
sucker of the present-day child. Rock-candy was the favorite and great
amounts of it were brought in from China by the ships, one vessel having
brought in at one time sixty tubs of this candy. There were candied
eryngo-root, candied lemon-peel, and sugared coriander-seeds. The
children had plenty of cakes those days and each city had some one
confectioner or baker who was noted for his cakes. Boston had Meer's
cakes. There were cookies, crullers, egg cakes, marchpanes, maccaroons,
and other kinds.

Much less is given about the drink of children of colonial times than
even about the food. Mrs. Earle found in an old almanac of the
eighteenth century, where advice was given on the "Easy Rearing of
Children," that young children should never be allowed to drink cold
drinks, but should always have their beer a little heated. Children were
given all the cider they wanted, even very little children drank it.
Fortunately for the colonial children milk was very plentiful and cheap
so they had plenty of that to drink. That children were given the drinks
of their elders is shown in the following:

"This picture has been given by Sargent of country funerals in the days
of his youth: 'When I was a boy, and was at an academy in the country,
everybody went to everybody's funeral in the village. The population was
small, funerals rare; the preceptor's absence would have excited
remarks, and the boys were dismissed for the funeral. A table with
liquors was always provided. Every one, as he entered, took off his hat
with his left hand, smoothed down his hair with his right, walked up to
the coffin, gazed upon the corpse, made a crooked face, passed on to the
table, took a glass of his favorite liquor, went forth upon the plat
before the house and talked politics, or of the new road, or compared
crops, or swapped heifers, or horses until it was time to _lift_. A
clergyman told me that when settled at Concord, N. H., he officiated at
the funeral of a little boy. The body was borne in a chaise, and six
little nominal pall-bearers, the oldest not thirteen, walked by the side
of the vehicle. Before they left the house a sort of master of
ceremonies took them to the table and mixed a tumbler of gin, water, and
sugar for each.'"[300]

=Infancy.= It would be expected that a child born in any new country
would have to undergo hardships, and this was particularly true of a
child born in a rugged climate as in New England and among the early
settlers who were so poorly prepared to withstand the rigors of a winter
of that region. In a severe climate, with houses not very warmly built
and so poorly heated that within a yard of the fire-place on a very cold
day water would freeze, it could not be possible for a baby always or
even ever to be kept comfortable.

Both in Dutch New York and Puritan New England the babe of a few days
old was taken to the meeting-house to be baptized. This usually occurred
among the Puritans on the first Sunday following the child's birth,
whether summer or winter, whatever the weather, and it must take place
in the meeting-house. As these meeting-houses had no fires in them,
often on many a cold day the water in the christening-bowl froze and the
ice had to be broken and the icy water was used on the child of less
than a week old. The weather might be too cold for some of the adults to
attend the ceremony but never too cold for the baby, as is shown in the
following record made on January 22, 1694, in the diary of Judge Samuel
Sewall of Boston. "A very extraordinary Storm by reason of the falling
and driving of Snow. Few women could get to Meeting. A Child named
Alexander was baptized in the afternoon."[301] Worst of all, one Puritan
parson is recorded as immersing the infants and he only stopped the
dangerous and cruel practice when his own little babe nearly lost its
life by such.

There was great mortality among infants in the colonial times and
especially in the earlier days. In one family of fourteen children, but
three outlived the father, the majority of the children dying in
infancy; in another family of fifteen children but two survived the
father, and of these, too, the greater number died in infancy; in a
third family five children in succession died in infancy, so that when
the mother had been married nine years she had one living child and
there were five little graves to tell the story of her life and
sufferings.

In the seventeenth century medicine was yet being influenced by
astrology and necromancy, there being quite a strong belief in occult
influences. Consequently there was recorded the birth not only in the
year, month, and day, but as well the hour and minute, so that it might
be ascertained under what planet the child was born and thus be reckoned
what influences for good or evil were ascendent at his birth.

The most common diseases of infancy at the time were worms, rickets, and
fits, to use their plain Anglo-Saxon terms. The most famous medicines
for the cure of rickets used snails as the basis of its formation, one
noted receipt for making this snail water comes down to us as follows:

"The admirable and most famous Snail water.--Take a peck of garden Shel
Snails, wash them well in Small Beer, and put them in an oven till they
have done making a Noise, then take them out and wipe them well from the
green froth that is upon them, and bruise them shels and all in a Stone
Mortar, then take a Quart of Earthworms, scowre them with salt, slit
them, and wash well with water from their filth, and in a stone Mortar
beat them in pieces, then lay in the bottom of your distilled pot
Angelica two handfuls, and two handfuls of Celandine upon them, to which
put two quarts of Rosemary flowers, Bearsfoot, Agrimony, red Dock roots,
Bark of Barberries, Betony wood Sorrel of each two handfuls, Rue one
handful; then lay the Snails and Worms on top of the hearbs and flowers,
then pour on three Gallons of the Strongest Ale, and let it stand all
night, in the morning put in three ounces of Cloves beaten,
sixpennyworth of beaten Saffron, and on the top of them six ounces of
shaved Hartshorne, then set on the Limbeck, and close it with paste and
so receive the water by pintes, which will be nine in all, the first is
the strongest, whereof take in the morning two spoonfuls in four
spoonfuls of small Beer, the like in the Afternoon."[302]

For worms and fits snails also were used, with senna and rhubarb and
prunes. For teething there was a famous Anodyne Necklace, which was
warranted to cure all disorders from teething, providing it was properly
used. There were other remedies for teething, one of which was to
scratch the child's gums with an osprey bone, and another was to hang a
string of fawn's teeth or wolf's fangs around the baby's neck.

There was a custom that prevailed in which a dinner was given to the
midwife, nurses, and the other women who had given help in the way of
work or advice during the first week or two of the child's life. This
occurred about the end of the child's second week. This was a good
substantial meal, at one place consisting of "rost Beef and minc'd Pyes,
good Cheese and Tarts," and another dinner was of "Boil'd Pork, Beef,
Fowls, very good Rost Beef, Turkey, Pye and Tarts." There was also a
custom of visiting the young babe and mother at which presents of money,
clothing, or trinkets were given to the nurse. A usual gift to the young
babe was a pincushion. This was quite fancifully made and the child's
name with a welcome was made with pins stuck in the cushion or sewed on
in steel beads, the pins being stuck about it.

"The baby was carried upstairs, when first moved, with silver and gold
in his hand to bring him wealth and cause him always to rise in the
world, just as babies are carried upstairs by superstitious nurses
nowadays, and he had 'scarlet laid on his head to keep him from
harm.'"[303]

There were cradles for these early babies, among the Puritans and Dutch,
each with a deep hood to protect the child from the chilly drafts that
were constantly occurring in the poorly heated houses, and for twins
there were hoods at both ends of the cradle. There were wooden cradles,
which often were paneled or carved. There were also wicker cradles, one
of which still preserved, Mrs. Earle states, is one of the few authentic
articles still surviving that came over on the _Mayflower_, and which
cradle was used by Peregrine White, the first white child born in
Plymouth. There was also used as a cradle an Indian basket with handles
at the ends whereby it was hung up on a wooden standard or frame. But
perhaps the cradle most common in the earlier colonial years was one
made of birch bark by the Indian women and obtained from them by the
white mothers. The covering for the babe in the cradle was a homespun
blanket or a pressed quilt. The blanket or "flannel sheet" was made of
the finest whitest wool, usually having the baby's initials marked on
it.

"A finer coverlet, one of state, the christening blanket, was usually
made of silk, richly embroidered, sometimes with a text of Scripture.
These were often lace-bordered or edged with a narrow home-woven silk
fringe. The christening blanket of Governor Bradford of the Plymouth
Colony still exists, whole of fabric and unfaded of dye. It is a rich
crimson silk, soft of texture, like a heavy sarcenet silk, and is
powdered at regular distances about six inches apart with conventional
sprays of flowers embroidered chiefly in pink and yellow, in minute and
beautiful cross-stitch. It is distinctly Oriental in appearance....
Another beautiful silk christening blanket was quilted in an intricate
flower pattern in almost imperceptible stitches. These formal wrappings
of state were sometimes called bearing-cloths or clothes, and served
through many generations. Shakespeare speaks in _Henry VI._ of a child's
bearing-cloth."[304]

In New England a go-cart or standing-stool was often used in teaching a
baby to walk. As the mother must go to church and as, of course, the
baby must go along, there was sometimes a little wooden cage, or
something similar, to hold the young baby, while in the church.

=Number and Names of Children.= It is, perhaps, true that in a new
country the average number of children to a family is greater than in
older settled places. Although there were many instances of quite large
families among the colonists of the United States, yet, as was noted
under Infancy, there were so many deaths among the little ones that
there were many families with a small number of children. Children were
welcomed by the colonists and there was plenty of room for them and each
child could find work about him to make himself helpful and not
burdensome.

There are records of very large families. One mother had twenty-six
children, one man was the father of thirty children, and families of
fifteen children were not rare. Cotton Mather states that, "One woman
had not less than twenty-two children, and another had not less than
twenty-three children by one husband, whereof nineteen lived to man's
estate, and a third was mother to seven and twenty children."[305]

There seemingly was no particular trouble about finding names for all
these children. Except among the Puritans double names were rarely given
before the time of the Revolution. There were various reasons for naming
the children and often the poor little babe was burdened with a name
that must, as looked at nowadays, have caused it when older much pain
and anger at its parents for inflicting such a punishment so unjustly
deserved in its helpless state. Often the God-fearing parents sought out
names of deep significance, such as they thought would affect the
child's life and be productive of good upon its career. An expectant
mother being widowed by the death of her husband in a snowstorm, upon
the birth of her child named it Fathergone. A child named Seaborn told
its place of birth in its name. Among the Puritans of New England names
as the following were common and show by their significance why the
children were so named: Deliverance, Temperance, Endurance, Patience,
Silence, Submit, Rejoice, Comfort, Hoped For, Peace, Joy, Faith, Love,
Hope, Charity.

"The children of Roger Clap were named Experience, Waitstill, Preserved,
Hopestill, Wait, Thanks, Desire, Unite, and Supply. Madam Austin, an
early settler of old Narragansett, had sixteen children. Their names
were Parvis, Picus, Piersus, Prisemus, Polybius, Lois, Lettice, Avis,
Anstice, Eunice, Mary, John, Elizabeth, Ruth, Freelove. All lived to be
three-score and ten, one to be a hundred and two years old. Edward
Bendall's children were named Truegrace, Reform, Hoped for, More mercy,
and Restore. Richard Gridley's offspring were Return, Believe, and
Tremble."[306]

=Child Welfare.= There is no doubt that the welfare of their children
was considered by the colonists, as with any body of people, but the
hardships of a settling people would react upon child life as well as
upon adult life. Much of the seeming harshness of the Puritan settlers
toward their children was brought forth by the stern necessities under
which they had to live as well as the sternness of their religious
ideas. They did not try to find for themselves easy paths of going and
they did not always see that these paths were extremely rough for young
and tender feet. This is illustrated in the writings of one of them who
was giving advice on the rearing of children, in which he urged that
boys should go without hats to harden them and children's feet should be
wet in cold water and also they should wear thin-soled shoes in order to
toughen the feet. Whether following the suggestions of this writer or
not, the parents of Josiah Quincy did act in accord with them for when
he was but three years of age, in winter and summer, they would take him
out of his bed of a morning and carry him to a cellar kitchen and dip
him three times in a tub of cold water fresh from the pump, and also no
attention was paid to the care of his feet, so that in his boyhood his
feet were wet for half the time or more.

This rough treatment of children is likewise shown in reference to their
position at meals. In those old days children were often not permitted
to be seated at their meals but they were to stand and eat as rapidly as
possible, so as to get out of the way and troubling of the adults, and
to keep quiet and make no complaint at their treatment. Sometimes the
children had to stand at the side of the table and eat their food
standing, while the parents and the other adults were seated. Again, the
children would stand behind their parents and the other grown people and
receive such food as would be handed back to them from the table, just
as with the household animals. In other families the children stood at a
side-table and they would take their trenchers to the large table to
receive the food to take back to their own table to eat.

That these early people were deeply interested in their children's
welfare and appreciated their hardships is shown by the following
statements from the writings of Governor Bradford:

"As necessitie was a taskmaster over them, so they were forced to be
such, not only to their servants, but in a sorte, to their dearest
children; the which, as it did not a little wound ye tender hearts of
many a loving father and mother, so it produced likewise sundrie sad and
sorrowful effects. For many of their children, that were of best
dispositions and gracious inclinations, haveing lernde to bear ye yoake
in their youth, and willing to bear parte of their parents burdens, were
often times so oppressed with their hevie labours, that though their
minds were free and willing, yet their bodies bowed under ye weight of
ye same, and became decreped in their early youth; the vigor of nature
being consumed in ye very budd as it were. But that which was more
lamentable and of all sorrowes most heavie to be borne, was, that many
of their children, by these occasions, and ye great licentiousness of
youth in ye countrie, and ye manifold temptations of the place, were
drawn away by evil examples into extravagante and dangerous courses,
getting ye raines off their neks and departing from their parents. Some
became souldiers, other took upon them for viages by sea, and other some
worse courses, tending to disoluteness and the danger of their soules,
to ye great greef of their parents and dishonor of God. So that they saw
their posteritie would be in danger to degenerate and be
corrupted."[307]

=Manners and Courtesy of Children.= One of the characteristics of the
age of chivalry in Europe was the bearing of the young people toward
their elders and superiors and parents, and this idea was carried down
through the ages and even was brought to America, so that the character
of the colonial child was greatly influenced by those old laws of
courtesy. Such often made little boys and girls act as older people and
to be dressed in an oldish way. Little girls were frequently addressed
with the stiff term Mistress, even the term Miss not being strong enough
as it was deemed to be lacking in dignity, designating childishness and
flippancy and lack of character. In a written funeral tribute to a
little girl of seven, she was designated as "Mrs. Rebeckah Sewall," and
another child was written of as "Mrs. Sarah Gerrish, a very beautiful
and ingenious damsel seven years of age."

There were books of etiquette for children offering rules for their
guidance, among the things found in them being the following:

"Never sit down at the table till asked, and after the blessing. Ask for
nothing; tarry till it be offered thee. Speak not. Bite not thy bread
but break it. Take salt only with a clean knife. Dip not the meat in the
same. Hold not thy knife upright but sloping, and lay it down at right
hand of plate with blade on plate. Look not earnestly at any other that
is eating. When moderately satisfied leave the table. Sing not, hum not,
wriggle not. Spit no where in the room but in the corner."

"Eat not too fast nor with Greedy Behavior. Eat not vastly but
moderately. Make not a noise with thy Tongue, Mouth, Lips, or Breath in
Thy Eating and Drinking. Smell not of thy Meat; nor put it to Thy Nose;
turn it not to the other side upward on Thy Plate."

"When any speak to thee, stand up. Say not I have heard it before. Never
endeavor to help him out if he tell it not right. Snigger not; never
question the Truth of it."[308]

Children were taught to be considerate of the old and afflicted and to
respect and honor their parents. This often led to a stiff and formal
manner as is shown in the following letter written by a girl of eleven
residing on Long Island:

"EVER HONORED GRANDFATHER;

SIR: My long absence from you and my dear Grandmother has been not a
little tedious to me. But what renders me a Vast Deal of pleasure is
Being intensely happy with a Dear and Tender Mother-in-Law and frequent
oppertunities of hearing of your Health and Welfair which I pray God may
long Continue. What I have more to add is to acquaint you that I have
already made a Considerable Progress in Learning. I have already gone
through some Rules of Arithmetic, and in a little Time shall be able of
giving you a Better acct of my Learning, and in the mean time I am Duty
Bound to subscribe myself

Your most obedient and
Duty full Granddaughter
PEGGA TREADWELL."[309]

Another little girl of eleven, in this same manner closes a letter
written at Boston in 1771 to her parents in Nova Scotia:

"With Duty, Love & Compliments as due, perticularly to my Dear little
brother (I long to see him) & Mrs. Law, I will write to her soon.

I am Hon^d Papa & mama,
Yr Dutiful Daughter
ANNE GREEN WINSLOW."[310]

Yet withal there were boys in those old colonial days who were as boys
in all times and among all peoples. They played and shouted and raced
in the streets and were reprimanded by the authorities; they worried the
poor night patrolman in New Amsterdam by setting dogs on him and by
getting behind trees and fences and shouting out to him "The Indians!"
they made disorder in the churches of the Puritans and were knocked on
the head with the hard knob of the long stick of the tithing-man; they
robbed orchards, tore down gates, frightened horses, and threw stones at
dogs and cats and at each other; they beat and kicked one another and
produced bloody noses; "worse yet, when the girls went forth to gather
'daisies and butter-flowers,' the ungallant boys kicked the girls 'to
make them pipe.'"[311]

=Diary of a Boston School Girl of 1771.= Of the quaint and delightful
things that are preserved to us of those old days of our country, to me
there are none others more attractive than the writings of a little
Boston school girl, gathered up and put in book form by Mrs. Alice Morse
Earle.[312] These writings are the diary of Anna Green Winslow, who in
1770, at the age of ten years, was sent from her home in Nova Scotia to
Boston, the birthplace of her parents, to "finish" her education in the
schools of that city. I shall not attempt to analyze these writings,
that is thoroughly done by Mrs. Earle in her _Foreword_, but simply give
a few extracts, without comment, to show somewhat the thoughts and
feelings of a girl who lived in Boston during those stirring times,
1771-1773, and whose father was a paymaster in the English army and
loyal to his king.

In her _Foreword_ Mrs. Earle tells of the condition of the diary. "It
covers seventy-two pages of paper about eight inches long by six and a
half inches wide. The writing is uniform in size, every letter is
perfectly formed; it is as legible as print, and in the entire diary but
three blots can be seen, and these are very small. A few pages were
ruled by the writer, the others are unruled. The old paper, though heavy
and good, is yellow with age, and the water marks C. J. R. and the crown
stand out distinctly. The sheets are sewed in a little book, on which a
marbled paper cover has been placed, probably by a later hand than
Anna's. Altogether it is a remarkably creditable production for a girl
of twelve."

"My Aunt Deming says I shall make one pye myself at least. I hope
somebody beside myself will like to eat a bit of my Boston pye, thou' my
papa and you did not (I remember) chuse to partake of my Cumberland
performance.... My aunt Deming gives her love to you and says it is this
morning 12 years ago since she had the pleasure of congratulating papa
and you on the birth of your scribling daughter. She hopes if I live 12
years longer that I shall write and do everything better than can be
expected in the past 12.... Dear mamma, you don't know the fation
here--I beg to look like other folk. You dont know what a stir would be
made in sudbury street, were I to make my appearance there in my red
Dominie & black Hatt.... My aunt also says, that till I come out of an
egregious fit of laughterre that is apt to seize me & the violence of
which I am at this present under, neither English sense, nor anything
rational may be expected of me.... Elder Whitwell told my aunt, that
this winter began as did the Winter of 1740. How that was I don't
remember but this I know, that to-day is by far the coldest we have had
since I have been in New England. (N. B. All run that are abroad.) ... I
began my shift at 12 o'clock last monday, have read my bible every day
this week & wrote every day save one.... Unkle is just come in with a
letter from Papa in his hand (& none for me) by way of New bury. I am
glad to hear that all was well the 26 Nov^r ult. I am told my Papa has
not mention'd me in this Letter. Out of sight, out of mind.... My cloak
& bonnet are really very handsome, & so they had need be. For they cost
an amasing sight of money, not quite £45 tho' Aunt Suky said, that she
suppos'd Aunt Deming would be frightened out of her Wits at the money it
cost. I have got _one_ covering, by the cost, that is genteel, & I like
it much myself.... I heard Mr. Thacher preach our Lecture last evening
Heb. ii. 3. I remember a great deal of the sermon, but a'nt time to put
it down. It is one year last Sep^r since he was ordain'd & he will be 20
years of age next May if he lives so long.... I have now the pleasure to
give you the result, viz., a very genteel well regulated assembly which
we had at Mr. Soley's last evening, miss Soley being mistress of the
ceremony. We had two fiddles, & I had the honor to open the diversion of
the evening in a minuet with miss Soley. Our treat was nuts, raisins,
Cakes, Wine, punch, hot & cold, all in great plenty. We had a very
agreeable evening from 5 to 10 o 'clock. For variety we woo'd a widow,
hunted the whistle, threaded the needle, & while the company was
collecting, we diverted ourselves with the playing of pawns, no rudeness
Mamma I assure you.... Hon^d Mamma, My Hon^d Papa has never signified to
me his approbation of my journals, from whence I infer, that he either
never reads them, or does not give himself the trouble to remember any
of their contents, tho' some part has been address'd to him, so, for the
future, I shall trouble only you with this part of my scribble.... My
fingers are not the only part of me that has suffer'd with sores within
this fortnight, for I have had an ugly great boil upon my right hip &
about a dozen small ones--I am at present swath'd hip & thigh, as Samson
smote the Philistines, but my soreness is near over. I have read my
bible to my aunt this morning (as is the daily custom), & sometimes I
read other books to her. So you may perceive, I _have the use of my
tongue_ & I tell her it is a good thing to have the use of my tongue....
My honor'd Grandma departed this vale of tears 1-4 before 4 o'clock
wednesday morning August 21, 1771. Aged 74 years, 2 months & ten
days.... I went to meeting & back in Mr. Soley's chaise. Mr. Hunt
preached. He said that human nature is as opposite to God as darkness to
light. That our sin is only bounded by the narrowness of our capacity.
His text was Isa. xli. 14. 18.... Saterday I din'd at Unkle Storer's,
drank tea at Cousin Barrel's was entertain'd in the afternoon with
scating.... This day Jack Frost bites very hard, so hard aunt won't let
me go to any school. I have this morning made part of a coppy with the
very pen I have now in my hand, writing this with.... Papa I rec'd your
letter dated Jan. 11, for which I thank you, Sir, & thank you greatly
for the money I received therewith.... It has been a very sickly time
here, not one person that I know of but has been under heavy colds....
Very cold, but this morning I was at sewing and writing school, this
afternoon all sewing, for Master Holbrook does not in the winter keep
school of afternoons.... We had the greatest fall of snow yesterday we
have had this winter. Yet cousin Sally, miss Polly, & I rode to & from
meeting in Mr. Soley's chaise both forenoon & afternoon, & with a stove
was very comfortable there.... Boast not thyself of tomorrow: for thou
knowest not what a day may bring forth. Thus king Solomon, inspired by
the Holy Ghost, cautions, Pro. XXVII. 1. My aunt says, this is a most
necessary lesson to be learn'd & laid up in the heart. I am quite of her
mind.... Mr. Stephen March, at whose house I was treated so kindly last
fall, departed this life last week, after languishing several months
under a complication of disorders--we have not had perticulars,
therefore cannot inform you, whether he engag'd the King of terrors with
christian fortitude, or otherwise.... This minute I have receiv'd my
queen's night cap from Miss Caty Vans--we like it. Aunt says, that if
the materials it is made of were more substantial than gauze, it might
serve occationally to hold any thing mesur'd by an 1-2 peck, but it is
just as it should be, & very decent, & she wishes my writing was as
decent. But I got into one of my frolicks, upon sight of the Cap....
April 1st.--Will you be offended mamma, if I ask you, if you remember
the flock of wild Geese that papa call'd you to see flying over the
Blacksmith's shop this day three years? I hope not; I only mean to
divert you.... Yesterday was the annual Fast, & I was at meeting all
day.... I have now before me, hon^d Mamma, your favor dated Jan. 3. I am
glad you alter'd your mind when you at first thought not to write to me.
I am glad my brother made an essay for a Post Script to your Letter. I
must get him to read it to me, when he comes up, for two reasons, the
one is because I may have the pleasure of hearing his voice, the other
because I don't understand his characters.... I went a visiting
yesterday to Col. Gridley's with my aunt. Col^n brought in the talk of
Whigs & Tories & taught me the difference between them.... Visited at
uncle Joshua Green's. I saw three funerals from their window, poor Cap^n
Turner's was one.... I learn't three stitches upon net work to-day....
Last Wednesday Bet Smith was set upon the gallows. She behav'd with
great impudence.... Yesterday I heard an account of a cat of 17 years
old, that has just recovered of the meazels. This same cat it is said
had the small pox 8 years ago.... Sept. 1.--Last evening after meeting
Mrs. Bacon was brought to bed of a fine daughter. But was very ill. She
had fits. September 7.--Yesterday afternoon Mr. Bacon baptiz'd his
daughter by the name of Elizabeth Lewis. It is a pretty looking
child.... Dear Mamma, what name has Mr. Bent given his Son? something
like Nehemiah, or Jehosophat, I suppose, it must be an odd name (our
head indeed, Mamma.) Aunt says she hopes it a'nt Baal Gad, & she also
says that I am a little simpleton for making my note within the brackets
above, because when I omit to do it, Mamma will think I have the help of
somebody else's head but, N. B. for herself she utterly disclames
having either her head or hand concern'd in this curious jurnal, except
where the writing makes it manifest. So much for this matter."

=Inheritance.= "The leadership of the great families was sustained in
New York and in the colonies south of Pennsylvania by primogeniture--the
prerogative of the eldest son to inherit the landed estate in case the
father left no will. Custom followed the law, and fathers who willed
their property usually left the most or all of the land to the oldest
son, as belonging to him by prescriptive right. This inequitable
practice had its use in the warlike ages of feudalism, when the first
son to grow up must take his father's place at the head of his troop of
dependents; but in the American colonies it was only the result of that
remarkable and often stupid bondage to tradition in which the
Anglo-Saxon peoples contrive to exist and advance. To primogeniture the
aristocratic colonies added the dead hand of entail, by which the land
was sent down for generations in the line of the oldest male. Even a
clumsy fiction, called in law 'common recovery,' by which the entail
might be broken in England, was forbidden by statute in Virginia, and
was not accounted applicable to the other colonies.

"The pilgrims at Plymouth and the Massachusetts Puritans had belonged to
that politico-religious party in England which sought the abolition of
certain old abuses. As early as 1636 Plymouth enacted that land should
be held after 'the laudable custom, tenure, and hold of the manor of
East Greenwich,' that is, in an ancient Saxon way preserved at the
coming of William the Conqueror by the county of Kent. One
characteristic of this tenure was that it divided the lands equally
among the sons in case there was no will. Massachusetts, which expressly
abolished many of the worst features of feudal tenure by name, gave to
the oldest son a double portion according to the Mosaic code, but
divided the rest among daughters as well as sons. This system prevailed
throughout New England. Primogeniture had come to be esteemed a natural
right, and the Massachusetts leaders felt obliged more than once to
defend themselves from the charge of having 'denied the right of the
oldest son.' Pennsylvania took the same middle course of sheltering
innovation under the law of Moses by giving the oldest son a double
portion. The laws of some of the colonies made the land liable, to a
greater or less extent, with personal estate for the debts of the
deceasd--which robbd the oldest of a part of his 'insolent prerogative';
but it was not until the shock of the Revolution that primogeniture and
entail were swept away, under the leadership of Jefferson and others.
The oldest son's double portion in New England survived the Revolution
for some years. A very ancient mode of inheritance prevailed in some
English boroughs, called among lawyers 'borough English.' By this custom
the lands descended to the youngest son. It found no lodgment in the
laws of the colonies, so far as I know; but in New Hampshire it was a
widespread custom to leave the homestead to the youngest, who remained
at home and cared for the old age of his parents. This reasonable form
of the custom of 'ultimogeniture' lingers yet in certain parts of the
country, as, for example, in some of the northern counties of New
York."[313]

=Sickness and Death.= There was great mortality among the early
colonists and especially of children. There was nothing in the way of
sanitation, drainage was not considered necessary, there was scarcely
any disinfecting, and isolation in contagious diseases was but poorly
carried out. There were various kinds of diseases, such as colds,
fevers, malignant sore throats, scurvy, rickets, fluxes, and many
others, and contagious diseases, smallpox having been very prevalent,
almost as pneumonia now, and being epidemic six times in a century.

In the earlier times the ministers took up medicine and practiced
healing as well as preaching, also compounding and selling drugs to the
people. Also other persons entered into healing and selling medicines,
as, innkeepers, magistrates, grocers, and schoolmasters. There were, of
course, plenty of quacks and quack medicines. Even those who really
practiced medicine were not very well prepared. Such a person did not
prepare himself by long and arduous study in some school of medicine, in
fact there were none in the early days, but he joined himself to an
established physician to learn the business from him. "He ground the
powders, mixed the pills, rode with the doctor on his rounds, held the
basin when the patient was bled, helped to adjust plasters, to sew
wounds, and ran with vials of medicine from one end of the town to the
other. In the moments snatched from duties such as these he swept out
the office, cleaned the bottles and jars, wired skeletons, tended the
night-bell, and, when a feast was given, stood in the hall to announce
the guests."[314] But even with this little training he became a power
for good in his community for "Sunshine and rain, daylight and darkness,
were alike to him. He would ride ten miles on the darkest night, over
the worst of roads, in a pelting storm, to administer a dose of calomel
to an old woman, or to attend a child in a fit. He was present at every
birth; he attended every burial; he sat with the minister at every
death-bed, and put his name with the lawyers to every will."[315] The
pay of the physicians was often quite meager and "in many communities a
bone-setter had to be paid a salary by the town in order to keep him, so
few and slight were his private emoluments, even as a physic-monger."[316]
There was the practice of midwifery in those days and in New Amsterdam, at
least, it was a much respected calling.

Among a people who feared to use water as a constant drink, as given
under "Drink" in a foregoing part of this chapter, it is not to be
wondered at that water was denied the patient tormented with fever, and
clam-juice in small quantities given instead. Bleeding and purging were
resorted to on every possible occasion. Salve was one of the leading
remedies and there were many different kinds used. But the great
remedies were those compounded and concocted from the plants and the
minerals and the animals that went into the medical preparations of
those times. They tried about every weed and flower and most everything
else to find remedies and it did not seem to matter what the preparation
or the mixture was for they often went in as a jumble regardless of the
effect of one upon another. Earth-worms, snails, toads, fishes, sowbugs,
wood-lice, spiders, vipers, and adders among the animal life were used;
there was a great array of plants, such as plantain, dandelion, dock,
catnip, jimson-weed, horehound, mint, garlic, elder, sage, saffron,
tansy, and wormwood; and of the mineral substances were quicksilver,
verdigris, brimstone, alum, and copperas. It did not seem to matter
greatly about the doses as there was no close exactness as the quantity
was given as "the bigth of a walnut," "enough to lie on a pen knifes
point," "the weight of a shilling," "enough to cover a French crown,"
"as bigg as a haselnut," "take a little handful," "take a pretty
quantity as often as you please," and other similar lax directions.

There was scarcely an affliction for which there were not several
remedies. Here is a cure for insomnia:

"Bruise a handful of Anis-seeds, and steep them in Red Rose Water, &
make it up in little bags, & binde one of them to each Nostrill, and it
will cause sleep."[317]

For defective hearing is given the following:

"To Cure Deafness.--Take the Garden Daisie roots and make juyce thereof,
and lay the worst side of the head low upon the bolster & drop three or
four drops thereof into the better Ear; this do three or four dayes
together."[318]

For melancholy the following is "A pretious water to revive the
Spirits:"

"Take four gallons of strong Ale, five ounces of Aniseeds, Liquorish
scraped half a pound, Sweet Mints, Angelica, Eccony, Cowslip flowers,
Sage & Rosemary Flowers, sweet Marjoram, of each three handfuls,
Palitory of the VVal one handful. After it is fermented two or three
dayes, distil it in a Limbeck, and in the water infuse one handful of
the flowers aforesaid, Cinnamon and Fennel-seed of each half an ounce,
Juniper berries bruised one dram, red Rosebuds, roasted Apples & dates
sliced and stoned, of each half a pound; distil it again and sweeten it
with some Sugarcandy, and take of Amber-greese, Pearl, Red Coral,
Hartshorn pounded, and leaf Gold, of each half a Dram, put them in a
fine Linnen bag, and hang them by a thread in a Glasse."[319]

Perhaps next to the wonderful Snail-Water for rickets, given on page 497
of this chapter, the Water of Life was the great remedy, used for fevers
and also as a tonic in health:

"Take Balm leaves and stalks, Betony leaves and flowers, Rosemary, red
sage, Taragon, Tormentil leaves, Rossolis and Roses, Carnation, Hyssop,
Thyme, red strings that grow upon Savory, red Fennel leaves and root,
red Mints, of each a handful; bruise these hearbs and put them in a
great earthen pot, & pour on them enough White Wine as will cover them,
stop them close, and let them steep for eight or nine days; then put to
it Cinnamon, Ginger, Angelica-seeds, Cloves, and Nuttmegs, of each an
ounce, a little Saffron, Sugar one pound, Raysins solis stoned one
pound, the loyns and legs of an old Coney, a fleshy running Capon, the
red flesh of the sinews of a leg of Mutton, four young Chickens, twelve
larks, the yolks of twelve Eggs, a loaf of White-bread cut in sops, and
two or three ounces of Mithradate or Treacle, & as much Muscadine as
will cover them all. Distil al with a moderate fire, and keep the first
and second waters by themselves; and when there comes no more by
distilling put more Wine into the pot upon the same stuffe and distil it
again, and you shal have another good water. This water strengtheneth
the Spirit, Brain, Heart, Liver, and Stomack. Take when need is by
itself, or with Ale, Beer, or Wine mingled with Sugar."[320]

Small-pox was such a dreadful scourge to the colonists, causing death,
disfigurement, and misfortune, that after inoculation was introduced and
accepted as reliable, small-pox hospitals arose and it became quite the
fashion for entire families and even parties made up of friends and
acquaintances to resort to them together and be inoculated all at the
same time, these parties being called classes. Sometimes these
gatherings were held at private homes and special invitations were sent
out to friends. "These brave classes took their various purifying and
sudorific medicines in cheerful concert, were 'grafted' together, 'broke
out' together, were feverish together, sweat together, scaled off
together, and convalesced together. Not a very prepossessing conjoining
medium would inoculation appear to have been, but many a pretty and
sentimental love affair sprang up between mutually 'pock-fretten' New
Englanders."[321]

The small-pox hospitals were of various kinds and prices, ranging as low
as three dollars per week for lodging, food, medicine, care, and
inoculation. The following advertisement of one such hospital appeared
in the _Connecticut Courant_ of November 30, 1767:

"Dr. Uriah Rogers, Jr., of Norwalk County of Fairfield takes this method
to acquaint the Publick & particularly such as are desirous of taking
the Small Pox by way of Inoculation, that having had Considerable
Experience in that Branch of Practice and carried on the same the last
season with great Success; has lately erected a convenient Hospital for
that purpose just within the Jurisdiction Line of the Province of New
York about nine miles distant from N. Y. Harbour, where he intends to
carry said Branch of Practice from the first of October next to the
first of May next. And that all such as are disposed to favour him with
their Custom may depend upon being well provided with all necessary
accommodations, Provisions & the best Attendance at the moderate Expense
of Four Pounds Lawful Money to Each Patient. That after the first Sett
or Class he purposes to give no Occasion for waiting to go in Particular
setts but to admit Parties singly, just as it suits them. As he has
another Good House provided near Said Hospital where his family are to
live, and where all that come after the first Sett that go into the
Hospital are to remain with his Family until they are sufficiently
Prepared & Inoculated & Until it is apparent that they have taken the
infection."[322]

Upon a death in a town in New York state in colonial times, notice was
given by the ringing or tolling of the church-bell and the funeral
inviter was sent out, a man paid for his services, who was dressed in
gloomy black with long streamers of crape hanging from his hat. The ones
to be invited were visited by him and notified of the day and hour of
the funeral. The funeral-inviter usually combined in himself along with
this office those of schoolmaster, bell-ringer, chorister, and
grave-digger. Later the funeral-inviter was made a public officer and
the fees were regulated by law. The corpse while lying at the home was
watched over through the night by intimate friends of the family and
these watchers were well supplied with drinks and cakes and tobacco and
pipes. The body lay in state in a large room which was rarely used for
other occasions than this.

There were rare occurrences of night-burials in the colonies, confined
to people belonging to the English Church, the funeral procession and
burial taking place by torch-light. In the earlier times in New England
there were no religious services of any kind at a funeral, neither at
the house nor at the grave, but later there were prayers at the house
and a short speech at the grave, and then funeral sermons began to be
preached but not at the time of the burial. In New York there were
funeral services but always held at the home. The coffin was made of
well-seasoned boards and covered with a pall of fringed black cloth,
which was replaced with a white sheet where the death took place in
childbirth. As a mark of mourning, in some places all ornaments and
mirrors and pictures were covered with cloths from the time of death
till after the funeral and even sometimes the window-shutters at the
front of the house were tied together with black cloth and kept closed
for a year. There were usually two sets of pall-bearers, one set of
strong young men who bore the coffin on a bier and another set of older
men of dignity, who walked alongside the bearers and held the corners of
the pall. Much etiquette was displayed in arranging the order of the
procession to the grave, each mourner being carefully assigned to his
place, the widow usually being placed with a magistrate or some other
person of dignity.

Funerals became to be very expensive affairs and this brought about
legislative enactments trying to regulate and curtail the expenses. When
the cities began to grow and wealth to increase much pomp and dignity
were used in the burial of men and women of high station, trumpets and
drums being used and volleys fired over the grave--even of a woman. In
properly putting away Governor Winthrop, the chief founder of
Massachusetts, a barrel and a half of powder was consumed. In the middle
and southern colonies, the funeral became to be a time of feasting and
drinking. At a single funeral there might have been several barrels of
wine and several hogsheads of beer consumed, beside great quantities of
food eaten and tobacco used. Sometimes in Pennsylvania as many as five
hundred guests at a funeral were served with punch and cake. At a
funeral in Virginia the cost of the wine used amounted to more than four
thousand pounds of tobacco. New England was not so far behind, as bills
are found for much baked meats, rum, cider, whiskey, lemons, sugar,
spices, and cakes used at funerals.

It was a custom in colonial times for the family of the deceased to give
certain kinds of gifts to those who were invited to the funeral. Books
were among the gifts, being serious books suitable as a memorial of the
occasion, but probably book gifts occurred only in New England. Scarfs,
often of silk, were among the presents and also handkerchief, the scarfs
sometimes being worn quite awhile after the funeral as a token of
mourning, thereby showing respect for the dead. Sometimes black ribbons
were given, to be worn on the hat as long streamers. Spoons also were
given in New York, called monkey-spoons, being made of silver with the
figure or head of an ape on the handle. The two most common and most
important gifts were gloves and rings. The gloves were white or black or
purple and were of different quality, given according to rank or
closeness of blood to the deceased. Hundreds of these gloves were often
given out at a single funeral, at one funeral over a thousand were given
and still at another three thousand pairs. A Boston clergyman kept
account of the number he had received and in thirty-two years he had
been given two thousand, nine hundred, and forty pairs of mourning
gloves. In 1738 at a funeral in Boston over two hundred rings were given
away. A judge received 57 mourning rings between 1687-1725, a minister
had a mugful, and a physician who died in 1758 at the age of eighty-one
left a quart tankard full of the rings. "These mourning rings were of
gold, usually enameled in black, or black and white. They were
frequently decorated with a death's-head, or with a coffin with a
full-length skeleton lying in it, or with a winged skull. Sometimes they
held a framed lock of hair of the deceased friend. Sometimes the ring
was shaped like a serpent with his tail in his mouth. Many bore a
posy."[323] These gloves and rings usually were sold. The Boston
minister noted above received between six and seven hundred dollars
through the sale of the gloves he had received at funerals and likewise
quite a good sum from the sale of the funeral rings he had received.

There finally came a reaction against such great expense at funerals and
the giving of gifts so that by the middle of the eighteenth century
funerals were being held at which there was little or no feasting and
drinking and but little mourning worn, and even some funerals were held
at which no mourning at all had been worn. In the latter part of the
century laws arose wherein fines were to be imposed on any person who
gave scarfs, gloves, rings, wine, or rum at a funeral, or who bought any
new mourning apparel except crape for an armband if a man or a black
bonnet, fan, gloves, and ribbon if a woman. But such laws were difficult
of being rigidly enforced and so, perhaps, had but little effect, public
opinion and custom after all causing whatever changes that may have come
about.

It was a custom to fasten to the bier or platform supporting the coffin
verses and sentences laudatory to the deceased and such often were
printed after the funeral and distributed among the relatives and
friends. These prints were not only deeply bordered with black but
"they were often decorated gruesomely with skull and cross-bones,
scythes, coffins, and hour-glasses, all-seeing eyes with rakish squints,
bow-legged skeletons, and miserable little rosetted winding-sheets."[324]
When newspapers were established in the colonies it became the
practice to insert long and fulsome death-notices. Perhaps the
greatest display in writing about the dead was that of the epitaph.
They were of all kinds and quality many quite amusing in both
rhyme and thought, and yet there were some epitaphs of beauty and
sentiment that make us glad for the efforts. The following is truly
such a one:

"I came in the morning--it was Spring
And I smiled.
I walked out at noon--it was Summer
And I was glad.
I sat me down at even--it was Autumn
And I was sad.
I laid me down at night--it was Winter
And I slept."[325]

In New York interment was made under the church and by special payment
burial could be made under the very seat the deceased was wont to occupy
during life while upon attendance at church. In New England the burial
was in the churchyard or it might, too, be made under the church and
this was true in the large places and of dignitaries. In the smaller
places the graveyard might have been located in a barren pasture or on
an out-of-the-way hillside. In the country often each family had its own
burying-place, sometimes in a corner of the home farm and again at the
foot of the garden or orchard. The early gravestones were quite similar
in design. Freestone was used for these and rarely sandstone on account
of its being readily disintegrated by frosts and storms. The best stone
was a flinty slate-stone from North Wales, which was imported from
England ready carved, and these stones also were alike, having at the
top a winged cherub's head. This remained the only emblem on stones till
near the middle of the eighteenth century when there began to be used
the weeping willow and urn.

=The Illness of Children.= As was given under Infancy, the baby had to
be baptized in the meeting-house on the first Sunday following its
birth, no matter what the conditions of the weather. This was surely as
severe a test of the child's endurance as that ever devised by any
people, not excepting the Spartans. Those that survived this baptism had
to undergo many malignant diseases, so that the mortality among children
was frightful and there was rarely if ever found a family that could not
count a number of deaths of the children, often more died than reached
maturity. The diseases and climatic conditions were severe enough on the
children and the lack of sanitary caution added many children to the
death list, yet these were not all for the poor things had tried out on
them all kinds of nostrums and no doubt many died from the dosings.

Among the medicines for children was Venice treacle, made of vipers,
white wine, opium, spices, licorice, red roses, tops of germander, and
St. John's-wort, with about twenty other herbs, juice of rough sloes,
and mixed with honey. Another medicine for children contained forty-two
ingredients. As was given in another part of this chapter, rickets was
one of the greatest afflictions of children and as was noted, Snail
Water was one of the great remedies, for which see page 377. Here is
another remedy for rickets, and the child that survived both the rickets
and this treatment surely deserved to live:

"In ye Rickets the best Corrective I have ever found is a Syrup made of
Black Cherrys. Thus. Take of Cherrys (dry'd ones are as good as any) &
put them into a vessel with water. Set ye vessel near ye fire and let ye
water be Scalding hot. Then take ye Cherrys into a thin Cloth and
squeeze them into ye Vessell, & sweeten ye Liquor with Melosses. Give 2
spoonfuls of this 2 or 3 times a day. If you Dip your Child, Do it in
this manner: viz: naked, in ye morning, head foremost in Cold Water,
don't dress it Immediately, but let it be made warm in ye Cradle & sweat
at least half an Hour moderately. Do this 3 mornings going & if one or
both feet are Cold while other Parts sweat (which is sometimes ye Case)
Let a little blood be taken out of ye feet ye 2nd Morning and yt will
cause them to sweat afterwards. Before ye dips of ye Child give it some
Snakeroot and Saffern Steep'd in Rum & Water, give this Immediately
before Dipping and after you have dipt ye Child 3 Mornings Give it
several times a Day ye following Syrup made of Comfry, Hartshorn, Red
Roses, Hogbrake roots, knot-grass, petty-moral roots, sweeten ye Syrup
with Melosses. Physicians are generally fearful about diping when ye
Fever is hard, but oftentimes all attemps to lower it without diping are
vain. Experience has taught me that these fears are groundless, yt many
have about diping in Rickety Fevers; I have found in a multitude of
Instances of diping is most effectual means to break a Rickety Fever.
These Directions are agreeable to what I have practiced for many
years."[326]

At the funeral of a boy there would sometimes be boys of about the same
age as the deceased to act as nominal pallbearers to walk alongside the
coffin borne by stronger young men. When a young child or girl was
buried, sometimes the pall-bearers were girls, all dressed in white and
wearing long white veils.

=Amusements.= Many of the amusements of the old country were brought
into use by the colonists and there were some that grew up in the
surroundings of the new country. There was a wide distinction between
the New England colonies and the other colonies in regard to such, as
the Puritans were much more sober in their bearing and really often
counted amusements as things to be avoided and even ungodly and those of
a hilarious nature were indulged in only by a few of the less staid and
solid citizens.

The really only regular diversion of the early colonists in New England
was the lecture-day, which usually occurred weekly on Thursdays. These
days were the occasion of a lecture, usually religious, by the minister,
and also there were other doings, as, burning seditious books,
publishing notices of marriages, the holding of elections, the whipping
of transgressors at the whipping-post, the placing of offenders in the
stocks, bilboes, cage, or pillory, and criminals, too, were hanged on
these days. Another great day in the colonies was muster-day when the
militia came together for drill. This became a time of merry-making as
well as of military drilling and amusements of various kinds were
entered into. Another time of gathering was at the fairs held in some of
the middle and southern colonies, at which were foot-races, sack-races,
wrestling, climbing greased poles, catching greased pigs, and the like.

As the cities grew, the people would strive to get out for a time in the
country, so that inns and gardens grew up in the suburbs and were much
frequented. These gardens were sometimes small and of a private nature
and again they were large and not only furnished the guests with food
and drink but also with concerts and other entertainments. Clubs were
quite numerous in those days, usually consisting of a number of men who
had a weekly meeting at a tavern. These clubs often consisted of people
of the same nationality, as, the Irish Club, the French Club, and so on.
They had their patron saints on whose birthdays they would hold great
festivals, the English having St. George, the Welsh St. David, the Irish
St. Patrick, and the young Americans of New York, not to be outdone,
"canonized, by their own authority, King Tammany, a Delaware chief long
dead, and celebrated his feast on the old English May-day, which they
ushered in with bell-ringings, as though it were a veritable saint's
day."[327] There grew up in the cities gatherings of men and women,
called "Assemblies," for the purpose of dancing, card-playing, and other
social amusements. These were brilliant affairs, wherein both men and
women were richly dressed, and where there was eating and drinking,
great quantities of wine often being consumed.

The colonists were very fond of dancing. "From the most eastern forest
settlements of Maine to the southern frontier of Georgia, people in
town, village, and country were everywhere indefatigably fond of dancing
... the launching of a ship, the raising of a house, the assembling of a
county court, and the ordination of a minister were good occasions for
dancing."[328] They usually danced to the tune of a fiddle but if there
was no fiddle that would not keep them from it as they would dance to
some one's humming the tune. Dancing-schools arose and although they
were forbidden in New England the young people learned to dance anyway.
Dances sometimes began at six o'clock in the evening and lasted till
three in the morning. "President Washington and Mrs. General Greene
'danced upwards of three hours without once sitting down,' and General
Greene called this diversion of the august Father of His Country, 'a
pretty little frisk.'"[329] This may be accounted for from the fact that
the lady was usually assigned to her partner for the entire evening,
with whom she did the greater part of her dancing.

Music was loved by the colonists throughout the entire colonial period.
Yet in early New England there was really little that could properly be
called music, for in the church there was only the droning out of the
Psalms and often these were not sung by all the congregation in the same
tune at the same time, making a most inharmonious medley. The first
music-book appeared in 1712. The early instruments for accompanying the
voice were the spinet and the harpsichord, the first organ in Boston was
about 1711.

Mrs. Earle states that though after 1760 concerts were frequent yet the
earliest advertisement she had found of a concert was in the _New
England Weekly Journal_ of December 15, 1732:

"This is to inform the Publick That there will be a Consort of Music
Perform'd by Sundry Instruments at the Court Room in Wings Lane near the
Town Dock on the 28th of this Instant December; Tickets will be
deliver'd at the Place of Performance at Five Shillings each Ticket. N.
B. No Person will be admitted after Six."[330]

Because of the need of better music, there arose the "singing-school," a
most happy form of amusement for the young people of the colonial days
in New England where there was often but little chance for such. The
singing-school teacher was a great man and when he made his appearance
that other notable, the village school-master, had to take a back-seat
for the time being, for this man was a "professional," who was to be
paid and who paid his own bills and did not have to "board round." The
singing-school gave agreeable occasion for the young people to spend a
few of the long winter evenings together and for sleighing-parties to be
made up to go to them, and where every girl, no matter how she got
there, was sure of an escort home.

Card-playing and gambling were almost universal. Ladies gambled as well
as gentlemen. Stakes often were high, sometimes large estates were lost
in a short time by reckless betting at cards. "The ladies of New York
were considered virtuous above many others of their sex because of the
moderation of their gambling."[331] Although the New Englanders were
very much opposed to cards and tried to stop their sale and use, yet
they highly approved another form of gambling, the lottery. For a half
century and longer the lottery was the greatest amusement of New
England, it was sanctioned and participated in by all, the most esteemed
citizens bought and sold tickets, and it was used as a scheme for
raising funds for every purpose--colleges increased their endowments,
towns and states raised money to pay their debts, and churches had
lotteries "for promoting public worship and the advancement of
religion." Not only were lotteries used to raise funds for public
affairs but there were also private lotteries in great number and all
kinds of prizes given, among such being furniture, clothing, real
estate, jewelry, and books. "New England clergymen seemed specially to
delight in this gambling excitement."[332]

As there was an abundance of wild game and fish, hunting and fishing
were great sports among the colonists.

Deer were hunted in various ways. Sometimes the hunter, as learned from
the Indians, covered himself in a deer skin and was thus enabled to get
near the deer to shoot them; again a tree was felled and the hunter hid
in the branches and shot the deer while browsing upon the twigs; at
night the deer was approached by some one bearing a lighted torch and
the hunter would shoot the dazed animal looking into the light, or the
hunter would have a blazing fire in his canoe and float toward the deer
and shoot it; also deer were run down by dogs and men on horseback.
Wolves were caught on mackerel hooks bound together in a bunch and
dipped in tallow; they were caught in iron traps; and they were caught
in pits in the earth hidden by light coverings to let them fall through.
Bears were caught in traps and pits and also hunted with dogs trained
for the purpose. There was fox-chasing on horseback; sometimes on a
moonlight night a sledge-load of cod-fish heads was left by a fence or
wall where the moon shone brightly on it, and the foxes were shot as
they came up to get the heads of the fishes. Squirrels were killed for
sport and also because they consumed so much of the grain; sometimes two
groups of hunters matched one another and then counted squirrel-scalps
at night to see which party had killed the most squirrels during the
day. Wild turkeys were trapped and killed with guns; sometimes fires
would be built near their roosting-places and then they could be shot
while bewildered from the light. Wild pigeons were taken in nets, by
shooting with guns, and while on their roosts at night, they were
knocked off with clubs, being so thickly together and thus unable to get
away. Also other wild game was hunted, as, geese, ducks, grouse,
partridges, and others.

One way of taking wild game was by a "drive." A ring of men would
encircle a large tract of country and draw inward toward a center, and
thus drive in deer, bears, wolves, turkeys, and other game, and as the
animals made effort to escape the men would shoot them. Another way of
hunting was by a fire-ring. A body of men would encircle a tract of land
and then set fire to the leaves, which would burn in toward the center
and then the men would shoot the animals as they would try to break
through the fire-ring and would thus be brought to view.

Fishing was carried on in various ways. One of the most common ways was
with nets, which were of various kinds. Weirs were also used, probably
learned from the Indians and improved upon by the colonists. Long lines
were staked out in a river and on it were placed short lines with hooks
for catching the fish. Fish were speared with a harping-iron or gig.
Where the fish were very plentiful men could ride into the water at
night and spear the fish with gigs by torch light. They also went to the
falls of the rivers and caught the shad and salmon as they were
ascending the river to spawn. Fish also were caught with hook and line,
but in the earlier times when they were so abundant this was considered
too slow a process.

In winter the favorite amusement in New York was riding in sleighs and
this was true also in Philadelphia. In the bitter climate of New England
sleighing as a pastime was not entered into by the colonists in the
early days. The Dutch in New York also indulged a great deal in skating,
the ponds, marshes, and watered meadows on Manhattan Island offering
plenty of ice for the sport. Sometimes provisions were carried into New
York on the back of marketmen on skates.

In a new country full of wild animals and wild men, it becomes necessary
for the settler to learn to use the gun as a means of livelihood and of
defense and so the settlers became fine marksmen. Because of their
learning to shoot well there arose contests in marksmanship. This
consisted often in shooting at a mark for a prize, a silk handkerchief
or such like. Also there were matches where a turkey was put up as a
prize to be shot at, it might be a holiday was spent in a
shooting-match. Sometimes a beef was divided among competitors, when a
target would be put up and the one hitting the center or nearest to the
center would receive the best cut of the beef and it would thus be
distributed according to the shots ranging from the center.

A leading amusement of the colonists was horse-racing. It is possible
that horse-racing began in Virginia as soon as there were horses in the
colony to race. In 1665 the Governor of New York announced a horse-race
to encourage the bettering of the breed of horses. The sport came late
into New England and yet there were races and notices of challenges to
race horses. The main centers of horse-racing were in the vicinity of
New York, Annapolis, Williamsburg, and Charleston, and, later, at
Philadelphia, also. There were two kinds of races. The first was a
great, formal affair, drawing a large crowd, where the horses ran on a
circular mile track, four rounds to a heat, best two out of three to
win. This race required great endurance of the horses. The second kind
of race was a more informal affair, where the race was for a quarter of
a mile, for which race horses were bred to run for a short distance at a
very high rate of speed. Before the expiration of the colonial period,
there, too, arose the special forms of the trotting-match and the
pacing-match.

Cock-fighting was another sport of the colonists, which was most popular
in New York and the colonies south of it, its chief centers being in
Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. Men would go fifty miles to see
a main, and choice gamecocks were imported from England. There was, too,
bull-baiting and sometimes wolves and bears were captured alive and used
for baiting with dogs. Sometimes a live wolf was tied to a horse's tail
and dragged to death.

There were contests in running, leaping, wrestling, cudgeling,
stool-ball, nine-pins, quoits, fencing, and back-sword or single-stick.

The people of the colonies did not have great opportunities for
amusement in the way of shows and so they turned readily to any kind of
exhibit and it did not require much display to attract them. This being
true, there came to be displays of various kinds in plenty.

There were sleight-of-hand performances, acrobatic and contortionistic
displays, tight and slack rope performances, and a kind of
sword-dancing. Museums were founded in which there were shown wax
figures and other curiosities; a mermaid was put on display; there were
exhibits at various times of a solar microscope, camera obscuras, moving
pictures showing windmills and water-mills in motion and ships sailing,
electrical machines, a musical clock, puppets representing Joseph's
dream, and prospects of London and of royal palaces. Among animals
displayed, there were a lion drawn about on a cart by four oxen, a
wonderful creature called a Sea Lion, a leopard "strongly chayned," a
moose, a white sea bear, a camel, a cassowary "five feet high that
swallows stones as large as an egg," and even a rabbit was advertised
among "curious wild beasts." There was a big hog on display for four
pence a person, and a cat with "one head, eight legs, and two tails."

The most remarkable animal of all exhibited must have been the one
described in an advertisement in the Boston Gazette of April 20, 1741:

"To be seen at the Greyhound Tavern in Roxbury a wild creature which was
caught in the woods about 80 miles to the Westward of this place called
a Cattamount. It has a tail like a Lyon, its legs are like Bears, its
Claws like an Eagle, its Eyes like a Tyger. He is exceedingly ravenous
and devours all sorts of Creatures that he can come near. Its agility is
surprising. It will leap 30 feet at one jump notwithstanding it is but 3
months old. Whoever wishes to see this creature may come to the place
aforesaid paying one shilling each shall be welcome for their
money."[333]

"Salem had the pleasure of viewing a 'Sapient Dog' who could light
lamps, spell, read print or writing, tell the time of day, or day of the
month. He could distinguish colors, was a good arithmetician, could
discharge a loaded cannon, tell a hidden card in a pack, and jump
through a hoop. About the same time was exhibited in the same town a
'Pig of Knowledge' who had precisely the same accomplishments."[334]

The first approach toward a theatrical entertainment seems to have been
at Philadelphia in 1724, where was given acrobatic displays,
rope-walking feats, and the like, which ended up with a half-acrobatic,
half-dramatic performance of a comical character. Such entertainments
must have followed in other cities. There was a theatrical troupe, a
sorry lot, in Philadelphia in 1749, which went to New York in 1750, and
probably was the same that produced a play in a Boston coffee-house that
caused such a stir as to bring about legislation that kept the drama
out of Boston for the remainder of the colonial period. Although at this
time there may not have been any dramatic plays given, there was a
custom in Virginia at country houses to have the reading aloud of plays,
romances, and operas on rainy days, Sunday afternoons, and when there
might not have been dancing of an evening because no fiddler could be
secured for the music, and, later, after the introduction of the drama
into the colonies amateur companies were organized to give plays.

The first real theatrical company in the colonies was in 1752, which
troupe, twelve in number, came over from England. Their opening play was
given at Williamsburg, at that time the capital of Virginia. This place
was probably chosen for the beginning of the theatrical work in the
colonies "because the inhabitants of Virginia were known to be rich,
leisurely, and society-loving people, with enough of refinement to enjoy
plays, and with few religious scruples against anything that tended to
make life pleasant to the upper classes."[335]

"Twenty-four plays had been selected and cast before Lewis Hallam and
his company left London on the 'Charming Sally,' no doubt a tobacco-ship
returning light for a cargo. On her unsteady deck, day after day, during
the long voyage, the actors diligently rehearsed the plays with which
they proposed to cheer the hearts of people in the New World.
Williamsburg must have proved a disappointment to them. There were not
more than a thousand people, white and black, in the village. The
buildings, except the capitol, the college, and the so-called 'palace'
of the governor, were insignificant, and there were only about a dozen
'gentlemen's' families resident in the place. In the outskirts of the
town a warehouse was fitted up for a theater. The woods were all about
it, and the actors could shoot squirrels from the windows. When the time
arrived for the opening of the theater, the company were much
disheartened. It seemed during the long still hours of the day that they
had come on a fool's errand to act dramas in the woods. But as evening
drew on, the whole scene changed like a work of magic. The roads leading
into Williamsburg were thronged with out-of-date vehicles of every sort,
driven by negroes and filled with gayly dressed ladies, whose gallants
rode on horseback alongside. The treasury was replenished, the theater
was crowded, and Shakspere was acted on the continent probably for the
first time by a trained and competent company. The 'Merchant of Venice'
and Garrick's farce of 'Lethe' were played; and at the close the actors
found themselves surrounded by groups of planters congratulating them,
and after the Virginia fashion offering them the hospitality of their
houses."[336]

This troupe finished the season at Williamsburg and then went to
Annapolis and throughout Maryland and reached New York in 1753 and later
went to Philadelphia. They made a trip to the West Indies and on their
return to New York in 1758 they had difficulty in getting permission to
play as a great religious wave had swept over the country and there was
a strong feeling against such amusements. The troupe managed to overcome
this opposition and continued in the colonies till the Revolutionary
troubles arose. In 1774 the Continental Congress voiced the sentiment of
the people in asking that there be a discontinuance of such sports and
entertainments as would tend to distract thought and feeling from the
getting ready of the colonies to defend their rights, and when the head
of the American company, as the troupe was called, received this
resolution from the president of the Congress, the work of the company
was stopped and the actors sailed for the West Indies and that ended the
drama in the colonies.

At the opening play by the English company at Williamsburg in 1752, the
music was that of the harpsichord and furnished by the local
music-master, and when they reached New York they procured a violinist.
The theaters built at this time were little more than enclosed sheds and
they were usually painted red. The scenery was quite indifferent. The
seats were classified into boxes, pit, and gallery. The people in the
pit were allowed to use liquors and smoking was permitted anywhere in
the theater. Plays began at six o'clock in the evening and servants and
slaves were sent early beforetimes to hold seats for their masters and
mistresses. "Gentlemen made free to go behind the scenes, and to loiter
in full view on the stage, showing their gallantry by disturbing
attentions to the actresses."[337] which "proved so deleterious to any
good representation of the play, that the manager advertised in 'Gaines'
Mercury,' in 1762, that no spectators would be permitted to stand or sit
on the stage during the performance. And also a reproof was printed to
'the person so very rude as to throw Eggs from the Gallery upon the
stage, to the injury of Cloaths.'"[338]

=Games and Sports of Children and Young People.= Children played games
and engaged in sports during the colonial times in the United States and
many of these games were the same as were played in the home countries
from whence their ancestors came and they are played today by their
descendants. They were tormented, too, in their play, just as children
always are, by adults in power, as shown by the following order issued
in New York in 1673. "If any children be caught on the street playing,
racing, and shouting previous to the termination of the last preaching,
the officers of justice may take their hat or upper garment, which shall
not be restored to the parents until they have paid a fine of two
guilders."[339] The Puritan boys, too, had laws passed against one of
their games that cannot be played without somebody getting hurt and
hence the foolishness of such a law as was made in Boston in 1657.
"Forasmuch as sundry complaints are made that several persons have
received hurt by boys and young men playing at football in the streets,
these therefore are to enjoin that none be found at that game in any of
the streets, lanes or enclosures of this town under the penalty of
twenty shillings for every such offence."[340]

But such laws as given above did not altogether crush the spirits of the
boys for, as stated before, one man whose duties were to patrol New
Amsterdam at night found they were active enough, for he complained that
the boys set dogs on him, hid behind trees and fences and shouted out as
he came by "Indians!" and played other tricks on him. Even as much as
the Puritans tried to depress the spirits of their children, yet we find
one of them noting in his diary of his grandson: "In the morning I
dehorted Sam Hirst and Grindall Rawson from playing Idle tricks because
'twas first of April: They were the greatest fools that did so."[341]
And this same boy was so wrought up with play when he was six years
older as to cause his grandfather to write: "Sam Hirst got up betime in
the morning, and took Ben Swett with him and went into the Comon to
play Wicket. Went before anybody was up, left the door open: Sam came
not to prayer at which I was much displeased."[342]

These children played the old historic game of cat's-cradle and passed
it on to the children of today, a game that is found in many lands and
among both civilized and uncivilized peoples.[343] They played hop
scotch and tag of various kinds and London Bridge and honey-pots, and
many, many others, as given in the paragraph below. They enjoyed singing
games, of which they had quite a number.

"In a quaint little book called _The Pretty Little Pocket Book_,
published in America at Revolutionary times, is a list of boys' games
with dingy pictures showing how the games were played; the names given
were chuck-farthing; kite-flying; dancing round May-pole; marbles; hoop
and hide; thread the needle; fishing; blindman's buff; shuttlecock; king
and I; peg-farthing; knock out and span; hop, skip, and jump; boys and
girls come out to play; I sent a letter to my love; cricket; stool-ball;
base-ball; trap-ball; swimming; tip-cat; train-banding; fives;
leap-frog; bird-nesting; hop-hat; shooting; hop-scotch; squares; riding;
rosemary tree. The descriptions of the games are given in rhyme, and to
each attached a moral lesson in verse."[344] The following is a good
illustration:

"MARBLES
"Knuckle down to your Taw.
Aim well, shoot away.
Keep out of the Ring,
You'll soon learn to Play.

"MORAL
"Time rolls like a Marble,
And drives every State.
Then improve each Moment,
Before its too late."[345]

A lady writing of a custom that prevailed at Albany about the middle of
the eighteenth century, during her childhood there, writes as follows:

"The children of the town were divided into companies, as they called
them, from five to six years of age, until they became marriageable.
How those companies first originated, or what were their exact
regulations, I cannot say; though I, belonging to none, occasionally
mixed with several, yet always as a stranger, notwithstanding that I
spoke their current language fluently. Every company contained as many
boys as girls. But I do not know that there was any limited number; only
this I recollect, that a boy and girl of each company, who were older,
cleverer, or had some other pre-eminence among the rest, were called
heads of the company, and as such were obeyed by the others.... Children
of different ages in the same family belonged to different companies.
Each company at a certain time of the year went in a body to gather a
particular kind of berries to the hill. It was a sort of annual festival
attended with religious punctuality. Every company had a uniform for
this purpose; that is to say, very pretty light baskets made by the
Indians, with lids and handles, which hung over one arm, and were
adorned with various colors. Every child was permitted to entertain the
whole company on its birthday, and once besides, during winter and
spring. The master and mistress of the family always were bound to go
from home on these occasions, while some old domestic was left to attend
and watch over them, with an ample provision of tea, chocolate,
preserved and dried fruits, nuts and cakes of various kinds, to which
was added cider or a syllabub; for these young friends met at four and
amused themselves with the utmost gayety and freedom in any way their
fancy dictated."[346]

"In spring, eight or ten of the young people of one company, or related
to each other, young men and maidens, would set out together in a canoe
on a kind of rural excursion, of which amusement was the object. Yet so
fixed were their habits of industry that they never failed to carry
their work-baskets with them, not as a form, but as an ingredient
necessarily mixed with their pleasures. They had no attendants, and
steered a devious course of four, five, or perhaps more miles, till they
arrived at some of the beautiful islands with which this fine river
abounded, or at some sequestered spot on its banks, where delicious wild
fruits, or particular conveniences for fishing afforded some attraction.
There they generally arrived by nine or ten o'clock, having set out in
the cool and early hour of sunrise.... A basket with tea, sugar, and the
other usual provisions for breakfast, with the apparatus for cooking
it; a little rum and fruit for making cool weak punch, the usual
beverage in the middle of the day, and now and then some cold pastry,
was the sole provision; for the great affair was to depend on the sole
exertions of the boys in procuring fish, wild ducks, etc., for the
dinner. They were all, like Indians, ready and dexterous with the axe,
gun, etc. Whenever they arrived at their destination, they sought out a
dry and beautiful spot opposite to the river, and in an instant with
their axes cleared so much superfluous shade or shrubbery as left a
semi-circular opening, above which they bent and twined the boughs, so
as to form a pleasant bower, while the girls gathered dried branches, to
which one of the youths soon set fire with gunpowder, and the breakfast,
a very regular and cheerful one, occupied an hour or two. The young men
then set out to fish, or perhaps to shoot birds, and the maidens sat
busily down to their work. After the sultry hours had been thus
employed, the boys brought their tribute from the river or the wood, and
found a rural meal prepared by their fair companions, among whom were
generally their sisters and the chosen of their hearts. After dinner
they all set out together to gather wild strawberries, or whatever other
fruit was in season; for it was accounted a reflection to come home
empty-handed. When wearied of this amusement, they either drank tea in
their bower, or, returning, landed at some friend's on the way, to
partake of that refreshment."[347]

When we come to water sports there is found more hectoring of the boys
by the lawmakers. The Puritan lawgivers passed laws against swimming and
each tithing-man had ten families under his charge to keep the boys from
swimming in the water, but it is guessed that the boys swam all the
same. Strange to say the boys were not debarred from the opposite winter
sport--that of skating, nevertheless there were many deaths from
breaking through the ice and drowning.

"Skating is an ancient pastime. As early as the thirteenth century
Fitzstephen tells of young Londoners fastening the leg-bones of animals
to the soles of the feet, and then pushing themselves on the ice by
means of poles shod with sharp iron points.... Wooden skates shod with
iron runners were invented in the Low Countries. Dutch children in New
Netherlands all skated, just as their grandfathers had in old Batavia.
The first skates that William Livingstone (born in 1723) had on the
frozen Hudson were made of beef bones, as were those of medieval
children."[348]

There might be some excuse made for the Puritans trying to keep their
boys from swimming because of their great fear of the use of water, both
internally and externally, but how can the legislators of Albany be
excused for the following cruel law!

"Whereas y^e children of y^e s^d city do very unorderly to y^e shame and
scandall of their parents ryde down y^e hills in y^e streets of the s^d
city with small and great slees on the Lord day and in the week by which
many accidents may come, now for pventing y^e same it is hereby
published and declared y^e shall be and may be lawful for any Constable
in this City or any other person or persons to take any slee or slees
from all and every such boys and girls rydeing or offering to ryde down
any hill within y^e s^d city and breake any slee or slees in pieces.
Given under our hands and seals in Albany y^e 22th of December in 12th
year of Her Maj's reign Anno Domini 1713."[349]

By 1765 it would seem that legislation in Albany against coasting had
been abandoned or else the coasting was done at night-time when travel
had ceased. This passage below is by the same woman, writing of about
the year 1765, who is quoted above in regard to the companies of
children and young people of Albany.

"In town all the boys were extravagantly fond of a diversion that to us
would appear a very odd and childish one. The great street of the town
sloped down from the hill on which the fort stood, towards the river;
between the buildings was an unpaved carriage-road, the foot-path beside
the houses being the only part of the street which was paved. In winter
the sloping descent, continued for more than a quarter of a mile,
acquired firmness from the frost, and became very slippery. Then the
amusement commenced. Every boy and youth in town, from eight to
eighteen, had a little low sledge, made with a rope like a bridle to the
front, by which it could be dragged after one by the hand. On this one
or two at most could sit, and this sloping descent being made as smooth
as a looking-glass, by sliders' sledges, etc., perhaps a hundred at once
set out from the top of this street, each seated in his little sledge
with the rope in his hand, which, drawn to the right or left, served to
guide him. He pushed it off with a little stick, as one would launch a
boat; and then, with the most astonishing velocity, precipitated by the
weight of the owner, the little machine glided past, and was at the
lower end of the street in an instant. What could be so delightful in
this rapid and smooth descent I could never discover; though in a more
retired place, and on a smaller scale, I have tried the amusement; but
to a young Albanian, sleighing, as he called it, was one of the first
joys of life, though attended by the drawback of walking to the top of
the declivity, dragging his sledge every time he renewed his flight, for
such it might well be called. In the managing this little machine some
dexterity was necessary; an unskilful Phaeton was sure to fall. The
conveyance was so low that a fall was attended with little danger, yet
with much disgrace, for an universal laugh from all sides assailed the
fallen charioteer. This laugh was from a very full chorus, for the
constant and rapid succession of this procession, where every one had a
brother, lover, or kinsman, brought all the young people in town to the
porticos, where they used to sit wrapt in furs till ten or eleven at
night, engrossed by this delectable spectacle. I have known an Albanian,
after residing some years in Britain, and becoming a polished fine
gentleman, join the sport and slide down with the rest."[350]

=Children's Toys and Story Books.= Toys must have been quite scarce in
the earlier colonial days, probably very few beyond what the children or
parents made, and rather crude. Even as late as 1695 a man in
Massachusetts wrote to his brother in England that if toys in small
quantities were sent to the colonies they would sell. Some years later
toys increased in number and toy-shops arose, there being one in Boston
in 1743. It is certainly hard to understand why marbles should not have
been advertised for sale at an earlier time than the date given in the
following: "Not until October, 1771, on the lists of the Boston
shopkeepers, who seemed to advertise and to sell every known article of
dry goods, hardware, house furnishing, ornament, dress, and food, came
that single but pleasure-filled item 'Boys Marbles.'"[351]

There were not a great variety of toys used in the colonies. Tin toys
were quite scarce as tin was not much in use at that time for such
purposes. There were kites, hoops, balls, battledore and shuttles, tops,
marbles, skates and sleds. There were home-made hobby-horses, coaches,
and chariots. The boys had jack-knives and knew how to use them in
making pop-guns, whistles, windmills, water-wheels, traps, and the like.
Boys also made their own weapons, as, clubs, slings, bows, and arrows.
The girls had dolls, of course, but they were home-made affairs for the
greater part. The only dolls advertised in the colonial papers were
those told about under dress, which were the models that were dressed in
Europe and sent over to mantua-makers to give the styles. It is true
that after serving this purpose the dolls were sold for children's use
and thought much of by them. The furniture was much of it home-made,
birch bark being especially adaptable for the purpose. Wicker cradles
and chaises were made for the dolls, copied from those of infants.

It would seem that there were absolutely no books specially written for
the pleasure of the children in the early years of the colonial times,
nor for that matter were there any such written in England during the
same period. There were, however, to teach some truths, three books
written that were taken up by the children and who greatly loved to read
them, which were _The Pilgrim's Progress_ in 1688, _Robinson Crusoe_ in
1714, and _Gulliver's Travels_ in 1726. The beginning of story books for
children in England and America was in 1744, when John Newberry began
publishing such books in London. His books were at once exported to
America and advertisements of them are found in the colonial newspapers.
One of these books, probably published in 1744, was "The Pretty Little
Pocket Book," one story in which was "Jack the Giant Killer." Another
book published by Newberry about 1760 was "Mother Goose's Melodies."
After the Revolution, story books for children became more common and
they have kept increasing through the years to the present.

=Holidays and Festivals.= The old English festivals were not greatly
observed by the colonists. In Puritan New England there were few set
times and days for pleasure. The holy days of the English Church were
not only disregarded by the Puritans, but even laws were made forbidding
their public celebration, for while in England they had turned away from
the state church and they had learned to hate the excesses of the
festivals. In the other colonies the demands of the early years and the
getting away from religious influences may have brought about the
decline of the celebration of the church festivals, for even in
Virginia, which clung to the old church, the clergy complained that the
people only observed Christmas and Good Friday as they did not want to
stop work for other holidays.

Although Christmas was observed in the colonies outside of New England,
it was not with the old English fervor and never with the great
excesses, as stated by one of the old Puritan divines as spent
throughout England in "revelling, dicing, carding, masking, mumming,
consumed in compotations, in interludes, in excess of wine, in mad
mirth."[352]

New Year's Day was a great day for the Dutch in New York and its
observance was continued by the English when they came into control. The
Dutch inaugurated the custom of New Year's calling, wherein the ladies
kept open house and were called upon by their gentleman friends. Food
and drink were served in generous quantities and before the end of the
day the gentlemen would often get quite hilarious. The streets of the
city would be filled with vehicles loaded with callers going from house
to house, a general gala occasion. In the country towns of New York
colony the New Year was often ushered in by men with fire-arms going
from house to house and firing salutes. This was kept up until a crowd
was collected and then they would end the day by firing at a mark.

If the Dutch of New York originated New Year's callings the Puritans of
New England originated Thanksgiving Day. Just when each custom first
began cannot be determined for each must have arisen gradually and
continued till the practice became fixed. The thanksgiving days were not
always at first for giving thanks for God's beneficence, but for various
reasons, as, political events, the success of the Protestant cause,
victories over Indians, the safe arrival of ships with friends and
provisions, and so on. Nor were they set for any special season or day,
probably Thursday became fixed because of its being the lecture day and
autumn because of the time of harvests thus making the days of
thanksgiving come more often at this season.

The first Thanksgiving was not a religious event nor a single day, but a
time of recreation as shown from the following written by one of the
Puritans in Plymouth on December 11, 1621:

"Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling that
so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had
gathered the fruits of our labors. They four killed as much fowl as with
a little help beside served the company about a week. At which times
among other recreations we exercised our arms, many of the Indians
coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king Massasoyt with
some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and
they went out and killed five deer which they brought and bestow'd on
our governor, and upon the captains and others."[353]

The first public thanksgiving was held in Boston in 1630 to express
thanks for the safe arrival of ships bringing friends and food. From
this on there were public thanksgivings, but not every year, until it
became a fixed annual affair, but at just what time this occurred it
would be impossible to state. As it became a fixed custom, there grew
into it many of the features of the old English Christmas,
notwithstanding the attitude of the Puritans toward that day, and it
became a day of family reunions and of feasting on turkey and Indian
pudding and pumpkin pie.

"But Thanksgiving Day was not the chief New England holiday. Ward,
writing in 1699, does not name it, saying of New Englanders: 'Election,
Commencement, and Training Days are their only Holy Days.'"[354]

Election Day was a kind of holiday and indeed sometimes the whole week
was included in the holiday. As was stated before, Training Day was a
day of coming together of the people at which there was not only
military drill but also amusements of various kinds and sometimes the
occasion for a display of public punishment. Commencement Day at the
college was a proud day for the people whose sons graduated and a kind
of general holiday for all. There was a dinner and plenty of wine. It
would seem that this was an occasion for which more than a day would be
used, as after 1730 Commencement Day was usually set for Friday as there
would not be so much of the week left for jollifying.

Shrove Tuesday was observed in New York by the middle of the eighteenth
century as a holiday given over to cocking-mains, as it was in England.
Saint Valentine's Day was observed by the Dutch in New Amsterdam as
Women's Day and it was celebrated by the young women, each of whom armed
herself with a heavy cord having a knot on the end with which she struck
every young man whom she would meet. Guy Fawkes' Day was celebrated at
least in New England and New York, being the occasion for bonfires and
fantastic parades and burning an effigy of Guy Fawkes, which often was
only a straw carried by each one to cast into the fire. In some of the
colonies, May Day was celebrated and a May-pole erected and some
attempts were made to celebrate it in New England but it did not get
much encouragement and it was but a feeble holiday there. Pinkster Day,
the name being derived from the Dutch word for Pentecost, was a great
holiday in New York for the negro slaves. They gathered in great numbers
on that day and had singing and dancing and feasting and drinking--a
general good time. The spring sheep-shearing and the autumnal
corn-husking were a time of great gatherings and merry-makings, and
there were also apple-bees, maple-sugar stirrings, and log-rollings.

=Public Punishments.= Another subject that could have well been placed
under amusements is that of public punishments, for such did afford a
means of amusement in the form of ridiculing and reviling the ones
exposed and of throwing things at them, and, too, exposure was often on
a holiday, thus affording more time and opportunity for the people to
amuse themselves. Not only was the offender or criminal exposed to the
public view but this was made all the worse by placing him in some kind
of instrument that would cause him to be in an attitude that would
emphasize the grotesqueness of the exposure and make the punishment all
the more insulting and painful. This public form of punishment was not
confined wholly to men for women, too, were sometimes placed thus before
the public.

The exposure of the culprit was not enough for the people of those days
and particularly in New England for the parson must be given a chance to
display his powers and so the offender was often set in a public place
in the church that he might be prayed and preached over and which were
too often in the form of objurgations, and, further, this sermon was
sometimes printed and sold for it was among the parson's greatest
efforts.

This was a time of cruelty toward all living creatures whether beasts or
men both in the old country and the new, probably somewhat the effect of
the heavy and habitual indulgence in alcoholic drinks by all the people,
thus deadening to an extent the higher sensibilities. These public
displays must have hardened the people and in particular to have
accustomed the young to such and to view crime as meriting open
punishment without regard to the feelings of the one exposed. Yet some
of the young people must have been affected in an opposite manner for
there was a growing away from this form of punishment and of cruelty and
which has continued down to the present time where the welfare and
individuality of the offender is being more and more considered.

These people of the olden times very greatly feared ridicule, especially
of being called names, and hence the ways of punishment were so devised
as to place the culprit in a ridiculous position and so that he could
not resist the insults inflicted upon him by his fellow-men. The
colonists were forever resisting insults by bringing suits in petty
slander and libel cases. Men in public positions were in particular
jealous of their power and official honor and resented and punished
affronts against themselves or their offices or their public doings.
Although all classes of people were greatly affected by ridicule and
slander, it would seem that schoolmasters and parsons were the most
active against such, as is shown from the old court records.

One of the earliest of these instruments of punishment was the bilboes.
This consisted of shackles attached to a heavy iron bolt or bar into
which shackles the legs were thrust and then locked in with a padlock.
Sometimes there was a chain on the end of the bar which was fastened to
the floor or it might have been to the wall or a post so that the
offender's legs were pulled up high to make his position the more
ridiculous and painful. The bilboes were not greatly in use in the
colonies and they were soon superseded by the stocks and the pillory.
The stocks were made of two heavy timbers, one coming down on the other,
with circular openings in them for holding the legs of the culprit, and
sometimes also smaller openings for the arms. The upper timber was
raised, the legs of the culprit placed in the openings and then kept
tight by closing down the upper piece and fastening it. The one in the
stocks usually sat on a low bench. The pillory consisted of two pieces
of timbers as with the stocks and attached to two upright pieces at
either end at about the height of a man's shoulders. There were three
circular openings in the timbers, one for the neck and two small ones
for the wrists. The neck and arms were placed in these openings and
confined as the legs were in the stocks, leaving the head and hands
hanging out exposed, the culprit standing.

The ducking stool was specially designed for scolding women, though also
used for other offenses. There were different forms. The following
description of one of these instruments and its use is said to be from a
letter giving an account of a ducking in Virginia in 1634:

"The day afore yesterday at two of ye clock in ye afternoon I saw this
punishment given to one Betsy wife of John Tucker who by ye violence of
her tongue has made his house and ye neighborhood uncomfortable. She was
taken to ye pond near where I am sojourning by ye officer who was joined
by ye Magistrate and ye Minister Mr. Cotton who had frequently
admonished her and a large number of People. They had a machine for ye
purpose yt belongs to ye parish, and which I was so told had been so
used three times this Summer. It is a platform with 4 small rollers or
wheels and two upright posts between which works a Lever by a Rope
fastened to its shorter or heavier end. At ye end of ye longer arm is
fixed a stool upon which sd Betsey was fastened by cords, her gown tied
fast around her feete. The Machine was then moved up to ye edge of ye
pond, ye Rope was slackened by ye officer and ye woman was allowed to go
down under ye water for ye space of half a minute. Betsey had a stout
stomach, and would not yield until she had allowed herself to be ducked
5 several times. At length she cried piteously, Let me go Let me go, by
God's help I'll sin no more. Then they drew back ye Machine, untied ye
Ropes and let her walk home in her wetted clothes a hopefully penitent
woman."[355]

The pillory itself was not sufficient punishment, for too often the ears
of the offender were nailed back to the wood by his head and when the
head was removed from the pillory sometimes the nails were not pulled
and the ears thus released but the ears were split out of the nails. The
cutting off the ears of the offender was of rather frequent occurrence.
The brank or scold's bridle, a kind of head-piece with a spiked plate or
flat tongue of iron to be placed in the mouth, was a cruel instrument
that seems not to have been used in the colonies, as they used a cleft
stick into which the tongue was inserted. Another form of punishment was
the placing of a letter or inscription on the offender, sometimes the
letter was of a conspicuous color and sewed on to the garment in a
conspicuous place. The ears were not the only part to be maimed, for the
nostrils were slit and the cheeks and forehead were gashed and the
tongue was bored through with an awl, or even with a hot iron. Branding
with a hot iron was a common enough form of punishment and to make it
the more striking it was often done on the forehead or the cheek or on
the hands.

Whipping became a common and frequent punishment and it was used for a
number of different kinds of offenses. In New York in the time of Dutch
control two of the most common causes for whipping was drunkenness and
theft. In New England whipping was used as a punishment for lying,
swearing, taking false toll, perjury, selling rum to the Indians,
drunkenness, slander, name-calling, making false love to a young woman
in which a pretense of marriage was used, and for other crimes. One of
the greatest crimes in New England was idleness and "transients" as they
were called, people who would not settle down and keep at steady work,
were often whipped from town to town, for they were not allowed to
remain anywhere very long. "So common were whippings in the southern
colonies at the date of settlement of the country, that in Virginia even
'launderers and launderesses' who 'dare to wash any uncleane Linen,
drive bucks, or throw out the open water or suds of fowle clothes in the
open streetes,' or who took pay for washing for a soldier or laborer, or
who gave old torn linen for good linen, were severely whipped. Many
other offenses were punished by whipping in Virginia, such as slitting
the ears of hogs, or cutting off the ends of hog's ears--thereby
removing ear-marks and destroying claim to perambulatory
property--stealing tobacco, running away from home, drunkenness,
destruction of land-marks."[356]

Sometimes the offender was tied to the tail of a cart and whipped
through the streets, sometimes he was whipped at the pillory, but most
often the whipping-post was used. "There was a whipping-post on Queen
Street in Boston, another on the Common, another on State Street, and
they were constantly in use in Boston in Revolutionary times. Samuel
Breck wrote of the year 1771:

"'The large whipping-post painted red stood conspicuously and
prominently in the most public street in the town. It was placed in
State Street directly under the window of a great writing school which I
frequented, and from there the scholars were indulged in the spectacle
of all kinds of punishment suited to harden their hearts and brutalize
their feelings.'"[357]

Women as well as men were whipped. Sometimes the whipping was done in
the jail-yard, sometimes at the whipping-post, and sometimes even at the
tail of a cart, this last was a common enough form used on the Quaker
women in Massachusetts. The following would imply that sex did not
greatly appeal to the colonists. "In the 'Pticuler' Court of Connecticut
this entry appears: May 12, 1668.... Mary Wilton, the wife of Nicholas
Wilton, for contemptuous and reproachful terms by her put on one of the
Assistants are adjudged she to be whipt 6 stripes upon the naked body
next training day at Windsor."[358] "From a New York newspaper, dated
1712, I learn that one woman at the whipping-post 'created much
amusement by her resistance.'"[359] Quoting further from Samuel Breck
about the whipping-post in Boston in 1771: "Here women were taken in a
huge cage in which they were dragged on wheels from prison, and tied to
the post with bare backs on which thirty or forty lashes were bestowed
among the screams of the culprit and the uproar of the mob."[360] "In
Virginia in 1664 Major Robbins brought suit against one Mary Powell for
'scandalous speaches' against Rev. Mr. Teackle, for which she was
ordered to receive twenty lashes on her bare shoulders and to be
banished the country."[361]

This gruesome story of public punishments may well be ended with the
most gruesome part of all, that of public hangings. Far greater than the
amusement afforded our old colonial ancestors by witnessing the whipping
or maiming or branding of offenders or even the getting to rail at them
set in stocks, bilboes, cage, or pillory, was the thrilling spectacle of
a public execution and which became all the greater gala day if several
persons were hanged together at the one occasion. One of the greatest of
these exhibitions occurred at Boston on June 30, 1704, when seven
pirates were executed. "Sermons were preached in their Hearing Every
Day, And Prayers made daily with them. And they were Catechized and they
had many Occasional exhortations. Yet as they led a wicked and vitious
life so to appearance they died very obdurately and impenitently
hardened in their sin."[362] So ran the account in the _News Letter_ in
an "extra" for the event. Of course such a noted happening could not
have escaped so good a chronicler as Judge Sewall for he gave the
following account of this hanging in his diary:

"After dinner about 3 p. m. I went to see the Execution. Many were the
people that saw upon Broughtons Hill. But when I came to see how the
River was covered with People I was amazed; Some say there were 100
boats. 150 Boats & Canoes saith Cousin Moody of York. He Told them. Mr.
Cotton Mather came with Captain Quelch & 6 others for Execution from the
Prison to Scarletts Wharf and from thence in Boat to the place of
Execution. When the Scaffold was hoisted to a due height the seven
Malefactors went up. Mr. Mather pray'd for them standing upon the Boat.
Ropes were all fastened to the Gallows save King who was Reprieved. When
the Scaffold was let to sink there was such a Screech of the Women that
my wife heard it sitting in our Entry next the Orchard and was much
surprised at it, yet the wind was sou-west. Our house is a full mile
from the place."[363]

=Manufactures.= The colonists were very busy people. This was
particularly true of the earlier times when nature had to be conquered.
They had to make a great many of their own implements and to learn to
use in a skillful manner the few tools they had. They had to learn to
adapt the materials that nature furnished and to shape them into forms
best fitted for their work. They learned to select the natural forms of
things that could serve various purposes. They had two tools, the ax and
the knife, that were readily and skillfully used in home manufacturing.

The colonists cut and shaped the logs for their houses and made
stanchions and clapboards and shingles and laths. They selected pieces
of timber and trimmed them for snaths for their scythes and flails,
sled-runners and thills for carts, hames and ox-yokes, stakes and poles
for various uses, whip-stalks and ax-handles, and handles for spades.
They made salt-mortars, hog troughs, maple-sap troughs, and similar
articles by burning and scraping out logs cut to the lengths wanted.
They made wooden hinges and door-latches and buttons for fastening
doors. They made spinning-wheels and reels and looms and the things used
with them. They made various kinds of wooden bowls and trays and spoons
for household use. They learned from the Indians how to make brooms by
taking the length of a small birch tree and slitting the lower end into
a brush and shaping the upper end into a handle; they also learned to
make a broom by tying about a handle hemlock branches together for the
brush. They made spoons from clam-shells set in split sticks. They used
gourd-shells for bowls and skimmers and dipper and bottles and
pumpkin-shells for seed and grain holders. Turkey-wings were used for
hearth-brushes. There was one implement that the colonist in his
frontier life spent much time on and that was the powder-horn. "Months
of the patient work of every spare moment was spent in beautifying them,
and their quaintness, variety, and individuality are a never-ceasing
delight to the antiquary. Maps, plans, legends, verses, portraits,
landscapes, family history, crests, dates of births, marriages and
deaths, lists of battles, patriotic and religious sentiments, all may be
found on powder-horns. They have in many cases proved valuable
historical records, and have sometimes been the only records of
events."[364]

=Boys' Work and Manufactures.= It is not to be wondered at that great
men arose in the early history of our country, for the young were so
trained to work that the whole physical being of the boy was cultivated,
and so when a great brain came there was a sound body in which to keep
it and help it. A boy's life on a farm is thus described by one who went
through it:

"The boy was taught that laziness was the worst form of original sin.
Hence he must rise early and make himself useful before he went to
school, must be diligent there in study, and promptly home to do
'chores' at evening. His whole time out of school must be filled up
with some service, such as bringing in fuel for the day, cutting
potatoes for the sheep, feeding the swine, watering the horses, picking
the berries, gathering the vegetables, spooling the yarn. He was
expected never to be reluctant and not often tired."[365]

Not only did the boy have to work hard, but also, at least in New
England, he had to provide his own spending money, and various were the
ways he devised to obtain it. The boy's jack-knife was a great
instrument and highly prized, for with it he not only made things for
his own use but also to sell to procure spending money. With knives and
mallets the boys split out shoe-pegs from maple sticks. They made and
set teeth in wool-cards. They made traps and caught wild animals. They
made birch splinter brooms. One man stated in London during the middle
of the eighteenth century that when a boy in New Hampshire his only
spending money was earned by making these brooms and carrying them on
his back ten miles to town to sell them. The boys whittled
cheese-ladders and cheese-hoops and butter-paddles for their mothers'
use. They collected the bristles from the hogs at hog-killing time and
sold them for brush-making. They gathered nuts and berries and wild
cherries, the cherries being used in making cherry-rum and
cherry-bounce. Tying onions was another means of money-making. The older
boys sometimes made staves and shingles. Where a boy could turn a hand
for making a little money for himself he did it.

=Girls' and Women's Work.= In the colonial days everybody worked and the
girls and women did their share of it. The following quotations well
show this. In the last half of the eighteenth century the qualifications
of a housekeeper were such as asked for in the following advertisement:

"Wanted at a Seat about half a day's journey from Philadelphia, on which
are good improvements and domestics, A single Woman of unsullied
Reputation, an affable, cheerful, active and amiable Disposition;
cleanly, industrious, perfectly qualified to direct and manage the
female Concerns of country business, as raising small stock, dairying,
marketing, combing, carding, spinning, knitting, sewing, pickling,
preserving, etc., and occasionally to instruct two young Ladies in those
Branches of Oeconomy, who, with their father, compose the Family. Such a
person will be treated with respect and esteem, and meet with every
encouragement due to such a character."[366]

"There is, in the library of the Connecticut Historical Society, a diary
written by a young girl of Colchester, Connecticut, in the year 1775.
Her name was Abigail Foote. She set down her daily work, and the entries
run like this:

'Fix'd gown for Prude,--Mend Mother's Riding-hood,--Spun short
thread,--Fix'd two gowns for Welsh's girls,--Carded tow,--Spun
linen,--Worked on Cheese-basket,--Hatchel'd flax with Hannah, we did 51
lbs. apiece,--Pleated and ironed,--Read a Sermon of Doddridge's,--Spooled
a piece,--Milked the cows,--Spun linen, did 50 knots,--Made a Broom
of Guinea wheat straw,--Spun thread to whiten,--Set a Red dye,--Had
two Scholars from Mrs. Taylor's,--I carded two pounds of whole wool
and felt Nationly,--Spun harness twine,--Scoured the pewter.'

"She tells also of washing, cooking, knitting, weeding the garden,
picking geese, etc., and many visits to her friends. She dipped candles
in the spring, and made soap in the autumn."[367]

Knitting was an accomplishment of every girl in New England and among
the Dutch in New York and probably with every other girl in all the
colonies. Little girls were taught to knit as soon as they could hold
the needles, and at four years of age they could knit stockings and
mittens. They knit in wool and silk, doing fine knitting with many
intricate and elaborate stitches. "A beautiful pair of long silk
stockings of open-work design has initials knit on the instep, which
were the wedding hose of a bride of the year 1760; and the silk for them
was raised, wound, and spun by the bride's sister, a girl of fourteen,
who also did the exquisite knitting."[368]

These colonial women were thrifty and saving, being well prepared to
care for the garments needing repair, as is shown from an advertisement
in the _New York Gazette_ of April 1, 1751:

"Elizabeth Boyd gives notice that she will as usual graft Pieces in knit
Jackets and Breeches not to be discern'd, also to graft and foot
Stockings, and Gentlemen's Gloves, mittens or Muffatees made out of old
Stockings, or runs them in the Heels. She likewise makes Children's
Stockings out of Old Ones."[369]

The one kind of work that all the colonial women reveled in and which
allowed them to display their love of color, their skill in
needle-craft, and their thrift in using up odds and ends, was that of
quilt-making. In the early days cotton goods were scarce and so the
quilts were made from woolen garments and pieces, and all kinds of
garments and remnants were used, as, the old discarded militia uniforms,
worn-out flannel sheets, old petticoats, coat and cloak linings, and any
other things that could not be further worn. These were thoroughly
washed and where needed dyed with home-dyes and then pressed out and cut
into quilting pieces. Later, cottons and linens were more readily
procured and often the very best stuffs were used, for they prided
themselves on the beauty of the pieces and their arrangement and the
careful stitching. Not only did the making of quilts afford a chance to
use up the material that could not be used otherwise and thus make
coverings of value and warmth, it also gave to the women the opportunity
for coming together and enjoying themselves, and so quilting-bees became
one of the most social and enjoyable occasions.

One of the great industries of the women was that of soap-making. The
refuse grease from cooking, butcherings, and the like, was stored up
through the winter as was also the wood-ashes from the fire-place for
the spring soap-making. From the ashes they obtained lye by pouring
water over the ashes in barrels set on boards with grooves in them and
letting it filter out at the bottom to be caught in vessels set under
the ends of the boards. The lye thus obtained was poured over the grease
in a great pot and boiled over a fire out of doors. The soft soap thus
made was used for household purposes, especially in the washing of
clothing, which was done usually once a month and in some households
once in three months, the soiled clothing having been allowed to
accumulate and be stored away to be washed together on one great
wash-day. Another kind of labor in which the women engaged was the
picking of the domestic geese, which were raised for the feathers rather
than for food. The feathers were greatly desired for pillows and beds
and the quills for pens.

Among the industries in which women engaged were those of flax-culture
and spinning, wool-culture and spinning, and hand-weaving. The women and
children aided in the culture of the flax and did quite a good deal of
the work in its preparation and almost all the spinning. Women and
children, too, did a great deal in helping in the wool-culture and
spinning and weaving. In those early days all in the family could help
and a family at work is well portrayed in the following.

"The wool industry easily furnished home occupation to an entire family.
Often by the bright fire-light in the early evening every member of the
household might be seen at work on the various stages of wool
manufacture or some of its necessary adjuncts, and varied and cheerful
industrial sounds fill the room. The old grandmother, at light and easy
work, is carding the wool into fleecy rolls, seated next the fire; for,
as the ballad says 'she was old and saw right dimly.' The mother,
stepping as lightly as one of her girls, spins the rolls into woolen
yarn on the great wheel. The oldest daughter sits at the clock-reel,
whose continuous buzz and occasional click mingles with the humming rise
and fall of the wool-wheel, and the irritating scratch, scratch, of the
cards. A little girl at a small wheel is filling quills with woolen yarn
for the loom, not a skilled work; the irregular sound shows her
intermittent industry. The father is setting fresh teeth in a wool-card,
while the boys are whittling hand-reels and loom-spools."[370]

After the first years in the new country, when all time and labor would
be consumed in carrying on the plain necessaries of life, women began to
enter more into fancy lines of work, and during later colonial times the
women and girls did quite a lot of fine work in sewing, knitting,
embroidering, and other kinds of decorative work. There arose schools
for teaching girls and young women feather-work, fancy knitting,
painting on glass, embroidery, netting, fine sewing, wax-work, the
making of artificial fruits and flowers, paper-cutting, and many other
things.

They made most beautiful embroidery. Articles of clothing had vines,
trees, fruits, flowers, and other designs worked on them and also words
and mottoes and texts from the Bible. Some of the christening caps and
robes of the babies had beautiful embroidered work on them. Among the
embroidered goods of those days were the mourning pieces. They had
worked on them weeping willows and urns, tombs and mourning figures,
epitaphs, and names of deceased members of the family or friends with
dates of their deaths.

One piece of embroidering which was done by every little girl in
families of standing was the making of a sampler, which consisted of a
long and narrow, or nearly square, piece of linen canvas with designs
worked in colored silks and wools. These were among the works of
children in early colonial times, as there is one still preserved made
by a daughter of a Pilgrim Father and another bearing on it the date of
1654. In the older samplers there was little bother with realism in
using the colors as a green horse might be alongside a blue tree and the
green horse might have his legs worked in red. On them were worked crude
or strangely represented trees and fruits and flowers and animals. There
were verses embroidered and portions of hymns and sometimes pictures
portraying family or public events. Some were quite pretentious, one
such sampler shows the Old South Church with a coach passing by it and
ladies and gentlemen on horses and afoot in the costumes of the time,
and even a negro lad holding a horse, and birds flying in the air above
them.

Laces were made for using on pillows and made on net for veils and
collars and caps. "Girls spent years working on a single collar or
tucker. Sometimes medallions of this net lace were embroidered down upon
fine linen lawn. I have infants' caps of this beautiful work, finer than
any needlework of to-day."[371]

Netting was another of their arts, the net being used on coverlets and
curtains and valances, this kind being made of cotton thread or twine,
while a finer kind was made of silk or fine cotton for trimming sacks
and petticoats; also netted purses and work-bags as well as knitted ones
were made. On small looms they made tapes and braids and ribbons for use
as glove-ties, shoe-strings, hair-laces, stay-laces, garters, hatbands,
belts, etc.

They did painting on glass, representing fruits and flowers, and an
especial subject was coats of arms. They made feather-work, which
consisted in pasting small feathers or portions of feathers together to
form flowers for use on head-dresses and bonnets. Another form of
decorative work indulged in by colonial women was the cutting of designs
out of stiff paper with scissors. They cut out coats of arms,
valentines, wreaths of flowers, marine views, religious symbols,
animals, landscapes, and other designs. They were sometimes mounted on
black paper, framed and glazed, and given as presents to friends.

=Religion.= The first colonists of all parts were religiously inclined.
Captain John Smith tells of the first colonists in Virginia: "We had
daily Common Prayer morning and evening; every Sunday two sermons; and
every three months a holy Communion till our Minister died; but our
Prayers daily with an Homily on Sundays we continued two or three years
after, till more Preachers came."[372] They held to the Church of
England and believed in strict observance of Sunday. This day was kept
for religious services and all were compelled to go to church except the
sick and journeys were forbidden and all work not strictly necessary and
all sports, such as shooting, fishing, game-playing, etc. In New
Netherlands there was likewise strict observance of Sunday by the Dutch
and working, playing in the streets, fishing, hunting, going on pleasure
trips, and such like, were strictly forbidden. With the Puritans in New
England the strictest observance of Sunday as a holy day was rigidly
enforced. No work on the farm was permitted on that day nor any
pleasures whatsoever in the way of fishing, shooting, sailing, dancing,
jumping, and the like, nor riding except going to or from church. The
laws for this day were rigidly enforced as is shown from their writings
on the subject and court records. Beside the three faiths as represented
above, there were the Roman Catholics in Maryland, the Quakers in
Pennsylvania, the Baptists in Rhode Island, and Huguenots, Lutherans,
Moravians, Waldenses, Walloons, Jews, and others, in the different
colonies. There was room for any and all of them and although there were
persecutions yet it did not destroy any faith but caused the people to
move out into new fields where they would be unmolested.

The first places of worship in Virginia were thus described by Captain
John Smith:

"Wee did hang an awning, which is an old saile, to three of foure trees
to shadow us from the Sunne; our walls were railes of wood; our seats
unhewed trees till we cut plankes; our Pulpit a bar of wood nailed to
two neighbouring trees. In foul weather we shifted into an old rotten
tent; this came by way of adventure for new. This was our Church till
we built a homely thing like a barne set upon Cratchets, covered with
rafts, sedge, and earth; so also was the walls; the best of our houses
were of like curiosity, that could neither well defend from wind nor
rain."[373]

In a short time a timber church sixty feet long was built and some years
afterward this church was replaced by a brick one. Some of the churches
in the Southern colonies were modeled in shape after the old English
churches and were built of stone, but most of them were wooden buildings
without "spires or towers or steeples."

In 1646 the Dutch built a little wooden church in Fort Orange. The first
church at Albany was built in 1657 and it was simply a blockhouse with
loopholes for permitting guns to be fired through in case of an Indian
attack and three small cannon were placed on the roof. The first church
in New Amsterdam was built of stone and it was seventy-two feet long.
The first church in Brooklyn was built in 1666 and it had thick stone
walls with a steep peaked roof with an open belfry on top. Many of the
old Dutch churches were six-sided or eight-sided with a high, steep,
pyramidal roof, topped with a belfry on which was a weather-vane.

Not long after landing at Plymouth the Puritans built a fort, which was
used as a Lord's Day meeting-place till a meeting-house was built in
1648. As other settlements were made, religious services were at first
held in tents or under trees and where a settler had a roomy house this
often was used. The first meeting-house at Boston had mud walls, a
thatched roof, and earthen floor, which was used till 1640.

The first meeting-houses in New England were square and made of logs
with the spaces between the logs filled with clay and with steep roofs
which were thatched with reeds and long grass and with a beaten earth
for a floor. These buildings were often quite small, one having been
thirty-six feet long, twenty feet wide, and twelve feet high, and
another was but twenty-six feet long and twenty feet wide. Later these
were replaced by larger and better buildings and these early rude
structures were used for granaries and storehouses.

The second form of meeting-houses was a square wooden building having a
truncated pyramidal roof with a belfry or turret. One of this type,
built at Hingham in 1681, known as the "Old Ship," is still in
existence. The largest and finest of this second type was the First
Church at Boston, a large square brick building, built in 1713, and
which was used till 1808.

The third type of New England colonial meeting-houses had a lofty wooden
steeple at one end, of which the old South Church at Boston, a
well-known historic building, is a good example.

In the South the churches were often placed by the waterside and people
came to them over the water in various kinds of vessels. In New England
the first meeting-houses were often built in the valleys, or the
meadow-lands and the houses of the settlers were built about them. As
the population increased there could no longer be land available for all
in the valleys and the houses were built out near watering places and
pasturage for convenience and so the meeting-houses began to be placed
on hill-tops. This was done so as to be a lookout for danger from
Indians and also so it could be seen from all parts of the country as
the people had to journey through narrow roads and bridle-paths obscured
by trees and brush. Too, there was a pride in such a location, to show
off a fine meeting-house, which would thus be visible for many miles
around.

The old New England meeting-houses were used for various purposes, one
of the strangest being for the nailing of the heads of wolves to the
logs on the outside. Wolves were so numerous and so destructive and so
feared that rewards were paid for their killing and to show this the
heads were nailed to the outer walls of the meeting-house. This was all
the decoration that the outer walls of the building had for near a
century as during the seventeenth century it was considered vain and
extravagant to paint them but by the middle of the eighteenth century
paint became cheaper and more plentiful and the meeting-houses began not
only to be painted but also in conspicuous colors and towns began to vie
with one another in the most striking displays. One new meeting-house
was painted a bright yellow and soon others were likewise adorned.
"Brooklyn church, then, in 1762, ordered that the outside of its
meeting-house be 'culered' in the approved fashion. The body of the
house was painted a bright orange; the doors and 'bottom boards' a warm
chocolate color; the 'window-jets,' corner-boards, and weather-boards
white. What a bright nosegay of color! As a crowning glory Brooklyn
people put up an 'Eleclarick Rod' on the gorgeous edifice, and proudly
boasted that Brooklyn meeting-house was the 'newest, biggest and
yallowest' in the county."[374]

There was no shade about the early meeting-houses in New England as the
trees were cut down around it for fear of forest fires. There were no
curtains nor window-blinds, so that the heat and blazing light in summer
would make it bad for all in the church. They did often have heavy
outside shutters but they could not be closed during services as the
room would then be made too dark for the minister to see to read his
sermon. Later the forests grew again and they were not cut away nor
cleared up and the meeting-house would thus become dark and gloomy.
Oiled paper was used in the windows of these early meeting-houses and
later when glass came into use it was nailed in instead of being
puttied.

The early meeting-house of the Puritans in New England were of a very
simple interior with raftered walls and sanded puncheon floors or
earthen floors. The early Dutch churches in New Netherlands also were
plain and they were kept in the greatest cleanliness, scrubbed often and
floors sanded with fine beach-sand. The churches of the Southern
colonies were usually better furnished and flowers were used for
decorations, which was never the case with the Puritans. The pulpits in
all the churches were rather pretentious affairs, being elevated above
the floor, enclosed, with a narrow flight of stairs leading up to them.
At least in the early Puritan churches there was a sounding-board placed
above the pulpit, which was a board supported from the roof by a slender
iron rod.

In the earliest meeting-houses in New England the seats were made of
rough hand-riven boards placed on legs and without backs. Later there
were pews with narrow seats around the sides and high partition walls
between. In the early Dutch churches the men had places in pews around
the walls while chairs were placed in the center of the church for the
women to occupy. In some of the Virginia churches the seats were
comfortably cushioned. In later times in all the churches the pews were
carefully assigned and persons who crowded into pews above their station
were unceremoniously put out by those in charge.

The meeting-houses in New England were wholly without means of heating
until the middle of the eighteenth century. Throughout the long and
tedious services during the coldest weather of a bitter climate,
attendants at the meetings had to get along as best they could. The men
wore their heaviest clothing during the services. The minister, too,
would keep himself wrapped up while in the pulpit just as on his way to
the meeting-house. The women in the earlier times dressed to suit the
temperature, but as wealth came fashion also entered in and thin silk
hose, cloth or kid or silk slippers, linen underclothing, dresses with
elbow sleeves and round low necks, and a thin cloth cape or mantle for
the shoulders was too often in midwinter the Sunday apparel. The women
did protect their heads with caps and mufflers and veils and their hands
with gloves and muffs.

The officials must be given credit for trying to keep the meeting-house
free from the winds as well as possible, as in some places it was
ordered that during the cold weather "no doors be opened to the windward
and only one door to the leeward." In 1725 in one place it was ordered
that the "several doors of the meeting-house be taken care of and kept
shut in very cold and windy seasons according to the lying of the wind
from time to time; and that people in such windy weather come in at the
leeward doors only, and take care that they are easily shut both to
prevent the breaking of the doors and the making of a noise."[375]

In some of the early log meeting-houses the skins of wolves and other
fur-bearing animals were made into bags which were nailed or tied to the
benches in such a way as to let the people thrust their feet into them
for warmth. In the bitterest weather foot-stoves were taken to the
meeting-houses for the use of the women and children. During the middle
of the eighteenth century stoves began to appear in the meeting-houses
in New England, perhaps the first stove used having been at Hadley in
1734. But there was a hard fight to introduce stoves and it was near
another century later before they came into general use.

If the meeting-house should have been situated in a town, at noon the
people went to their homes or to the tavern or to neighbors' houses in
that vicinity to eat their dinners and to warm themselves. If the
meeting-house in the country was near the home of a hospitable farmer
the congregation would go there at noon. But too often the
meeting-house was away off at the top of a hill or in an out-of-the-way
place and so there would be built near it a rough-like structure, known
as the "noon-house." Sometimes it was called the "Sabba-day house" and
again a "horse-hows," this last name because in some of the houses the
horses were placed at one end. At the other end was built a large rough
stone chimney. Of severe Sundays some one, a servant or an older son,
would usually be sent at an early hour to start a good fire in this
fireplace for warming the family after their cold ride. At noon all
would repair to this house for warmth and for eating their dinner.
Before starting for home a warming was again taken. Too, during the long
sermons in forenoon and afternoon a servant or some member of the family
would replenish the coals in the foot-stoves from the coals in the
fireplace of this noon-house.

In front of the meeting-house there were usually horse-blocks, or
stepping-stones, or hewn logs, for mounting their horses as usually all
rode. All kinds of notices were posted on the meeting-house, notices of
town-meetings, prohibitions from selling guns and powder to the Indians,
notices of sales of cattle or farms, lists of town officers, copies of
the laws against Sabbath-breaking, notices of intended marriages, and
sometimes even scandalous and insulting libels. Often on the
meeting-house green stood the stocks, pillory, cage, and whipping-post.
The meeting-house was not only used for religious services, but also for
town meetings and likewise as a store-house. Never having fire in it nor
about it, it was the safest place for a powder-magazine and some place
in it was fitted up for such purpose. Also grain was stored in its loft
and in particular that which might have been given to the minister as
pay for his services.

"In one church in the Connecticut valley, in a township where it was
forbidden that tobacco be smoked upon the public streets, the church
loft was used to dry and store the freshly cut tobacco-leaves which the
inhabitants sold to the 'ungodly Dutch.' Thus did greed for gain lead
even blue Connecticut Christians to profane the house of God."[376]

There were various ways in colonial times of calling the people to the
religious services of Sunday morning. In the early times and
particularly so in New England, they did not always have bells on the
churches and various devices were used to let people know when it was
time to go to church. The time of morning service was usually about
nine o'clock and this was announced sometimes by the tooting of a horn
or the blowing of a conch-shell or the sounding of a trumpet. The
beating of a drum was a very common signal and some also used the firing
of guns, in this latter the number of times firing was different from
that signifying danger, so as not to frighten the people. Sometimes a
flag was used to notify the people of meeting time, having been put out
when time of notice arrived and left hanging out till time for the
beginning of the service, when the flag was taken down. Some
meeting-houses were supplied with belfries from which the conch or horn
or trumpet was sounded, or whatever signal was used, and in other places
a platform was made upon top of the meeting-houses for this purpose.
When bells were used, in the early churches there were often no towers
in which to place them and they were hung on trees near the
meeting-house.

At the first signal from conch or trumpet or horn or drum, the people
would be seen starting out from their homes. With some communities it
was the custom for the congregation to stop at the church door and wait
until the minister and his wife arrived and passed into the house and
then all followed, of course the boys hanging back and coming in at the
very last moment, shuffling and scraping and clattering with their heavy
boots as they went up the stairs to their place in the loft. Other
congregations entered the church as they came and then all arose as the
minister entered and remained standing till he went into the pulpit and
then sat down as he did. It was also the custom for the congregation to
remain standing in the pews at the close of the service till the
minister had come down from the pulpit, joined his wife, and passed out
to the church-porch, there to greet the people as they would come out of
the church.

It would seem that the most important officer in church and public life
in New England was the tithing-man. "He was in a degree a constable, a
selectman, a teacher, a tax-collector, an inspector, a sexton, a
home-watcher, and above all, a Puritan Bumble, whose motto was _Hic et
ubique_."[377] Among his duties were the seeing that the children
learned the church catechism, looking out that people went to church,
inspecting the taverns to note that they were kept in an orderly manner
and did not sell liquors to disorderly persons, and watching that boys
and other persons should not go swimming in the water on week days. His
most important duty, perhaps, was that of keeping order and proper
decorum in the meeting-house by beating out the dogs, prodding the noisy
boys, and awakening the sleeping adults. For this latter he had a long
staff with a knob on one end to tap the sleeping men while on the other
end was a fox-tail to dangle in the face of the sleeping women. The
following from a journal of those early days tells how well he performed
his duties and some of the effects thereof.

"June 3, 1646.--Allen Bridges hath bin chose to wake ye sleepers in
meeting. And being much proude of his place, must needs have a fox taile
fixed to ye ende of a long staff wherewith he may brush ye faces of them
yt will have napps in time of discourse, likewise a sharpe thorne
whereby he may pricke such as be most sound. On ye last Lord his day, as
hee strutted about ye meeting-house, he did spy Mr. Tomlins sleeping
with much comfort, hys head kept steadie by being in ye corner, and his
hand grasping ye rail. And soe spying, Allen did quickly thrust his
staff behind Dame Ballard and give him a grievous prick upon ye hand.
Whereupon Mr. Tomlins did spring vpp mch above ye floore and with
terrible force strike hys hand against ye wall; and also, to ye great
wonder of all, prophanlie exclaim in a loud voice, curse ye wood-chuck,
he dreaming so it seemed yt a wood-chuck had seized and bit his hand.
But on coming to know where he was, and ye greate scandall he had
committed, he seemed much abashed, but did not speak. And I think he
will not soon again goe to sleepe in meeting."[378]

Among the Dutch in New Amsterdam there was a somewhat similar officer,
"the _voorleezer_, or chorister, who was also generally the bell-ringer,
sexton, grave-digger, funeral inviter, schoolmaster, and sometimes town
clerk. He 'tuned the psalm'; turned the hour-glass; gave out the psalms
on a hanging-board to the congregation; read the Bible; gave up notices
to the dominie by sticking the papers in the end of a cleft stick and
holding it up to the high pulpit."[379]

The ministers among the Puritans in New England were very greatly
considered. The laity who were bold enough to criticize or disparage the
minister or his teachings were severely punished. A woman who spoke
harshly of her minister had her tongue placed in a cleft stick and made
to stand thus in a public place. A man for declaring that he received no
profit from his minister's sermons was fined and severely whipped. Worse
than bodily punishment was excommunication, for if a minister pronounced
such upon a member of his congregation he was excluded from partaking of
the sacrament and the people of the church refrained from all communion
with him in civil affairs, even from eating and drinking with him. Yet
with all this great power of the ministers in early Puritan times, they
were not permitted to perform the marriage-service, which was wholly a
civil affair, nor could they pray or exhort at a funeral. The ordination
of so important an officer as the minister was a very important event.
This was celebrated by a great gathering of people and ministers for
many miles around. It was a deeply serious affair and yet a great
festival occasion, for frequently there was an ordination ball and
always an ordination supper, where there was a plenty and a variety of
things to eat and to drink.

Although the minister's calling was one of trust and honor it was not
also one of profit. The salary was small and paid in different ways, not
a large part of it in cash. It was the universal custom to provide a
house for the minister and often this was among the very first houses
built in a new town and at its laying out some of the best lots were set
aside for his use. He was also provided with free pasturage for his
horse, the village burial-ground having been placed at his disposal for
pasture land. In the early days a large part of the salary was paid in
corn and labor and the amount for each church member to give was fixed
by the authorities. Cord-wood was another common contribution, and each
male church-member was expected to give a load of wood delivered at the
door of the parsonage. Any money contributed by strangers who chanced to
attend the services was usually given to the minister. A spinning bee, a
forerunner of the donation party of later times, was often held at the
home of the minister, wherein each woman would take her spinning-wheel
and flax and all would spend the day in spinning and give the outcome to
the minister's family. Also the women would meet and make patchwork
bed-quilts and give them to the minister's family. Some ministers would
go out among the members of their congregations and beg supplies for
themselves and families. Many of the ministers found it necessary to do
outside work to make a living, such as farming on week days, taking
young men to teach and to fit for college, compounding and selling drugs
and medicines; while some were coopers, carpenters, rope-makers,
millers, and cobblers. It took great thrift and economy on the part of
the minister and his family to get along. The wife not only had to be
zealous in religious practices but also in domestic practices and often
she was the thriftiest wife of the community. Every kind of denial had
to be made and yet with this poverty the minister's children were quite
often well kept and trained and many ministers were enabled to help
their sons to obtain a college education.

Fear of the Indians did not keep the Puritans away from the
meeting-house, but it did cause them to go there armed. At first each
man carried arms to church and then later a certain number were detailed
to arm themselves. In 1642 in Massachusetts the law provided for six men
to be at the meeting-house with muskets and powder and shot. The armed
men were placed near the door so as to be ready to protect the
congregation or to rush out in case of need. When the services were
ended, the armed guards went out of the meeting-house first and then the
other men and the women and children were last, thus to be protected.
Too, it was the custom for the men always to sit at the door of the pew,
next to the aisle, so they could be ready to get their arms and rush out
in case of a fight. Also being at the door of the pew the father could
better protect the other members of the family, and a man who would not
have occupied this place would have been considered a poor kind of
husband and father.

In the early colonial days in New England there were two services in the
meeting-house on Sunday, in the forenoon and in the afternoon. The
sermons were long, two or three hours not being uncommon and some even
ran up to five hours in length. Added to these long sermons were long
prayers, frequently an hour in length and sometimes even continuing for
three hours. At a desk near the pulpit there was an hour-glass and
sitting near it was an officer of the church whose duty it was to turn
it at the end of the hour. During the prayer the congregation stood,
about its middle the minister would make a long pause to let the infirm
and those ill sit down, but all the others remained standing till its
close. It was the duty of the tithing-man to see that no one left the
house before the close of the services without there was a real good
reason and also he was to keep the congregation awake. These long
prayers and sermons were not disliked by the congregation, but on the
contrary they considered it a great gift for the minister to be able to
continue long in prayer and a short sermon would have been looked upon
as irreligious and lacking in reverence, and beside that was for what
the minister was paid. "In every record and journal which I have read,
throughout which ministers and laymen recorded all the annoyances and
opposition which the preachers encountered, I have never seen one entry
of any complaint or ill-criticism of too long praying or
preaching."[380]

The music of the Puritan meeting-house is well summarized in the
following: "The singing of the psalms was tedious and unmusical, just as
it was in churches of all denominations both in America and England at
that date. Singing was by ear and very uncertain, and the congregation
had no notes, and many had no psalm-books, and hence no words. So the
psalms were 'lined' or 'deaconed'; that is, a line was read by the
deacon, and then sung by the congregation. Some psalms when lined and
sung occupied half an hour, during which the congregation stood. There
were but eight or nine tunes in general use, and even these were often
sung incorrectly. There were no church organs to help keep the singers
together, but sometimes pitch-pipes were used to set the key.
Bass-viols, clarionets, and flutes were played upon at a later date in
meeting to help the singing. Violins were too much associated with dance
music to be thought decorous for church music. Still the New England
churches clung to and loved their poor confused psalm-singing as one of
their few delights, and whenever a Puritan, even in road or field, heard
the distant sound of a psalm-tune he removed his hat and bowed his head
in prayer."[381]

=The Child and Religion.= The children in the other colonies were not so
strictly reared as those in Puritan New England. The people in New York
enjoined that the constable attend church to look after such children as
profaned the Sabbath. In Albany complaint was made that boys and girls
coasted down hills on Sunday and in some other places that the young
people violated the Sabbath by discoursing on vain things and the
running of races. In the eighteenth century a cage was placed in City
Hall Park in New York for the confining of boys who profaned the
Sabbath.

In the meeting-house in New England in colonial times the young men sat
together on one side and the young women sat in a corresponding place on
the other side. The little girls sat on stools or low seats in the pews
with their mothers or, if too many of them for place in the pew, they
would sit out in the aisle, and sometimes there would be a row of little
girls on a row of little stools extending the full length of the aisle.
In some of the meeting-houses the boys were seated together on the
pulpit and gallery stairs, while in other houses a place was made for
them in the gallery, but wherever the place they were all herded
together.

The boys among the Puritans were as other boys in all times and among
all peoples, and the huddling them together in meeting-houses only
helped to bring out their growing physical activities, as the taking
them away from the watchfulness of the parents gave them better
opportunities for expression of their repressed powers. One way of doing
this was by slamming the pew-seats at the close of prayer and sermon and
the vigor with which they did this called for an order from one church
at least that "The boys are not to wickedly noise down there pew-seats."
Another pastime was the twisting of the balustrades of the gallery
railing in order to make them squeak. Whittling and cutting the woodwork
and benches where they sat gave opportunity to put in time and also to
try out their jack-knives. They passed the time in other ways, for there
are court records showing that youths were taken before magistrates and
fined for playing and laughing in church and doing things to make others
laugh and play.

The best evidence left us to show that boys kept themselves busy in the
meeting-houses is that they kept other people busy attending to them.
There are plenty of records left to show that the tithing-man was
continually being ordered to look after the behavior of the boys and
also of the appointing of extra men to look after these unruly beings,
in one church as many as six men had to be appointed at one time to keep
them in order. These men had power to inflict punishment on the boys,
and they did not hesitate to rap them soundly with their sticks and,
too, sometimes a boy was taken out of the meeting-house and given a
severe whipping. The tithing-man also used other means, for sometimes he
took a boy from his place with the other boys and paraded him across the
house and put him by side his mother on the women's side. If a young man
would not behave himself, sometimes he was taken away from his place
among the men and led to where the boys sat and forced to sit with them.
Even during the noon hour the boys were watched over. While in the
noon-house they had to listen to Bible teachings and interpretations.
This was done to keep them quiet during this time so they might not
"sporte and playe."

It is not wondered at that under such training much early religion
developed. The Bible was read through many times by the young and much
precocity in religious things was developed. A father gives in his diary
the following in reference to a little girl of eight: "A little while
after dinner she burst out into an amazing cry, which caused all the
family to cry, too. Her mother asked the reason; she gave none. At last
said she was afraid she would goe to Hell; her sins were not pardoned.
She was first wounded by my reading a sermon of Mr. Norton's, Text, ye
shall seek me and shall not find me. And those words in the sermon, ye
shall seek me and die in your sins ran in her mind and terrified her
greatly ... told me she was afraid she should go to Hell, was like Spira
not elected."[382]

Another father makes this entry in his diary about his four-year-old
daughter: "I took my little daughter Katy into my study and then I told
my child I am to dye shortly and shee must, when I am dead, remember
Everything I now said to unto her. I sett before her the sinful
Condition of her nature, and I charged her to pray in Secret Places
every Day. That God for the sake of Jesus Christ would give her a New
Heart. I gave her to understand that when I am taken from her she must
look to meet with more humbling Afflictions than she does now she has a
Tender Father to provide for her."[383]

These two quotations are from the diaries of educated men, the first
being from Judge Sewall and the second from Cotton Mather. It is hard
for us now to see any reason for such a talk as Cotton Mather gave a
child of four, especially as he lived for thirty years afterward and
died long after this little girl died.

The religious books of Puritan New England children were of a remarkable
character. Mrs. Earle gives the following in reference to one of the
most popular and widely read books:

"Young babes chide their parents for too infrequent praying, and have
ecstacies of delight when they can pray _ad infitum_. One child two
years old was able 'savingly to understand the mysteries of Redemption';
another of the same age was a 'dear lover of faithful ministers.' Anne
Greenwich, who died when five years old, 'discoursed most astonishingly
of great mysteries'; Daniel Bradley, who had an 'Impression and
inquisitiveness of the State of Souls after Death,' when three years
old; Elizabeth Butcher, who, 'when two and a half years old, as she lay
in the Cradle would ask herself the Question What is my corrupt Nature:
and would answer herself It is empty of Grace, bent unto Sin, and only
to Sin, and that Continually,' were among the distressing
examples."[384]

The following is an extract from a letter written about 1638 by a
Puritan boy of twelve years of age and well displays the tendency toward
religious fears as found in the young people of that period:

"Though I am thus well in body yet I question whether my soul doth
prosper as my body doth, for I perceive yet to this very day, little
_growth_ in grace; and this makes me question whether grace be in my
heart or no. I feel also daily great unwillingness to good duties, and
the great ruling of sin in my heart; and that God is angry with me and
gives me no answers to my prayers; but many times he even throws them
down as dust in my face; and he does not grant my continued request for
the _spiritual blessing of the softening of my hard heart_. And in all
this I could yet take some comfort but that it makes me to wonder what
God's _secret decree_ concerning me may be: for I doubt whether even God
is wont to deny grace and mercy to his chosen (though _uncalled_) when
they seek unto him by prayer for it; and, therefore, seeing he doth thus
deny it to me, I think that the reason of it is most like to be because
I belong not unto _the election of grace_. I desire that you would let
me have your prayers as I doubt not but I have them, and rest

"Your Son, SAMUEL MATHER."[385]

As was given under the discussion of infancy, the Puritan babe had to be
taken to the meeting-house on the Sunday following its birth to be
baptized, even in the most bitter weather. One record is given of the
baptism of an infant but four days old and this during the first part of
February. In one diary there is given about a day in January so bad that
but few women could get out to meeting, and yet a babe was taken to the
meeting-house and baptized. It must be considered, too, that this
occurred in a building that never had had a fire in it nor was there
fire on that day. It is difficult for us at this day to hold even in
imagination the carrying of the young babe by the midwife through the
snow and the wind, and the cold of a New England January, the taking him
to the altar and placing him in the arms of his father, the throwing the
icy cold water over the child, and the shuddering of the child; yet
worse, for this baptism might have been an immersion in the cold water
after the ice had been broken, for at least one minister did practice
infant immersion.

=Education.= There arose during colonial times in the United States
three chief systems of education. These forms came about through the
ideas of the people settling the different parts of the country and
through conditions arising from industrial occupations. In the southern
colonies, in particular in Virginia, where the pursuits that arose
produced plantation life with houses scattered and no town or village
life, there was followed the educational ideas of England and education
took upon itself the form of higher and secondary training for the
ruling classes with but little provision for elementary education. There
was no free public education, the nearest approach to a common
elementary school was what was designated the "field school," which was
originated by a neighborhood and supported by tuition fees, and often
held in a shabby building on an old exhausted tobacco field. There did
arise, however, secondary schools which were chartered and endowed,
resembling the endowed Latin schools of England.

The second form of schools was the parochial organization of the middle
colonies of New Netherlands and Pennsylvania. In these colonies there
arose a school in connection with a church and, unlike the education of
the South, which was along secondary training, the work of this
parochial school was chiefly in elementary education. In New
Netherlands, as in Holland, the church was connected with the state and
there was but one church, the Dutch Reformed, and the civil and
religious authorities jointly controlled and directed the education. In
Pennsylvania, however, religious and civil freedom had been granted from
the very first and there had come into the colony people of different
nationalities and of different religions, and education came to be
established with the different religious bodies and each religious sect
had its own distinctive parochial school alongside its own church. There
also were some attempts at higher and secondary education. Among the
schools started was the Penn Charter School, which was originally
organized by the Friends in 1689, and there were higher schools of other
denominations. When New Netherlands fell into the hands of the English,
there came about in New York conditions somewhat similar to those in
Virginia and a number of secondary schools were organized.

The third type of schools in colonial times was that formed by
governmental action in the New England colonies of Massachusetts and
Connecticut. In these colonies there was no such class distinctions as
in Virginia, and, unlike Pennsylvania, there was but one nationality and
one religion, and, unlike the Dutch of New Netherlands, they had cut
themselves away from the ruling classes of their native land, and thus
they were free to develop along their own ideas. Their religious belief
and training called for the education of each of the members of the
colony, as the Bible was held to be the infallible rule of faith and
practice, and so every one should at least have enough schooling to
enable him to read the Bible for himself. Hence schools arose in a short
time after settlement. In 1644 Salem taxed all who had children and were
able to pay and procured in this way means for paying for the schooling
of children whose parents were too poor to pay for them. In 1647
Massachusetts passed a law that in every town of fifty families a school
for the teaching of reading and writing should be provided and that in a
town of one hundred families a grammar school should be provided.
Connecticut in 1659 provided for its children in the same way. But all
such schools were not free as we term free schools now, and it was not
till near the time of the Revolution that general taxes were levied for
school purposes and free schools were thereby established.

The early schoolhouses in Pennsylvania and New York were made of logs
and the top covered with bark. Holes were cut in the sides for windows,
which sometimes were covered with greased paper that let in a dim light.
Some had a rough puncheon floor and others a dirt floor. A distance up
from the floor around the walls pegs were placed between the logs and
boards laid on them for desks and by them were boards set on stakes for
seats for the older children, while the younger children sat on blocks
or benches of logs. At one end or in the middle was a catted chimney. At
least some of the schoolhouses in New England were better furnished, as
is shown by the following entry in the town records of Roxbury in 1652:

"The feoffes agreed with Daniel Welde that he provide convenient benches
with forms, with tables for the scholars, and a conveniente seate for
the scholmaster, a Deske to put the Dictionary on and shelves to lay up
bookes."[386]

This schoolhouse was not kept in proper repairs, as the teacher in
Roxbury in 1681 wrote:

"Of inconveniences (in the schoolhouse) I shall mention no other but the
confused and shattered and nastie posture that it is in, not fitting for
to reside in, the glass broke, and thereupon very raw and cold; the
floor very much broken and torn up to kindle fires, the hearth spoiled,
the seats some burned and others out of kilter, that one had as
well-nigh as goods keep school in a hog stie as in it."[387]

Supplies for school purposes were quite scarce in colonial times. There
were no blackboards nor maps. Paper was quite scarce and very carefully
used. Birch bark was used to cipher on. Slates also were used and those
of the earlier times had no frames and had a hole in one side in which a
string could be tied for holding a pencil or for hanging around the
neck. If lead pencils were used at all during colonial times it was in
the latest part of the period. Instead of lead pencils they used
plummets made of lead melted and cast into wooden molds and cut into
shape by a jack-knife. Pens were cut from goose-quills and it required
quite a little skill to make good pens and keep them in order. Ink was
made by dissolving ink-powder, each child furnishing his own ink-bottle
or ink-horn and ink. Sometimes the ink was wholly home-made: "In remote
districts of Vermont, Maine, and Massachusetts, home-made ink, feeble
and pale, was made by steeping the bark of the swamp-maple in water,
boiling the decoction till thick, and diluting it with copperas."[388]

There were not a great number or variety of books for use in these early
schools. The two most noted books were the Hornbook and the New England
Primer. The hornbook was the first book used by the child. This
consisted of a thin piece of wood about five inches long and two inches
wide. A sheet of paper was placed upon this. At the top of this paper
came the alphabet in small letters; then the alphabet in capital letters
followed; then the vowels; then syllables, as, ab, eb, ib, etc.; next
"In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost,
_Amen_;" and last came the Lord's prayer. Over this paper went a sheet
of horn, through which the printed matter could be read. The paper and
the horn were fastened to the wood by strips of brass or other metal,
going around the sides and ends, and all held fast by tacks driven
through the metal strips. At the lower end of the hornbook was usually a
handle, which sometimes had a hole through it for a string to carry it
by or to hang it around the neck.

"The New England Primer is a poorly printed little book about five
inches long and three wide, of about eighty pages. It contains the
alphabet, and a short table of easy syllables, such as a-b, ab, e-b, eb,
and words up to those of six syllables. This was called a syllabarium.
There were twelve five-syllable words; of these five were _abomination_,
_edification_, _humiliation_, _mortification_, and _purification_. There
were a morning and evening prayer for children, and a grace to be said
before meat. Then followed a set of little rhymes which have become
known everywhere, and are frequently quoted. Each letter of the alphabet
is illustrated with a blurred little picture. Of these, two-thirds
represent Biblical incidents. They begin:

'In Adam's fall
We sinned all,'

and ended with Z:

'Zaccheus he
Did climb a tree
His Lord to see.'

"In the early days of the Primer, all the colonies were true to the
English king, and the rhyme for the letter K reads:

'King Charles the Good
No man of blood.'

"But by Revolutionary years the verse for K was changed to:

'Queens and Kings
Are Gaudy Things.'

"Later verses tell the praise of George Washington. Then comes a series
of Bible questions and answers; then an 'alphabet of lessons for youth,'
consisting of verses of the Bible beginning successively with A, B, C,
and so on. X was a difficult initial letter, and had to be contented
with 'Xhort one another daily, etc.' After the Lord's prayer and
Apostle's Creed appeared sometimes a list of names for men and women, to
teach children to spell their own names. The largest and most
interesting picture was that of the burning at the stake of John Rogers;
and after this a six page set of pious rhymes which the martyr left at
his death for his family of small children. After the year 1750, a few
very short stories were added to its pages, and were probably all the
children's stories that many of the scholars of that day ever saw."[389]

In the establishing of the elementary schools in New England there was
but little more required of the teacher than to instruct the children in
reading and writing, especially were they to be taught sufficiently that
they could read the Bible. Also they were to be taught enough arithmetic
for their every-day needs. This is well shown in the records of the town
of Plymouth, where in 1671 they had built a schoolhouse and employed a
schoolmaster "to teach the children and youth to read the Bible, to
write, and to cast accounts."[390] In the secondary schools the emphasis
was laid upon Latin and such other subjects were taught as would fit
the scholars for college. Penmanship was made a great deal of while
orthography was not, the results of which are shown by the writing and
spelling of the diaries and other writings of that period that remain.

The work of the district school, of the academy, and of the college is
well portrayed by McMaster. "The daily labors of the schoolmaster who
taught in the district school-house three generations since were
confined to teaching his scholars to read with a moderate degree of
fluency, to write legibly, to spell with some regard for the rules of
orthography, and to know as much of arithmetic as would enable them to
calculate the interest on a debt, to keep the family accounts, and to
make change in a shop.... To sit eight hours a day on the hardest of
benches poring over Cheever's Accidence; to puzzle over long words in
Dilworth's speller; to commit to memory pages of words in Webster's
American Institute; to read long chapters in the Bible; to learn by
heart Dr. Watt's hymns for children; to be drilled in the Assembly
Catechism; to go to bed at sundown, to get up at sunrise, and to live on
brown bread and pork, porridge and beans, made up, with morning and
evening prayers, the every-day life of the lads at most of the academies
and schools of New England.... The four years of residence at college
were spent in the acquisition of Latin and Greek, a smattering of
mathematics, enough of logic to distinguish barbara from celarent,
enough of rhetoric to know climax from metonomy, and as much of
metaphysics as would enable one to talk learnedly about a subject he did
not understand."[391]

The teachers of the elementary schools of those early days were too
often not educated nor cultured men. These men in many cases were
drunken, cruel, ignorant, and lazy. Drunkenness seems to have been quite
prevalent among the teachers of early New York, and yet there were some
most excellent men among them. In the middle and southern colonies among
the teachers were redemptioners and exported criminals. It was not
uncommon on the arrival of a ship for schoolmasters to be advertised for
sale along with men of other callings and usually the teachers did not
fetch as good prices as weavers, tailors, and the like. The teachers in
the secondary schools, on the contrary, often were men of good
scholarship and of high standing in the community, occupying a place of
honor among their fellow men. Such teachers were Christopher Dock in
Pennsylvania and Ezekiel Cheever in New England.

"Among the New England teachers there were men of both learning and
ability. Not a more cultured body of men ever formed a colony than
settled about Boston, Salem, New Haven, and Hartford. They coveted the
best advantages for their children, frequently making the best men their
teachers. It is on record that of the twenty-two masters of Plymouth
from 1671 to the Revolution, twenty were graduates of Harvard. The like
was true of Roxbury. Such men, next to the functionaries of church and
state, commanded the highest respect. In the churches they had special
pews provided for their use beside those of magistrates and the deacon's
family. In every community was usually one who was the teacher
professionally, so considered as much as was the minister or
physician."[392]

There were women teachers in the colonial times. They taught what was
known as dame-schools, which were attended by small boys and girls.
Women teachers and dame-schools were probably confined to New England
and parts of New York adjacent to New England and settled by emigrants
from there. There grew up the custom in some rural districts of having
one term of school in the summer for the younger pupils and taught by a
woman and another term in the winter for the older pupils and taught by
a man. This arrangement arose because it was difficult for the younger
children to attend school during the bitter weather of the winter, while
the older pupils could attend well only during the cold time of the year
when there was not much work to do on the farm.

There is in existence a contract between a Dutch schoolmaster and the
authorities of Flatbush, New York, of the date of October 8, 1682. This
is a full paper and quite well shows the duties of a teacher of that
time in that colony. The school day was to be from eight o'clock to
eleven and from one to four. Each forenoon and afternoon session was to
open and close with prayer. On every Wednesday and Saturday the
schoolmaster was to instruct the children in the common prayers and in
the catechism and to be present at the church meeting when the children
were catechized before the congregation. He was to keep school nine
months in succession, from September to June of each year. Beside his
school duties he had church duties. He was to keep the church clean,
ring the bell, lead in the singing, and sometimes he was to read the
sermon. He was to provide water for baptism and to furnish the minister
with the name of the child to be baptized and also the names of the
parents or witnesses. He was to provide bread and wine for the
communion. He was to serve as messenger for the consistory. He was to
give out the funeral invitations, dig the grave, and toll the bell.[393]

It can scarcely be believed that the schoolmasters of the early period
of our country could have been so cruel as is told of them. It would
appear as if a great deal more time was put upon devising means of
punishment than upon learning ways of instruction. It was a time of
cruelty and of belief in the general depravity of humanity. It was
deemed that there was a natural wilfulness in children that needed stern
repression and harsh correction. The parents and teachers in New England
were especially repressive of child nature and their guide and rule of
action, the Bible, gave them constant proof of the need of corrective
punishment for children. "John Robinson, the Pilgrim preacher, said in
his essay on _Children and Their Education_: 'Surely there is in all
children (though not alike) a stubbornes and stoutnes of minde arising
from naturall pride which must in the first place be broken and beaten
down that so the foundation of their education being layd in humilitie
and tractablenes other virtues may in their time be built
thereon.'"[394]

The rod was very greatly in use by the schoolmasters of colonial times
and too often the rod became the cudgel. Some teachers had the boy mount
the back of another boy and with arms and legs held tight he was given a
beating. The ferule was applied to the hands, the face, and the feet,
and sometimes this ferule was a heavy oaken ruler. One instrument used
was a hickory club with leather thongs attached at one end and similar
to it was the tattling stick, a cat-o'-nine-tails with heavy leather
straps. Another instrument used was termed a flapper, which was a piece
of leather about six inches wide with a hole in the middle and fastened
to a handle. Every stroke with this flapper on a boy's bared back would
raise a blister the size of the hole in the leather. A branch of a tree
was split and placed over a child's nose and he had to then stand before
the school. For whispering a whispering-stick was used, which was a kind
of wooden gag tied in the mouth with strings, somewhat as a horse's bit.
Another punishment was to put two boys together in a yoke devised for
that purpose, similar to an ox-yoke, and to make the punishment all the
more disgraceful would be to yoke a boy and girl together. A unipod, a
one-legged stool, was used, and the child occupying it found it very
hard and tiresome to balance himself on it. The dames in their schools
used quite freely a heavy iron thimble, which by being snapped quite
vigorously against a boy's head would make for him "thimell-pie." The
dunce-block was freely used and the culprit appropriately labelled, as,
"Tell-Tale," "Bite-Finger-Baby," "Lying Ananias," "Idle-Boy," and
"Pert-Miss-Prat-a-Pace." There were some teachers who did not use such
cruel punishments, although they must have been very few in number, one
being Samuel Dock, a German schoolmaster of Pennsylvania, who was
intelligent enough to be kind to his children, but there were plenty of
the drunken, dirty, careless, and cruel teachers in that colony. Mrs.
Earle states: "I may say here that I have not found that New York
schoolmasters were ever as cruel as were those of New England."[395]

"I often fancy that I should have enjoyed living in the good old times,
but I am glad I never was a child in colonial New England--to have been
baptized in ice water, fed on brown bread and warm beer, to have had to
learn the Assembly's Catechism and 'explain all the Quaestions with
conferring Texts,' to have been constantly threatened with fear of death
and terror of God, to have been forced to commit Wigglesworth's 'Day of
Doom' to memory, and, after all, to have been whipped with a
tattling-stick."[396]

The colonial period was an age of child precocity. In that time
overzealous parents pushed children forward till they displayed a
remarkable precocious learning, to end, in most cases, in an early death
either physically or mentally, and yet some of these children did
survive the process to become noted and honored men. One such parent
wrote to her sister asking to have sent to her a set of toys now known
as alphabet blocks and stating that the child's father was contriving a
set of toys to teach the child his letters by the time he could speak,
he being not yet four months old at the time of the letter. In a later
letter the mother wrote to the child's aunt that at twenty-two months of
age he could tell his letters in any book and he was beginning to spell.
This boy grew up to be the Revolutionary General Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney. One boy born in 1752 learned his alphabet in a single lesson
and he could read the Bible before he was four years old. At the age of
six he was sent to a grammar school, and, as his father would not let
him study Latin, he borrowed a Latin grammar and studied through it
twice without a teacher. This boy afterward was known as President
Timothy Dwight of Yale College.

This precociousness was not confined to boys, for one little girl, born
in Boston in 1708, daughter of the President of Harvard College, before
her second year was finished could speak distinctly, knew her letters,
could relate many stories out of the Scriptures, and when three years
old she could recite the greater part of the _Assembly's Cathechism_ and
also she could recite many of the psalms and many lines of poetry and
read distinctly. The Governor of the colony and other distinguished
guests at her home sometimes would place this little girl on a table to
show off her acquirements. Another little girl, born in Charleston,
South Carolina, in 1759, in her third year could "read any book," so the
story ran, and, too, this she could do holding the book upside down.

Boys entered the Boston Latin School as young as six and a half years of
age and often parents had them begin Latin at an earlier age, some
parents teaching their little ones to read Latin words when but three
years old along with the English. Young Timothy Dwight would have been
prepared to enter college at eight years of age had not his grammar
school been discontinued because of having no teacher. A boy in 1686
entered Harvard College at eleven years of age and another boy in 1799
graduated from Rhode Island College (now Brown University) at barely
fourteen years of age.

The most remarkable case of childish precocity given by Mrs. Earle was
that of Richard Evelyn, who died in 1658 at the early age of five years
and three days. The father in his diary recounted in the following
quoted passage the wonderful acquirements of the little boy before his
death:

"He had learned all his catechism at two years and a half old; he could
perfectly read any of the English, Latin, French, or Gothic letters,
pronouncing the first three languages exactly. He had, before the fifth
year, or in that year, not only skill to read most written hands, but to
decline all the nouns, conjugate the verbs regular, and most of the
irregular; learned out of Puerelis, got by heart almost the entire
vocabulary of Latin and French primitives and words, could make
congruous syntax, turn English into Latin, and vice versa, construe and
prove what he read, and did the government and use of relatives, verbs,
substances, ellipses and many figures and tropes, and made a
considerable progress in Comenius' Janua; begun himself to write legibly
and had a strong passion for Greek. The number of verses he could recite
was prodigious, and what he remembered of the parts of plays which he
would also act; and, when seeing a Plautus in one's hand, he asked what
book it was, and being told it was comedy and too difficult for him, he
wept for sorrow. Strange was his apt and ingenious application of fables
and morals, for he had read Æsop; he had a wonderful disposition to
mathematics, having by heart divers propositions of Euclid that were
read to him in play, and he would make lines and demonstrate them. He
had learned by heart divers sentences in Latin and Greek which on
occasion he would produce even to wonder. He was all life, all
prettiness, far from morose, sullen, or childish in anything he said or
did."[397]

The girls of colonial times did not receive much education, as it was
not considered necessary for women to have learning beyond that
necessary for household duties. All that was considered really needed by
a girl in the way of book learning was to know how to read and write and
cipher a little. Most of the girls received nothing further than
elementary training in reading and writing and many of them did not even
have that much of education. This was true in all the colonies, New
England, New York, and the others.

A lady writing of the education of girls of her time in New York, in the
first quarter of the eighteenth century stated:

"It was at that time very difficult to procure the means of instruction
in those island districts; female education was, of consequence,
conducted on a very limited scale; girls learned needlework (in which
they were indeed both skilful and ingenious) from their mothers and
aunts; they were taught, too, at that period to read, in Dutch, the
Bible, and a few Calvinistic tracts of the devotional kind. But in the
infancy of the settlement few girls read English; when they did, they
were thought accomplished; they generally spoke it, however imperfectly,
and few were taught writing."[398]

A historian of New York, writing of his fellow townswomen during the
year 1756, said that "there is nothing they (New York women) so
generally neglect as Reading, and indeed all the Arts for the
improvement of the Mind, in which I confess we have set them the
Example."[399]

The attitude of the people of the period toward the admission of girls
into boys' grammar schools is shown by the following extract from the
rules for governing such a school in New Haven in 1684:

"... and all girls be excluded as improper and inconsistent with such a
grammar school as ye law injoines and as is the Designe of this
settlement."[400]

But it must not be considered that the education of the girls was wholly
neglected among the colonists, for, though they were scarcely ever
admitted to boys' schools, yet they did go to the dame-schools and also
they received training at home. The girls were all taught household
duties and the fancy needlework that went with it. Reading, writing, a
little arithmetic, dancing, needlework, music, deportment, and elegance
of carriage composed the curriculum for girls. Sometimes a girl would
get some help from a brother and thus gain an education beyond that
ordinarily obtained by girls. Occasionally an educated father would
teach his daughter, one such case being that of President Colman of
Harvard College, who gave what was called a profound education to his
daughter Jane. Withal this meager education, nevertheless we are not at
all ashamed of the bearing of our foremothers of the colonial and
Revolutionary times.

As academies grew up during the latter half of the eighteenth century,
most of which were for boys, a few were made co-educational and a few
others were established for girls:

"For a hundred years the Penn Charter School, Philadelphia, had admitted
both sexes on equal terms. The Moravians had established a school for
girls at Bethlehem, Pa., as early as 1745, while the Philadelphia Female
Academy dates from the Revolution. Among the earliest in New England
were Dr. Dwight's Young Ladies' Academy, at Greenfield, Conn. (1785),
and the Medford School, near Boston (1789)."[401]

Of the colleges in the United States today, two of them were founded
during the first century of the colonial period, the seventeenth
century, ten others in the next century before the Revolution, and by
the close of the eighteenth century the list had increased to
twenty-six, eleven of the original colonies being represented in the
list and also Kentucky and Tennessee. Arranging the twelve colleges of
the colonial period in the order of the year of first opening and with
the names and locations as now, they run as follows:[402]

Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1636; College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, 1693; Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut, 1701; Washington College, Chestertown, Maryland, 1723;
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1740; Moravian
Seminary and College for Women, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1742; Princeton
University, Princetown, New Jersey, 1746; Washington and Lee University,
Lexington, Virginia, 1749; Columbia University, New York City, New York,
1754; Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, 1765; Rutgers College,
New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1766; Dartmouth College, Hanover, New
Hampshire, 1769.

With dame-schools for the younger children, district schools for the
older ones, academies for the yet more advanced, and colleges for
completing the education, the early period of the United States gave
such an education to its young people as well to prepare them to become
the noble men and women, who, by books, papers, addresses, and general
bearing, were able to stand alongside the people of the world in the
great period of the American Revolution, and furnished thinkers and
doers such as have not been surpassed by our own time.

LITERATURE

1. Boone, Richard G., Education in the United States.

2. Calhoun, Arthur W., A social history of the American family.

3. Claxton, Philander Priestley, Report of the Commissioner of Education
of the United States, 1914.

4. Dexter, Edwin Grant, History of education in the United States.

5. Earle, Alice Morse, Child life in Colonial days.

6. Earle, Alice Morse, Colonial days in old New York.

7. Earle, Alice Morse, Costume of colonial times.

8. Earle, Alice Morse, Curious punishments of bygone days.

9. Earle, Alice Morse, Customs and fashions in old New England.

10. Earle, Alice Morse, Diary of Anna Green Winslow, a Boston
school-girl of 1771.

11. Earle, Alice Morse, Home life in colonial days.

12. Earle, Alice Morse, The Sabbath in Puritan New England.

13. Eggleston, Edward, Social conditions in the colonies, _The Century
Magazine_, VI., 853.

14. Eggleston, Edward, The colonists at home, _The Century Magazine_,
VII., 873.

15. Eggleston, Edward, Social life in the colonies, _The Century
Magazine_, VIII., 387.

16. Fisher, Sydney George, Men, women and manners in colonial times.

17. Haddon, Kathleen, Cat's cradles from many lands.

18. Howard, George Elliott, A history of matrimonial institutions.

19. Low, A. Maurice, The American people.

20. Mather, Frederic G., Early New England choirs and singing-schools,
_The American Magazine_, VIII., 310.

21. McMaster, John Bach, A history of the people of the United States.

22. Salmon, Lucy Maynard, Domestic service.

23. Stiles, Henry Reed, Bundling: Its origin, progress and decline in
the United States.

24. Welsh, Charles, The early history of children's books in New
England, _New England Magazine_, XX., 147.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The _ai_ in paidology is pronounced as in _aisle_, as _i_ in pine.

[2] Bancroft, Native races of Pacific states, II, 267.

[3] Barnes, _Studies in education_, I, 75. ("The History of Mexico. By
Francesco S. Clavigero. Translated by Chas. Cullen, London, 1787, vol.
I., pp. 335 _et seq._")

[4] Barnes, Studies in education I, 76-78.

[5] Bancroft, Native races of Pacific states, II, 372.

[6] _Ibid._, II, 356.

[7] Joyce, Mexican archæology, 156.

[8] Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, I, 81.

[9] Joyce, Mexican archæology, 98.

[10] Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, I, 78-79.

[11] Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, I, 149.

[12] Bancroft, Native races of Pacific states, II, 482.

[13] Joyce, Mexican archæology, 184.

[14] Joyce, Mexican archæology, 129.

[15] Bancroft, Native races of Pacific states, II, 286.

[16] Bancroft, Native races of Pacific states, II, 297-299.

[17] Prescott, Conquest of Peru, I, 65.

[18] Joyce, South American archæology, 104.

[19] Prescott, Conquest of Peru, I, 142.

[20] Joyce, South American archæology, 121.

[21] Prescott, Conquest of Peru, I, 140.

[22] Prescott, Conquest of Peru, I, 22-25.

[23] Prescott, Conquest of Peru, I, 120.

[24] Rawlinson, History of ancient Egypt, I, 103.

[25] Wilkinson, Popular account of ancient Egyptians, II, 199.

[26] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians, I, 459.

[27] Exodus I, 8.

[28] Wilkinson, _op. cit._, I, 346.

[29] Wilkinson, The Egyptians in the time of the Pharaohs, 40.

[30] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians, II, 333.

[31] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians, II, 331.

[32] _Ibid._, II, 22.

[33] Wilkinson, Popular account of ancient Egyptians, I, 186.

[34] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians, II, 50.

[35] Wilkinson, Egyptians in time of Pharaoh, 14.

[36] Wilkinson, Popular account of ancient Egyptians I, 54.

[37] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of the ancient Egyptians, II, 334.

[38] Petrie, Arts and crafts of ancient Egypt, 140.

[39] Wilkinson, Popular account of the ancient Egyptians, II, 194.

[40] Rawlinson, History of ancient Egypt, I, 496.

[41] Petrie, Arts and crafts of ancient Egypt, 6.

[42] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of ancient Egypt, II, 306.

[43] Petrie, _op. cit._, 26.

[44] Rawlinson, History of ancient Egypt, I, 204.

[45] Dean, History of civilization, I, 381.

[46] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians, III, 243.

[47] _Ibid._, II, 455.

[48] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians, I, 438.

[49] Laurie, Historical survey of pre-Christian education, 47.

[50] Wilkinson, Manners and customs of ancient Egyptians, II, 489.

[51] Dubois, Hindu manners, customs, and ceremonies, 339.

[52] Dubois, Hindu manners, 205.

[53] Mills, British India, I, 308.

[54] Dutt, Civilization in ancient India, I, 69.

[55] Dubois, Hindu manners, 214, _et seq._

[56] Ramabai, The high-caste Hindu woman, 47.

[57] Dutt, Civilization in ancient India, I, 172.

[58] Ramabai, High-caste Hindu woman, 34.

[59] Allen, India, 459.

[60] Dutt, _op. cit._, II, 308.

[61] Dubois, Hindu manners, 39.

[62] Allen, India, 417.

[63] Dubois, Hindu manners, 361, _et seq._

[64] Ramabai, High-caste Hindu woman, 12.

[65] Dubois, Hindu manners, 307.

[66] Dubois, Hindu manners, 369.

[67] Dutt, Civilization in ancient India, II, 148.

[68] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 176.

[69] Graves, A history of education, Before the Middle Ages, 86.

[70] Davis, The Chinese, I, 264.

[71] Smith, Chinese characteristics, 205.

[72] Davis, The Chinese, I, 269.

[73] Douglass, History of China, 130, _et seq._

[74] Carus, Chinese life and customs, 81.

[75] Douglass, History of China, 115.

[76] Williams, The Middle kingdom, II, 54.

[77] Davis, The Chinese, I, 270.

[78] Smith, Chinese characteristics, 198.

[79] Headland, Chinese boy and girl, 33.

[80] Headland, Chinese boy and girl, 35.

[81] _Ibid._, 9 _et seq._

[82] Williams, The middle kingdom, II, 261.

[83] Smith, Village life in China, 259.

[84] Lee, When I was a boy in China, 43.

[85] Smith, Village life in China, 237.

[86] Smith, Chinese characteristics, 175.

[87] Doolittle, Sketches of social life in China, Harper's Magazine,
XXXI (1865), 442.

[88] Lee, When I was a boy in China, 47.

[89] _Ibid._, 34.

[90] Williams, The Middle kingdom, II, 89.

[91] Headland, Chinese boy and girl, 51.

[92] Lee, When I was a boy in China, 40.

[93] Headland, Chinese boys and girls, 80.

[94] Williams, Middle kingdom, II, 89.

[95] Williams, Middle kingdom, II, 41.

[96] Lee, When I was a boy in China, 70.

[97] Martin, The Chinese, 71.

[98] Martin, The Chinese, 62.

[99] Smith, Village life in China, 73.

[100] Smith, Village life in China, 80.

[101] Davis, The Chinese, I, 276.

[102] Lee, When I was a boy in China, 54.

[103] Smith, Village life in China, 79.

[104] _Ibid._, 93.

[105] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 150.

[106] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 553.

[107] Kikuchi, Japanese education, 261.

[108] Bacon, Japanese girls and women, 96.

[109] Nitobe, The Japanese nation, 96.

[110] Nitobe, The Japanese nation, 165.

[111] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 555.

[112] Bacon, Japanese girls and women, 121.

[113] ----, Manners and customs of the Japanese, 127.

[114] Taylor, Japan in our day, 148.

[115] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 557.

[116] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, I, 169.

[117] Knapp, Feudal and modern Japan, I, 109-115.

[118] Lloyd, Every-day Japan, 324.

[119] Scherer, Young Japan, 48.

[120] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 356.

[121] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 460.

[122] Taylor, Japan in our day, 163.

[123] Bacon, Japanese girls and women, 31.

[124] Taylor, Japan in our day, 156.

[125] Hearn, Glimpses of unfamiliar Japan, I, 266.

[126] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II. 464.

[127] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 468.

[128] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 491.

[129] Griffis, Japan in history, 75.

[130] Hearn, Glimpses of unfamiliar Japan, I, 286.

[131] Scherer, Young Japan, 149.

[132] Murray, Japan, 112.

[133] ----, Manners and customs of the Japanese, 126.

[134] Nitobé, The Japanese nation, 166.

[135] Griffis, The Mikado's empire, II, 558.

[136] Rawlinson, Seven great monarchies, II, 319.

[137] Fraser, History of Persia, 289.

[138] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 183.

[139] Letourneau, Evolution of marriage, 332.

[140] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 190.

[141] Graves, History of education, Before the middle ages, 100.

[142] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 191.

[143] Edersheim, History of the Jewish nation, 309.

[144] McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of biblical literature, V, 774.

[145] McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of biblical literature, V, 774.

[146] Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish social life in the days of Christ,
157.

[147] Thwing, The family, 42.

[148] Dean, History of civilization, I, 597.

[149] Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish life, 99.

[150] Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish life, 218.

[151] Lees, Village life in Palestine, 203.

[152] McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of biblical literature, III,
730.

[153] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 76-77.

[154] Graves, History of education, Before the middle ages, 124.

[155] Dean, History of civilization, II, 176.

[156] Tucker, Life in ancient Athens, 122.

[157] Donaldson, Woman, Her position and influence in ancient Greece and
Rome and among the early Christians, 56.

[158] Donaldson, Woman, 71-72.

[159] _Ibid._, 58.

[160] _Ibid._, 71.

[161] Dean, History of civilization II, 179.

[162] Dean, History of civilization, II, 167-168.

[163] Dean, History of civilization, II, 173.

[164] Dean, History of civilization, II, 174.

[165] Dean, The history of civilization, II, 183.

[166] Gulick, The life of the ancient Greeks, 75.

[167] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 251.

[168] Dean, History of civilization, II, 185.

[169] Mahaffy, Old Greek education, 20.

[170] Felton, Greece, I, 426.

[171] Mahaffy, Old Greek education, 18-19.

[172] Gardiner, Greek athletic sports and festivals, 47.

[173] Tucker, Life in ancient Athens, 273.

[174] Tucker, Life in ancient Athens, 206.

[175] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 248.

[176] Friedländer, Roman life and manners under the early empire, I, 19.

[177] Fowler, Social life at Rome, 213.

[178] Fowler, Social life at Rome, 240.

[179] Dean, History of civilization, III, 221.

[180] Donaldson, Woman, Her position and influence in ancient Greece and
Rome, 120-123.

[181] Friedländer, Roman life and manners, I, 253.

[182] Abbott, Society and politics in ancient Rome, 95.

[183] _Ibid._, 98-99.

[184] Friedländer, Roman life and manners, I, 247.

[185] Duruy, History of Rome, V, 254.

[186] Fowler, Social life at Rome, 143-144.

[187] Friedländer, Roman life and manners, I, 243.

[188] Dean, History of civilization, III, 214.

[189] Preston and Dodge, The private life of the Romans, 99.

[190] Preston and Dodge, The private life of the Romans, 104.

[191] Guhl and Koner, The life of the Greeks and Romans, 500.

[192] Friedländer, Roman life and manners, I, 228.

[193] Duruy, History of Rome, V, 242.

[194] Dean, History of civilization, III, 250.

[195] Duruy, History of Rome, V, 285.

[196] Preston and Dodge, The private life of the Romans, 132-134.

[197] Dean, History of civilization, III, 240.

[198] Laurie, Pre-Christian education, 342.

[199] Clarke, Children at Rome, 67.

[200] Adams, Civilization during the middle ages, 9-10.

[201] Adams, Civilization during the middle ages, 197.

[202] Emerton, Medieval Europe, 518.

[203] Garnier, Annals of the British peasantry, 141.

[204] Abram, English life and manners in the later middle ages, 30.

[205] Thwing, The family, 56-57.

[206] Hallam, Middle Ages, II, 179, quotes from Palgrave the following,
coming under Norman times: "By the declaration of the husband at the
church door, the wife was endowed in the presence of the assembled
relations, and before all the merry attendants of the bridal train."

[207] Traill, Social England, I, 215-216.

[208] Abram, English life and manners in the later middle ages, 119.

[209] Dean, History of civilization, VI, 203.

[210] Abram, English life and manners in the late middle ages, 167.

[211] Garnier, Annals of the British peasantry, 196.

[212] _Ibid._, 201.

[213] Traill, Social England, I, 106-108.

[214] Donaldson, Woman, 180.

[215] Froude, History of England, I, 70.

[216] Froude, History of England, I, 76-77.

[217] Compayré, History of pedagogy, 65-66.

[218] _Ibid._, 67.

[219] Gray, The children's crusade, 78-80.

[220] Hecker, Epidemics of the middle ages, 353.

[221] Eggleston, Social conditions in the colonies, Century magazine,
VI, 852.

[222] Eggleston, Social conditions in the colonies, Century magazine,
VI, 863.

[223] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 88-89.

[224] Eggleston, Social conditions in the colonies, Century magazine,
VI, 856.

[225] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 877.

[226] Earle, Colonial days in Old New York, 102-103.

[227] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 877.

[228] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 879.

[229] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 68.

[230] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 128-129.

[231] Eggleston, Social life in the colonies, Century magazine, VIII,
403.

[232] Calhoun, Social history of the American family, I, 276.

[233] Calhoun, Social history of the American family, I, 278.

[234] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 164-166.

[235] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 42.

[236] Stiles, Bundling: Its origin, progress, and decline in America,
13.

[237] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 64.

[238] Eggleston, Social life in the colonies, Century magazine, VIII,
390.

[239] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 66.

[240] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 74-75.

[241] Howard, History of matrimonial institutions, II, 331.

[242] Calhoun, Social history of the American family, I, 92.

[243] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 79-80.

[244] _Ibid._, 36.

[245] Calhoun, Social history of the American family, I, 70.

[246] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 43.

[247] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 54.

[248] _Ibid._, 54.

[249] Calhoun, Social history of the American family, I, 247-248.

[250] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 38-39.

[251] _Ibid._, 37.

[252] Calhoun, Social history of the American family, I, 165.

[253] Eggleston, The colonists at home. Century magazine, VII, 887.

[254] Earle, Costume of colonial times, 31-32.

[255] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 316.

[256] _Ibid._, 316.

[257] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 286.

[258] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 891.

[259] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 327.

[260] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 319.

[261] Earle, Costume of colonial times, 28-29.

[262] Earle, Costume of colonial times, 26-27.

[263] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 322.

[264] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 300.

[265] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 888.

[266] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 290.

[267] Earle, Diary of Anna Green Winslow, 19.

[268] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 889.

[269] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 294.

[270] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 182.

[271] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 296.

[272] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 302.

[273] _Ibid._, 304.

[274] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 308-309.

[275] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 37.

[276] Earle, Costume of colonial times, 13.

[277] Earle, Costume of colonial times, 12.

[278] _Ibid._, 13.

[279] Earle, Diary of Anna Green Winslow, 17.

[280] Earle, Diary of Anna Green Winslow, 71.

[281] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 290.

[282] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 58.

[283] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 183-184.

[284] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 136.

[285] _Ibid._, 120.

[286] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 122.

[287] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 110.

[288] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 883.

[289] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 155.

[290] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 886.

[291] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 111.

[292] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 154.

[293] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 163.

[294] Eggleston, The colonists at home, Century magazine, VII, 885.

[295] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 163.

[296] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 164.

[297] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 179.

[298] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 181.

[299] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 165.

[300] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 371.

[301] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 4.

[302] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 6.

[303] _Ibid._, 5.

[304] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 23.

[305] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 12.

[306] _Ibid._, 16.

[307] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 16.

[308] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 215, 216, 217.

[309] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 16.

[310] Earle, Diary of Anna Green Winslow, 8.

[311] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 226.

[312] Earle, Diary of Anna Green Winslow, A Boston School Girl of 1771.

[313] Eggleston, Social conditions in the colonies, Century magazine,
VI, 853.

[314] McMaster, History of the people of the United States, I, 27.

[315] _Ibid._, I, 29.

[316] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 361.

[317] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 343.

[318] _Ibid._, 344.

[319] _Ibid._, 340.

[320] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 337.

[321] _Ibid._, 353.

[322] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 353.

[323] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 376.

[324] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 365.

[325] _Ibid._, 385.

[326] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 8.

[327] Eggleston, Social life in the colonies, Century magazine, VIII,
401.

[328] _Ibid._

[329] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 241.

[330] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 250.

[331] Eggleston, Social life in the colonies, Century magazine, VIII,
402.

[332] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 255.

[333] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 243.

[334] _Ibid._, 244.

[335] Eggleston, Social life in the colonies, Century magazine, VIII,
404.

[336] Eggleston, Social life in the colonies, Century magazine, VIII,
405.

[337] _Ibid._, 406.

[338] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 212.

[339] _Ibid._, 18.

[340] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 18.

[341] _Ibid._, 17.

[342] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 18.

[343] Haddon, Cat's cradles from many lands.

[344] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 346.

[345] _Ibid._, 375.

[346] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 22-23.

[347] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 205.

[348] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 371-372.

[349] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 19.

[350] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 20-22.

[351] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 20.

[352] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 214.

[353] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 217.

[354] _Ibid._, 223.

[355] Earle, Curious punishments of bygone days, 19.

[356] Earle, Curious punishments of bygone days, 83.

[357] Earle, Curious punishments of bygone days, 81.

[358] _Ibid._, 78.

[359] _Ibid._, 79.

[360] _Ibid._, 82.

[361] _Ibid._, 83.

[362] Earle, Customs and fashions of old New England, 252.

[363] _Ibid._, 252.

[364] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 321.

[365] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 307.

[366] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 252.

[367] _Ibid._, 253.

[368] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 339.

[369] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 169.

[370] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 203.

[371] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 341.

[372] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 381.

[373] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 381.

[374] Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, 15.

[375] Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, 95.

[376] Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, 14.

[377] Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, 76.

[378] Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, 68.

[379] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 386.

[380] Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan New England, 81.

[381] Earle, Home life in colonial days, 377.

[382] Fisher, Men, women, and manners in colonial times, I, 141.

[383] Earle, Child life in Colonial days, 236.

[384] Earle, Child life in colonial times, 250.

[385] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 239.

[386] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 33.

[387] _Ibid._, 32.

[388] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 154.

[389] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 128-131.

[390] Dexter, History of education in the United States, 39.

[391] McMaster, History of the people of the United States, I, 21 _et
seq._

[392] Boone, Education in the United States, 50.

[393] Dexter, History of education in the United States, Appendix A,
581-583.

[394] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 191.

[395] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 29.

[396] Earle, Customs and fashions in old New England, 35.

[397] Earle, Child life in colonial days, 177.

[398] Earle, Colonial days in old New York, 39.

[399] _Ibid._, 40.

[400] Dexter, History of education in the United States, 426.

[401] Boone, Education in the United States, 69.

[402] Report U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1914, II, 224-246.

INDEX

"Above the salt," seating of guests, in United States, 328.

Acrobatic feats in China, 120;
Egypt, 79;
Europe, 294;
Greece, 200;
India, 98;
Japan, 147;
Mexico, 34;
Rome, 253;
United States, 403.

Admonitions of father to a son, in Mexico, 20;
of a mother to a daughter, in Mexico, 21.

Adoption, in Greece, 194;
India, 99;
Japan, 145;
Rome, 242.

Adrogation at Rome, 242.

Adultery, in China, 104;
Egypt, 58;
India, 92.

African slave trade in United States, 317.

Agriculture, in Egypt, 65;
Mexico, 30;
Peru, 45;
Rome, 246.

Amphitheater, the, at Rome, 250.

Amusements, in China, 118;
Egypt, 76;
Europe, 292;
India, 98;
Japan, 146;
Judea, 173;
Mexico, 33;
Persia, 164;
Rome, 249;
United States, 398.

Animal exhibits in United States, 404.

Animals, domestic, of Egypt, 66.

Animals, trained, in Europe, 294;
Japan, 147.

Animals used for food, in Egypt, 61;
Europe, 428;
Rome, 238;
United States, 369.

Anklets worn in Egypt, 61;
Judea, 172.

Apprenticeship in Europe, 290;
Japan, 156.

Aqueducts of Peru, 46.

Architecture in Egypt, 72.

Aristocracy of Europe, 275.

Armed men at church in New England, 437.

Artificial teeth at Rome, 237.

Artisans of Europe, 273.

"Assemblies" in United States, 399.

Athletic contests at Rome, 252.

Atrium of a Roman house, 216.

Auguries of marriages in India, 90;
Mexico, 17.

Ax, the, among the early colonists of United States, 322.

Baby boys welcomed, baby girls not wanted, in China, 116.

Bachelors in Greece, 185;
United States, 348.

Backgammon in Europe, 295.

Balls and ball-playing in Egypt, 81;
Europe, 296;
Greece, 196;
Mexico, 35;
Rome, 255;
United States, 413.

Bangles worn in China, 122.

Banquets in Mexico, 33;
Rome, 224.

Baptism of infant in Mexico, 19;
United States, 376.

Bathing new-born child in China, 113;
Sparta, 191.

Baths and bathing in Egypt, 62;
Rome, 254;
United States, 358.

Battledore and shuttlecock in Japan, 151.

Beards in Egypt, 61;
Europe, 284;
Greece, 187.

Beautifying the person by Roman women, 236.

Beds in Rome, 217;
United States, 327.

Beer in United States, 371.

Beetles, children playing with, in Greece, 196.

Betrothal in China, 108;
Greece, 182;
India, 90;
Japan, 134;
Judea, 169;
Persia, 161;
Rome, 226;
United States, 339.

"Beverige," in United States, 372.

Bilboes used for offenders in United States, 417.

Birth in China, 112;
Greece, 191;
Japan, 143;
Judea, 170;
Mexico, 18;
Rome, 239.

Birthday at Rome, 240.

Blind man's buff in Europe, 296;
Greece, 196;
Japan, 151.

Bond-servants in United States, 321.

Books for children in United States, 413.

Books for young women in Japan, 158.

Books on etiquette in United States, 382.

Bottles of Egypt, 67.

Bowling and bowling-greens in England, 296.

Boys and girls in China, 115;
India, 96.

Boys' behavior in United States, 383.

Boys' games in China, 121.

Boys' work and manufactures in United States, 422.

Bracelets worn in China, 122;
Egypt, 61;
India, 91;
Judea, 172;
Rome, 236;
United States, 354.

Branding offenders in United States, 419.

Breach of promise in United States, 342.

Bread and bread-making in Egypt, 63;
Europe, 286;
Greece, 190.

Brides, treatment of, on wedding-day in China, 112.

Buckles worn at knees and ankles by men in United States, 354.

Buffoonery in Egypt, 79.

Buildings in Peru, 41.

Bulla worn by child at Rome, 240.

Bull-baiting in United States, 403.

Bull-fights in Egypt, 80.

Bundling in United States, 337.

Burial in Egypt, 75;
Greece, 201;
Rome, 244;
United States, 393.

Burial-places in United States, 396.

Cage to hold baby at church in United States, 379.

Calling to people to church in New England, 433.

Cards in Europe, 295.

Care and treatment of children in Europe, 290;
Greece, 191;
India, 97;
Japan, 143;
Judea, 170;
Mexico, 19;
Peru, 44;
Rome, 239;
United States, 384.

Carrying children in Japan, 145.

Caste in India, 85.

Casting the nativity of the infant in Mexico, 19.

Cat, the, used in hunting in Egypt, 80.

Catechetical schools in Europe, 296.

Catching butterflies and beetles by children at play in Europe, 296.

Cat's cradle, game of, in United States, 408.

Celibacy at Rome, 224.

Cellars of Dutch houses in New York, 324.

Ceremony of binding wrists of baby in China, 113.

Ceremony of initiation on child's first entering school in India, 99.

Ceremony of purification of child in Greece, 191;
Rome, 239.

Chairs in Egypt, 57;
Rome, 217;
United States, 326.

Characteristics of Persia, 161;
Rome, 212.

Chess in Europe, 295;
India, 99;
Rome, 253.

Chests in United States, 326.

Chewing-gum in Mexico, 26.

Child and parent in China, 116;
Egypt, 58;
Europe, 289;
Greece, 191;
India, 97;
Japan, 146;
Judea, 171;
Mexico, 19;
Persia, 163;
Rome, 238.

Child and religion in China, 122;
Egypt, 76;
Greece, 202;
Rome, 255;
United States, 439.

Child in China, 104;
Egypt, 52;
Europe, 264;
Greece, 177;
India, 85;
Japan, 130;
Judea, 167;
Mexico, 15;
Persia, 161;
Peru, 39;
Rome, 212;
United States, 313.

Childish (Mother Goose) Rhymes in China, 113.

Child-marriage in Europe, 281;
India, 92.
Child-murder, punishment for, in Egypt, 58.

Child-pilgrimages of Europe, 310.

Children all legitimate in Egypt, 58.

Children among the early Christians in Europe, 289.

Children at meals in United States, 381.

Children, companies of, at Albany, New York, 408.

Children desired in Greece, 191;
Judea, 169.

Children from almshouses bound out to service in United States, 320.

Children of the ancient Britons, 287.

Children's carts at Rome, 254.

Children's Crusade in Europe, 302;
France, 302;
Germany, 305.

Children's toys and story books in United States, 412.

Child's first day at school in China, 124.

Child welfare in United States, 380.

Chimneys of houses in United States, 330.

Chinese baby, a, 112.

Chiton, worn in Greece, 187.

Chivalry in Europe, 268.

Christening blanket of baby in United States, 379.

Christmas sports and pastimes in Europe, 293;
United States, 414.

Church-ales in Europe, 293.

Church buildings in United States, 428.

Church services in New England, 437.

Cider in United States, 372.

Circumcision in Judea, 171.

Circus Maximus at Rome, 250.

Citizenship at Rome, 240.

Classes of people in Egypt, 53;
Greece, 177;
Mexico, 15;
Rome, 213.

Classical learning saved to Europe by the Christian Church, 299.

Cleanliness of Egyptians, 62.

Cloth manufacture in Egypt, 67;
Mexico, 37;
Peru, 48.

Coasting at Albany, New York, 411.

Cock-fighting in United States, 403.

Coeducational academies in United States, 454.

Coffee-drinking in United States, 374.

Colleges in United States, 454.

Combs in Egypt, 62;
Judea, 172.

"Coming Out" of bride and groom in United States, 342.

Commerce in Egypt, 71;
Europe, 273;
Mexico, 32;
Rome, 249.

Competitive literary examinations for public positions in China, 127.

Concubinage in China, 105;
Egypt, 58;
Japan, 185;
Mexico, 18;
Rome, 238.

Conjuring in Europe, 294.

Contests by boys in physical exercises in Greece, 199.

Contract between a Dutch schoolmaster and the authorities of Flatbush,
New York, 448.

Conventus matronarum at Rome, 220.

Cooking and cooking utensils in United States, 328.

Corn huskings in United States, 365.

Corsets worn by children in United States, 363.

Cosmetics used in China, 122;
Egypt, 61;
Greece, 189;
Judea, 172;
Mexico, 24;
Rome, 237;
United States, 358.

Couches at Rome, 217.

Country of Egypt, 52.

Couriers in Mexico, 33.

Course of study in schools of China, 125;
Egypt, 83;
Europe, 297.

Courses of study in the Universities of Europe, 300.

Court fools in Europe, 294;
Mexico, 33.

Courtesans in India, 87;
Japan, 133.

Courting-sticks in United States, 337.

Courtship in China, 108;
Greece, 183;
Japan, 134;
United States, 336.

Cradles of Greece, 192;
United States, 378.

Cremation at Rome, 245.

Cricket-fighting in China, 121.

Criminals sent from England to America, 318.

Cruelty of teachers in United States, 449.

Cupboards in houses of United States, 326.

Curling-irons for the hair in Greece, 188.

Customs relating to the land in United States, 313.

Dame-schools in New England, 448.

Dancing in Egypt, 77;
Europe, 294;
Greece, 200;
India, 98;
Japan, 147;
Judea, 173;
Mexico, 34;
Rome, 254;
United States, 399.

Daughter desired after several sons were born to family in India, 97.

Daughter-in-law and mother-in-law, relation of, in China, 104.

Day and night, game of, in Greece, 196.

Death in Egypt, 74;
Rome, 243;
United States, 393.

Death of son laid upon daughter in Egypt, 96.

Deductio of bride at Rome, 229.

Deformation of feet in China, 117.

Diary of a Boston school girl of 1771, 384.

Dice in Egypt, 80;
Europe, 295;
Greece, 200;
Mexico, 34;
Persia, 164;
Rome, 254.

Dining-tables in United States, 328.

Discipline in schools of China, 126;
Egypt, 83;
Greece, 209;
India, 102;
Judea, 175;
Mexico, 36;
Rome, 261;
United States, 449.

Discomfort of houses in winter in United States, 331.

Diseases in United States, 389.

Diseases of infancy in United States, 377.

Disposition of Chinese baby, 113.

Divination by children in Egypt, 76.

Divorce in China, 105;
Europe, 281;
Greece, 185;
Japan, 137;
Judea, 170;
Mexico, 18;
Persia, 163;
Rome, 230;
United States, 342.

Dolls in Egypt, 81;
Greece, 195;
Japan, 149;
Rome, 254;
United States, 413.

Doors in Dutch houses in New York, 323;
Egyptian houses, 56;
Roman houses, 217.

Dowry in Greece, 183;
India, 98;
Judea, 169;
Rome, 226.

Draughts, game of, in Egypt, 79;
Europe, 295.

Dress a distinguishing mark during the middle ages of Europe, 283.

Dress in China, 121;
Egypt, 59;
Europe, 282;
Greece, 186;
India, 98;
Japan, 140;
Judea, 171;
Mexico, 24;
Persia, 163;
Peru, 41;
Rome, 231;
United States, 348.

Dress, laws against luxury in, in New England, 350.

Dress, material of, in China, 121;
Egypt, 60;
Greece, 187;
Rome, 233;
United States, 354.

Dress of Anglo-Saxons, 282.

Dress of boys in Greece, 186;
Persia, 163;
United States, 360.

Dress of children in China, 122;
Egypt, 64;
Europe, 284.

Dress of Dutch children in United States, 363.

Dress of early Britons, 282.

Dress of girls in United States, 361.

Dress of frontiersmen and hunters in United States, 351.

Dress of infant in China, 122;
Greece, 191;
Japan, 144;
United States, 359.

Dress of men and women embroidered and decorated in medieval Europe, 284.

Dress of men and women of working classes in Europe, 284.

Dress of men in Egypt, 59;
Europe, 283;
Mexico, 24;
Persia, 163;
United States, 351.

Dress of Normans, 283.

Dress of school girls in United States, 362.

Dress of servants and slaves in Egypt, 60.

Dress of women in China, 122;
Egypt, 59;
Europe, 284;
Greece, 187;
Mexico, 24;
Persia, 163;
Rome, 232;
United States, 352.

Dress, Restrictions on in early United States, 350.

Drink in Egypt, 64;
Greece, 190;
Mexico, 26;
Peru, 43;
Rome, 238;
United States, 369.

Drink of children in United States, 375.

Driving vehicles for pleasure at Rome, 253.

Ducking-stool in United States, 418.

Dutch houses in New York, 323.

Duties of children in Greece, 194;
Judea, 171.

Dwarfs and deformed persons in Egypt, 79.

Earrings in China, 122;
Egypt, 61;
Judea, 172;
Rome, 236.

Education among the early Christians, 296.

Education in China, 123;
Egypt, 82;
Europe, 296;
Greece, 203;
India, 100;
Japan, 157;
Judea, 173;
Mexico, 36;
Persia, 164;
Peru, 50;
Rome, 257;
United States, 442.

Education in Parishads in India, 101.

Education in post-exilic period in Judea, 174;
pre-exilic period, 174.

Education of boys in Athens, 207;
India, 101;
Mexico, 37;
Persia, 164;
Sparta, 204.

Education of Brahman in India, 101.

Education of common people in Mexico, 37;
Peru, 51.

Education of higher classes in Mexico, 37;
Peru, 51.

Education of samurai in Japan, 158.

Education of women in Athens, 209;
China, 127;
Egypt, 83;
Europe, 301;
India, 102;
Japan, 158;
Judea, 175;
Mexico, 37;
Persia, 169;
Rome, 262;
Sparta, 209;
United States, 452.

Education of youth at Athens, 208;
Persia, 165;
Peru, 51;
Sparta, 205.

Education, reverence for, in China, 123.

Education, rise of lay, in Europe, 298.

Educational ideas of the Church Fathers in Europe, 300.

Educational titles in China, 127.

Election-day in United States, 415.

Elopement in Japan, 136.

Embalming in Egypt, 75.

Embroidering in United States, 426.

Engagement, announcement of, in Mexico, 16.

Engagement presents in Japan, 134.

Entertainment in the homes in Greece, 199.

Ethical standards at Rome, 223.

Examinations, competitive, in China, for public positions, 123.

Eye troubles in Egypt, 74.

Fairs in Europe, 293;
Peru, 48;
United States, 398.

Father, the, power and duty of, in Japan, 146.

Feasts in Mexico, 33.

Feather-work in Mexico, 31;
United States, 427.

Fertilization of crops in Egypt, 66;
Peru, 47;
Rome, 246.

Festival of banners in Japan, 148;
of chrysanthemums, 149;
of dolls, 148;
of lanterns, 149.

Festivals in Greece, 197;
Japan, 148.

Feudal castle and its life in Europe, 267.

Feudal village, 267.

Feudalism in Europe, 265.

"Field Schools" in United States, 442.

Filial piety in Japan, 133.

Fireplaces in houses in United States, 330.

Fish and fishing in Egypt, 67;
Greece, 190;
Peru, 47;
Rome, 238;
United States, 365, 402.

Flax-culture and spinning in United States, 426.

Flogging of servants in United States, 321.

Floors of houses in Rome, 217;
United States, 325.

Food in Egypt, 62;
Europe, 285;
Greece, 190;
Mexico, 25;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 237;
United States, 364.

Food of children in Egypt, 64;
Greece, 190;
India, 99;
United States, 374.

Football in United States, 407.

Footwear in Egypt, 61;
Europe, 285;
Greece, 188;
Japan, 140;
Judea, 172;
Rome, 235;
United States, 355.

Fowling in Egypt, 67;
Peru, 47.

Fox and geese, game of, in Europe, 296.

Fruits of Egypt, 62;
Europe, 286;
Greece, 190;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 238;
United States, 367.

Funeral feasts at Rome, 245.

Funeral gifts in United States, 394.

Funerals in Egypt, 75;
Greece, 202;
Rome, 243;
United States, 393.

Funerals of children in United States, 398.

Furniture of houses in Europe, 276;
United States, 325.

Gambling in China, 121;
Europe, 295;
Greece, 200;
India, 99;
Mexico, 34;
United States, 400.

Gambrel roof in United States, 324.

Games and plays in China, 119;
Egypt, 81;
Greece, 195;
Japan, 146;
Judea, 173;
Mexico, 41;
Persia, 164;
Rome, 254;
United States, 407.

Geisha girls of Japan, 133.

"Genji and Heiké," game of, in Japan, 152.

Ghostly games in Japan, 147.

Gifts to young babies in United States, 378.

Girls' and women's work in United States, 423.

Girls' games in China, 120;
Japan, 133;
Persia, 164.

Girls of Athens and Sparta, comparison of, 180.

Girls' place in the meeting-house of New England, 430.

Gladiatorial fights at Rome, 251.

Glass used in Egypt, 67.

Glazed ware in Egypt, 67.

Go-cart for baby in United States, 379.

God of school children in Japan, 155.

Going to church in New England, 434.

Grace returned at meals in Egypt, 63.

Grains of Egypt, 65;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 238;
United States, 364.

Grape and olive culture at Rome, 247.

Gravestones in United States, 396.

Grinding grain in Egypt, 62;
Europe, 286;
United States, 365.

Grinning matches in England, 293.

Growth of the idea of education for all classes in Europe, 297.

Guilds in Europe, 274;
Rome, 249.

Gymnasium and gymnastic exercises in Greece, 197.

Gymnastic contests for boys in Greece, 199;
Rome, 253.

Hair of baby in Japan, 144.

Hair of boys in Japan, 140.

Hair of children in Greece, 187;
Mexico, 24;
Peru, 44.

Hair of men in Egypt, 60;
Europe, 284;
Greece, 187;
Japan, 140;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 234;
United States, 355.

Hair of women in China, 122;
Egypt, 60;
Europe, 284;
Greece, 187;
Japan, 140;
Judea, 172;
Mexico, 24;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 235;
United States, 356.

Hair-pins in Judea, 172;
Rome, 235.

Half-face camp of early settlers in United States, 322.

Handwear in Greece, 188.

Hanseatic League in Europe, 274.

Hara-Kiri in Japan, 156.

Headdress of school girl in United States, 362.

Head-rest for sleeping in Egypt, 57.

Head-shaving by men in Europe, 276;
Egypt, 60.

Headwear of men in Peru, 41;
Rome, 234.

Heating of houses in Europe, 276;
Rome, 217;
United States, 330.

Heating of meeting-houses in New England, 432.

Hetairai of Greece, 180.

Himation, worn in Greece, 186.

Historical and critical notice of earlier and medieval Europe, 264.

History of Judea, 167.

Hobby-horses in Greece, 196;
Rome, 254.

Hocking in Europe, 293.

Holidays and festivals in China, 119;
Japan, 148;
United States, 413.

Home, the, in Egypt, 55;
Europe, 276;
Greece, 178;
Rome, 215;
United States, 322.

Hominy, an Indian food in United States, 364.

Honey-pots, game of, in United States, 408.

Hoop-petticoats for girls in United States, 281.

Hoops, playing with, in Egypt, 79;
Greece, 195;
Rome, 254;
United States, 413.

Hop scotch in United States, 408.

Hornbook of New England, 445.

Horseback riding at Rome, 253.

Horse-racing in Greece, 200;
United States, 403.

Houses in Egypt, 55;
Europe, 276;
Greece, 178;
Rome, 215.

Houses of Dutch in New York, 323.

Houses of early settlers in New England, 322.

Houses of Quakers and Germans in Pennsylvania, 323.

Houses of Southern planters in United States, 323.

Human sacrifice in Mexico, 28;
Peru, 45.

Hunting in Egypt, 80;
Europe, 292;
Greece, 200;
Peru, 47;
Rome, 253;
United States, 401.

Husband and wife in New England, 343.

Illness of children in United States, 396.

Immolation by wife in China, 106.

Incest in Egypt, 58;
Persia, 169;
Peru, 43.

Indians sold into slavery in Massachusetts, 317.

Industries of Egypt, 65;
Mexico, 30;
Peru, 45;
Rome, 246.

Infancy in China, 112;
Japan, 144;
Peru, 44;
United States, 376.

Infant mortality in United States, 377.

Infanticide in China, 114;
Greece, 193;
India, 97;
Japan, 143;
Rome, 238.

Influence of Christianity on Women in Europe, 277.

Inheritance in Europe, 267;
Greece, 194;
India, 100;
Japan, 140;
Persia, 163;
Rome, 241;
United States, 388.

Insulæ at Rome, 215.

Intellectual precocity of children in New England, 450.

Intemperance in Egypt, 64;
Mexico, 26;
United States, 370.

Interior of houses in Egypt, 56;
Greece, 178;
Rome, 216.

Irrigation in Egypt, 66.

Jack-knives in United States, 423.

Jewels, talismanic and medical powers of, in Europe, 285.

Johnny-cake in United States, 365.

Judgment of the dead in Egypt, 75.

Jugglery in China, 120;
Egypt, 79;
Europe, 294;
Greece, 200;
India, 99;
Japan, 147;
Rome, 254;
United States, 403.

Jumping-jack, the, in Egypt, 82.

Katted chimneys in United States, 322.

"Kids" in United States, 319.

Kinds of church schools in Europe, 298.

Kinds of marriages at Rome, 225.

Kinds of schools at Rome, 258;
United States, 442.

Kites and kite-flying in China, 119;
Japan, 151.

"Kites' Day" in China, 119.

Knighthood, training the boy for, in Europe, 268.

Knitting by girls in United States, 424.

Knockers on doors of colonial houses in United States, 324.

Kottabos, game of, in Greece, 199.

Laborers of Europe, 272;
Rome, 248.

Lace-making in United States, 427.

Lamps in United States, 333.

Land allotted to married couples in Peru, 44.

Leather and its preparation in Egypt, 70.

Lecture-day in New England, 398.

Legitimacy of children in Egypt, 58;
Greece, 182;
Rome, 239.

Letter of girl of eleven to her grandfather, in United States, 383.

Lettering an offender in United States, 419.

Lighting the houses in Europe, 276;
Rome, 218;
United States, 332.

Lintner of New England, 324.

Literary contests at Rome, 253.

"Livery of seisin" in United States, 313.

Loaf-sugar in United States, 368.

Lobsters in United States, 366.

Log-cabin in United States, 322.

London Bridge, game of, in United States, 408.

Lord, the, in feudal times in Europe, 267.

Lore in Mexico, 27.

Lore in reference to children in Japan, 152;
Mexico, 18;
Rome, 240.

Lotteries at Rome, 254;
United States, 400.

Love potions in Greece, 183.

Ludus castellorum, game of, at Rome, 254.

Lullabies of Greece, 193.

Maidenhood in United States, 347.

Maize, preparation of, in Mexico, 25.

Manner of cooking in early times in United States, 364.

Manners and courtesy of children in United States, 382.

Manufactures in Egypt, 67;
Mexico, 31;
United States, 421.

Maple-sugar making in United States, 368.

Marble-playing in United States, 413.

Market-gardening at Rome, 247.

Market-places in Mexico, 32.

Marriage a civil contract in New England, 339.

Marriage, adoptive form of, in Japan, 137.

Marriage, age of in Europe, 281;
Greece, 182;
India, 92;
Judea, 168;
Mexico, 16;
Persia, 161;
Peru, 43;
Rome, 226;
United States, 336.

Marriage among the Anglo-Saxons, 280;
Early Germans, 279.

Marriage arranged in heaven in Judea, 168.

Marriage at Rome by coemptio, 225;
con ferreatio, 225;
sine conventione, 225;
usus, 225.

Marriage by the church during the middle ages in Europe, 281.

Marriage ceremony in China, 110;
Greece, 184;
India, 90;
Japan, 135;
Mexico, 17;
Persia, 161;
Peru, 143;
Rome, 228;
United States, 340.

Marriage-feast in Greece, 184;
Japan, 136;
Judea, 169;
Rome, 228.

Marriage forbidden with a prostitute in Judea, 170.

Marriage in China, 104;
Egypt, 57;
Europe, 279;
Greece, 182;
India, 87;
Japan, 134;
Judea, 168;
Mexico, 16;
Persia, 161;
Peru, 43;
Rome, 224;
United States, 336.

Marriage in the early Christian church in Europe, 279.

Marriage, kinds of, in India, 88;
Rome, 225.

Marriage of brother and sister among the rulers in Peru, 43.

Marriage of serfs in Europe, 282.

Marriage of widows and widowers in China, 105;
India, 92;
Judea, 168;
Mexico, 18;
Rome, 230;
United States, 344.

Marriage, temporary, in Persia, 162.

Marriage, time of, in Greece, 182;
Rome, 228.

Marriage, tribunal of, in Mexico, 16.

Masks for caring for girls' complexions in United States, 363.

Materials for dressing the hair of women in United States, 357.

May-day sports in England, 293;
United States, 416.

Meals in Egypt, 63;
Greece, 190;
Mexico, 25;
Rome, 237;
United States, 364.

Meats used as foods in Greece, 190;
Europe, 286.

Medicine, education in, in Japan, 157.

Medicine, practice of, in Egypt, 74;
Rome, 243;
United States, 389.

Medicines for children in United States, 397.

Metals and metal-workers in Egypt, 68;
Mexico, 30;
Peru, 48.

Methods of teaching in Athens, 209;
China, 125;
Judea, 175;
Rome, 258.

Midwife in Egypt, 74;
Mexico, 19.

Military training for the young in England, 291.

Milk and its products in United States, 374.

Ministers in United States, 436.

Minnesingers of Germany, 271.

Minstrels of British Isles, 271.

Miracle and morality plays of medieval Europe, 293.

Mirrors of Egypt, 62;
Rome, 237.

Mock-fights in Egypt, 80.

Molasses, rum, slavery--the circle trio of New England, 371.

Monastic schools of Europe, 298.

Monogamy in Greece, 185;
Judea, 169;
Mexico, 18;
Rome, 230.

Mora, game of, in Egypt, 79.

Morals and manners taught in the schools of Egypt, 83.

Morals, training of the boys and youth in, in Persia, 165.

Mother-in-law in China, 104.

Mother's memorial in Japan, 138.

Mourning-rings in United States, 395.

Mud-pies, making of, by children in Greece, 195.

Murder of a parent, punishment for, in Egypt, 59.

Museums in United States, 403.

Music in Egypt, 78;
Europe, 294;
Greece, 200;
Mexico, 35;
United States, 400.

Music of the Puritan meeting-houses in New England, 438.

Muster-day in United States, 398.

Naming children in China, 113;
Greece, 192;
India, 99;
Japan, 145;
Mexico, 19;
Peru, 45;
Rome, 239;
United States, 380.

Narcotics in Peru, 43.

Naumachia, mimic naval battles, at Rome, 252.

Necklaces worn in Egypt, 61;
Europe, 285;
Greece, 189;
India, 98;
Judea, 172;
Rome, 236.

Needle-craft in United States, 425.

Needles used in Egypt, 62.

Negro children sold by the pound in Boston, 317.

Nets for the hair in Greece, 188.

Netting made in United States, 427.

New England Primer, 445.

New Year calls among the Dutch in New York, 414.

New Year Day in China, 119;
Japan, 148.

Nile, annual rise of, and effect on Egypt, 65.

Nine-pins in United States, 403.

Nobility, characteristics of, in medieval Europe, 275.

Noon-house for Sunday meetings in New England, 433.

Nose-rings in Judea, 172.

Number of children in families in United States, 379.

Nursing of children in Greece, 192;
Judea, 170.

Obedience of children in Mexico, 20;
Persia, 163.

Obituaries in United States, 395.

Odd or even, game played in Egypt, 79;
Rome, 254.

Oiled paper in windows of houses in United States, 324.

Ointment for the hair in Greece, 188.

Old age among women in Japan, 133.

Old age in Greece, 201.

Olympic Festival and Games in Greece, 197.

Olympic Games, boys' contests at, in Greece, 199.

"One hundred stories," game of, in Japan, 147.

Organization of the medieval university of Europe, 300.

Ornaments worn by children in India, 98.

Ornaments worn in China, 122;
Egypt, 61;
Europe, 285;
Greece, 189;
India, 98;
Judea, 172;
Mexico, 25;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 236;
United States, 354.

Pænula and lacuna, cloaks worn at Rome, 232.

Page, the, in chivalry, 268.

Painting in Egypt, 72.

Painting on glass by young women in United States, 427.

Palæstra in Greece, 197.

Palla worn by women at Rome, 233.

Paper-cutting by young women in United States, 427.

Paper-making in Egypt, 70;
Mexico, 31.

Parasols in Greece, 189.

Parishads in India, 101.

Parish schools in Europe, 298

Parochial schools in United States, 442.

Parts, the, of a Roman house, 216.

Patria potestas at Rome, 239.

Peasantry, the, of medieval Europe, 271.

Pedagogue in Greece, 208;
Rome, 261.

Pentathlon in Greece, 198.

People of Egypt, 53;
Europe, 271;
Greece, 177;
Mexico, 15;
Peru, 39;
Rome, 213;
United States, 314.

People, the town, of medieval Europe, 273.

Perfumery used by women in Judea, 172.

Periods in the life of the child in Persia, 164.

Pewter utensils in United States, 329.

Physical characteristics of Egypt, 53;
Greece, 177.

Physician, the, in Egypt, 74;
Greece, 201;
Rome, 243;
United States, 390.

Pillory used in United States, 418.

"Pinkster Day" in New York, 416.

Pins used in Egypt, 62.

Places of worship in United States, 428.

Play, a, by school boys in medieval times in England, 294.

Pleasure companies of youth in Albany, New York, 409.

Poems, game of, in Japan, 146.

Polygamy in China, 105;
Egypt, 58;
Greece, 185;
India, 91;
Japan, 137;
Judea, 169;
Mexico, 18;
Persia, 162.

Pone, an Indian food in United States, 364.

Pottery in Egypt, 67;
Mexico, 32.

Peru, 48.

Powder-horns in United States, 422.

Prayers and sermons, length of, in New England, 438.

Precociousness of children in United States, 450.

Pregnancy in Egypt, 59;
Greece, 191;
Mexico, 18.

Preserving and conserving fruits and berries in United States, 367.

Primitive homes in United States, 322.

Primogeniture and entail in United States, 388.

Prints and paintings on walls of homes in United States, 326.

Prize-shooting in United States, 402.

Prohibitions on marriage in Judea, 168;
Rome, 226.

Public hangings in United States, 420.

Public punishments in United States, 416.

Public schools in Rome, 257;
United States, 443.

Punishment for child-murder in Egypt, 58.

Punishment for murder of a parent in China, 116;
Egypt, 59.

Punishment for wilful murder of a slave in Egypt, 55.

Punishment in schools of United States, 449.

Punishment of slaves in United States, 316.

Pupil's respect for teacher in China, 124.

Purification of the home after death at Rome, 246.

Purification of the infant in Greece, 191;
Rome, 239.

Purpose of education in Egypt, 83;
Rome, 257.

Purpose of marriage in Greece, 182.

Pyramids of Ghizeh, 73.

Quern, the, for grinding grain in Scotland, 287;
United States, 365.

Quilt-making in United States, 425.

Quintain, tilting at, in Europe, 292.

Quipus of Peru, 51.

Quoits in Europe, 296;
United States, 403.

Races and contests in Mexico, 34.

"Raiko and the Oni," story of, in Japan, 153.

Rank shown by dress in Peru, 42;
Europe, 283.

Rattle, the, of infant in Greece, 194.

Redemptioners in United States, 318.

Regulations in Egypt, 54;
Japan, 140.

Religion in China, 122;
Egypt, 76;
Greece, 202;
Japan, 155;
Mexico, 28;
Peru, 45;
Rome, 255;
United States, 428.

Religious books for children in New England, 441.

Religious fears of young people in New England, 441.

Religious precocity in New England, 440.

Religious services of the first colonists in Virginia, 428.

Reliquaries in Europe, 285.

Remedies for children's diseases in United States, 397.

Remodeling the human figure by the women of Greece, 189.

Respect for parents and aged people by children and young people in
China, 116;
Egypt, 59;
United States, 383.

Results of the education of earlier United States, 454.

Revenge of slighted affections by a young woman in Japan, 153.

Rhetor's school at Rome, 260.

Rhymes for children in China, Mother Goose Rhymes, 113.

Riddles, the giving of, in Judea, 173.

Rings worn in Egypt, 61;
Greece, 189;
India, 98;
Rome, 236.

Rites in India, 99.

Roads in Peru, 39.

Rope-walking in Europe, 294;
Rome, 254;
United States, 403.

Running and jumping games in Japan, 151.

Running contests in United States, 403.

Running games of children in Greece, 195.

Sack races in Europe, 293.

Sacred Thread, bestowing of, on youth in India, 99.

Saint Valentine's Day among the Dutch in New York, 416.

Salary of minister in New England, 436.

Salt-cellar, important at table in United States, 328.

Samp, an Indian food in United States, 364.

Sampler, made by girls in United States, 427.

Samurai, education of, in Japan, 158.

Sanitation in United States, 389.

Scholar, the, in China, 127.

School books in United States, 445.

School, child's first day at, in China, 124.

School day at Athens, 209;
China, 123;
Rome, 261.

School houses in China, 124;
Greece, 209;
Rome, 260;
United States, 444.

School materials in China, 124;
United States, 444.

School vacations in China, 124.

School year in China, 124;
Rome, 261.

Schools, coeducational, in Japan, 157.

Schools connected with temples in Egypt, 82.

Schools, kinds of, in China, 123;
Rome, 258.

Schools of Egypt, elementary, 82;
higher, 82.

Schools of quite early origin in China, 123.

"Scrutaire" in homes of United States, 326.

Sculpture in Egypt, 71.

Seating at meals in Egypt, 63;
Rome, 237.

Seating in churches in United States, 431.

Seating of children and young people in churches in New England, 439.

See-saw, used by children of Greece, 195.

Serfdom in Europe, 271.

Servants in United States, 318.

Service, noble and ignoble, in Europe, 171.

Sexes, separate education of, in Mexico, 36.

Shirking school, playing hookey, etc., at Rome, 262.

Shoes for girls in United States, 363.

Shoes of baby in Japan, 144.

Shrove Tuesday observed in New York, 415.

Sickness and death in Egypt, 74;
Greece, 201;
Rome, 243;
United States, 389.

Sillabub, a drink in United States, 372.

Singing-schools in United States, 400.

Sitting of people in Egypt, 57.

Skates and skating in United States, 402, 410.

Skipping of stones by children at Rome, 254.

Slavery in Egypt, 54;
Mexico, 30;
Rome, 214;
United States, 316.

Slawbank, the, in United States, 327.

Sleeping, manner of, in Egypt, 57.

Sleeve-buttons in United States, 354.

Sleighing in United States, 402, 411.

Sleight-of-hand performances in United States, 403.

Slitting tongue of offender in United States, 419.

Small-pox in United States, 392.

Smock-races of young women in England, 293.

Snail Water, a famous medicine for rickets in United States, 377.

Snow and ice games and sports in Japan, 151.

Soap-making in United States, 425.

Sons greatly desired in China, 116;
India, 96.

"Soul-examination," game of, in Japan, 147.

Spectacles at Rome, 249.

Sports and festivals at Greece, 197.

Standard of beauty for women in Japan, 132.

Standing-stool for baby in United States, 379.

Stays and corsets for little children in United States, 363.

Stilts in Greece, 195;
Japan, 151;
Rome, 254.

Stocks used for punishment of offenders in United States, 417.

Stola worn by women at Rome, 232.

Stone, kinds of, used in buildings in Egypt, 73.

Story-telling in India, 99;
Japan, 146.

Stoves used by the Germans in Pennsylvania, 330.

Striking a light in United States, 333.

Subject-matter of the elementary schools in New England, 446.

Subject-matter of the schools at Rome, 259.

Succotash, an Indian food in United States, 364.

Suicide of lovers in Japan, 155.

Suicide of wives in China, 104.

Sunday observance in United States, 428.

Supawn, an Indian food in United States, 364.

Sutteeism in India, 93.

Sweetmeats for children in United States, 375.

Swimming in United States, 411.

Sword-dancing in Europe, 294;
United States, 403.

Swords worn by boys in Japan, 140.

Tables in Egypt, 57;
Rome, 218;
United States, 328.

Tableware and furnishings in Egypt, 63;
Europe, 286;
Rome, 238;
United States, 328.

Tablinum of a Roman house, 216.

Tag, game of, in United States, 408.

Tallow-candle making in United States, 332.

Tammany Club in New York, 399.

Tapestries hung on walls of houses in United States, 326.

Tea in United States, 373.

Teacher and pupil in India, 102.

Teachers of China, 124;
Greece, 208;
Rome, 261;
United States, 446.

Teeth, condition of, in United States, 357.

Teething of children in United States, 378.

Temple of Karnak in Egypt, 73.

Thanksgiving Day among the Puritans of New England, 414.

Theaters and theatrical entertainments in Europe, 294;
Greece, 200;
Japan, 147;
Mexico, 35;
Rome, 252;
United States, 404.

Thumb-rings worn by men in United States, 354.

Tilting at Quintain in Europe, 292.

Time of planting and reaping grain in Egypt, 66.

Time-pieces in United States, 354.

Tip-cat, played by boys in Europe, 296.

Tithing-man of New England, 434.

Titles, educational, in China, 127.

Tobacco in Mexico, 26;
Peru, 43;
United States, 368.

Toga of Romans, 231.

Toga virilis, investing boy with, at Rome, 241.

Toilette, the, of ladies at Rome, 236.

Tops and top-spinning in Europe, 296;
Greece, 196;
Japan, 151;
Rome, 254;
United States, 412.

Tournaments in Europe, 269.

Towers on heads of women in United States, 356.

Townsman, the, in medieval Europe, 275.

Toys in China, 120;
Egypt, 81;
Greece, 194;
Japan, 149;
Rome, 254;
United States, 412.

Trades in Egypt, 67;
Mexico, 31.

Tradesmen and mechanics at Rome, 248.

Training of the king and princes of Peru, 49.

Treatment and remedies of physicians in United States, 390.

Trenchers used at meals in United States, 328.

Triclinium of Romans, 237.

Troubadours of Southern France, 271.

Trousseau of bride in Japan, 135.

Trouveurs of Northern France, 271.

Trundle-bed in United States, 327.

Tug-of-war of boys in Greece, 196.

Tunica of Romans, 232.

Types of meeting-houses in New England, 429.

Umbrellas in United States, 354.

Universities, early, in Europe, 299;
India, 101;
Japan, 157.

Use of meeting-houses for various purposes in New England, 433.

Utensils, household, in United States, 329.

Vassalage in Europe, 266.

Vegetables of Egypt, 65;
Europe, 286;
Greece, 190;
Peru, 42;
Rome, 238;
United States, 367.

Vegetables of the North American Indians obtained by the early
settlers in the United States, 367.

Veils worn by women of Judea, 172.

Venatio, animal displays, at Rome, 251.

Vestal Virgins of Rome, 255.

Villas in Egypt, 56;
Rome, 215.

Virgins of the Sun in Peru, 44.

Voorlezer, chorister, of church among the Dutch in New York, 435.

Wakes in Europe, 293.

Walking as an exercise and pastime at Rome, 253.

Walking of baby in Japan, 144.

Walking-sticks in Egypt, 61;
Greece, 189.

Warming-pans in United States, 330.

Watches in United States, 354.

Water for drinking in United States, 369.

Weaning of child in India, 99.

Wedding-bans, publishing of, in United States, 339.

Wedding ceremony in Japan, 135;
Persia, 162;
Rome, 228.

Wedding-day in China, 111;
Greece, 184;
Rome, 228.

Wedding-dress at Rome, 227.

Wedding-feast in China, 111;
Rome, 228.

Wedding procession in Greece, 184.

Wedding veil at Rome, 227.

Wheelbarrow races in England, 293.

Whipping offenders in United States, 419.

Whipping-posts, location of, in Boston, 420.

Whiskey manufactured in United States, 371.

Widowers in China, 105;
India, 93;
Judea, 168;
Rome, 230;
United States, 344.

Widows in China, 105;
India, 92;
Judea, 168;
Mexico, 18;
Rome, 230;
United States, 345.

Wife, advertisement for, in United States, 339.

Wife, the, in India, 91;
Rome, 229.

Wife, fate of sonless, in India, 96.

Wigs worn in Egypt, 60;
United States, 355.

Wigwams made and used by settlers in United States, 322.

Wild berries, fruits, and nuts in United States, 367.

Wild game in Greece, 190;
United States, 367.

Windows in houses in Egypt, 56;
Rome, 217.

Woman, a, of a scientific turn of mind in United States, 335.

Women among the early Germans, 278.

Women, classes of, and condition at Rome, 218.

Women dying in childbirth in Mexico, 19.

Women, education of, in Athens, 209;
China, 127;
Egypt, 83;
India, 102;
Japan, 158;
Judea, 175;
Mexico, 37;
Persia, 169;
Rome, 262;
Sparta, 209;
United States, 452.

Women, education of, views of the early Church Fathers in Europe, 300.

Women in Athens, 179;
China, 104;
Egypt, 57;
Europe, 277;
Greece, 178;
India, 85;
Japan, 130;
Judea, 167;
Mexico, 16;
Persia, 161;
Rome, 218;
Sparta, 179;
United States, 334.

Women, influence of Christianity on, in Europe, 277.

Women in industrial affairs in Europe, 279;
United States, 334.

Women of Athens and Sparta contrasted, 180.

Women of Rome, in literature, 222;
in professions, 222;
in public life, 218.

Women, old age of, in Japan, 133.

Women possessing property in the middle ages of Europe, 279.

Women's influence upon men and affairs at Rome, 220.

Women, standard of beauty for, in Japan, 132.

Women teachers in New England and New York, 448.

Women under feudalism in Japan, 137.

Wood-working in Egypt, 68;
Mexico, 31;
Peru, 48;
United States, 422.

Wool culture and spinning in United States, 426.

Work, a day's, of a peasant in England, 272.

Work and manufactures of boys in United States, 422.

Work of district school, academy, and college in United States, 447.

Work of girls and women in United States, 423.

Work of girls in Japan, 156.

Work of one girl in United States, 424.

Work, regulations of, in Peru, 40.

Working in precious stones in Mexico, 32.

Wrestling in Egypt, 80;
Japan, 151;
United States, 403.

Wrestling matches, imitation of, by boys in Japan, 151.

Writing, art of, in Japan, 157.

Yawning matches in England, 294.

Year of Roman farmer, 247.

Youth inducted into citizenship at Rome, 241.

Transcriber's Note:

Obvious printer's errors have been remedied. The usage of hyphens and
the spelling of many words was inconsistent in the original and has been
retained. In the index, the reference for the entry "Hoop-petticoats for
girls in United States" was changed from page 546 to 281, and the
reference for "Houses of early settlers in New England" was changed from
page 490 to 322.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Historical Child - Paidology; The Science of the Child" ***

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