The Heroic Age

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Title: The Heroic Age
Author: Chadwick, H. Munro
Language: English
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Cambridge Archaeological and Ethnological Series

THE HEROIC AGE

[Illustration: MAP OF CENTRAL EUROPE

illustrating the Heroic Age of the Teutonic Peoples

Where the same name occurs both in capitals and italics the former
denote a position occupied in the early part of the Heroic Age, while
the latter mark a change or extension of territories.]

THE HEROIC AGE

H. MUNRO CHADWICK

Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge

Cambridge:
at the University Press
1912
Reprinted
1967

Published by the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press
Bentley House, 200 Euston Road, London, N.W. 1
American Branch: 32 East 57th Street, New York, N.Y. 10022

PUBLISHER'S NOTE

Cambridge University Press Library Editions are reissues of
out-of-print standard works from the Cambridge catalogue. The texts
are unrevised and, apart from minor corrections, reproduce the latest
published edition.

First published 1912
Reprinted 1967

First printed in Great Britain at the University Printing
House, Cambridge
Reprinted in the United States of America
Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 13-13081

PREFACE

The type of poetry commonly known as heroic is one which makes its
appearance in various nations and in various periods of history. No
one can fail to observe that certain similar features are to be found
in poems of this type which are widely separated from one another both
in date and place of origin. In view of this fact it has seemed worth
while to attempt a comparative study of two groups of such poems with
the object of determining the nature of the resemblances between them
and the causes to which they are due. Occasional illustrations have
been taken from other groups of poems belonging to the same type.

The first part of the book deals with the early heroic poetry and
traditions of the Teutonic peoples, more especially with those stories
which were the common property of various Teutonic peoples. It is
pointed out that these stories all relate to a period with definite
limits--a period for which a considerable amount of information is
available from external sources. The subjects discussed include
the distribution of the stories and the relationship between the
various versions of them, the antiquity of the earliest poems and the
conditions under which they were produced. Lastly, an attempt has been
made to estimate the significance of the various elements, historical,
mythical and fictitious, of which the stories are composed.

The second part deals with Greek heroic poetry and traditions. These
relate to a period for which little or no external evidence is
available; and consequently they present many problems, the bearings
of which can hardly be estimated without reference to the existence
of similar phenomena elsewhere. In general I have followed the same
plan as in the first part, and made use throughout of the results
obtained there. If some excuse is necessary for dealing with so well
worn a theme I may plead that, so far as my knowledge goes, it has not
hitherto been approached from this point of view.

In the third part attention has been called to the existence of a
number of somewhat striking characteristics common to the two groups
of poems and an attempt made to account for them. The conclusion to
which I have been brought is that the resemblances in the poems are
due primarily to resemblances in the ages to which they relate and to
which they ultimately owe their origin. The comparative study of heroic
poetry therefore involves the comparative study of 'Heroic Ages'; and
the problems which it presents are essentially problems of anthropology.

In this conclusion I am glad to find myself in agreement with Dr
Haddon, who suggested to me that a comparative study of this kind would
be a suitable subject for the Cambridge Archaeological and Ethnological
Series. I take this opportunity of thanking him for bringing the matter
before the Syndics of the University Press and for the interest which
he has kindly taken in the progress of the work.

Owing to the pressure of teaching and other duties a considerable time
has unfortunately elapsed since the earlier portions of the book were
printed. I would therefore respectfully call the reader's attention
to the list of Addenda at the end, where references will be found to
several important works which have appeared in the meantime.

In a work, such as this, which deals with records preserved in a number
of different languages, difficulties necessarily arise with regard to
the spelling of proper names. In the representation of Teutonic names
the system adopted in my previous books has in general been retained.
Any such system is of course open to objections, of the cogency of
which I am quite aware; and consequently I have not felt inclined to
carry out my scheme with rigid consistency. The same remarks apply to
the representation of Greek names--which will doubtless displease many
critics. South Slavonic names and words are given according to the
usual Croatian orthography.

I cannot attempt here to enumerate the various scholars to whose
writings I am indebted. It will be seen that they are many and that
much of what I have had to do is in the nature of criticism. One name
however, that of Professor Ridgeway, I cannot leave unmentioned, since
it is largely to his inspiring influence--by no means through his
writings alone--that my interest in these subjects is due.

It remains for me to record my obligations to a number of friends who
have generously responded to my requests for information or criticism
on various points. In particular I must mention Miss A. C. Paues, Mr
A. B. Cook, Dr W. H. R. Rivers, Mr S. A. Cook, Professor J. W. H.
Atkins, Professor A. Mawer, Mr E. H. Minns and Mr F. W. Green. Above
all I am indebted to Mr E. C. Quiggin and Mr F. G. M. Beck, who have
most kindly read through a considerable part of the book in proof
and several chapters even in manuscript. It is scarcely necessary to
add that in the sections dealing with Celtic history and poetry Mr
Quiggin's criticism has been of the greatest value to me. My thanks
are due, further, to my pupils, Mr C. A. Scutt, of Clare College, and
Mr Bruce Dickins, of Magdalene College, for similar kind services in
the proofs of the later chapters. From the staff of the University
Library--in particular I must mention Mr A. Rogers and Mr O. Johnson--I
have received the same unfailing and courteous attention as in the
past. Lastly, I have to thank the Syndics of the University Press for
undertaking the publication of the book and the staff for the efficient
and obliging way in which the printing and corrections have been
carried out.

H. M. C.

_December, 1911._

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. THE EARLY NARRATIVE POETRY OF THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES 1

II. THE HEROIC AGE OF THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES 19

III. SCENE AND NATIONALITY IN THE HEROIC STORIES 30

IV. THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE HEROIC POEMS 41

V. THE POETRY AND MINSTRELSY OF EARLY TIMES 77

VI. SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS IN THE HEROIC STORIES 110

VII. MYTHICAL ELEMENTS IN THE HEROIC POEMS 131

VIII. THE USE OF FICTION IN THE HEROIC POEMS 151

IX. THE HEROIC AGE OF GREECE 168

X. THE HOMERIC POEMS 193

XI. EARLY GREEK POETRY AND MINSTRELSY 221

XII. SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS IN THE HOMERIC POEMS 249

XIII. MYTH IN THE HOMERIC POEMS 263

XIV. FICTION IN THE HOMERIC POEMS 292

XV. THE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF TEUTONIC AND GREEK
HEROIC POETRY 320

XVI. SOCIETY IN THE HEROIC AGE 344

XVII. GOVERNMENT IN THE HEROIC AGE 366

XVIII. RELIGION IN THE HEROIC AGE 393

XIX. THE CAUSES AND ANTECEDENT CONDITIONS OF THE
HEROIC AGE 432

NOTES.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. THE USE OF HEROIC NAMES IN ENGLAND 64

II. ON THE DATING OF CERTAIN SOUND-CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON 66

III. LITERARY INFLUENCE IN BEOWULF 73

IV. ON THE HEROIC POETRY OF THE SLAVONIC PEOPLES 101

V. THE HEROIC POETRY OF THE CELTIC PEOPLES 105

VI. THE TROJAN CATALOGUE 244

VII. THE BATTLE OF KOSSOVO IN SERVIAN POETRY 313

VIII. THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE CELTIC AND SLAVONIC HEROIC AGES 427

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA 464

INDEX 469

MAPS.

CENTRAL EUROPE, ILLUSTRATING THE HEROIC AGE
OF THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES _To face Title-page_

GREECE, ILLUSTRATING THE CATALOGUE OF SHIPS }
} _between pp._ 288
GREECE, SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIALECTS } _and_ 289
IN HISTORICAL TIMES }

JAMES RENDEL HARRIS

IN GRATITUDE AND FRIENDSHIP

CHAPTER I.

THE EARLY NARRATIVE POETRY OF THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES.

The remains of English poetry which have come down to us from times
anterior to the Norman conquest are mainly of a religious character and
deal with the lives of saints or with subjects derived from the Bible
or ecclesiastical tradition. The secular poems are comparatively few
in number and, with one exception, of inconsiderable length. Most of
them are narrative poems, and admit of a very obvious classification
according to the choice of subjects with which they are concerned. One
group deals with the exploits of English kings and noblemen of the
tenth century, the other with the exploits and adventures of persons
who did not belong to this country. We will take the second group of
poems first, as it is admitted by all authorities to be the earlier of
the two.

The longest poem of this class is Beowulf, an epic of 3183 verses, the
subject of which briefly is as follows: Hrothgar, king of the Danes,
has built a splendid hall, but is unable to enjoy the use of it on
account of the ravages of a monster named Grendel, who attacks the
hall by night and devours all whom he finds there. Beowulf, a nephew
of Hygelac, king of the Geatas, hearing of Hrothgar's distress comes
to his help and destroys first the monster himself and then his mother
who had come to exact vengeance. He is thanked and rewarded for his
exploits by Hrothgar, and returns to his own home. After this a long
period is supposed to elapse. Hygelac has perished in an expedition
against the Frisians, and his son Heardred has been slain by the
Swedes. Beowulf has succeeded to the throne and reigned many years. In
his old age he resolves to attack a dragon which is ravaging the land,
and in spite of the cowardice of his followers, of whom all except one
forsake him, he eventually succeeds in destroying it, though not before
he has himself received a mortal wound. The poem ends with an account
of his funeral.

The action is interrupted a good many times by references to incidents
in the history of the royal families of the Danes and the Geatas,
particularly to Hygelac's fatal expedition and to the dealings of his
family with the Swedish kings Ongentheow, Onela and Eadgils. We find
also a number of allusions to heroes of the past such as Sigemund,
Eormenric, Finn and Offa, who are known to us from other sources.

To the same class of poetry belong some fragments dealing with the
stories of Finn and Waldhere. The fragment relating to Finn is very
obscure and indeed would be quite unintelligible were it not for a
passage in Beowulf (vv. 1068-1159) where the same story is introduced
as the subject of a recitation by Hrothgar's minstrel. A certain Hnaef,
represented as a vassal of Healfdene, Hrothgar's father, was slain in
a fortress belonging to Finn, king of the Frisians. His followers made
so brave a defence that Finn was compelled to come to terms with them.
Subsequently, when an opportunity presented itself they took vengeance
upon Finn and slew him. The fragment gives an account of the fighting
which took place, probably in the encounter immediately after Hnaef's
death.

The story of Waldhere is well known from German sources which we
shall have to mention presently. One of the fragments is taken up by
an altercation between Waldhere and the Burgundian king Guthhere,
before they begin to fight, while the other contains an exhortation to
Waldhere by the lady to acquit himself bravely.

Widsith, though not an epic poem itself, refers to a large number of
the characters which figure in Beowulf, Finn and Waldhere. It is stated
that the poet was in the service of a certain Eadgils, prince of the
Myrgingas, and that in company with Ealhhild, apparently a princess of
the same family, he visited the court of the Gothic king Eormenric. The
greater part of the poem is taken up with lists of peoples which he
had visited and of famous princes whom he knew personally or by report.

The elegy of Deor consists of a number of brief notices of misfortunes
which had befallen various persons, Weland and Beaduhild, Geat,
Theodric and the subjects of Eormenric. Each notice ends with a refrain
expressing the belief or hope that the poet will be able to survive his
misfortunes as they did. At the end he says that he had been the bard
of the Heodeningas, but that his office had been taken away from him
and given to a skilful minstrel named Heorrenda.

In a later chapter we shall have to discuss the question when these
poems were composed. At present it will be enough to remark that though
the MSS. in which they are preserved date only from the tenth or
eleventh centuries almost all scholars agree that the poems themselves
cannot be later than the eighth century, while probably the majority
would refer their composition, in part at least to the seventh. In
their present form they cannot be earlier than this, for with the
exception of the Finn-fragment all of them contain Christian allusions.

The later group of secular narrative poems may best be described as
historical. The earliest of them celebrates the battle of Brunanburh
won by Aethelstan in 937 over the Scottish king Constantine II and
his Scandinavian allies. Others describe Edmund's conquest of the
Five Boroughs, the coronation of Edgar, the glories of his reign, the
troubles which followed, and lastly the death of Edward the Confessor.
The longest of all is a detailed account of the disastrous battle of
Maldon, in which Byrhtnoth, earl of Essex, lost his life. All these
pieces except the last are found inserted in texts of the Saxon
Chronicle and all without exception appear to have been composed soon
after the events which they commemorate.

In addition to the above there are a number of other short poems which
are not essentially of a religious character. The most important of
these are the Wanderer, the Wife's Complaint, the Husband's Message and
the Ruin--to which we may perhaps add the first half of the Seafarer.
They are probably all of fairly early date, but they differ from the
poems we have been discussing in the fact that they contain no proper
names. Those of them which can be called narrative deal apparently
with typical characters or situations. A certain amount of magical and
gnomic poetry has also survived, while metrical riddles are numerous,
but these need not concern us here.

It is scarcely open to doubt that a large amount of Anglo-Saxon
narrative poetry has perished. Several historical poems and ballads
of the tenth and eleventh centuries, now lost, can be traced in texts
of the Saxon Chronicle and in Latin works[1]. Attempts have been made
also to show that narrative poems were used by the compilers of the
early part of the Chronicle and by several Latin histories referring
to the same period, but the evidence adduced is very doubtful. Perhaps
the most likely case is the story of Hengest and Horsa, especially
in the form in which it appears in the Historia Brittonum. On the
other hand it is probable that parts of the Vitae Duorum Offarum, a
St Albans work dating from the beginning of the thirteenth century,
are derived ultimately from poems which described Offa's single combat
and marriage--incidents to which we find brief references in Widsith
and Beowulf respectively. A similar origin may perhaps be claimed for
Walter Map's story (_De Nugis Curialium_, II 17) of Gado (Wada). A few
corrupt verses of a poem on this subject, obviously of late date, have
been preserved in a Latin homily[2].

The earlier and later groups of narrative poems have in general[3] the
same metrical form and on the whole a very similar terminology. The
love of battle-scenes is also common to both. In other respects however
they differ greatly. Here we need only notice the entire difference
in subject-matter; the poems of the second group contain no allusion
to the subjects of the first. Much greater changes however, both in
form and matter, are noticeable when English poetry reappears in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The majority of these poems are
of French origin. But even when the scene is laid in England, the
subjects are usually drawn from written sources--which is certainly
not the case with the historical poems of the tenth century. To the
subjects of the earlier group of Anglo-Saxon poems there is scarcely a
reference.

The period of German literature which corresponds chronologically to
the Anglo-Saxon period in England is far inferior to the latter in
remains of secular narrative poetry. We possess only one fragment of a
poem somewhat similar to the Finn-fragment, preserved in a MS. dating
from about 800, and one poem of somewhat later date, celebrating a
victory of Ludwig III, king of the West Franks. To these we may add
three or four very short metrical charms, similar to the Anglo-Saxon
magical pieces mentioned above.

The subject of the first of these poems is as follows: Hildebrand
(_Hiltibrant_) is an old warrior who has left his country with Dietrich
(_Theotrih_) and served with the Huns. On his return from exile, thirty
years later, he is challenged by a young warrior named Hadubrand. In
the altercation with which the piece opens Hildebrand discovers that
his opponent is his own son, acquaints him with the fact and tries to
dissuade him from the combat with offers of rich presents. But the
young man refuses to believe him, and taunts him with cowardice and
guile in trying to put him off his guard. Hildebrand is therefore
obliged to fight, and the fragment comes to an end in the midst of the
encounter.

The Ludwigslied is a poem of fifty-nine verses celebrating the praises
of Ludwig III, with special reference to his victory over the Northmen
at Saucourt in 881, and seems to have been composed before the king's
death in the following year. It is not in the old Teutonic alliterative
metre which we find in Anglo-Saxon poetry and in the Hildebrandslied,
but in the later rhyming verse. The religious element is prominent
throughout.

There is no doubt that a considerable amount of secular narrative
poetry once existed in German. Einhard in his Life of Charlemagne
(cap. 29) states that the emperor collected native and very ancient
poems in which were related the deeds and battles of kings of former
times[4]. But during the following centuries poetry of this kind seems
to have gone entirely out of favour among the higher classes. We do
indeed find occasional references to such poems in later Latin works.
In particular the Annals of Quedlinburg have incorporated from them a
number of notices relating to Eormenric, Theodric (_Thideric de Berne_)
and other heroes of antiquity. But here it is expressly stated that it
was among the peasants (_rustici_) that these poems were known. Other
Latin chronicles cite lost poems relating to persons and events of the
tenth century, which may have been somewhat similar to the contemporary
Anglo-Saxon poems, though generally they appear to have been of a less
serious character.

Some compensation for the loss of early German poetry is afforded by
the preservation of a few Latin poems, of which the most important is
_Waltharius manu fortis_, composed probably about 930 by Ekkehard of
St Gall. The subject is the same as that of the Anglo-Saxon Waldhere
fragments. Waltharius and Hiltgund, the son and daughter respectively
of two princes in Gaul, were betrothed in their childhood, but had
to be given up as hostages to Attila, king of the Huns. After many
years they escaped and carried off with them much treasure. Hearing of
this, King Guntharius, who dwelt at Worms, determined to waylay them
and set out with twelve warriors, among them the brave Hagano who had
formerly shared Waltharius' exile. Waltharius is overtaken in a defile
of the Vosges and slays eleven of the warriors in single combat. In
his final encounter with Hagano and Guntharius all three are crippled,
but Waltharius is able to make his way home with Hiltgund. There are
other poems, one of which combines German with Latin in each verse,
celebrating the deeds of the contemporary Saxon emperors and their
relatives.

The second period of German literature, beginning in the twelfth
century, is incomparably superior to the first in the amount of
secular narrative poetry which it has left behind. Here we need only
concern ourselves with those poems which draw their subjects from
ancient native traditions. These are mostly anonymous and come from the
southern districts, especially Austria and Bavaria. Their metrical form
is modern and similar to that of other poetry of the same period. The
best known of these poems is the Nibelungenlied, which dates from the
beginning of the thirteenth century. Only a very brief résumé of its
contents can be given here.

Siegfried (_Sîvrit_), the son of Siegmund, comes from Xanten to Worms
and asks for the hand of Kriemhild, the sister of the Burgundian
king Gunther. He joins Gunther in his campaigns and by magical arts
enables him to win the amazon Brünhild (_Prünhilt_) for his bride.
The two wives quarrel, and Brünhild learns from Kriemhild of the part
played by Siegfried towards her. On hearing this she begins to long
for his death, and eventually he is murdered at a hunting party by
Hagen (_Hagene_), the chief of Gunther's knights. Hagen also deprives
Kriemhild of Siegfried's treasure (_der Nibelunge hort_) and sinks it
in the Rhine. Kriemhild is afterwards married to Etzel, king of the
Huns and, burning for vengeance, persuades him to invite Gunther on a
visit, together with his brothers Gernot and Giselher and also Hagen.
Soon after their arrival she brings about a quarrel, and after a huge
slaughter on both sides, Gunther and Hagen, who have lost all their
men, are captured by Dietrich von Bern, Etzel's vassal. Kriemhild puts
them to death, violating the oath which she had given to spare them,
and in anger at this treachery Hildebrand, Dietrich's old retainer,
slays her.

Closely connected in subject with the Nibelungenlied is the Klage,
which describes the funeral of those slain in the fighting with Gunther
and the lamentation over them. Here too we may notice the Seyfridslied,
though in the form in which it has come down to us it belongs to a
much later period. In reality it is clearly a combination of two
different ballads, both of which deal with Siegfried's early years. The
first relates how he was brought up by a smith and slew a dragon. The
second gives an account of another similar adventure--this time with a
fiery dragon which had carried off Kriemhild from her father's home.
Siegfried kills the dragon and at the same time takes possession of the
treasure of certain dwarfs, the sons of Nybling.

A number of other medieval poems deal with the adventures of Dietrich
von Bern and his knights. Alpharts Tod tells the story of the young
knight Alphart, Hildebrand's nephew, and his encounter with two of
Ermenrich's warriors named Witege and Heime, by the former of whom
he was treacherously slain. Dietrichs Flucht relates how Ermenrich
(_Ermrich_) was instigated by an evil counseller named Sibeche to plot
destruction for his nephew Dietrich. Though the plot fails, Hildebrand
and several of Dietrich's other knights are captured and imprisoned,
and in order to obtain their release Dietrich is forced to go into
exile. In the Rabenschlacht we are told how Dietrich with the help
of Etzel set out to recover his inheritance. While he is engaged in
battle with Ermenrich, his brother Diether and two young sons of Etzel
are slain by Witege. Dietrich rides after Witege to exact vengeance,
but Witege disappears in the sea. Virginal describes how Dietrich
was imprisoned by a giant in a castle called Muter and rescued by
Hildebrand, Witege, Heime and others. Further adventures with giants
and dwarfs are related in the Eckenlied, Sigenot and Laurin. In the
Rosengarten Dietrich is made to fight with Siegfried.

The story of Wolfdietrich and Ortnit has come down to us in several
different forms, but the outline may be given briefly as follows.
Wolfdietrich, the son of king Hugdietrich, is kept out of his
inheritance by his brothers or their guardian Saben on the ground of
illegitimacy. He betakes himself to a faithful old knight, Berchtung of
Meran, who raises an army to help him. But in the battle that ensues
Berchtung and his sons are all slain or captured, and Wolfdietrich has
to go into exile. He then marries the widow of a king named Ortnit and
destroys the dragon which had killed him. Eventually he succeeds in
winning his father's kingdom and releasing his faithful followers. Some
elements of this story appear to have been incorporated in the romance
of King Rother.

The story of the poem Kûdrûn falls naturally into two parts. In the
first Hetel (_Hetele_), king of Denmark, hears of Hilde, a princess of
Ireland and desires to marry her. As her father, the fierce Hagen, will
not consent, Hetel's warriors Wate, Fruote and Hôrand carry her off.
Hagen pursues them to Denmark, but in the fight which follows he is
nearly killed by Wate. Finally a reconciliation takes place and Hilde
is allowed to marry Hetel. In the second part Hartmuot and Herwig are
suitors for Kûdrûn, the daughter of Hetel and Hilde. The latter is at
length accepted, but Kûdrûn is carried off by Hartmuot and his father
Ludwig (_Ludewîc_). A pursuit follows and Hetel is killed by Ludwig.
Kûdrûn is kept at Hartmuot's home for seven years, harshly treated by
his mother Gerlind, because she will not consent to become his wife. At
last Herwig and her brother Ortwîn with the warriors Wate, Fruote and
Hôrand come and rescue her. Ludwig is killed but Hartmuot is spared at
Kûdrûn's intercession.

In conclusion mention must be made of some fragments of a poem dealing
with Walther and Hildegund. The subject seems to have been identical
with that of Ekkehard's Waltharius. Reminiscences of other ancient
stories are occasionally to be found in poems of a romantic character.
Among these we may note especially the poem Herzog Friedrich von
Schwaben, a portion of which seems to be derived from the story of
Weland.

The North German dialects have no poetry of this type, except a few
ballads dating from much later times, of which the most important is
one on Eormenric's death. But a great mass of legend, derived chiefly
from North German sources, is preserved in the Norse work Thiðreks
Saga af Bern, which dates from about the middle of the thirteenth
century. The characters are for the most part identical with those
which figure in the High German epics, Dietrich von Bern, Ermenrich,
Witege, Walther, Siegfried etc. Traces of poems of much earlier date
have been sought in several Latin chronicles. Besides the references in
the Annals of Quedlinburg, to which we have already alluded, mention
may be made of the Saxon stories given by Widukind and the Translatio
S. Alexandri, especially that of the victory over the Thuringian king
Irminfrith.

The vernacular poetry of the Langobardi has entirely perished, but a
number of stories given by the Latin historians are thought to be
based on early poems. The first and most striking of these is the
account of the battle with the Vandals, in which the two armies appeal
for victory to Wodan and Fria respectively[5]. A similar origin has
been claimed for several other narratives, such as that of Alboin's
visit to Turisind, king of the Gepidae, and more especially the story
of Authari and Theudelinda[6].

The Gothic historian Jordanes states (cap. 5) that his compatriots
were wont to celebrate the deeds of their famous men in poetry, and it
is probable that many of the legends which he gives were ultimately
derived from such poems. Among them we may include not only the story
of Filimer and the migration to the Black Sea (cap. 4)--in which
case ancient poems are expressly mentioned--but also perhaps that of
the first migration under Berig (_ib._) and some part of the account
of Ostrogotha (cap. 16 f.), as well as the incidental reference to
Vidigoia's death (cap. 34). In the story of Hermanaricus also several
incidents, notably the death of Sunilda and the vengeance subsequently
exacted by her brothers Sarus and Ammius (cap. 24), suggest a tradition
preserved in poetic form.

No Scandinavian country except Iceland[7] has preserved any early poems
in its native language. The ancient literature of Iceland however
is peculiarly rich in secular narrative poetry. Moreover though the
earliest of these poems are probably quite two centuries later than
Beowulf, they are entirely free from Christian influence. Indeed it
can hardly be doubted that a considerable proportion of them date from
heathen times.

It will be convenient to begin with the collection of poems usually
known as the Older Edda. These are all anonymous; but most of them are
generally believed to belong to the tenth century, while a few may
really have been composed in Norway at a still earlier date. Eleven of
these poems deal exclusively, or almost exclusively, with gods, giants
and other supernatural beings, and hence stand quite apart from the
class of poetry with which we are concerned. But since we shall have to
refer to them occasionally in the following pages it will be convenient
here to give a brief synopsis of their contents.

Völuspá is a mythological poem in the form of a speech delivered to the
god Othin by a sibyl whom he is consulting. It deals with the origin
of the world, the history of the gods and their coming fate. Hávamál
is a collection of proverbial wisdom and moral precepts of the heathen
age, with occasional references to myth and ritual. Vafþrúðnismál
describes how Othin visited the giant Vafþrúðnir and entered into
a contest with him in mythological lore. The subject of Grímnismál
is a visit paid by Othin in disguise to a king named Geirröðr, who
tortures him. Othin gives a long discourse on mythological matters
and finally reveals himself, whereupon the king stumbles over his
sword and dies. Skírnismál relates how Skírnir, the servant of the
god Frey, was sent to obtain for his master the hand of the giantess
Gerðr, of whom he had become passionately enamoured. Hárbarðslióð is
taken up with an altercation between the god Thor and a ferryman called
Hárbarðr (generally supposed to be Othin), who refuses to take him over
a strait. Hýmiskviða gives an account of Thor's adventures when he
went to visit the giant Hýmir. Lokasenna is occupied with a number of
scandalous charges brought by Loki against various gods and goddesses
who have been invited to a feast by Aegir. Thrymskviða relates how the
giant Thrymr, having obtained possession of Thor's hammer, demanded
the goddess Freyia as his bride, and how Thor came disguised as Freyia
and slew the giant. Alvíssmál is a dialogue between Thor and the dwarf
Alvíss, who is a suitor for his daughter. Thor detains the dwarf with
questions on the various names of natural objects and phenomena until
the fatal moment of daybreak. Vegtamskviða describes how Othin went to
consult a sibyl on the impending fate of Balder.

In addition to these pieces, all of which probably come from one
collection, there are two semi-mythical poems contained in other
works. Rígsmál or Rígsþula relates how a certain Rígr (identified in
the introduction with the god Heimdallr) became the progenitor of
the three classes of men--the characteristics of which are described
at length. Hyndlulióð is mainly a genealogical poem, narrating how
Freyia went to consult the giantess Hyndla as to the ancestry of her
devotee, Óttarr the son of Innsteinn. It contains also some purely
mythological matter which is generally supposed to have come from a
separate poem. Here also we may mention two pieces known as Grógaldr
and Fiölsvinnsmál, which clearly belong together. In the former
Svipdagr calls up the spirit of Gróa, his mother; in the latter he
comes to the enchanted abode of Menglöð and, after many questions with
the gatekeeper, is at length recognised as her destined lover. In much
later times we find Swedish and Danish versions of the same story, and
there can be little doubt that it is really a folk-tale.

The purely mythological poems of the Edda are followed by
Völundarkviða, which gives a fairly full account of the story of
Völundr (Weland). It describes how Völundr and his brothers obtained
as their wives three swan-maidens, who after eight years deserted
them. Then Völundr is captured by a king named Níðuðr, hamstrung and
compelled to work as his smith. Völundr executes vengeance on the
king's sons and daughter (Böðvildr) and then flies away.

The next poem, Helgakviða Hiörvarðssonar, gives in dialogue form a
somewhat complicated story of the adventures of a king named Hiörvarðr
and his son Helgi. A different Helgi, the son of Sigmundr, is the
subject of the two following poems, Helgakviður Hundingsbana. Both
poems relate how the hero overthrew a king named Hundingr and how he
was afterwards summoned by Sigrún, the daughter of Högni, to save her
from marriage to a prince named Höðbroddr, whom she detested. The first
poem ends with Helgi's victory over Högni and Höðbroddr; but the second
goes on to describe how Dagr, the son of Högni, subsequently slew Helgi
in revenge for his father. Sinfiötli, the son of Sigmundr, figures in
both poems, but Sigurðr is not mentioned.

The next poem, Grípisspá, probably a late work, gives a summary of the
adventures of Sigurðr, the son of Sigmundr, in the form of a dialogue
between the hero and his uncle Grípir, who is endowed with prophecy.
This is followed by three pieces which may really be parts of one
original poem. The first (commonly called Reginsmál) relates how three
of the gods, Othin, Hoenir and Loki, killed a certain Otr, the son of
Hreiðmarr. Having to pay compensation to the father, Loki robbed a
dwarf, named Andvari, of his gold. Andvari laid a curse on the gold,
and Hreiðmarr was soon killed by his own son Fáfnir, who subsequently
turned into a serpent.[8] Reginn, Fáfnir's brother, betook himself to
Sigurðr and became his attendant. The poem then goes on to describe
how a certain Hnikarr (Othin) guided Sigurðr on an expedition he
undertook against the sons of Hundingr. In the next piece (Fáfnismál)
Sigurðr at Reginn's instigation attacks and kills Fáfnir. Then, finding
that Reginn is plotting treachery, he slays him also and carries off
Fáfnir's gold. In the third (Sigrdrífumál) Sigurðr finds and wakens a
maid named Sigrdrífa, a valkyrie who has been punished by Othin with an
enchanted sleep. She imparts to him much magical lore; but the close of
the poem is lost owing to a lacuna in the MS.

Of the following nine poems six--Sigurðarkviða I (a fragment),
Guðrúnarkviða I, Sigurðarkviða II (_hin skamma_), Guðrúnarkviða II
(_hin forna_), Atlakviða and Atlamál--deal with practically the same
events as the Nibelungenlied. But unfortunately, owing to the lacuna in
the MS. several poems at the beginning of the series have been lost.
Hence in order to obtain a full account of the story it is necessary to
refer to the Völsunga Saga (see below), which used the lost poems as
well as the others.

The chief variations from the German version of the story are as
follows: (i) Sigmundr has been killed before the birth of Sigurðr
(Siegfried) by the sons of Hundingr. (ii) The wife of Sigurðr is called
Guðrún, Grímhildr being the name of her mother and Giúki that of her
father. (iii) Brynhildr is the sister of Atli (Etzel). In several
authorities[9] she is identified with the valkyrie of Sigrdrífumál,
and it is stated that she and Sigurðr had exchanged vows of love; but
Sigurðr's love was subsequently turned to Guðrún through a magic potion
given him by Grímhildr. (iv) Högni (Hagen) is the brother of Gunnarr
(Gunther); and in place of Gernôt and Gîselher there is another brother
named Guthormr. It is the last-named who actually kills Sigurðr, and
he is himself killed by the dying man. Brynhildr then puts herself to
death and is burned with Sigurðr. (v) The death of Gunnarr and Högni
is attributed to Atli. Guðrún on the other hand warns her brothers of
the treachery awaiting them, and subsequently avenges their deaths by
killing Atli and the children he had had by her.

Interspersed among these poems are three others connected with
the same story, but dealing with incidents unknown to the German
version. The Helreið Brynhildar describes how Brynhildr on her way
to Hell encounters a giantess, to whom she tells the story of her
life. Guðrúnarkviða III relates how Guðrún was accused to Atli of
adultery with Thióðrekr, but established her innocence by the ordeal.
In Oddrúnargrátr a sister of Atli named Oddrún comes to Borgný, the
daughter of a certain Heiðrekr, to relieve her in her travail, and
gives an account of the relations between herself, Brynhildr and
Gunnarr.

The last two poems--Guðrúnarhvöt and Hamðismál--are concerned with
the story of the attack upon Iörmunrekr (Hermanaricus), to Jordanes'
account of which we have already alluded (p. 10). Here the story is
connected with the preceding poems[10] by the fact that Svanhildr
(Sunilda) is represented as the daughter of Guðrún and Sigurðr, while
Hamðir and Sörli (Ammius and Sarus) are said to be the sons of Guðrún
and a certain Iónakr, whom she had married after Atli's death. In the
first poem Guðrún incites her sons to avenge their sister and then
bewails her many misfortunes. The second describes the actual fighting,
preceded however by the account of a quarrel in which Erpr, a stepson
of Guðrún, is killed by his half-brothers. To his death is attributed
the fact that Iörmunrekr, was able to survive the onslaught, though he
lost both hands and both feet.

The prose Edda (Skaldskaparmál, cap. 43) contains a poem, Grottasöngr,
which gives the story of two giant maidens who had to grind gold and
peace for the Danish king Fróði. At the end there is an allusion to
Halfdan and Hrólfr Kraki (see below). Besides this we have, both in
the prose Edda and elsewhere, a number of fragments of poems, some
of which refer to Sigurðr and his family and some to other stories.
Among the latter mention may be made especially of a poem Biarkamál,
which celebrated the achievements of the Danish king Hrólfr Kraki and
the heroism of his retinue in the battle wherein he lost his life. In
Hervarar Saga large portions of an early poem relating to the Goths and
Huns have been preserved.

In addition to the poems enumerated above, all of which are anonymous,
we have also a number of works by known poets. Most of these deal
either wholly or in part with contemporary persons and events. The
earliest date from the ninth century and are of Norwegian origin.
Probably the oldest of all are the fragments of Bragi Boddason, the
chief of which is a description of his shield (Ragnarsdrápa). From
the reign of Harold the Fair-haired several poems are known, though
nearly all of them are in a very fragmentary condition. Among them
may be mentioned especially the Ynglingatal of Thióðolfr of Hvín, a
genealogical poem which traces the descent of Rögnvaldr, a cousin
of Harold, from the ancient kings of the Swedes and the god Frey.
Another famous work by the same poet was the Haustlöng, which dealt
with mythological subjects. Next perhaps in importance to Thióðolfr
was Thórbiörn Hornklofi, from whom we have fragments of two poems
(Hrafnsmál and Glymdrápa), celebrating the exploits of Harold. Somewhat
later we hear of a poet named Goððormr Sindri, who is known chiefly
from the remains of a work (Hákonardrápa) in honour of Haakon I. A
famous fragment (Eireksmál) by an unknown poet, dating from shortly
after the middle of the tenth century, celebrates the death of King
Eiríkr Blóðöx and his reception by Othin in Valhalla. From this is
copied the Hákonarmál of Eyvindr Skaldaspillir, celebrating the death
of Haakon I at the battle of Fitje (A.D. 961). The same poet also
composed a genealogical poem (Háleygiatal) in imitation of Ynglingatal.
In it he traced the ancestry of Haakon, earl of Lade, who ruled Norway
from about 975 to 995, back through the kings of Hálogaland to Othin
and Skaði.

From this time onwards the cultivation of poetry seems to have been
almost entirely limited to Icelanders, many of whom resided largely
at the courts of various Scandinavian kings. Among them the most
noteworthy and almost the earliest was Egill Skallagrímsson, who
lived from about 900 to 982. He is known chiefly from the Höfuðlausn,
composed for Eiríkr Blóðöx in England, the Arinbiarnardrápa, in honour
of his friend Arinbiörn, and the Sonatorrek, an elegy over one of his
sons. Of his younger contemporaries perhaps the best known are Kormakr
Ögmundarson and Einarr Helgason. The latter is famous chiefly for his
poem Vellekla, in which he celebrated the exploits of Earl Haakon.
Many other distinguished poets flourished during the following half
century--down to the time of Harold III (Harðráði)--but it is not
necessary here to discuss their works.

By the time of Harold III the composition of prose narratives or sagas
(sögur) had already begun to be cultivated by Icelanders, though it
was not until towards the end of the following century that they were
first committed to writing. Many sagas are based on old narrative
poems; as for instance Ynglinga Saga, which is largely a paraphrase and
expansion of Ynglingatal. Völsunga Saga, which gives the stories of
Helgi, Sigurðr, Guðrún and Svanhildr, is derived mainly from the poems
of the Edda, though it has used other materials. The earlier part,
dealing with Sigmundr and his ancestors seems to have drawn upon some
lost poems. In Sörla Tháttr[11] we meet with a story--found also in the
prose Edda (Skaldsk. 50) and alluded to in Bragi's Ragnarsdrápa--which
is clearly connected with that of the first part of the German poem
Kûdrûn. Hildr, the daughter of Högni, is carried off in her father's
absence by his friend Heðinn. They are overtaken and a battle follows,
in which all the combatants are killed. Hildr by magic spells rouses
the slain each night to renew the battle. In Hrólfs Saga Kraka we have
an account of the Danish kings Helgi and Hróarr, the sons of Halfdan,
and of Helgi's son, Hrólfr Kraki, which seems to be derived ultimately
from old poems like Biarkamál. Certain incidents in the story, such
as Hrólfr's dealings with the Swedish king Aðils, are related also in
other sagas. The same characters figured prominently in Skiöldunga
Saga, of which we have little except an abridged Latin translation.
This saga also related at length the stories of Haraldr Hilditönn,
Sigurðr Hringr and Ragnarr Loðbrók, parts of which are known also from
other sources, especially Ragnars Saga Loðbrókar and the Tháttr af
Loðbrókar sonum.

Among Latin authorities the most important is the great Danish History
(_Gesta Danorum_) of Saxo Grammaticus, which dates from the end of
the twelfth century and contains metrical translations or paraphrases
of many old poems. Of these perhaps the most noteworthy are the
Biarkamál and some of the poems attributed to Starkaðr (Starcatherus),
particularly those addressed to Ingialdr (Ingellus). Here also we find
a detailed account of the tragic story of Hagbarðr and Signý, which is
very frequently alluded to in Old Norse poetry. Hagbarðr belonged to a
family which was involved in vendetta with the Danish king Sigarr. But
having fallen in love with Signý, the king's daughter, he visited her
disguised as a woman--an adventure which ended in his being discovered
and condemned to death. Signý and all her maidens destroyed themselves
when he was led to the gallows. Many other stories are given entirely
in prose, among them those of Heðinn and Högni, Iörmunrekr and Helgi
Hundingsbani, though no mention is made of Sigmundr or Sigurðr. The
adventures also of Haraldr Hilditönn and Ragnarr Loðbrók are related
at considerable length. Lastly, we may mention a story which is not
recorded by any Icelandic authority, namely that of the single combat
fought by Uffo the son of Wermundus. It deserves notice here on account
of its obvious identity with the English story of Offa.

In the course of this chapter we have reviewed briefly the secular
narrative poetry produced by the various Teutonic peoples down to the
end of the tenth century. In the case of works by historical Norwegian
and Icelandic poets, owing to the abundance of material, we have
restricted ourselves to mentioning only the leading names. Elsewhere we
have endeavoured to give a more or less complete summary. On the other
hand, among works dating from later than the tenth century, we have
taken into consideration only those which are concerned with stories
of ancient times. The stories themselves will be discussed in the
following chapters.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Cf. Brandl in Paul's _Grundriss d. germ. Philol._², II pp. 1083
ff., 1087 f.

[2] Academy, 1896, I 137; cf. Brandl, _op. cit._, p. 1085.

[3] This remark applies more especially to the poems on Brunanburh and
Maldon in the later group.

[4] Saxo Poeta, who wrote about 890, speaks of _uulgaria carmina_ which
celebrated _Pippinos Carolos Hludowicos et Theodricos et Carlomannos
Hlothariosque_ (Mon. Germ., Script. I 268). But it is usually held that
these words are due to a mistaken inference from Einhard, whose work he
was using.

[5] Origo Gentis Langobardorum (Mon. Germ., Script. Rerum Langobard.,
p. 2 f.); Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Lang._ I 8.

[6] Cf. Kögel, _Geschichte d. deutschen Litteratur_, I p. 115 ff.

[7] The poems were not all composed in Iceland. Many of the earliest
doubtless came from Norway, others perhaps from the British Isles,
while others again are referred to Greenland.

[8] Called a dragon (_dreki_) in Völsunga Saga.

[9] Helreið Brynh. (str. 7 ff.) and the prose versions (Skaldsk.
41, Völs. S. 20). It is a much debated question whether the two are
identified also in Fáfnismál, str. 40 ff. In Grípisspá they seem
clearly to be separated.

[10] The death of Svanhildr is mentioned also in Sigurðarkviða II,
where it is attributed (as in the prose authorities) to the evil
counsel of a certain Bikki, an adviser of Iörmunrekr.

[11] Fornaldar Sögur Norðrlanda, I p. 391 ff.

CHAPTER II.

THE HEROIC AGE OF THE TEUTONIC PEOPLES.

It will not have escaped notice that a large proportion of the stories
described or alluded to in the preceding chapter are found in the
literature of more than one nation. The most casual reader could not
fail to observe the identity of the story of Sigurðr and Guðrún,
as given in the Edda and Völsunga Saga, with that of Siegfried and
Kriemhild related in the Nibelungenlied. Equally obvious is the
connection between the story of Iörmunrekr and Svanhildr in the same
Scandinavian authorities and that of Hermanaricus and Sunilda given by
Jordanes. A still closer resemblance is furnished by the Anglo-Saxon
poem Waldhere and the German-Latin Waltharius. The connection between
the German poem Kûdrûn and the Scandinavian story of Heðinn and
Högni is perhaps less striking, but not open to question. The brief
references to the story of Weland and Beaduhild in the Anglo-Saxon poem
Deor are quite sufficient to prove its substantial identity with that
told in Völundarkviða.

In other cases the same characters appear, though the incidents
related are different. Eormenric (Ermenrich) is a prominent figure in
Anglo-Saxon and German poetry, as well as in Scandinavian and Gothic
records. The Wudga and Hama of Widsith (Waldhere and Beowulf) and the
Theodric of Waldhere are clearly identical with the Witege, Heime and
Dietrich von Bern of the German epics, while Theodric figures also,
though not prominently, in the Edda. Of all the Edda poems[12] those
which show the least connection with non-Scandinavian poetry are the
three Helgakviður. Yet Sinfiötli, as well as Sigmundr, is mentioned in
Beowulf (under the form Fitela) and there are traces that his name was
once known in Germany.

We may observe that in Beowulf it is only the persons mentioned in
casual references and in episodes lying outside the main action of
the story, such as Sigemund, Eormenric, Hama and Weland, to whom we
find allusions in German poetry. On the other hand most of the chief
characters of the poem are well known from Scandinavian records,
though not in connection with precisely the same incidents. There is
no doubt as to the identity of the Danish kings Healfdene, his sons
Hrothgar and Halga, and Hrothwulf the nephew and colleague of Hrothgar,
with Halfdan, his sons Hróarr and Helgi and Helgi's son, the famous
Hrólfr Kraki--all likewise kings of the Danes. Equally obvious is the
identity of the Swedish prince Eadgils the son of Ohthere with Aðils
the son of Óttarr in Ynglingatal, while his uncle and opponent Onela
is clearly the same person as Aðils' opponent Áli, although the latter
is represented as a Norwegian in Old Norse literature. Further, the
episode in which Ingeld is incited by an old warrior to avenge his
father Froda is evidently to be connected with certain poems given by
Saxo, in which the old warrior Starcatherus rouses Ingellus to avenge
his father Frotho. Among other persons mentioned in the poem Scyld is
doubtless to be identified with the Skiöldr of Scandinavian tradition;
probably also Heremod with the Hermóðr of Hyndlulióð and Weoxtan with
the Vésteinn of the Kalfsvísa[13]. To the identification of Beowulf
himself with the Biarki of Scandinavian tradition, which is doubted by
some scholars, we shall have to return later.

The characters of the Finn fragment are much less easy to trace
elsewhere. Two of Hnaef's warriors named Ordlaf and Guthlaf are
probably to be identified with two Danish princes, Oddlevus and
Gunnlevus, mentioned in Skiöldunga Saga; but there is nothing to show
that Sigeferth is identical with Sigurðr the son of Sigmundr. In
Widsith however we find a large number of persons who are well known
from Continental and Scandinavian authorities. Besides Eormenric,
Wudga, Hama, Offa, Hrothgar, Hrothwulf and Ingeld, of whom we have
already spoken, we hear of Aetla, king of the Huns (Atli, Etzel),
Guthhere and Gifeca, kings of the Burgundians (i.e. the Gunnarr and
Giúki of the Edda), and Sigehere, king of the Danes (i.e. probably
Sigarr, the father of Signý), as well as the Goths Eastgota the father
of Unwine (i.e. Jordanes' Ostrogotha the father of Hunwil), Becca
(probably Bikki, the evil counsellor of Iörmunrekr) and the Herelingas,
Emerca and Fridla, who are doubtless to be identified with the
Embrica and Fritla, nephews of Eormenric, mentioned in the Annals of
Quedlinburg and elsewhere. It is more than probable also that in v. 21:
"Hagena ruled the Holmryge and Heoden (MS. _Henden_) the Glommas," we
have an allusion to the story of Heðinn and Högni (the Hetel and Hagen
of Kûdrûn). We may compare a passage of Deor (v. 35 ff.) which tells of
a skilful minstrel of the Heodeningas named Heorrenda, presumably the
Hôrand of the German poem.

These instances, though far from exhaustive, will be sufficient to show
that the same characters recur again and again in the early narrative
poetry of the various Teutonic peoples. In the last nineteen poems of
the Older Edda (viz. those which deal with human beings) there is but
one (Helgakviða Hiörvarðssonar) which introduces no characters known
elsewhere. Among the early Anglo-Saxon poems treated on p. 1 ff. we
find no such case, and the same is probably true of the German poems
discussed on pp. 5, 7 ff. With the later Anglo-Saxon poems (p. 3) and
the German historical poems of the ninth and following centuries the
case is quite otherwise. The exploits of Aethelstan and Byrhtnoth are
celebrated only in English poems, those of Ludwig III and other German
princes only in the poetry of their own country. So also with the
skaldic poems of the North. If these introduce any personal names known
in the poetry of England or Germany they are names, like Sigmundr and
Hermóðr, derived from earlier poems and not belonging to contemporary
persons. Similarly neither English nor German poetry celebrates the
deeds of Eiríkr Blóðöx or Haakon the Good.

The phenomena noted above seem to indicate that the poetic cycles with
which we have been dealing have a common origin or at least that there
was a considerable amount of borrowing between poets of different
nations. In order however to be able to form an opinion on this point
it is necessary first to consider the following questions: (i) how
far the characters and incidents of these poems are to be regarded as
historical, (ii) to what period or periods of history they belong.
We may note in passing that no doubt need be entertained as to the
historical basis of the later group of Anglo-Saxon poems, of German
poems such as the Ludwigslied or of the Northern skaldic poems--however
much the true facts may be obscured by poetic embellishments.

It is clear enough that some of the characters of the common cycles
are historical persons. Thus there can be no doubt that Aetla (Atli,
Etzel), king of the Huns, is the famous Hunnish king Attila who died in
453. Again the Burgundian king Guthhere (Gunnarr, Gunther), who plays
so prominent a part in the stories of Waldhere and Sigurðr-Siegfried,
is clearly identical with the historical Burgundian king Gundicarius
(Gundaharius), whose defeat in 435 by the Roman general Aetius is
recorded by contemporary writers. Of his end Prosper says only that the
Huns destroyed him together with his family and nation[14], and some
scholars have denied that Attila had any part in this event[15]. But
our knowledge of the course of events on or beyond the Roman frontier
at this period is too slight to justify any confident statement on such
a point. Of the other members of the Burgundian royal family Gifeca
(Giúki) and Gislhere (Giselher) are mentioned in the laws of King
Gundobad who died in the year 516[16].

The Gothic king Eormenric (Hermanaricus, Iörmunrekr) is another
doubtless historical character. The account of him given by Jordanes
seems indeed to be derived from tradition, handed down probably in
poetic form; but the statement that he took his own life through fear
of the Huns is confirmed by the strictly contemporary writer Ammianus
Marcellinus (xxxi. 3. 1), from whom we gather that the event took place
shortly after 370. He also states that Eormenric was a most warlike
king and feared by the surrounding nations on account of his many brave
deeds.

In Dietrich von Bern (the Theodric of Waldhere and the Thióðrekr of the
Edda) we certainly have reminiscences of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric
who ruled Italy from 489 to 526. The statement in the Hildebrandslied
that he fled from the hostility of Ottachar and the story of the
Rabenschlacht recall his campaigns with Odoacer, which culminated in
the surrender of Ravenna in 493. But it cannot possibly be true that
he was present at Attila's court, where we find him in the Edda and in
German poetry, much less that he had any dealings with Eormenric. The
former mistake is generally attributed to confusion between Dietrich
and his father Dietmar (Thiudemer), who is known to have been with
Attila. The other error however is more difficult to account for and
will require to be discussed later.

It is commonly held that in the poems dealing with Wolfdietrich[17] the
hero and his father Hugdietrich represent a confusion of the Frankish
kings Theodberht (r. 534-548) and his father Theodric I (r. 511-534).
In this case however it must be confessed that the resemblances are
extremely slight. The application of the name Hugo Theodoricus to
Theodric I in the Annals of Quedlinburg cannot at best prove more than
that the chronicler identified the two.

The identification of characters which figure in stories relating to
the northern kingdoms is naturally more difficult, since references to
such persons by contemporary Roman historians are extremely rare. One
safe instance however is furnished by the incident, referred to several
times in Beowulf, of Hygelac's disastrous expedition against the Franks
and Frisians. Gregory of Tours (III 3) and the Gesta Francorum (cap.
19) mention a very serious raid on the lower Rhine by a king of the
Danes named Chocilaicus, which ended in his defeat and death through
the arrival of an army under Theodberht. The Liber Monstrorum (I, cap.
3[18]), a work of perhaps the seventh century, states that the bones of
a certain _Getarum rex Huiglaucus_, who had been slain by the Franks,
were preserved on an island at the mouth of the Rhine. There can be no
question that the person referred to in these passages is the Hygelac
of Beowulf. The date of the expedition, though not precisely fixed by
any authority, may safely be placed within a few years of 520.

Most of the Danish and Swedish princes common to Beowulf and the
Northern authorities are now generally regarded as historical
characters, though we have no reference to them in contemporary
documents. It is to be noted in the first place that though the persons
themselves are common to the two traditions, English and Northern, they
are not as a rule mentioned in connection with the same incidents.
Further, there is no evidence for communication between England and
the Baltic during the seventh and eighth centuries. This renders it
probable that the two records go back independently to a time at which
persons who remembered Hygelac's younger contemporaries might still be
alive.

Lastly a few words must be said with regard to the stories of Haraldr
Hilditönn, Sigurðr Hringr and Ragnarr Loðbrók. The sons of Loðbrók
are well known from contemporary historical documents through their
piratical expeditions, more especially the great invasion of England in
866. Moreover, though the references to Loðbrók himself are rare and
doubtful, it is clear enough that the king Ella who is said to have
put him to death was the Northumbrian usurper Aella, who reigned from
863 to 867. Loðbrók's father Sigurðr Hringr has been identified with a
certain Sigifridus whose conflict with another Danish king named Anulo
is recorded in a number of Latin chronicles under the year 812, and
Anulo himself with that Óli who is represented as Sigurðr's ally at the
battle of Brávík. Lastly, it has been suggested that a reference to
Haraldr Hilditönn may quite possibly be preserved in the description of
Anulo as _nepos Herioldi quondam regis_[19]; for according to Saxo (p.
250) Óli was the son of Haraldr's sister and eventually succeeded him
on the Danish throne.

The above identifications[20] are sufficient to show that historical
characters are introduced into most of the stories with which we have
been dealing. Further--and this is a very remarkable fact--apart from
the last cycles embracing Haraldr Hilditönn and Ragnarr Loðbrók, which
are entirely confined to Northern literature, all the historical
personages whom we have been able to identify belong to a period
extending over barely two centuries. Eormenric flourished in the latter
half of the fourth century, Attila and the Burgundian kings in the
first half of the fifth; Theodric towards the end of the same century
and in the first quarter of the sixth. Hygelac again was a contemporary
of Theodric; while Wolfdietrich, if he is rightly identified with
Theodberht, died in 548. In the stories which form the common themes of
English, German and Scandinavian poets we find no mention of historical
persons who lived after the middle of the sixth century.

Now it will be clear that the cycles of stories dealing with Ragnarr
Loðbrók and his ancestors are really, like the skaldic poems, to
be compared with German and English works such as the Ludwigslied
and the poem on the battle of Brunanburh. The difference in tone is
sufficiently accounted for by the social conditions of the Viking Age,
which were wholly different from those which prevailed in the Christian
kingdoms.

The statement that the common cycles of tradition mention no historical
characters later than about 550 ought perhaps to be qualified in one
case. Paulus Diaconus (_Hist. Lang._ I 27) says that the praises of
Alboin, king of the Langobardi, who died in 572 (or 573), were sung
by the Saxons, Bavarians and other peoples; and it has been suggested
that his account of certain incidents in Alboin's career is derived
from poetic sources. Further, we find the generosity of the same king
celebrated in the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith, where he is apparently the
latest person mentioned. Hence there is some ground for including him
among the characters of common Teutonic poetry--which will involve our
extending the lower of the chronological limits fixed above by about
twenty years. Yet it is not clear that Alboin figured in any poems
which can properly be called narrative, except perhaps among his own
people.

On the other hand some of the Gothic heroes recorded by Jordanes,
if we are to trust his chronology at all, must be referred to times
long anterior to the middle of the fourth century. Apart from Gothic
tradition the only mention of any of these persons occurs in a brief
passage in Widsith (v. 113 f.): "(I have visited) Eastgota, the wise
and good father of Unwine." Now Ostrogotha is brought by Jordanes into
connection with the Emperor Philip (v. 244-249). He is mentioned also
by Cassiodorus (_Var._ XI 1) as one of the ancestors of Amalasuintha
and as a prince renowned for forbearance (_patientia_). In spite of his
suspicious name what is said of him by Jordanes seems to point to a
genuine tradition. But if so, even setting aside both the reference to
Philip and the genealogy given by Jordanes in cap. 5, he is probably to
be referred to a time anterior to the upper limit fixed above. Into the
story of Filimer and the migration we need not enter, as there is no
reason for supposing it to be anything but a purely Gothic tradition.
The story of the Langobardic victory over the Vandals (cf. p. 10) is
probably of a similar character.

There remain of course a number of stories which contain no names
of persons mentioned in contemporary records. The story of Finn is
in Beowulf connected, rather loosely, with Healfdene, Hrothgar's
father. Hence if the incidents which it relates are to be regarded as
historical, they must be dated somewhat earlier, though certainly not
more than a century earlier, than Hygelac's expedition. The story of
Offa and his father Wermund must be referred to a still earlier period
if we are to trust the evidence of the Mercian genealogy in which these
persons figure. I have tried elsewhere[21] to show that the Athislus,
who in Saxo's version of the story appears as Wermund's enemy, is
probably to be identified with the Eadgils prince of the Myrgingas
mentioned in Widsith. The latter is represented as the contemporary of
Eormenric, and the date thus obtained agrees with that given by the
genealogy. The story of Weland, if it contains any historical element,
should be placed perhaps slightly further back; for in Waldhere, as
well as in many German authorities, including Thiðreks Saga, Weland is
said to be the father of Widia (Wudga, Witege). The latter is often
associated with Eormenric[22], and there can be little doubt that he is
to be identified with the Gothic Vidigoia who is mentioned as a hero
of the past by Jordanes (cap. 34) in a quotation from Priscus[23]. For
the story of Hagbarðr and Signý a date is afforded by a poem attributed
by Saxo (p. 214) to Starkaðr. The poet, who in his old age served
Ingellus, i.e. Ingeld, the son-in-law of Hrothgar, says that he had
followed Haki, the brother of Hagbarðr, in his early youth. In Ynglinga
Saga (cap. 23) Haki is made to fight with the Swedish king Iörundr,
four generations above Aðils, but this genealogy cannot be entirely
correct.

The only important stories which remain are those of Fróði the Peaceful
and Heðinn and Högni. In Saxo's history (p. 158 ff.) the two are
brought into connection with one another, and it is certainly to be
noted that a Fruote von Tenemarke plays rather a prominent part in
Kûdrûn, especially the first portion. But Fróði is associated with
different sets of persons in different works, and his resemblance
to the god Frey rather suggests that he was regarded as the typical
representative of a Golden Age in the past. The story of Heðinn and
Högni is very difficult to locate, both in regard to time and scene.
Widsith however, which is our earliest authority for it, represents
Hagena (Högni) as king of the Holmryge, who appear to have dwelt in
eastern Pomerania. Since the whole of the south coast of the Baltic had
probably become Slavonic by the end of the fifth century, it is at all
events unlikely that the story refers to any period after this.

We shall have to discuss later how far these stories are to be regarded
as historical and to what extent the characters and incidents with
which they deal are to be attributed to myth or fiction. Here it is
sufficient to point out that with the exception of the story of Heðinn
and Högni, the connections of which are obscure, all the stories
which we have just been discussing are referred by our authorities to
generations anterior to the characters of Beowulf. Hence we may safely
conclude that the period embraced by the common poetry and traditions
of the various Teutonic peoples--what we may call the Heroic Age of
these peoples--had come to an end by the middle of the sixth century or
at least by the death of Alboin. Its upper limit must in view of the
evidence given above be set from two to three centuries back--probably
three centuries if we include the story of Ostrogotha.

These limitations are clearly such as to call for some attempt at
explanation. Why do the cycles of story which are common to the various
Teutonic peoples mention no historical character later than Alboin?
Before we can hope to give a satisfactory answer to this question, a
number of other phenomena will have to be taken into account. One or
two observations however will not be out of place here.

The period extending backwards from two to three centuries before the
reign of Alboin coincides with what is generally known as the Age of
National Migrations (Völkerwanderungszeit). It was during this period
that many of the Teutonic nations broke through the frontiers of the
Roman empire and carved out for themselves extensive kingdoms within
its territories. Among these were the realms of Guthhere and Theodric,
and in part also that of Attila. There is no doubt that in all these
cases the conquest of the Roman provinces brought with it a great
accession of wealth and profoundly affected the life of the invaders.

The same period witnessed the conversion of most of the continental
Teutonic peoples to Christianity, another change which produced
far-reaching effects upon them. Yet it is not clear at first sight
how this change is connected with the chronological limitation of the
stories, for while some of the chief characters, Attila for instance
and doubtless Eormenric, were heathens, others such as Theodric were
certainly Christians. The change of faith is not a motive which plays
any part in the stories themselves.

Whatever weight we may be disposed to attach to these observations,
it should be noted that they do not seem to apply to every case. Thus
we shall see in the course of the next chapter that Danish characters
figure more prominently than those of any other nation, not only
in Scandinavian but also in English records, throughout the period
ending with Hrólfr Kraki. Yet the Danes took no part, collectively at
least, in the movements against the Roman Empire, nor did Christianity
penetrate to them before the ninth century. It is worth remarking
therefore that stories relating to Denmark stop where they do, and that
for centuries after the time of Hrólfr we can scarcely give the name of
a single Danish prince.

In the following chapters it will be convenient to speak of the period
which we have been discussing simply as the Heroic Age. The term
'heroic poetry,' as a translation of Heldendichtung or Heltedigtning,
may of course be applied in a sense to such works as Hákonarmál or
the poem on the battle of Maldon, just as well as to Beowulf or the
Hildebrandslied. But no ambiguity will arise if we limit the term
'heroic' here to what may be called the 'Teutonic' Heroic Age (das
germanische Heldenalter), i.e. to the period embraced by the common
poetry and traditions of the various Teutonic peoples.

FOOTNOTES:

[12] Except of course those which deal only with supernatural beings
(p. 11 f.).

[13] Quoted in the prose Edda (Skaldskaparmál, cap. 66).

[14] Theodosio XV et Valentiniano IV coss. (A.D. 435): _pax facta cum
Vandalis.... eodem tempore Gundicarium Burgundionum regem intra Gallias
habitantem Aetius bello obtriuit, pacemque ei supplicanti dedit, qua
non diu potitus est. siquidem illum Hunni cum populo atque stirpe sua
deleuerunt._

[15] The overthrow of Guthhere is ascribed to Attila by Paulus Diaconus
in his _Gesta episc. Mettensium_ (Mon. Germ., Scr. II p. 262), _Hist.
Misc._ XIV (Muratori, Scr. I p. 97); but he is a late authority. On the
other hand an anonymous Gaulish chronicle, which ends in the year 452,
attributes the whole of the Burgundian disasters to Aetius: _bellum
contra Burgundionum gentem memorabile exarsit quo uniuersa pene gens
cum rege per Aetium deleta_ (Mon. Germ., Chron. Min. I 660). But this
seems to be due to the confusion of two events which Prosper clearly
distinguishes (cf. Idatius, _Chron._, Theodosii ann. XII, XIII).

[16] Liber Legum Gundebati, cap. 3 (Mon. Germ., Leg., Vol. III p.
533): _si quos apud regiae memoriae auctores nostros, id est Gebicam,
Godomarem, Gislaharium, Gundaharium, patrem quoque nostrum et patruum,
liberos liberasue fuisse constiterit, in eadem libertate permaneant._

[17] This cycle is supposed to have been known in England at one time,
owing to the juxtaposition of the names Seafola (Saben) and Theodric in
Widsith, v. 115. Theodric, king of the Franks, is mentioned in the same
poem (v. 24).

[18] Cf. Berger de Xivrey, _Traditions Tératologiques_, p. 12.

[19] Einhardi Ann., 812 (Mon. Germ., Scr. I p. 199). Prof. Olrik
(_Nordisches Geistesleben_, p. 44) apparently rejects this
identification, as he places Haraldr Hilditönn not long after the time
of Hrólfr Kraki.

[20] The list makes no claim to completeness. Thus several of the
characters in Hervarar Saga (probably mentioned also in Widsith, v. 116
ff.) have been identified with historical persons of the fifth century.
But the evidence is far from satisfactory.

[21] _The Origin of the English Nation_, p. 134 f.

[22] But also with Theodric. This is a question to which we shall have
to refer later.

[23] _Venimus in illum locum ubi dudum Vidigoia, Gothorum fortissimus,
Sarmatum dolo occubuit_ (cf. also cap. 5).

CHAPTER III.

SCENE AND NATIONALITY IN THE HEROIC STORIES.

In the last chapter it was pointed out that the age covered by the
heroic poetry and traditions of the Teutonic peoples coincides with a
clearly marked period of history, extending over about two or possibly
three hundred years, and coming to an end in the latter half of the
sixth century. Something must now be said regarding the geographical
and ethnographical limitations of the stories--the localities in
which the scenes are laid and the nationalities to which the various
characters belonged. The scenes are distributed over a considerable
part of Europe, extending from Italy to Sweden and from western Russia
to the Vosges and the Netherlands. The British Isles however seem to
have lain outside the area, though in the late form in which some of
the stories have come down to us, we do occasionally find references
to them--generally to Scotland or Ireland--which are probably due to
confusion with stories of the Viking Age. Indeed it is remarkable that
the early Anglo-Saxon poems contain no reference to persons or events
connected with this country. Further, except possibly in the case of
the story of Hengest and Horsa, we have no evidence worth consideration
that poems dealing with such subjects ever existed. Norway also is
not made the scene of any of the main stories, though it is mentioned
incidentally in English and German as well as Scandinavian poems.
The Balkan peninsula figures only in the later German poems, while
references to places in Italy are limited practically to the Dietrich
(Theodric) and Wolfdietrich cycles.

Turning to the question of nationality we find the following peoples
represented: (i) to the Goths belong Eormenric, Theodric, Wudga
(Witege) and probably most of the heroes associated with them; (ii)
to the Huns Attila; (iii) to the Burgundians Guthhere and his family;
(iv) to the Rugii apparently Hagena (Högni), the father of Hild; (v)
to the Franks Hugdietrich and Wolfdietrich, if the identifications are
correct; (vi) to the Frisians Finn; (vii) to the Angli Wermund and
Offa; (viii) to the Danes (_a_) Fróði the Peaceful, (_b_) Sigarr and
his family, together probably with Hagbarðr and Haki, (_c_) Hrólfr
Kraki and his family, perhaps also Froda (Frotho IV) and Ingeld; (ix)
to the Götar Hygelac, Beowulf and their relatives; (x) to the Swedes
(Svear) Aðils and his family.

It is somewhat remarkable that we have no stories dealing with
Alamannic or Bavarian heroes, since the German poems which have come
down to us are almost entirely derived from the territories of these
peoples[24]. The Vandals too are unrepresented, and probably also the
Visigoths, while the evidence for Frankish heroes is slight and rather
unsatisfactory. Frankish nationality is claimed by most scholars for
Siegfried, chiefly on the ground that Xanten is represented as his home
in the Nibelungenlied[25]. Yet he is never called a Frank, and it is
not clear that Xanten was in the possession of the Franks at the time
to which the story refers. The same nationality may perhaps be claimed
for Waldhere. In several German poems Langres is said to be his home,
though he is also called a Spaniard, while Ekkehard makes his father
king of Aquitaine[26]. To this question we shall have to return later.
In any case both stories refer to a period considerably anterior to the
real conquest of Gaul by the Franks, and it is certainly a curious fact
that Clovis and his great achievements seem to be entirely unnoticed in
poetry.

It appears then that though most of the principal Teutonic nations are
represented in our stories the relative prominence assigned to them
does not at all correspond to what we should expect. Most remarkable is
the fact that in stories relating to the Continent nearly all the chief
characters (Eormenric, Theodric, Guthhere, Attila, etc.) belong to
nations which had passed out of existence before the end of the sixth
century. From Jordanes (cap. 5) we gather that the preservation of the
early Gothic traditions was very largely due to the pride taken by that
people in its own heroes of the past. Yet it is not easy to see how the
survival of the stories which have come down to us can be ascribed to
any such feeling.

Let us first examine the Anglo-Saxon poems. In Beowulf the scene is
laid first in the land of the Danes and later in that of the Götar. The
hero himself belongs to the latter nation, but in the earlier part of
the poem the former are decidedly the more prominent. Taking it as a
whole the interest is divided between the royal families of these two
nations; the only other dynasty which comes in for any considerable
share of attention is that of the Swedes. In the story of Finn the
interest is centred in a prince and his followers who according to
Beowulf were of Danish nationality and involved in hostilities with the
Frisians. In Waldhere the hero and heroine, whatever their nationality,
belong to Gaul, while their opponents are Burgundians. In Deor the
interests are mainly, perhaps exclusively, Gothic. In Widsith the
foremost characters are Eadgils, prince of the Myrgingas (a dynasty
hostile to the Angli), and the Gothic king Eormenric; after them the
English king Offa, the Danish kings Hrothgar and Hrothwulf, Guthhere,
king of the Burgundians, Aelfwine (Alboin, king of the Langobardi) and
several Gothic heroes. In all these poems there is no reference, as far
as we know, to any person of English nationality except Offa and his
relatives (Beow. 1944 ff.), nor except in Widsith is the name of the
Angli even mentioned.

If we turn now to the Scandinavian records, which are entirely
Norse (Norwegian-Icelandic), so far as the vernacular literature is
concerned, the phenomena which confront us are on the whole very
similar. As we might expect from the comparative lateness of our
authorities the nationality of the various characters is not very
clearly indicated. It is remembered that Atli (Attila) belonged to the
Huns and Iörmunrekr (Eormenric) to the Goths, but Gunnarr (Guthhere)
is only once called lord of the Burgundians. As for Sigurðr, his later
adventures are uniformly located in the Rhineland, but the history
of his family is generally connected with Denmark, which is also the
scene of Helgi's exploits. Most noteworthy however is the fact that
Norway is only mentioned once in the Older Edda, namely in the prose of
Helgakviða Hiörvarðssonar. In the sagas it is somewhat more prominent,
e.g. in the account of Biarki's origin in Hrólfs Saga Kraka; but these
passages are usually regarded as accretions to the original stories.
Of course there are numerous other sagas which deal exclusively with
Norwegian history and legend. These stories however are peculiar to
Norwegian-Icelandic literature, and the earliest persons who figure in
them, if we may regard them as historical, cannot have lived before
the seventh century. In stories relating to earlier times the scene is
practically always laid in Denmark or southern Sweden or in the lands
south of the Baltic.

Even in the German poems national feeling has influenced the choice
of subjects comparatively little. The poems in their present form are
mainly Austrian or Bavarian. Yet except in the second half of the
Nibelungenlied this region does not figure prominently[27], and even
there the Bavarian characters that occur are generally believed to
be rather late additions to the story. The chief characters of the
story in its original form were clearly Burgundians and Huns, to whom
the Goths may have been added at a fairly early date. The stories
which deal with the Rhineland--those of Siegfried and Walther--may
be derived ultimately from early Frankish poems; but this cannot be
proved. Most of the others are concerned with Gothic heroes, the true
scene of whose adventures is to be sought in Poland, Hungary, Italy
and other countries which had ceased to be Teutonic before the time of
our authorities. Theodric, it is true, seems to have become a national
hero in the south-east, but this feature is prominent only in the
latest poems, and even here it is clearly remembered that he belonged
to Italy. But the most remarkable case is that of Kûdrûn. The poem
itself is probably Austrian, but the names which it contains show that
the story is derived from Frisian sources. The scene is laid first in
Ireland, then in Denmark and lastly in Normandy. Yet if we take into
account the various Scandinavian versions and the references to the
story in Anglo-Saxon poetry, there is every probability that it came
originally from the Baltic.

This short discussion will suffice to show how singularly free the
poems we have been discussing are from anything in the nature of
national interest or sentiment. They are certainly national in the
sense that the characters are drawn entirely, or almost entirely, from
within the Teutonic world--for even Attila can hardly be regarded as an
exception. But nationalism in the narrower sense, i.e. in the interests
of the poet's own nation or tribe, seems to be altogether wanting. The
interest is centred in one or more individual characters and in the
various adventures that befall them. Sometimes, as in Beowulf, it does
also embrace the history of the family to which these persons belonged,
but the nation, apart from the royal family, is practically disregarded.

The contrast afforded by the historical poems of the ninth and tenth
centuries[28] is sufficiently obvious. We have seen that these poems,
whether English or German, uniformly deal with the poet's own nation.
The poem on the battle of Brunanburh is an expression of national
triumph. It is not concerned with the personal adventures of the king
or his brother, but with the prowess of the English army as a whole.
The bravery of the princes is certainly noticed, but they appear to
be regarded as the champions and representatives of the nation. The
Ludwigslied breathes on the whole a similar spirit, in spite of its
strongly religious tone. Even in the skaldic poetry of the North traces
of national pride are clearly discernible, as in Hákonarmál (v. 3),
where Haakon, at the head of his Norwegian troops, is described as the
terror of the Danes.

It may perhaps be urged that, though the poems which have come down to
us have no national interest, they may be derived from older poems
which originated in the hero's own land. Thus many scholars believe
Beowulf to be of Scandinavian origin in one sense or another, though
the linguistic arguments which have been brought forward in favour of
this view are not generally admitted. But there is a curious lack of
uniformity in the national interests of the poem, as we have already
seen. If it had been the chief intention of the original poet to
glorify the Danish nation, he would not have ignored it as he has done
in the latter part of the poem. On the other hand if his intention
was to glorify the Götar he would hardly have begun with an account
of the early kings of the Danes. The difficulty has been got over by
supposing that the poem as we have it is of composite formation, and it
may very well be that the second part of the poem is a later addition.
But it is to be observed that somewhat similar phenomena occur in other
cases. Thus the stories of Siegfried and Attila are connected both in
the Nibelungenlied and the Edda, and there can be no doubt that the
connection is of considerable antiquity. Yet the only common element
in the two stories is supplied by the Burgundians, and the portraiture
of their princes, especially that of the king, is hardly of such a
character as to suggest its derivation from a poem composed for the
glorification of the Burgundian nation.

The evidence then of Beowulf alone is scarcely sufficient to justify
us in assuming more than that its author or authors were interested in
the royal families of the North, and that they possessed a considerable
amount of information regarding them. The account of the early kings of
the Danes seems to be in the nature of a tribal or family tradition--to
be compared with the early stories given by Jordanes, Paulus Diaconus
and Widukind. Traditions of this kind are no doubt generally of a
mythical character, and consequently their origin is to be sought in
the particular locality or family with which they are concerned. We
have no evidence that such traditions formed the main theme of stories
which were common to the poetry of the various Teutonic peoples. But
it is natural enough that a poet who was well acquainted with some
royal family, whether that of his own nation or not, would also know
its traditions, and that he would utilise them incidentally or by way
of introduction in a poem largely concerned with the fortunes of that
family.

The main story of the poem stands on a different footing. Of course if
it could be shown that the Danish princes who figure both in Beowulf
and the various Scandinavian records were fictitious persons, who never
really existed, we should be bound to hold that they were derived from
a common story, probably of Scandinavian origin. But few scholars would
now be willing to admit such a proposition. Certain incidents, such as
the exhortation of Ingeld (Ingellus) by the old warrior (Starcatherus),
may be held to point to a common origin in poem or saga; but most of
the events narrated appear to have been either preserved by memory or
invented independently.

With the stories of Sigurðr (Siegfried) and Waldhere the case is
somewhat different. It is the opinion of the great majority of scholars
that both these heroes are mythical or fictitious, in spite of the
fact that they are associated with undoubtedly historical characters.
If this view is correct--a question which we shall have to discuss
later--we may conclude at once that the different versions of the two
stories, Scandinavian and German in the one case, English and German in
the other, have sprung from a common source, whether in poem or saga.
But even if we take the opposite view, viz. that Sigurðr and Waldhere
were real persons and that their adventures are founded on fact, it
does not by any means follow that the different versions of their
stories must have originated independently. Neither hero seems to have
belonged to a family of outstanding position, nor were their exploits
such as to influence the destiny of nations.[29] In the age of Hunnish
supremacy scores of petty princes must have undergone somewhat similar
adventures and distinguished themselves by similar deeds of heroism.
Hence it can hardly be due to accident that the handful whose names we
know were celebrated far and wide in the Teutonic world.

The story of Eormenric is again rather a different case. There can be
no question that this king was a historical person, but the earliest
detailed account which we possess of his doings, viz. that given by
Jordanes, dates from nearly two centuries after his death. Now we find
what is perhaps the most striking episode in Eormenric's story, namely
the account of Swanhild and the vengeance attempted by her brothers,
both in Jordanes and the Older Edda (Guðrúnarhvöt and Hamðismál) with
comparatively slight variations. The chief feature wanting in Jordanes'
account is supplied by the Annals of Quedlinburg.[30] How much truth
the story contains we are not in a position to decide. But even if
we grant that the main features are historical, the event can hardly
have been of the first importance, since the attack seems really to
have failed in its object. Ammianus Marcellinus says that Eormenric
committed suicide owing to despair at the impending Hunnish invasion,
and Jordanes recognises that his death was partly due to this cause.
But in the later (Scandinavian and German) accounts it is entirely
forgotten. Hence if we bear in mind the close agreement between the
Gothic and Scandinavian versions of the story, not only in the names
of the characters but also in the description of Swanhild's death, we
can hardly help inferring that they are derived from a common narrative
source.

In conclusion mention may be made of a story which appears to be
definitely at variance with historical truth, namely the account of
Attila's death given in the Edda poems Atlakviða and Atlamál. It is
there stated that Attila was murdered with his two children by his wife
Guðrún in revenge for her brothers (Gunnarr and Högni), whom he had
treacherously put to death. Now Jordanes (cap. 49) says that Attila
died from the bursting of a blood-vessel on the night of his marriage
with a girl named Ildico. As his account is derived from Priscus, a
contemporary and trustworthy writer, there can be little doubt that
it is correct. Yet it should be observed that the Roman chronicler
Marcellinus Comes, who wrote apparently a few years before Jordanes,
says that Attila died by the hand of a woman.[31] The account given in
the Edda therefore is no invention of an Icelandic or Norwegian poet,
but founded on a story which was current among the Romans within a
century after Attila's death. Indeed considering the circumstances it
is by no means unlikely that the story originated immediately after the
event.

These examples will be sufficient to show that the subjects of many
of our poems are derived from stories which passed from one Teutonic
people to another and some of which were of great antiquity. Further,
it is a proof of the popularity of these stories that they were
preserved until comparatively late in the Middle Ages, in spite of
the fact that they did not appeal to national interests. The question
how they were preserved and transmitted is one which we shall have to
discuss in the following chapters. We may note at once however that the
most obvious means of preservation, namely by means of writing, was
almost certainly not used to any great extent. Had that been the case
the divergencies between the different versions of the stories would
be far less noticeable than they are. Even in the case of Waldhere,
which shows probably the least amount of variation, the Anglo-Saxon
fragments show a treatment of the subject totally different from that
which appears in Ekkehard's poem. Again, there is no evidence that
the Roman alphabet was used in the North, except possibly by a few
foreigners here and there, before the end of the tenth century, while
the Runic alphabet, though it had been known for many centuries, seems
not to have been employed for literary purposes until very late times.
But, as we have already mentioned, some of the Edda poems date probably
from the ninth century, and the story of Heðinn and Högni is used by
the poet Bragi who lived apparently in the early part of that century.
On the Continent of course the case is somewhat different. We have
seen that Charlemagne did have a number of ancient poems written down;
but there is nothing to show that his collection had any permanent
influence. When the Quedlinburg annalist or his authority quotes the
heroic stories, perhaps some two centuries later, he refers not to any
written works but to songs formerly current among the country people.
It is doubtless by oral tradition therefore, whether in verse or prose,
that the stories of the Heroic Age have mainly been preserved.

There can be no question that a large number of similar stories
have perished. A glance through the catalogues of Widsith will show
many names which otherwise are entirely unknown to us, and also an
appreciable number which are not mentioned elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon
literature, though they figure in German and Scandinavian records. It
would scarcely be wise however to assume that all the stories of the
Heroic Age were common Teutonic property. Thus we have no evidence
for the story of Waldhere in the North[32], while stories dealing
with Danish heroes seem to have been little known in Germany. The
latter observation deserves notice all the more in view of the obvious
popularity of such stories in England--a fact proved not merely by
Beowulf and Finn, but still more by the prominence assigned to Danish
characters in Widsith.

It will be convenient now to summarise briefly the results of our
discussion. We have seen that the scenes of the heroic stories are
distributed over most of the lands formerly occupied by the Teutonic
peoples. Norway and England however, as well as the distant kingdoms
of the Visigoths and Vandals, seem to lie outside the area. The heroes
also are drawn from many nations, though not in the proportion which
we should expect. Thus the Frankish nation, which ultimately became
dominant, is but poorly represented, while the most prominent places
are taken by peoples such as the Ostrogoths and Burgundians, which lost
their nationality in the course of the sixth century.

We have further seen that a very large proportion of the characters of
the heroic stories figure in the literature of two or more nations, and
that frequently the same stories are told of them. In the latter case
it is probable, indeed often practically certain, that the different
versions of the story are ultimately derived from a common narrative.
On the other hand, where the same characters are known but only in
connection with different events, such derivation can be proved only
if it can be shown that the characters themselves are fictitious. This
remark applies especially to a number of characters common to Beowulf
and Scandinavian stories relating to Hrólfr Kraki and his times.

It is fully in accord with these facts that the heroic poems are not
concerned at all--or at least only to a very slight degree--with local
or tribal interests. Their tone indeed may be described as in a sense
international, though with the restriction that characters and scenes
alike are drawn exclusively from within the Teutonic world.

FOOTNOTES:

[24] These poems do introduce Bavarian characters, such as the Markgraf
Rüdiger; but they are not found elsewhere in heroic poetry.

[25] In the prose piece _Frá dauði Sinfiötla_ (in the Older Edda)
Sigmundr is said to have held territories in the land of the Franks.

[26] Hence many scholars regard him as a Visigoth.

[27] Tyrol is the scene of several of Dietrich's and Wolfdietrich's
adventures; but generally it is the southern (Italian) part of that
country.

[28] The poem on the battle of Maldon approximates much more closely
than any other of this age to the spirit of the old poetry.

[29] The victories over the Saxons and Danes described in the
Nibelungenlied and the Tháttr af Nornagesti have little in common and
are scarcely to be regarded as an essential feature in the story of
Sigurðr.

[30] _Anastasius annos_ XXVII.... _Ermanrici regis Gothorum a
fratribus Hemido et Serilo et Adaccaro, quorum patrem interfecerat,
amputatis manibus et pedibus turpiter, ut dignus erat, occisio_ (Mon.
Germ., Scr. III p. 31).

[31] Ind. VII. Aetio et Studio coss. (A.D. 454): _Attila rex Hunnorum
Europae orbator prouinciae noctu mulieris manu cultroque confoditur.
quidam uero sanguinis reiectione necatum perhibent._

[32] Excluding of course Thiðreks S. af Bern.

CHAPTER IV.

THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE HEROIC POEMS.

In an earlier chapter (p. 3) it was mentioned that the English heroic
poems are usually ascribed to the seventh or eighth centuries. We
must now try to see whether any means are to be found of dating their
composition more precisely.

Unfortunately very few references to the poems or their subjects occur
in works which can be dated with anything like certainty. The most
important is contained in a letter from Alcuin to Hygebald, bishop of
Lindisfarne, written in the year 797: "When priests dine together let
the words of God be read. It is fitting on such occasions to listen
to a reader, not to a harpist, to the discourses of the fathers,
not to the poems of the heathen. What has Ingeld to do with Christ?
Strait is the house; it will not be able to hold them both. The king
of heaven will have no part with so-called kings who are heathen and
damned; for the one king reigns eternally in heaven, the other, the
heathen, is damned and groans in hell. In your houses the voices of
those who read should be heard, not a rabble of those who make merry
in the streets[33]." From this passage it is clear that at the end of
the eighth century there were current in Northumbria certain poems,
probably well known poems, dealing with a heathen king named Ingeld,
whom we need not hesitate to identify with Ingeld the son of Froda,
who figures in Beowulf. Of course it is not at all likely that the
reference is to Beowulf itself, for the part played by Ingeld in that
poem is insignificant.

Acquaintance with the subjects of the heroic poems is shown also by a
mistake in the Historia Brittonum, 31, which dates probably from about
the same period. This passage contains a genealogy, tracing the descent
of Hengest and Horsa from Woden and of Woden from Geat. The latter part
is known also from many other texts, in which it regularly runs as
follows: _Woden Frealafing, Frealaf Frithuwulfing, Frithuwulf Finning,
Finn Godwulfing, Godwulf Geating_. In the Historia Brittonum however
in place of _Finn Godwulfing_ we find _Finn qui fuit Folcwald_--which
is clearly due to confusion with Finn the son of Folcwalda (_Finn
Folcwalding_), a Frisian king mentioned in Beowulf and Widsith, as well
as in the fragment which bears his name.

Further evidence is afforded by names of persons and places. There
can be no doubt that even in the seventh century it was customary to
take the names of famous men of the past or present. Danihel, bishop
of Winchester (d. 745), and Iohannes, bishop of Hexham (d. 721), are
instances which no one will dispute. In the Durham Liber Vitae we meet
with the names Aethan and Cundigeorn. It must not be assumed that
persons bearing such names were necessarily of Celtic blood. Indeed the
spelling suggests rather that they were Englishmen called after Aidan
and Kentigern. Deusdedit, archbishop of Canterbury (655-664), doubtless
derived his name from Pope Deusdedit (615-618), while the West Saxon
king Ceadwalla (685-688) was in all probability called after the
British king of the same name, who died in 642. It is extremely likely
that Hlothhere, king of Kent (673-685), obtained his name from one of
the Frankish kings, Lothair II (584-628) or Lothair III (656-670), for
the element _hloth-_ is not used elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon names. Even
in the sixth century we hear of English princes who seem to be called
after Frankish or Gothic kings of the same period. Thus Tytla, the name
of the father of the East Anglian king Redwald, is probably taken from
the Gothic king Totila; it is not of an English type. Two sons of
the Northumbrian king Ida were called Theodric and Aethelric, perhaps
after the Gothic king Theodric and his successor Athalaric. As the
element _theod-_ is somewhat rare in England, it is not unlikely that
the Northumbrian prince Theodbald, a son of Aethelric, derived his name
from the Frankish king Theodbald.

The occurrence of such names as Widsith and Beowulf (_Biuulf_) in the
Liber Vitae shows that names were taken not only from contemporary
persons and from books but also from native poems and traditions.
Indeed researches which have been made in this direction have
demonstrated that names of the latter type were extremely popular. But
it has not been sufficiently pointed out that such names occur most
frequently in the earliest times and gradually become more rare--a fact
which is of considerable importance for our purpose. The total number
of personal names found in the five poems Beowulf, Finn, Waldhere,
Widsith and Deor is 132[34], and of these altogether 57 recur as names
of persons mentioned in English historical documents. Over forty of
these names belonged to persons who appear to have lived, or at any
rate to have been born, before the end of the seventh century[35],
while at least thirteen of them are unknown after the same period. To
the latter class belong the important names Widsith and Beowulf.

In local nomenclature it is possible to trace at least 51 of the 132
names mentioned above. In some cases these names may have been taken
direct from the story, e.g. when we find in Kent two localities close
together called _Hokes clif_ and _Hengstes earas_ (Birch, _Cart.
Sax._, III 1000). A similar case, very frequently cited[36], is that
of _Beowanhammes hecgan_ and _Grendeles mere_ in Wiltshire (_ib._ II
677), though neither of these names is included in our list. But in the
majority of cases it is more probable that the place-name is taken in
the first instance from that of a previous landowner, and consequently
that the connection with the story is only secondary. Hence it is
important to notice that out of the 51 place-names no less than 19
contain names which are not borne by persons in historical documents.
The explanation of this lies doubtless in the fact that the place-names
for the most part became fixed at a very early period, and consequently
that they exhibit an earlier stratum of personal nomenclature.

If we add the place-names to the personal names the total number of
heroic names found in England in historical documents seems to be
76. Out of this number only seven apparently are limited to persons
born after the end of the seventh century, and of these again almost
all occur in the course of the eighth century. These statistics show
clearly that such names were most popular during the sixth and seventh
centuries, especially if we bear in mind that the materials for this
period are incomparably less than those for the following three
centuries. Hence, if we are justified in drawing any conclusions from
nomenclature, the popularity of the heroic stories was distinctly on
the wane in Alcuin's time.

The argument from nomenclature holds good of course only for showing
the popularity of the stories; it cannot prove the existence of the
poems which we now possess. In one case however we may probably make an
exception. The name _Widsith_ is obviously fictitious[37] and based on
the travels with which the minstrel is credited. The introduction, in
which alone the name occurs, is in all probability a later composition
than the rest of the poem[38] and designed to explain what follows. It
is of importance therefore to note that, if we may judge from the place
in which this name occurs in the Liber Vitae, it must have been borne
by a person of the seventh century.

We must next turn to the internal evidence. The linguistic criteria
are of a somewhat unsatisfactory nature and investigations in this
field have led to few definite results. It is clear that the heroic
poems do not exhibit any dialect in its purity--a remark which is
true of Anglo-Saxon poetry in general. West Saxon forms predominate
and there is no doubt that the final recension of the text is due to
scribes who employed this dialect. Yet at the same time there are a
sufficient number of Midland or Northumbrian characteristics[39] to
render it highly probable that the poems were not only composed but
also originally written down in one of these dialects. Beyond this
however no safe conclusions can be attained owing to the lateness of
the MSS.

In regard to syntax the heroic poems are at least as archaic as any
other remains of Anglo-Saxon poetry which have come down to us. We may
notice especially the use of the definite article, which in reality
is still a demonstrative pronoun in the heroic poems. It occurs
comparatively seldom in connection with a weak adjective followed by a
substantive--a usage which is nearly universal in most of the Christian
poems. Thus in Cynewulf's works the proportion of examples with and
without the article varies from 7:1 to 9:1, and even in the first part
of Guthlac, which is believed to date from soon after the middle of
the eighth century, the proportion is 7:1[40]; but in Beowulf it is
only 1:5. If the Dream of the Cross, in which the proportion is 2:1,
is rightly attributed to the early years of the eighth century[41],
it seems reasonable to date the composition of Beowulf quite half a
century further back. The nearest approach to the usage of Beowulf is
shown by Exodus, in which the proportion is over 2:3. Unfortunately
we have no certain means of dating this work, though it is generally
believed to be one of the earliest of the Christian poems. Its archaic
character would be natural enough if it is really the work of Caedmon,
who flourished while Hild was abbess at Whitby (658-680) and who
according to Bede[42] did compose a poem or poems on this subject.

The metrical characteristics of the heroic poems differ but little from
those of Anglo-Saxon poetry in general. Cases of absence of contraction
after the loss of intervocalic _-h-_ (e.g. in the half-verse _hean
huses_) can be paralleled in poems dating from the close of the eighth
century or even later, where they are doubtless to be regarded as
poetic archaisms. On the other hand importance is generally attached
to the absence of any evidence for the retention of _-u_ after a long
syllable and to the shortening of syllables containing _-r-_ which
was originally followed by antevocalic _-h-_. Thus it is contended
that such combinations as _to widan feore_ in the latter half of a
verse cannot go back to the middle of the seventh century[43], since
the form in use at that time would be _feorha_, which would offend
against the metre. As a matter of fact half-verses of the condemned
type do occur in Anglo-Saxon poetry, Beowulf itself containing at least
eight examples. But even if we were to admit all these statements
and emend the offending verses the argument would be conclusive only
on the assumption that the poems were written down from the very
beginning[44]. Poems which are preserved by oral tradition alone are
manifestly liable to small verbal changes, especially in a metre so
flexible as that of the Teutonic alliterative verse. Thus in place of
the expression _to widan feore_ we find occasionally _widan feore_ in
the same sense, and even in Beowulf we meet with _widan feorh_ which
is not improbably the oldest form of the phrase. Before the loss
of final _-u_ it would be a perfectly regular half-verse, but the
operation of this change would render it impossible and necessitate the
substitution of a synonymous expression. In principle, it should be
observed, the assumption of such substitutions seems to be absolutely
necessary, unless we are prepared to deny that any old poems or even
verses survived the period of apocope. Yet there is a sufficient amount
of resemblance between English and German poetry, not merely in the
general metrical scheme but also in the construction of individual
verses[45], to render such a conclusion extremely improbable.
Consequently I am very much inclined to doubt whether any safe
conclusions as to the date of the poems can be obtained from metrical
considerations, except of course as regards their final form.

Of far greater importance is the fact that with the exception of the
Finn-fragment, which consists of only fifty verses, all our poems
contain passages or references of a religious (Christian) character.
In Beowulf alone there are about seventy such passages of which the
significance is not open to question, and seven or eight others which
may belong to the same category. Out of the total number thirty-three
are limited to single verses or half-verses[46], while another sixteen
affect not more than two verses in each case[47]. The longest passage
of all (v. 1724 ff.) contains at least 37 verses, the next longest (v.
175 ff.) fourteen. The rest vary from three to nine verses[48]. The
theology which appears in these passages is of a singularly vague type.
There are four distinct references to incidents in the early part of
Genesis, viz. one (v. 90 ff.) to the Creation, two (vv. 107 ff., 1261
ff.) to the story of Cain and Abel and one (v. 1688 ff.) to the Flood.
Apart from these there appears to be no reference to any passage in
the Bible except perhaps in v. 1745 ff., which are thought by some to
be based on Ephes. vi. 16, and in v. 3069, which contains the phrase
'day of judgment.' We find also a few references to rewards and
punishments in a future life[49]. The word _god_ is of very frequent
occurrence and always used in the Christian sense. The other epithets
of the Deity are 'lord' (_frea_, _dryhten_), 'father' (_faeder_),
'creator' (_scyppend_), 'ruler' (_waldend_), 'almighty' (_alwalda_,
_aelmihtiga_), 'ruler of men' (_ylda_ or _fira waldend_), 'ruler of
glory' (_wuldres waldend_), 'shepherd of glory' (_wuldres hyrde_),
'king of glory' (_wuldurcyning_), 'guider of the heavens' (_rodera
raedend_), 'helm of the heavens' (_heofena helm_), 'ruler of victories'
(_sigora waldend_), 'king of victories' (_sigora soðcyning_). On the
other hand there is no example of the word _gast_ in a religious sense
(Holy Ghost), nor of the name _Crist_, nor of any epithet denoting
'Saviour' (_nergend_, _haelend_ etc.). Hardly less curious is the total
absence of the word _engel_, for expressions such as 'lord of angels'
(_engla dryhten_[50]) are among the most frequent epithets of the Deity
in Anglo-Saxon religious poems. Lastly, there are no references to the
saints, to the cross or to the church, nor to any Christian rites or
ceremonies.

It appears then that the religious utterances of the poem are of a
singularly one-sided character. Indeed it has been observed[51] that,
with the exception perhaps of vv. 977-9, "their theology is covered
by the Old Testament, and a pious Jew would have no difficulty in
assenting to them all." Certainly the facts are such as to call for
some explanation, especially since the religious poems are pervaded by
a wholly different tone.

One suggestion is that Beowulf was composed under the influence of
the missionaries from Iona; but it is extremely doubtful whether
the influence of Irish Christianity would tend in this direction at
all[52]. Another is that the poet had little direct knowledge of the
Christian religion, but that he was acquainted with some religious
poems. This explanation certainly seems to fit the case much better
than the other. Moreover there is one piece of positive evidence in its
favour. In Beow. v. 89 ff. we hear of recitation to the accompaniment
of the harp in Hrothgar's hall, and the subject of the recitation is
the creation of the world. It appears to me highly probable that we
have here an allusion to Caedmon's poem or poems on Genesis, which may
very well have been among the earliest of that poet's productions. At
all events it was by his hymn on the Creation that he first became
known. The inference is strengthened by the rather close resemblance
which the hymn bears to the phraseology of Beowulf. If the two poets
were contemporary the author of Beowulf would have no other Christian
poet on whom to draw, and the limitations of his theological equipment
might be satisfactorily accounted for on the hypothesis that he knew
only a few of Caedmon's works. As a matter of fact two or three out of
the list given by Bede[53] would have been quite sufficient to provide
him with all the statements and terms that he uses.

There is another question however with regard to the composition of
Beowulf which has aroused more controversy than this, namely whether
the Christian passages formed an original part of the poem or not. In
the former case of course the poem cannot have been composed before the
second quarter of the seventh century. Indeed, if we grant the use of
Caedmon's poetry the earliest possible date would be about 660. On the
other hand if the Christian passages are due to interpolation the upper
limit for the dating of the poem vanishes into air.

As to the possibility of such interpolation in principle we need
scarcely entertain any doubt. It is true that the Christian passages
or references cannot as a rule be removed without breaking into the
rhythm. Consequently, if interpolation has taken place we must assume
it to be the work of poets or minstrels, and not of scribes. But
have we any reason for doubting that the minstrels of that period
were capable of such 'interpolation.' Wherever poetry--at all events
anonymous narrative poetry--is preserved exclusively by oral tradition,
it is usually the case that the minstrel is allowed a certain amount
of freedom in the presentation of his subject.[54] Now probably no one
will suggest that it was only after their conversion to Christianity
that the English began to compose poems about 'heathen kings.' But,
if we grant that such poems were already in existence, does it really
involve a greater amount of effort on the part of the minstrels to
bring these poems up to date--by removing objectionable matter and
introducing expressions in accordance with the new religion--than to
compose an entirely new set of poems on the same subjects. I cannot
think that such a view will be seriously maintained. Therefore we must
consider the case of Beowulf--the only narrative poem which has come
down to us entire--without prejudice on the general question; and we
must endeavour to see whether it bears the stamp of a new composition
or that of an old work which has been brought into conformity with new
ideas. The probability or improbability of the latter view will of
course depend largely on the amount of inconsistency which the poem is
found to contain.

Until within the last few years the majority of scholars believed that
Beowulf was a composite work. This theory was most fully developed in
the writings of Müllenhoff and ten Brink. According to the former[55]
the poem was made up from four separate lays, though in its present
form nearly half of it is the work of interpolators. The latter[56]
likewise traced the origin of the poem to lays, but explained its
inconsistencies as being due not to extensive interpolations but to
the combination of two parallel versions. In regard to the relative
antiquity of the various parts of the poem there was great divergence
of opinion both between these scholars and generally. It is perhaps
partly on this account that in recent years there has been a reaction
in favour of believing that the poem as we have it is practically
the work of one man, though it is allowed that he may have made use
of earlier lays. But those who have adopted this view seem to agree
that the author, whatever his precise date, belonged to the Christian
period, and consequently that the religious passages are not due to
interpolation.

Now in the first place it is clear that the story of Beowulf is derived
from the Baltic, and the first question which we have to settle is as
to the time at which the information on which it is based became known
in England. The Angli themselves were originally a Baltic people, as I
have tried elsewhere to show, and there is no doubt that down to the
time of the invasion of Britain they were thoroughly familiar with all
the surrounding regions. But we have no evidence whatever for believing
that such was the case within the historical period. By the end of the
sixth century, when the first missionaries arrived in this country,
they had apparently ceased to be a seafaring people, and we have no
record of any voyage made by an Englishman across the North Sea for
several centuries. Again, the Danes became familiar to the west of
Europe during the sixth century; but from about 580 onwards we hear
no more of their presence on the North Sea for fully two centuries.
During the whole of this period their name is heard of only in
connection with the missionary expeditions of St Willibrord, early in
the eighth century. I have suggested elsewhere[57] that their temporary
disappearance was due to the maritime supremacy held by the Frisians.
At all events we have archaeological evidence for a considerable amount
of communication between southern Norway and the Frisian coasts during
this period, while for the Baltic such evidence is almost wholly
wanting.

Bearing these facts in mind we can hardly doubt that the information
used by Beowulf was acquired before the end of the sixth century--in
all probability we may say considerably before that date.[58] Next we
have to notice that we have practically no trustworthy information
regarding the history of the English kingdoms before the middle of the
sixth century, and I think it will be the opinion of any attentive
student of early English history that even the best informed persons of
Bede's time were not much better off in this respect than we ourselves
are. How then are we to account for the preservation of detailed
information regarding the early kings of the Danes and Swedes? The only
answer to this question, so far as I can see, is that the doings of
such persons must have become embodied in stories which were preserved
by recitation in a more or less fixed form of words. Such recitative
pieces may have consisted of poetry alone or of poetry mixed with
prose, like some of the pieces contained in the Older Edda. If we
may trust the analogy of what appear to be the oldest pieces in this
collection, such as Völundarkviða or Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, the
speeches would be given in metre, while the connecting narrative might
be partly or wholly in prose and quite brief. We have no evidence for
believing that the early Teutonic peoples ever used entirely prose
narratives, like the Icelandic and Irish sagas, for such purposes.

At all events it seems to me that if Beowulf is no older than the
middle of the seventh century we are bound to assume the existence of
earlier poems or narratives on the same subject. Such pieces may of
course have been quite short, and it is likely enough that our epic
has made use of more than one of them. One perhaps may have dealt
with the hero's exploits at the Danish court and another with his
last adventure, while in the scene between Beowulf and Hygelac it
is possible that an older poem has been incorporated, more or less
complete, in the text.[59]

But we have yet to take account of what is perhaps the most striking
feature of the poem, namely the fact that, though it abounds in
expressions of Christian sentiment, yet the customs and ceremonies to
which it alludes are uniformly heathen. Among these we may mention
the funeral ship in v. 27 ff., the offerings at the shrines in v. 175
f., the observation of the omens in v. 204 and the curious reference
to hanging in v. 2444 ff. (cf. v. 2939 ff.), probably also the use
of the boar on helmets (vv. 303 f., 1111 f., 1286, 1451 ff., 2152)
and the burial of the treasure (v. 2233 ff.), together with the curse
imprecated on the person who should disturb it (v. 3069 ff.). But most
important of all are the descriptions of the disposal of the dead by
cremation in vv. 1108 ff., 2124 ff., 3137 ff. In the long account
of Beowulf's obsequies--beginning with the dying king's injunction
(v. 2802 ff.) to construct for him a lofty barrow on the edge of the
cliff, and ending with the scene of the twelve princes riding round the
barrow, proclaiming the dead man's exploits--we have the most detailed
description of an early Teutonic funeral which has come down to us, and
one of which the accuracy is confirmed in every point by archaeological
or contemporary literary evidence[60]. Such an account must have been
composed within living memory of a time when ceremonies of this kind
were still actually in use.

The significance of these passages seems to me to have been altogether
misapprehended by recent writers. If the poem preserves its original
form and is the work of a Christian, it is difficult to see why the
poet should go out of his way in v. 175 ff. to represent the Danes as
offering heathen sacrifices; for not long before he has introduced a
song of the Creation at the Danish court, and in the sequel Hrothgar is
constantly giving utterance to Christian sentiments. Again why should
he lay Beowulf himself to rest with heathen obsequies, described in
all possible detail, when in his dying speeches (vv. 2739 ff., 2794
ff.[61]) the hero has been made to express his faith and gratitude to
the Almighty? On the other hand if the poem was originally a heathen
work these inconsistencies are perfectly natural. If it was to retain
its place after the change of faith and to be recited in the presence
of bishops or clergy, all references to actual heathen worship or
belief would of necessity have to be either accompanied by censure--as
is the case in the homiletic verses following v. 175 ff.--or else
suppressed altogether, and their place taken by expressions in
accordance with Christian doctrine. Hence it seems to me probable that
such expressions are frequently in the nature of substitutions for
objectionable matter, rather than gratuitous additions; and in the same
way I would account for the occasional survival of ideas which appear
to be essentially heathen[62], though they are cloaked in Christian
phraseology. But references to practices such as cremation which,
though heathen, had long ago passed out of use, would not excite the
same repugnance and consequently might be allowed to stand.

It may be urged[63] that cremation seems to have lingered on among the
Old Saxons of the Continent until late in the eighth century. True:
but it is quite incredible that a Christian poet should borrow from
this quarter a method of funeral for his Christianised heroes. If the
description of Beowulf's obsequies stood alone a bare possibility might
be conceded to the suggestion that it had once formed a poem by itself,
unconnected with Beowulf, and based upon a traveller's story. But
cremation is clearly regarded as the normal rite throughout the poem,
apart from the legendary story of Scyld. We have another description of
it in the episode dealing with Finn (v. 1108 ff.), and above all there
is the purely incidental reference in v. 2124 ff.: "Yet when morning
came the knights of the Danes could not burn his (Aeschere's) lifeless
form with fire, nor lay the man they loved on the pyre. She had carried
the body away," etc. Here the poet realises the significance[64] of the
rite quite clearly and consequently notes that the inability of the
Danes to carry it out added materially to their sorrow. In such a case
the possibility of Christian authorship seems to me to be definitely
excluded.

On the hypothesis that these descriptions had come down from the days
of English heathenism all is easily explicable. At the time when the
poem was Christianised it may very well not have been known that
the rite of cremation was still practised among the heathen of the
Continent, and in later days the verses of the old poet would be
handed on in parrot fashion without their significance being generally
understood. Well informed persons however, like Alcuin, who had
travelled abroad, perceived clearly enough that, however much coated
over with Christian phraseology, the heroic poems were in reality of an
essentially heathen character.

Now cremation was widely prevalent in this country during the early
days of the Saxon invasion--a fact attested by numerous cemeteries
especially in the northern and midland counties, including the valley
of the Thames. But it appears to have become a thing of the past when
the Roman missionaries arrived here; otherwise it is difficult to
account for the absence of any reference to the custom in the records
which have come down to us. Indeed we may say with safety that it had
passed out of general use, at least in the southern half of England,
quite a generation before this time; for there are scarcely any traces
of it to be found in those western districts which appear to have been
conquered during the latter half of the sixth century. Consequently,
if we are justified in believing that the descriptions of cremation
ceremonies contained in Beowulf date from a time when the practice was
still remembered, we must conclude that they were composed not later
than the third or fourth decade of the seventh century[65].

But it is not contended, so far as I am aware, by any scholar that the
account of Beowulf's obsequies belongs to the earlier parts of the
poem. It is the final scene of the story, it is not contained in any
speech, and further it is of a thoroughly epic character and would
be quite out of place in a short lay. Hence, if the line of argument
which we have been following is legitimate, we shall be forced to admit
that though the poem has undergone a fairly thorough revision in early
Christian times, it must in the main have been in existence some time
before the conversion. I do not mean to suggest that the 'revision' was
entirely limited to the religious element. Other changes and additions
may have been made about the same time[66]. What I do mean is that
the great bulk of the poem must have been in existence--not merely as
a collection of lays or stories, but in full epic form--an appreciable
time before the middle of the seventh century.

* * * * *

The other heroic poems do not furnish us with any similar criteria for
estimating the date of their composition, but there seems to be no
valid reason for doubting that they are quite as early. Two of them,
Deor and Widsith, are expressed in the first person and lay claim to
being of a remote antiquity. Deor says that he had been the bard of
the Heodeningas and that he had been displaced by a skilful minstrel
named Heorrenda. Since in old Norse literature _Hiaðningar_ (i.e.
_Heodeningas_) means 'Heðinn and his men,'[67] and since Heorrenda can
hardly be separated from the minstrel Hôrand in Kûdrûn, it would seem
that the poet claims to have been a contemporary of Heðinn and Högni,
with whose story we have dealt briefly above (pp. 8 f., 16).

Widsith is still more explicit. The poet states that he visited the
Gothic king Eormenric, who as we know died about 370. It is true
that incidentally he mentions that he had met with a number of other
princes, some of whom lived in the fifth and sixth centuries; but the
visit to Eormenric is his main theme. Eormenric is of course one of
the most prominent figures of the Heroic Age, and it may be for this
reason--as the type of a powerful king--that he is chosen for the
poet's host and patron. But then it is by no means so easy to see why
he is associated with such an obscure person as Eadgils, prince of the
Myrgingas. The suggestion that the poem is founded upon a tradition
that this Eadgils possessed a famous minstrel breaks down upon the
name _Widsith_, which is obviously fictitious as we have seen (p. 44).
It appears to me that considerably less difficulty is involved in the
hypothesis that the kernel of the poem[68] is really the work of an
unknown bard of the fourth century, and that successive minstrels from
time to time have added the names of famous heroes with which they were
acquainted[69]--a process to which the original plan of the poem may
well have offered inducement.

However this may be neither of the poems shows any characteristics
which suggest a later date than Beowulf. Both appear to be constructed
in strophic form, a feature rare elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon poetry, while
Deor also has a refrain, which is almost without parallel. Lastly, we
have seen that _Widsith_ occurs as a personal name, apparently in the
seventh century, and that this presupposes the existence not only of
the poem itself but also of the introduction, which is clearly later.

The case of Waldhere stands somewhat apart from the others, since it
has been suggested that this is really a translation of a lost German
poem, on which Ekkehard's Waltharius is also based. That the story
came from the Continent may of course be granted; but we have also to
consider when and in what form it was brought. The linguistic arguments
which have been adduced in favour of the German origin of the poem
are not now generally maintained. But it is further to be noticed
that the poet seems to have treated his subject very differently from
Ekkehard. The speeches, with which the fragments are entirely taken
up, have nothing corresponding to them in the Latin poem, while the
characterisation of the heroine is as unlike as it well could be.
Ekkehard represents her as a timid creature, but in the fragments she
displays a spirit which may fairly be called martial. It is unwise to
lay stress on agreements between Ekkehard and the fragments as against
the version of the story given in Thiðreks Saga af Bern. The less
complicated form of the latter--in which Guthhere is omitted and Hagena
represented as an officer of Attila, pursuing the fugitives--may be
due either to imperfect acquaintance with the story or, perhaps more
probably, to the conditions under which it had been preserved. We shall
see later that for a considerable period heroic poetry appears to have
been entirely neglected by the higher classes in Germany; and it may
be accepted as generally true that when stories are preserved only by
the peasants complex situations tend to become simplified, while all
except the most prominent characters drop out. As for the date at which
the story became known in England we may note that besides _Aetla_ and
_Hagena_, which may come from other sources, _Waldhere_, _Hildegyth_
and _Hereric_ were all names current during the seventh century. There
seems therefore to be no adequate reason for believing Waldhere to have
had a different history from the other heroic poems.

On the whole, taking all the poems, including Beowulf, together, we may
conclude with probability that they assumed substantially their present
form[70] in the course of the seventh century. But if our reasoning
with regard to the composition of Beowulf is correct we shall have to
refer the first treatment of the subject to the sixth century, i.e.
almost if not quite to the Heroic Age itself. Deor and Widsith may
quite possibly contain still older elements.

* * * * *

We may now turn to the Old Norse poems. Here the data at our disposal
are of a very different character, for the metrical evidence is said to
preclude the possibility that any of the extant poems date from before
the ninth century. It may perhaps be questioned whether all of them are
necessarily new compositions since that time--whether certain of them
may not be old poems somewhat recast. To this question however we can
hardly hope to obtain a satisfactory answer.

The fragmentary Ragnarsdrápa of Bragi Boddason, who seems to have lived
in the first half of the ninth century, is probably the earliest extant
piece which refers to stories of the Heroic Age. In this poem we find
allusions both to the story of Heðinn and Högni and to the attack made
upon Iörmunrekr by Hamðir and Sörli. Thiódolfr's Ynglingatal, perhaps
half a century later, contains references to the story of Hagbarðr and
Signý, as well as brief accounts of the Swedish kings Óttarr and Aðils,
who are mentioned in Beowulf (cf. p. 20). All these stories, except
that of Óttarr, are told also by Saxo, but in a somewhat different
form, which points to their derivation from Danish rather than Norse
sources[71].

On the other hand the stories of the Völsungar, Sigmundr and Sigurðr,
are not mentioned by any early Danish authority. The story of Sigurðr
is generally supposed to have been introduced into Norway from Germany;
and in some sense or other this would seem necessarily to be true,
since in the Northern version, as well as in the German, the scene
is laid chiefly in the Rhineland. But it is apparently impossible
to determine when and in what form the story was transmitted. We
have already noticed that there is archaeological evidence for a
considerable amount of communication between Norway (not Denmark) and
the southern (Frisian) coasts of the North Sea during the seventh
and eighth centuries, and this is clearly a factor which deserves to
be taken into account. Further, it is worth noting that, with the
exception perhaps of _Atli_[72], the names all appear in regular
Northern form[73], as if they had been known from the earliest times,
e.g. _Gunnarr_, _Högni_, _Giúki_, _Buðli_. This consideration, as far
as it goes, certainly favours a very early date; but it is hardly
conclusive[74].

The story of Sigmundr stands on a somewhat different footing. In the
first place Sigemund (Sigmundr) himself is little more than a name in
German tradition, while though _Welsung_ and _Sintarfizzilo_ occur
as personal names, they are not connected in any way with the story
of Siegfried. Again, in the Helgi poems, which contain no reference
to Sigurðr, Sigmundr is connected with the Baltic, and this is still
more clearly the case with his son Helgi, who is unknown to the German
story. Thirdly, in Beowulf, which knows Sigemund and Fitela, though
not Sigurðr, the former is brought into juxtaposition, and apparently
also into comparison, with a Danish prince named Heremod. The same two
persons are brought together also in the Old Norse poem Hyndlulióð,
while the Hákonarmál likewise seems to imply some connection between
them, as I have tried to show elsewhere[75]. Apart from the passages
specified this Hermóðr (Heremod) is apparently not mentioned in
Scandinavian literature, but the facts noted seem to indicate that
the two characters were connected in poetry before English and Danish
tradition became separated, i.e. presumably in the sixth century.

We have seen that many of the persons mentioned in the main narrative
of Beowulf were remembered also in Scandinavian tradition. But since
these persons are in all probability to be regarded as historical, it
is hardly safe to infer the existence of ancient Scandinavian poems,
unless the same incidents are related of them, which is generally not
the case. There is a rather striking verbal resemblance[76] between
the first speech of Wiglaf (Beow. 2633-60) and certain passages in
Biarkamál (especially Saxo's version), where Hialti is addressing
Biarki; and this fact is the more noteworthy if Biarki is really to be
identified with Beowulf. But the words themselves are of a somewhat
general character and might have been used on other occasions. Again
there is a certain affinity[77] between the account of the dragon-fight
in Beowulf and that of a similar incident related of Frotho I by Saxo
(p. 38 f.); and here again a connection can be traced indirectly
between the two heroes. But the story of Frotho seems really rather to
resemble the account given in Beowulf of Sigemund's dragon-fight; so it
may be questioned whether the points of affinity between the two did
not originally form part of a standard description of incidents of this
kind.

A clearer case is that of the poems attributed by Saxo to Starcatherus,
in which that warrior exhorts Ingellus to avenge his father. These
are clearly to be connected with the speech of the old warrior to
Ingeld in Beowulf (vv. 2047-2056), though there is little verbal
resemblance. Moreover we have seen (p. 41 f.) that in Alcuin's time
poems dealing with Ingeld were known and probably popular in England.
The relationship of the passage in Beowulf to these may be compared
with that of another passage (vv. 1068-1159) to the fragment dealing
with Finn. The poems on Ingeld given by Saxo are traced by Prof.
Olrik[78] to a Danish source; and there can be little doubt that his
view is correct, as they share the characteristics exhibited by other
stories which appear to come from the same quarter (cf. p. 111). Thus
the queen's name is not given and her brothers are described simply
as sons of Suertingus. Further, the story is cut right away from the
surroundings in which we find it in Beowulf, and it may be that for
a time it survived in Denmark only in ballad form. Yet, however much
change it had undergone before it came under Saxo's treatment, there
can be little doubt, in view of the English evidence, that its origin
is ultimately to be sought in heroic poetry, or at all events heroic
narrative, dating from the sixth century.

Lastly we must mention the story of Uffo's single combat, though,
strictly speaking, this is probably not of Danish origin. It was
certainly well known in England and there is good reason for believing
that its home is to be found in the district to which it refers,
i.e. the neighbourhood of Angel, Slesvig and Rendsburg. I have tried
elsewhere[79] to show that this story also rests on historical
foundations. But the details of the combat, as given by Saxo and Svend
Aagesen, and certain legendary features, such as the dumbness or
silence of the hero, which are present in both the Danish and English
versions of the story, strongly favour the view that it was embodied
in poetic form at a very early period. On the other hand there is
nothing to show that such poems survived till Saxo's time. The story is
apparently unknown to all Norse authorities.

* * * * *

Many of the German poems which have come down to us are known to be
derived, directly or indirectly, from earlier ones, but regarding the
antiquity of the latter nothing can be stated with certainty. The
Hildebrandslied, which is the only extant piece of early poetry, goes
back at all events to the eighth century. Further, the language[80]
used by Einhard in describing the poems collected by Charlemagne (cf.
p. 5 f.) would scarcely be appropriate unless they were believed to be
more than a century old by that time. We may probably therefore refer
them at least to the seventh century.

It seems likely that some of the lost poems of the Langobardi were of
still greater antiquity. In the poem which celebrated their victory
over the Vandals (cf. p. 10), a story with which we shall have to
deal more fully in a later chapter, a very prominent part appears to
have been played by the heathen gods. Such a piece can hardly have
been composed after the end of the fifth century, at which time the
Langobardi were already Christians.

Regarding the antiquity of Gothic heroic poetry there can be no
question, for Jordanes, our chief authority on this subject, wrote
about the middle of the sixth century, i.e. during the Heroic Age
itself. We have already noticed (p. 37) that his account of Eormenric
appears to be coloured by poetic tradition. But of the heroes whom
he enumerates (cap. 5) as celebrated in poetry, the only one of whom
we know anything, Vidigoia, is described as _Gothorum fortissimus_
in a quotation (cap. 34) from Priscus, who lived about a century
earlier[81]. There is good reason therefore for believing that the
Goths possessed heroic poems as early as the first half of the fifth
century.

We may now sum up briefly the results of our discussion. The heroic
poetry of the Goths certainly belonged to the Heroic Age itself, and it
is more than likely that certain Langobardic poems were nearly as old.
Some heroic poems belonging to other German peoples may probably be
referred at least to the seventh century. The chief monument of English
heroic poetry must be ascribed to the first half of that century, while
some of the other poems claim to be of greater antiquity. The lost
heroic poetry of the Danes seems to have been occupied largely with the
same subjects as the English poems, and since the stories generally
refer to the Baltic we may reasonably infer that heroic poetry
flourished in that region during the sixth century. On the whole then
it seems probable that the development of heroic poetry began in the
Heroic Age itself, not only among the Goths but throughout the greater
part of the Teutonic world.

FOOTNOTES:

[33] _Verba Dei legantur in sacerdotali conuiuio. ibi decet lectorem
audiri, non citharistam; sermones patrum, non carmina gentilium. quid
Hinieldus cum Christo? angusta est domus; utrosque tenere non poterit.
non uult rex coelestis cum paganis et perditis nominetenus regibus
communionem habere, quia rex ille aeternus regnat in coelo, ille
paganus perditus plangit in inferno. uoces legentium audiri in domibus
tuis, non ridentium turuam in plateis._ Mon. Germ., Epist. Carol. II
124; cf. O. Jänicke, ZfdA. XV 314.

[34] The names Grendel, Cain, Abel, Alexandreas and Casere are not
included.

[35] For the figures and the method of calculation see Note I.

[36] But open to very serious objections, as has been shown by Prof. W.
W. Lawrence in the _Publications of the Modern Language Association of
America_, XXIV 251 ff.

[37] Compound names containing _wīd-_ or _-sīþ_ (_-sinþ-_) are used in
other Teutonic languages; but the latter apparently does not occur in
England, while the former is extremely rare.

[38] In contrast with the body of the poem (vv. 10-134) it is
non-strophic, after the general fashion of Anglo-Saxon poetry.
Originally when the poem was recited it may have been introduced with
a short explanation in prose, such as we find e.g. in Rígsmál or
Atlakviða. The epilogue (vv. 135-143), which is likewise non-strophic,
may belong to the same stratum.

[39] Especially the regular use of unsyncopated forms such as 3 sg.
_onwindeð_, past part. _onsended_.

[40] The statistics for these poems are as follows: Juliana 27:3,
Christ (II) 28:3, Elene 66:9, Guthlac (A) 42:6, Dream of the Cross
10:5, Exodus 10:14, Beowulf 13:65; see Brandl, _S.-B. d. Akad. der
Wiss. zu Berlin_, 1905, p. 718 f.

[41] Cf. Brandl, _l.c._ (p. 721 ff.).

[42] Hist. Eccl., IV 24: _canebat autem de creatione mundi et origine
humani generis et tota genesis historia, de egressu Israel ex Aegypto
et ingressu in terram repromissionis, de aliis plurimis sacrae
scripturae historiis, de incarnatione dominica, passione, resurrectione
et ascensione in caelum, de Spiritus Sancti aduentu et apostolorum
doctrina. item de terrore futuri iudicii et horrore poenae gehennalis
ac dulcedine regni caelestis multa carmina faciebat; sed et perplura de
beneficiis et iudiciis diuinis, etc._ Prof. Brandl (_Grundr._, II 1028)
holds that the reference is to lyric poems throughout. But is this
interpretation really necessary?

[43] On this date see Note II.

[44] For a brief discussion of this question see Note III.

[45] A few examples are given in the following chapter.

[46] vv. 27, 72, 101, 570, 670, 706, 711, 756 (?), 786, 788, 790, 801,
806, 811, 852, 940, 967, 975, 986 (?), 1201, 1255, 1379, 1626, 1658,
1680, 1682, 2088, 2182, 2216 (?), 2276 (?), 2469, 2650, 3083 (?).

[47] vv. 168 f. (?), 227 f., 440 f., 478 f., 588 f., 625 f., 945 f.,
955 f., 1314 f., 1397 f., 1778 f., 1841 f., 1997 f., 2819 f., 2874 f.,
3108 f.

[48] vv. 13-17, 90-8, 106-14, 316-8, 381-4, 665-7 (?), 685-7, 696-702,
928-31, 977-9, 1056-62, 1261-5, 1271-6, 1553-6, 1609-11, 1661-4,
1688-93, 1716-8, 2291-3, 2329-31, 2341-3 (?), 2741-3, 2794-7, 2855-9,
3054-7, 3069-73.

[49] vv. 588 f., 977-9. 2741-3. 2819 f.

[50] It is perhaps worth noting that in v. 2186 the expression _dryhten
wereda_ is used of Hygelac. Elsewhere in Anglo-Saxon poetry this phrase
is applied only to the Deity.

[51] Clark Hall, _Beowulf_, p. xxviii.

[52] If there is Celtic influence at all it is more probably Welsh.

[53] Cf. p. 46, note, where the passage is quoted in full.

[54] The amount of freedom differs of course greatly from case to case
(cf. Note IV, p. 101 ff.); but it is only in communities which have
elaborated the art of minstrelsy to a very high degree that the form of
words can become absolutely stereotyped.

[55] _Beowulf_ (1889), pp. 110-160.

[56] _Quellen und Forschungen_, LXII (1888); summarised p. 242 ff.

[57] _The Origin of the English Nation_, p. 93, note.

[58] The references quoted on p. 41 ff. preclude the possibility that
these stories were first acquired from the Danes, when the latter again
became known in this country about the close of the eighth century.

[59] A different view is taken by Schücking, _Beowulfs Rückkehr_
(Studien zur engl. Philologie, XXI), p. 65 ff.

[60] We may refer especially to the account of Attila's funeral given
by Jordanes, cap. 49 (from Priscus).

[61] Apart from certain expressions the general tone of these speeches,
especially the last words of all (v. 2813 ff.), is scarcely Christian;
but they contain nothing which is obviously opposed to Christian
doctrine.

[62] E.g. in the imprecation, v. 3069 ff. The imprecatory formulae of
charters can scarcely be regarded as analogous.

[63] Cf. Brandl, _op. cit._, p. 1003.

[64] The same idea is frequently expressed in the Homeric poems, e.g.
Il. VII 79 f., XXII 342 f., XXIII 75 f., XXIV 37 f., Od. XI 71 ff., etc.

[65] This date does not depend in any way on the question where the
poem originated. Cremation may possibly have lingered in Northumbria
longer than elsewhere; but that kingdom seems to have become entirely
Christian between 626 and 642.

[66] E.g. possibly some of the elegiac passages (e.g. vv. 2236-2270,
2450-2464), which show a certain resemblance to such poems as the Ruin
and the Wanderer.

[67] The name _Hegelinge_ in Kûdrûn is probably a corruption of
_Hetelinge_ (i.e. _Heodeningas_).

[68] Presumably including vv. 88-108; but I am not prepared to suggest
an elaborate analysis of the poem.

[69] These lists are perhaps derived in part from mnemonic
catalogues--'inventories' of the stories known to the minstrels who
composed them. Metrical catalogues of this kind are said to be in use
among Servian minstrels at the present day; cf. Krauss, _Slavische
Volkforschungen_, p. 186 ff., where a specimen is given.

[70] Waldhere, Deor and Widsith all contain 'Christian' passages,
like Beowulf. The interpolations in Widsith (e.g. vv. 15 f., 82 ff.)
appear to have been made by some one who possessed a certain amount of
erudition; but there is no need to attribute them to a different period.

[71] Cf. Olrik, _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_, p. 132.

[72] The name appears to have been quite common in the North during the
Viking Age; yet the apparent absence of umlaut suggests derivation from
a (Frisian?) form corresponding to the Ang.-Sax. _Aetla_ (cf. _Aecci_,
_Aeddi_ beside _Acca_, _Adda_).

[73] In contrast (e.g.) with _Kûdrûn_, which clearly shows its foreign
origin (cf. p. 34).

[74] Such names may have been current before, though their frequent
occurrence is no proof of this and may be due to the popularity of the
heroic poems. It is perhaps worth noting that alliteration is shown by
certain names which are generally believed to have been introduced into
the story in Norway or Iceland, e.g. _Oddrún_, _Erpr_, _Eitill_ with
_Atli_, _Giaflaug_, _Gullrönd_ (_Guðrún_?) with _Giuki_ and _Gunnarr_.
If we may judge from the genealogies in Landnámabók and elsewhere the
principle of alliteration seems to have been generally given up in
family names before the ninth century.

[75] _The Cult of Othin_, p. 51 f.

[76] Cf. Bugge, _Beiträge_, XII 45 ff.

[77] Cf. Sievers, _Ges. d. Wiss. zu Leipzig, Ber._ 1895, p. 180 ff.

[78] _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_, pp. 18 ff., 132.

[79] _The Origin of the English Nation_, p. 118 ff.

[80] _Item barbara et antiquissima carmina, quibus ueterum regum actus
et bella canebantur, scripsit memoriaeque mandauit_ (Vita Caroli Magni,
cap. 29).

[81] Cassiodorus (_Var._ VIII 9) states that the Gothic king
Gensimundus, who according to Jordanes (cap. 48) reigned shortly
after Eormenric's death, was widely celebrated in poetry (_toto orbe
cantabilis_); but his name is preserved only in Gothic records.

NOTE I. THE USE OF HEROIC NAMES IN ENGLAND.

The distribution of heroic names in English historical documents is
as follows. The Liber Vitae contains 35 (37), of which nine (eleven)
are peculiar to that work[82]. Of those which occur in other documents
29[83] belong to persons born apparently before 700, six to such
persons only, 14 or 15[84] to persons born between 700 and 800, two to
such persons only, and 22[85] to persons born after 800, four to such
persons only. It must be remembered that, apart from the Liber Vitae,
the materials for the ninth and tenth centuries are much more abundant
than those for earlier times.

In the Liber Vitae itself it is possible within certain limits to
distinguish between persons of early and later date. Investigations in
the lists of kings, queens and abbots have shown that they are arranged
chronologically, and it is only reasonable therefore to expect that the
same is true of the much longer lists of clerics and monks. A brief
examination of the names will make it clear that such is actually the
case. Some modernisms of language, such as _-ferth_ for _-frith_, or
of orthography, such as _-ht-_ for _-ct-_, are practically confined
to the last parts of the lists, which may be by later hands[86]. But
even within the parts certainly written by the first scribe archaic
forms such as _-iu-_ for _-io-_ are more frequent at the beginning of
the lists than later; so also occasional _-b-_ for _-f-_. Above all
we may note the uncompounded names in _-i_, a type common in early
Anglo-Saxon, but practically extinct after the eighth century. Fol. 24,
the first in the clerics' list, contains eleven such names, while fol.
30 contains none; fol. 34, the first in the monks' list, has eight,
while fol. 38 has only one.

Now we shall probably be well within the mark if we assume that one
fifth of the names in each list[87] belong to persons born in the
seventh century. On this basis we find that of the 35 (37) heroic
names which occur in the Liber Vitae nine (ten) are limited to persons
of the seventh century[88], and twelve (thirteen) to persons of the
eighth[89]. The total number of names in each century (cf. p. 43) may
be obtained by comparing the evidence of the Liber Vitae with that of
the other documents[90].

The fact that so many heroic names occur in the Liber Vitae has led
several writers to conclude that the true home of English heroic
poetry was in the north. But no such inference is really justified
by the evidence. The number of personal names recorded for the south
of England during the sixth and seventh centuries is very small; yet
it is only here that we meet with persons called Eormenric, Hoc and
Hagena--names which belong to quite different cycles of story. Moreover
out of the 37 heroic names preserved in the Liber Vitae no less than
28 occur in place-names in various parts of England. The frequence
therefore of heroic names in the Liber Vitae is to be attributed
in part to the great abundance of the material and in part to its
comparatively early date.

Including the evidence of the Liber Vitae there are fifteen heroic
names which seem to be borne only by persons of the eighth century or
later times. Eight of these however occur also in place names[91]. Of
the remaining seven[92] all except one or possibly two[93] make their
appearance during the eighth century. On the other hand it has already
been mentioned that not less than nineteen heroic names[94] occur only
in local nomenclature.

We have still to mention a few heroic names which are not found in the
extant remains of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Theodhere (Diether) is known only
from the sixth century, Hild, Herding, Iuring, Omoling only from the
seventh, Hildegyth and Blaedla from the seventh and eighth, Wulfheard
from all periods, Ecga only from the eighth century, Ecgheard from
the eighth and ninth, Sigesteb only from the ninth. Hild, Wulfheard
and Ecga are found also in place-names. In some of these cases, e.g.
in that of Hildegyth, the non-occurrence of the name in the poems is
clearly due to mere accident; but it would scarcely be safe to assume
that all these characters were celebrated in Anglo-Saxon poetry.

FOOTNOTES:

[82] 37 (eleven), if we admit the emendation of the corrupt forms
_Vychga_ and _Vurmeri_ to _Wydiga_ (Widia, Wudga) and _Vyrmheri_
(Wyrmhere). See the Addenda.

[83] Ecglaf, Eadgils, Eomaer, *Eormenric, Frod(a), Hereric, *Hoc,
*Hrothmund, Ingeld, Offa, Oslaf, Sigemund, *Aehha, Sigeferth, Aetla,
*Hagena, Theodric, Waldhere, Becca, Witta, Wada, Oswine, Sigehere,
*Sceafthere, Alewih, Aelfwine, Eadwine, Wulfhere, Frithuric; perhaps
also Herebald. The asterisk denotes names limited to persons of the
sixth and seventh centuries.

[84] Eadgils, Eanmund, Heardred, Hygelac, Ingeld, Offa, Wermund,
Weohstan, Wiglaf, Wada, *Scilling, Oswine, Sigehere, *Gislhere (perhaps
Eomaer).

[85] *Aelfhere, Ecglaf, Eanmund, Heremod, Offa, Sigemund, Wermund,
Weohstan, Wiglaf, Wulfgar, Garwulf, *Ordlaf, Sigeferth, Waldhere,
Becca, Wada, *Hun, *Hringwald, Aelfwine, Eadwine, Wulfhere, Frithuric
(possibly also Deor).

[86] Only the earlier lists, those printed in Sweet's _Oldest English
Texts_, p. 154 ff., are taken into account.

[87] Lines 159-192 and 332-362 in Sweet's text.

[88] †Beowulf, †Billing, †Folcwald, Frod, Heremod, Hereric, Oslaf,
†Widsith, Alewih (†Widia?). Names marked with a dagger are confined to
the Liber Vitae.

[89] Eadgils, †Hildeburg, †Hrothwulf, Wiglaf, Wulfgar, Garwulf, Aetla,
Witta, †Heathuric, Sigeferth, Wulfhere, Frithuric (†Wyrmhere?). The
following names are found both in the early and late parts of the
lists: Eanmund, †Hama, Heardred, Hygelac, Ingeld, Offa, Sigemund,
Wermund, Theodric, Wada, Aelfwine, Eadwine, †Aegelmund; perhaps also
Herebald, if the abbot of this name is to be identified with the one
mentioned by Bede (_H. E._ V 6).

[90] For the details see the preceding notes.

[91] Hildeburg, Hrothwulf, Wiglaf, Wulfgar, Ordlaf, Hun, Hringwald,
Gislhere.

[92] Aelfhere, Weohstan, Garwulf, Scilling, Heathuric, Wyrmhere (?),
Dior.

[93] Aelfhere and Dior. The latter (in the form _Diar_) occurs only
once (Birch, _Cart. Sax._ 497) and may be a mistake for Diara (_ib._
507). The name Diora need not be of heroic origin; it may be an
abbreviation from such names as Diorwald, Diornoth.

[94] Breca, Finn, Fitela, Hengest, Hnaef, Hrethel, Scyld, Weland,
Guthhere, Geat, Gifeca, Heoden, Helm, Wald, Beaduca, Frithla, Secca,
Gifeca--to which we may add Waelse in Walsingaham. Widia is also to
be added, if it is not allowed for the Liber Vitae. For the list of
place-names (not the personal names) I am dependent upon Binz, _Beitr._
XX 141-223.

NOTE II. ON THE DATING OF CERTAIN SOUND-CHANGES IN ANGLO-SAXON.

In my _Studies in Old English_[95], published in 1899, I endeavoured
to formulate a scheme for dating approximately the chief sound-changes
which took place in English during the first few centuries after the
invasion of Britain. In the course of these investigations I was led
to the following conclusions (pp. 117, 253 ff.): i. that 'palatal
umlaut' in Northumbrian and the dialect of the Vespasian Psalter took
place before 650; ii. that the change from _ǣ_ to _ē_ (in all dialects
except West Saxon) was in operation about 650-680; iii. that the loss
of intersonantal _h_ (in all dialects) belongs to the same period or a
little later; iv. that contraction through loss of intervocalic _h_ may
be dated roughly between 680-710; v. that the loss of final _-u_ after
long syllables and in words of the form ⏑⏑⏑ took place in all dialects
at a time approximately contemporaneous with the operation of palatal
umlaut in Northumbrian (i.e. before 650).

Prof. Morsbach in his paper _Zur Datierung des Beowulfepos_[96] has
dealt with several of the same problems and come to conclusions which
differ widely from those at which I arrived. The chief differences are
as follows: i. that after a long syllable which bore the chief accent
_-u_ was not lost before the end of the seventh century, though after
a long 'nebentonig' syllable the loss was somewhat earlier (p. 261
f.); ii. that intervocalic _h_ was lost in Kentish by about 680, but
in Mercian and Northumbrian the same change cannot be shown to have
taken place before about 700 (p. 264); iii. that postconsonantal _h_
(before vowels) was retained in Kentish in 679; its loss, at least in
Mercian and Northumbrian, may be dated about 700, but after the loss of
_-u_ (p. 265). In summarising the results of his discussion (p. 273)
he gives "about 700" for the loss of postconsonantal _h_ and "shortly
before 700" for the loss of _-u_. Incidentally he follows Bülbring
(_Elementarbuch_, §§ 146, 528) in dating the origin of _ē_ (from 'West
Germ.' _ā_) before the breaking, and in placing the loss of _h_ before
_l_ (in _neolaecan_) anterior to the operation of 'palatal umlaut'
(monophthongisation).

The importance of this discussion for our present purpose[97] lies
in the dates proposed for the loss of _-u_ and of postconsonantal _h_.
Prof. Morsbach concludes that Beowulf cannot have been composed before
700, since it contains a number of half-verses which would have been
metrically impossible before the operation of these changes, e.g.
_ofer fealone flod(u)_, _to widan feor(h)e_. I have already expressed
scepticism as to whether such inferences are really justifiable. This
applies more particularly to the verses affected by the question of
postconsonantal _h_, which are quite few in number. The date which
Prof. Morsbach himself (p. 274) proposes for the composition of Beowulf
is 700-730. He finds no difficulty in reconciling this with the
statistics (given above, p. 45) for the use of the article. This seems
to me rather strange; yet the opinion of a scholar who stands in such
deservedly high estimation cannot lightly be disregarded.

Now let us examine the evidence on which these conclusions are based.
First it will be convenient to take the loss of _h_. Prof. Morsbach
holds that in Kentish intervocalic _h_ was lost before postconsonantal
_h_. The evidence is derived from a single charter issued by King
Hlothhere in 679 (Birch, _Cart. Sax._ 45), which contains the
place-name _Vuestan ae_ beside the personal name _Velhisci_ (Latin
Gen.). But surely conclusions of this kind are admissible only when
a number of examples can be adduced. On the same principle we might
argue from the name _Irminredi_ (in the same charter) that the change
_ǣ_ > _ē_ had taken place and also from the name _Aedilmaeri_ (again
in the same charter) that it had not. And what should we do with the
earliest East Saxon charter (Birch, 81), in which the grantor is called
both _Oedelraedus_ and _Ho(di)lredus_? Again, it is clear that Bede
wrote his own name _Baeda_; but will anyone venture to hold that this
represents the current pronunciation of his name in 731--or indeed for
some half a century earlier? In personal names we must clearly allow
for traditional orthography. The form _Irminredi_ may no doubt be used
as evidence for the change _ǣ_ > _ē_, and similarly the form _Vuestan
ae_ may be used as evidence for the loss of _h_. But forms, especially
personal names, like _Velhisci_ and _Aedilmaeri_, which must long
have been in use, may very well show an antiquated orthography--one
which correctly represented the pronunciation of thirty or forty years
previously. A single instance of such a kind is totally insufficient
ground for supposing that the Kentish dialect treated postconsonantal
and intervocalic _h_ differently.

Next we must consider the date given for the loss of _h_ in Mercian
and Northumbrian (p. 263 f.). I find some difficulty here in
following Prof. Morsbach's line of argument. In Northumbrian there
is, admittedly, no evidence at all for the preservation of _h_, while
cases of its omission are numerous in Bede's History (written in 731),
in addition to one or two instances in probably earlier authorities.
For Mercian[98] we are dependent on the Epinal, Erfurt and Corpus
glossaries, the archetype of which is placed before 700 by Prof.
Morsbach. In my _Studies_, p. 232, I came to the conclusion that
in this archetype the cases of retention and omission of _h_ were
probably about equal in number. Prof. Morsbach replies that there is
no necessity for such a conclusion, since all the extant glossaries
themselves date from times when _h_ was already lost. He himself
decides[99] against the loss of _h_ in the archetype for two reasons:
(1) because postconsonantal and intervocalic _h_ are treated alike in
the glossaries and the former was still retained in Kentish when the
archetype was written[100]; (2) because the assumption of such an early
date for the loss of _h_ would be incompatible with his own date for
the loss of _-u_. The first of these arguments, it will be seen, rests
upon the dating of the loss of postconsonantal _h_ in Kentish, on which
enough has been said above. The second depends upon a hypothesis which
we shall have to consider presently.

My reason for concluding that the loss of _h_ occurred in the archetype
was that in at least eight entries (probably several more) all three
glossaries agree in showing forms without _h_. It is to be remembered
that in these glossaries we are dealing not with independent documents
but with copies made, more or less mechanically, from one original.
This remark applies of course much more to Epinal and Erfurt than to
Corpus; for in the latter the materials have been rearranged, as well
as augmented from other sources, while incidentally the forms have been
modernised to a considerable extent. In Epinal such modernisation is
not unknown, but it is restricted within very narrow limits, as may be
seen from the use of _b_ and _f_[101]. Further, it is to be remarked
that we have no ground for assuming the language of the archetype
itself to have been consistent. The occurrence of numerous Dative
forms and of expressions containing more than one word (e.g. _per
anticipationem_--_þorch obst_) shows that the materials were derived
largely from glosses in books, just as in the Leiden glossary[102].
Many of these glosses may have been written a generation or more
earlier than the compilation of the archetype glossary. Whoever bears
these facts in mind and at the same time compares the evidence for
forms with and without _h_ with that for _f_ and _b_ will, I think,
be forced to the conclusion that the forms with _h_ do not represent
the pronunciation of the compiler of the archetype, but that they were
taken over by him from earlier sources.

Now we may take the evidence for the proposed date of the loss of
_-u_. After enumerating (p. 253 ff.) a list of cases which have been
suggested by various scholars Prof. Morsbach comes to the conclusion
that the only certain example of a form in which _-u_ is retained[103]
is the word _flodu_ in the inscription on the Franks casket. As the
whole theory largely depends on the value attached to this form we must
consider it carefully. In my _Studies_, p. 156, I suggested that it
should be regarded as an archaism and at the same time pointed out that
_-u_ is lost in another word (_unneg_) in the same inscription. Prof.
Morsbach rejects this explanation of _unneg_, which he connects,
rightly, I think now, with O. Sax. _nah_. But this form can come
perfectly well from *_nāh(w)u_ (earlier *_nēhwō_), if not from *_nāhwa_
(cf. Goth. _nehwa_, _nehw_). That Ang.-Sax. _neah_, _neh_ has lost
an _u_-sound is, I contend, shown not only by the Gothic forms, but
also by _neolaecan_ and _neowest_ (cf. Lind, _genehwaþ_, etc.). Prof.
Morsbach rejects my explanation of these forms also and adopts that
of Prof. Bülbring, as stated above. But the latter is untenable; for
if _ē_ (from _ā_) had come into existence before the operation of
breaking, we should never find forms with _ae_, which as a matter
of fact are fairly common in the earliest texts of all dialects. In
particular we may note that the three extant coins of the Mercian king
Aethelred (675-704) all have _-ræd_. Hence the change _ǣ_ > _ē_ can
hardly have taken place much before 650.

Apart from _unneg_[104], there are three forms on the recently
discovered right side of the casket which may show loss of _-u_. Prof.
Napier (_An English Miscellany_, p. 375 f.) is inclined to regard the
forms _sær_ and _dœn_ (?), if not also _hos_, as Nom. sg. fem. But the
interpretation of this part of the inscription is still uncertain in
many details.

I confess that since the discovery of the new side I am less inclined
to regard the form _flodu_ as an archaism than as a mere blunder. Even
in the more intelligible parts of the inscription we find a number of
forms which present serious difficulty: _Romwalus_, _Reumwalus_[105],
_gasric_, _Giuþeasu_. The last of these still seems to me to present
the best illustration of _flodu_. If the one is due to the loss of
some letters--e.g. _su_ for _su(mæ)_--the same may be the case with
the other[106]. At all events an inscription which presents so many
difficulties cannot be regarded as a safe authority on which to base a
scheme for the chronology of sound-changes.

The only other instance of _-u_ on which Prof. Morsbach lays any
weight is the form _aetgaru_ in the Erfurt glossary. He speaks of
it as 'nicht unwahrscheinlich' (p. 257), though 'fraglich' (p. 264).
Many scholars cite it as an example of_-u_ without reserve. Now in
order to form a just estimate of the value of any form which occurs
in the glossaries it is obviously necessary to take it in connection
with the forms which the other texts show in the same entry. The entry
in question (_framea_--_aetgaru_) occurs in the Epinal and Corpus
glossaries, as well as in that of Erfurt, though the two former have
_aetgaeru_ (_ætgaeru_) for _aetgaru_. There can be no doubt that the
relationship between the three glossaries is as follows:

x (Arch. I)
|
|--------------------|
| |
y (Arch. II) |
| |
|--------------| |
| | |
Epinal Erfurt Corpus

though we do not know exactly how many intermediate stages lie between
the extant texts and the original archetype. It will be seen that the
question at issue is whether the Erfurt glossary or the other two have
kept the original form--for if the archetype had contained both forms
we may assume that some trace of the double entry would have been
preserved (as in other cases). Now the Erfurt glossary is the latest of
the three, it is the work of a foreign scribe and it is very carelessly
copied. Moreover, no letter or combination of letters has suffered more
than _ae_. Most usually this combination has been reduced to _e_; but
the loss of _e_ is not infrequent, e.g. _smal_, _hrad_, _nacthegelae_.
In view of these facts it is unintelligible to me how anyone can
uphold the evidence of the Erfurt glossary against the other two. But
in this case it is used to prove the existence of an archaic form for
which none of the glossaries elsewhere present a parallel. Lastly, we
may remark that though it is frequently assumed that the word _gar_
was an _u_-stem (*_gaizu-_) no evidence worth consideration has ever
been adduced to prove it[107]. On all grounds therefore we are brought
to the conclusion that the evidence for the preservation of _-u_ in
_aetgaru_ is not merely open to question but entirely worthless.

We must now notice certain early documents in which _-u_ is clearly
lost. Prof. Morsbach mentions the form _felt_ in the earliest East
Saxon charter (Birch, 81), which dates from 692-3. Here then _-u_ was
lost before the date in question[108]. But we can get back further
than this, for the place mentioned is called _Vuidmundes felt_. Some
considerable time must have elapsed after the loss of _-u_ before a
noun, even a proper name, could change its inflection and adopt the
endings of _a_-stems.

Next let us take the Northumbrian evidence. The form _-gar_ on the
Bewcastle column can prove nothing. In the same inscription however we
may find an example in _Cyniburug_; for in view of _hnutu_ etc. it is
probable that consonantal stems used what was originally the Accus.
sg. form also for the Nom. sg. (as in Old Norse). I cannot see any
probability in the suggestion that this monument may date from some
considerable time after 670[109], if it has been rightly interpreted.

More important is the fact that no example of _-u_ after a long
syllable is preserved in Bede's Ecclesiastical History. It is to
be observed that Bede seems to have scrupulously followed the
orthographical peculiarities of the documents which he used. Thus
in Papal letters dating from the first half of the seventh century
we find such forms as _Adilbercto_, _Audubaldi_ which are not used
elsewhere in the work[110]. Now in the record of the proceedings at
the Council of Hertford in 673, which is quoted in IV 5, we find the
forms _Herutford_, _Vilfrid_, _Vynfrid_, _Hrofaescaestir_; and in the
similar record for the Council of Hatfield in 680, quoted in IV 17,
we find the form _Haethfelth_. If_-u_ had not been lost by this time
the forms used must have been _-fordu_ or _-fordus_, _Vilfridu(s)_,
etc., and it is most unlikely, in view of Bede's practice elsewhere,
that he would have altered them. As a matter of fact the latter of
these documents contains two forms--_Hymbronensium_ (or _Humbr-_) and
_Estranglorum_--which are not used elsewhere by Bede. Again, the same
author almost always writes the name of the Northumbrian king Ecgfrith
(r. 671-685) as _Ecgfrid_ (in the Nom.). That this represents the
contemporary orthography is shown by a coin of that king which bears
the legend _Ecgfrid rex_.

But further, there is a whole series of names, much used in
Northumbria, which have as their second element _-haeþ_ from earlier
_-haþu_ (e.g. _Eadhaed_). At the time when _-u_ was lost here the
change _a_ > _æ_ was clearly still operative. Will anyone suggest that
this was the case after the middle of the seventh century? Again, it
can hardly be doubted that the form _Osuiu_, if not also _Osuald_,
represents the pronunciation[111] current in the time of that king. In
Bede's History, III 29, we have extracts from a Papal letter addressed
to _Osuiu_ (v. l. _Osuio_) _regi Saxonum_. The form _os-_ can scarcely
have become current in compounds before _-u_ was lost in the Nom.,
Accus. sg.

It is surely unnecessary to enter into further details. We have seen
that practically the whole evidence for the proposed chronology
consists of two forms, _Velhisci_ and _flodu_, one of which is
incapable of proving what it is meant to prove, while the other is of
exceedingly doubtful value; and on the other hand that this chronology
has opposed to it a large number of forms in the glossaries, in
charters and in early Northumbrian authorities of various kinds. Now
let us consider the various sound-changes in relation to one another.

It is admitted, and necessarily so, that the loss of _-u_ took place
before the loss of _h_. For the sake of convenience we may apply the
terms 'Period I' to times anterior to the loss of _-u_ and 'Period
II' to the interval between the two changes. From neither of these
periods have we any texts surviving, unless we are to reckon the
inscription on the Franks casket to Period I. Our earliest charters,
and apparently also the lost archetype of the glossaries, were composed
at a later time ('Period III') when _h_ was no longer pronounced,
though doubtless often written. But before the date of the earliest
extant glossary (Epinal) a further change or changes had taken place
which brought about the confusion of original _ƀ_ and _f_. It is clear
from a comparison of the glossaries that this confusion was later than
the loss of _h_ and also that it was almost, if not entirely, unknown
to the archetype. So also in Northumbrian. In Bede's History we have
no instance of _h_ preserved in an English word, whereas examples of
its omission are numerous. On the other hand it is clear that Bede
usually retained the distinction between _b_ (i.e. _ƀ_) and _f_,
although the latter has already largely encroached on the former in
the Moore MS.[112] We may therefore constitute two subdivisions of the
period subsequent to the loss of _h_, namely 'Period III' prior to the
confusion of _ƀ_ and _f_ and 'Period IV' subsequent to this confusion.
Now we can see clearly where to date the Franks casket, for it shows
confusion of _ƀ_ and _f_ in _wylif_--according to Prof. Morsbach also
in _sefu_. It belongs therefore not to Period I but to Period IV.

Any attempt to fix an absolute chronology is of course rendered
difficult by the absence of very early texts. We may probably assume
that Period IV begins more or less about 700. The Kentish charter
of 679 falls in Period III. Now when _-u_ was lost, _h_ (whether
intervocalic or postconsonantal) must have been a spirant--a fact which
Prof. Morsbach seems to have entirely ignored. It is quite incredible
that only a few years should elapse between that stage and the total
loss of intervocalic _h_ seen in the charter. The corresponding period
in Germany lasted centuries, and I cannot conceive how the transition
can have been accomplished anywhere in less than half a century. I
conclude therefore that the dates which I gave in my Studies were
approximately correct. If there was an error it was in putting some
of the changes slightly too late. I have little hesitation now in
expressing my opinion that the loss of _-u_ took place not later than
the second or third decade of the seventh century.

FOOTNOTES:

[95] _Transactions of the Cambridge Philological Society_, Vol. IV,
Part II. The page-references are to the figures in the outer corners.

[96] _Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Göttingen_, 1906, pp. 251-277.

[97] Prof. Morsbach's paper raises a number of questions besides those
mentioned above. But I am obliged here to confine my attention to those
which have a bearing on the dating of Beowulf.

[98] The application of this term to the Epinal and Erfurt glossaries
(or the archetype) seems to me to be open to grave objection.

[99] If I have interpreted his meaning correctly. But I admit that I
have had great difficulty in understanding the argument in paragraph 5
of p. 263 (especially the "mit _-h-_" of line 12).

[100] Prof. Morsbach seems to regard Kentish as exceptional in its
treatment of intervocalic _h_, rather than in that of postconsonantal
_h_. I am not quite clear as to his reason for this.

[101] Cf. _Studies in Old English_, p. 240.

[102] This text represents a more primitive type of glossary than the
others and, though it is not an ancestor of theirs, it has without
doubt used a considerable number of the same glosses (especially in
Sweet's § XLV) which were incorporated in their archetype.

[103] The form _scanomodu_ on the solidus need not be taken into
account. It is improbable that coins of this type were minted after the
sixth century.

[104] Prof. Morsbach further argues that even if my interpretation of
_unneg_ was correct it would prove nothing, since _-u_ was probably
lost after a long 'nebentonig' syllable earlier than after a long
'haupttonig' syllable. But neither the _-gar_ of the Bewcastle
inscription (cf. p. 70) nor the _felt_ of the East Saxon charter can be
admitted as evidence for this hypothesis.

[105] In spite of what is said by Prof. Morsbach (p. 264 f.) these
forms are scarcely intelligible unless _h_ was already lost.

[106] E.g. perhaps _flod u(p)ahof_.

[107] The place-name _Wihtgarabyrg_ in the Saxon Chronicle, ann. 530
(B, C), 544 (A, B, C) is more probably to be regarded as a corruption
of _Wihtwara-_ through the influence of the personal name _Wihtgar_.

[108] Prof. Morsbach's explanation is that _felt_ here is a long
nebentonig syllable. But we have no evidence that the influence of
'sentence-accent' made itself felt in this way.

[109] Prof. Morsbach would assign the monument to the time of Aldfrith,
who reigned 685-705 (not 725, a printer's error in Vietor's book).

[110] In his own narrative of course he often uses forms which must
have been antiquated in his time (e.g. _Vurtigerno_, _Aeduini_,
_Aeodbaldo_) and also foreign forms in the names of persons of
Continental origin (e.g. _Agilberctus_). But it may safely be assumed
that all these cases are derived from earlier documents.

[111] I.e. Oswiu (Oswald); cf. _Baduuini_, i.e. Baduwini. I have not
taken account of the possibility that _-uiu_ originally contained
an _-h-_. If that could be proved the present discussion would be
practically superfluous.

[112] Cf. my Studies, p. 247. It will be seen that the number of cases
in which M, B and C agree in _f_ (for _ƀ_) is very small.

NOTE III. LITERARY INFLUENCE IN BEOWULF.

I am not aware that any serious argument has been brought forward
to show that Beowulf was a literary production. It is customary
indeed, especially among English scholars, to use the word 'write'
with reference to its composition; but this is frequently due to
mere carelessness. Nevertheless there is undoubtedly a widespread
reluctance to admit that the poem came into existence without the
use of writing--partly on account of its length and partly because
its technique is of rather an advanced order. The first of these
difficulties has now been definitely settled by the Servian poems, as
we shall see in the next Note. Here we need concern ourselves only with
the second.

The most definite pronouncement on this subject known to me is
contained in Prof. Ker's book, _The Dark Ages_, p. 250. "_Beowulf_
and _Waldere_," he says, "are the work of educated men, and they were
intended, no doubt, as books to read. They are not, like the _Elder
Edda_, a collection of traditional oral poems." Here we have three
distinct statements. That Beowulf and Waldhere are not a collection of
poems, like the Edda, is manifest. Whether they are traditional oral
poems at all is a different question, the answer to which depends in
the first place on our attitude to Prof. Ker's second statement--that
they were intended as books to read. But this statement surely requires
some evidence. The only argument brought forward is that "the _Beowulf_
MS ... is intended as a book to be read, and is got up with some care.
From the look of it, one places it naturally in the library of a great
house or a monastic school; and the contents of it have the same sort
of association; they do not belong to the unlearned in their present
form." But, so far as the earlier part of this passage goes, the
argument applies only to the tenth century. No one will deny that the
earlier Anglo-Saxon poems were studied at that time; indeed they had
probably come to be regarded as, in a sense, classical. But have we
any right to assume that scholars of the seventh or eighth centuries
viewed these poems or their subjects in a similar light? If so how are
we to account for the total absence of references to such subjects in
the works of Bede? And what about Alcuin? _Quid Hinieldus cum Christo?_
Is it likely that Alcuin would have regarded these _pagani et perditi
reges_ as suitable subjects for the attention of scholars? The natural
presumption from his language is that he knew of them not from literary
works, but only from street-minstrels whom he looked upon with disgust.
Yet Bede and Alcuin can hardly have been ignorant of any important
literary activity during their times, and it would be unfair to regard
them merely as religious bigots. In view of their silence it seems
to me a precarious hypothesis even that the poems were committed to
writing much before the end of the eighth century.

There is no doubt of course that the writing of English was in common
use during the early part of the ninth century. But the paucity of
earlier evidence renders it probable that this was a recent innovation;
and the orthographical characteristics of eighth century documents
point to the same conclusion. Laws were written in English from the
beginning; but we may safely assume that this was done by professional
scribes, in all probability ecclesiastics. Otherwise there is little
definite evidence for the writing of the vernacular, except of course
in glosses. The more learned clergy clearly preferred to use Latin;
for the less learned Bede states (_Ep. ad Ecgb._, cap. 5) that he had
himself had to make translations even of the Creed and the Lord's
Prayer, for them to learn by heart. Where was a reading public to be
looked for in such a period[113]?

But we have yet to discuss the statement that "_Beowulf_ and _Waldere_
are the work of educated men." The question here is what is meant by
the word 'educated.' Nowadays the expression 'educated Chinese' is
used in more than one sense. Sometimes it is applied to those who have
received a good education according to the traditional standard of
that nation. Sometimes however, especially in newspaper language, it
is used only of those Chinese who have received a Western education.
We need not doubt that the poets of Beowulf and Waldhere were among
the best educated men of their day according to the traditional native
standard. If they were court minstrels--a question we shall have to
discuss in the next chapter--they could hardly be otherwise. But this
is not what Prof. Ker means. The education which he has in view is of
foreign (Roman) type, as may be seen by the latter part of the second
of the quotations given above. Again (p. 252) he says: "The English
epic is possibly due to Virgil and Statius; possibly to Juvencus
and other Christian poets, to the authors studied by Aldhelm and
Bede." If so[114], is it not remarkable that no obvious trace of such
influence can be pointed out? It must not be assumed that the poets
responsible for the composition or preservation of Beowulf would have
any inclination to disguise their knowledge of foreign poetry. The use
which they have made of incidents derived from the Bible is decisive
evidence to the contrary, although their knowledge of this subject
seems to have been of a most elementary description. In Widsith we
actually have at least one reference to a classical character (v. 15
ff.). But Beowulf is entirely free from anything of the kind.

Prof. Brandl[115] has likewise been attracted by the idea that the
growth of Anglo-Saxon epic poetry may have been due to Latin models.
As a probable source of such influence he has fixed upon the Aeneid
and even indicated a number of passages in this poem which may have
suggested certain scenes and incidents in Beowulf. Thus he notes that
both poems begin with the story of a wanderer (Scyld, Aeneas) who came
over the sea (_feasceaft_, _primus et profugus_) and founded a great
dynasty or empire. Then he suggests a connection between the song of
Hrothgar's minstrel on the Creation (Beow. 90 ff.) and a passage (Aen.
I 742 ff.) which describes how Dido's minstrel Iopas sang of the origin
of men and beasts, among other cosmological subjects. Further, he
compares the whole of the scene which contains the latter passage with
the account of Beowulf's reception at Heorot, noting the various stages
in the arrival of the two heroes from their disembarkation to the feast
with which they are welcomed in the palaces. Incidentally, he remarks
that at the feast Wealhtheow hands the cup to Hrothgar and then to the
visitors (Beow. 615 ff.), while Dido pays the same honour to Bitias
(Aen. I 738). Lastly, he compares the racing after Grendel's overthrow
(Beow. 864 ff.) with the rowing contest in memory of Anchises (Aen. V
104 ff.).

I confess that, coming as they do towards the close of an admirable
discussion of the subject, which no attentive student of Beowulf
can fail to appreciate, the comparisons suggested by Prof. Brandl
strike me as surprising beyond measure. The resemblances between the
athletic contests, so far as they have any existence at all, are due to
practices which are worldwide. Is there any reason for supposing that
the act of courtesy ascribed to Wealhtheow was not in full accordance
with early Teutonic custom? Parallels may be found, easily enough, in
Old Norse literature. The arrival of the wanderer (Scyld, not Beowulf)
has nothing in common with that of Aeneas. The one is a baby and
probably alone; the other is the commander of a fleet. Then, as to
the resemblance between Beowulf's visit to Hrothgar and Aeneas' visit
to Dido, I can only say that I fail to detect its existence. Prof.
Brandl seems to lay most stress on this incident and points out certain
parallelisms in the language: _corripuere uiam qua semita monstrat_
(Aen. I 418) with _stig wisode gumum aetgaedere_ (Beow. 320 f.),
and _coram quem quaeritis adsum Troius Aeneas_ (Aen. I 595 f.) with
_Beowulf is min nama_ (Beow. 343). But are these not purely accidental
coincidences, such as one could find between almost any two narrative
poems? When Prof. Brandl speaks of Aeneas' "Verhandlung mit Dido zuerst
durch eine etikettegemässe Mittelsperson", I do not understand what is
meant. Certainly this description applies to the entry of Beowulf. But
Aeneas is present beforehand, shrouded in a cloud with which Venus has
covered him. In the midst of the scene the cloud is suddenly parted and
Aeneas disclosed to Dido's eyes. It seems to me that no meeting could
well be more different. There remains then only the fact that the two
minstrels treat a somewhat similar theme (though in Beowulf this does
not take place on the occasion of the hero's arrival). It is no doubt a
curious coincidence; but the introduction of such a subject in Beowulf
may be accounted for quite satisfactorily without the hypothesis of any
acquaintance with Virgil.

I cannot quit this subject without remarking how much more plausible
a case could be made out for deriving Beowulf from the Homeric poems,
especially the Odyssey. Here there are striking parallels both in
diction and terminology, as we shall see in a later chapter. We may
note especially the epithets applied to princes and the formulae with
which speeches are introduced. If we wish to find a real parallel to
the reception of Beowulf by Hrothgar, it is provided by the account of
Telemachos' visit to Menelaos. Similar parallels are to be obtained
for the minstrel's lays and many other incidents. Are we then to
suppose that Beowulf is based upon the Odyssey? That is a hypothesis
which I will gladly leave for others to work out. For my own part I
prefer the explanation that similar poetry is the outcome, or rather
the expression, of similar social conditions. But in Beowulf and
the Homeric poems, as against the Aeneid, we have additional common
elements in the fact that the interest is centred in the actual
characters--not in the destiny of their descendants--and in the
vividness and reality of the narratives, in spite of Grendel, Scylla
and the rest. The latter of these two common features seems to me to
indicate that both the Greek and English poets were depicting types
of life with which they were themselves familiar, whereas no one will
dispute that the Aeneid is a product of the library.

Half a century ago, when the study of Teutonic antiquity was still
young, there was a general eagerness to refer every institution and
belief to a native origin. To-day we see the inevitable reaction--a
hypercritical attitude towards every explanation of this character,
coupled with a readiness to accept theories of biblical or classical
influence on the slightest possible evidence. It is this intellectual
atmosphere which, naturally enough, has given birth to the chimaera of
a literary Beowulf--a creature which, if I am not mistaken, belongs to
the same genus as certain well-known theories in Northern mythology.

FOOTNOTES:

[113] The case of King Aldfrith shows that educated laymen were not
entirely unknown; but it is extremely unlikely that they were common.
In one charter (Birch, 99) Wihtred, king of Kent, is made to say:
_signum sanctae crucis pro ignorantia litterarum expressi_. This
document exists only in a late copy; but at all events it suggests that
the practice of making the cross, instead of signing, was due to a
widespread inability to write.

[114] I confess that I am strongly inclined to suspect that anyone
imbued with Latin learning would have lacked not only the inclination
but also the ability to compose such a poem as Beowulf. This however is
an opinion which could only be substantiated by a wider knowledge of
the history of poetry in various parts of the world than I can make any
claim to possess.

[115] _Grundriss d. germ. Philol._, II 1008.

CHAPTER V.

THE POETRY AND MINSTRELSY OF EARLY TIMES.

In the preceding chapters we have seen that the persons and events
celebrated in the heroic poems apparently all belonged to the
fourth, fifth or sixth centuries, and further that heroic poetry was
flourishing among the Goths during the same period. For the existence
of English, Scandinavian or German heroic poetry at this time we have
no absolutely conclusive evidence. But the materials from which our
poems are formed must largely be referred to the sixth century. This
may be seen most clearly in cases where the poems of two or more
nations not merely treat an identical theme but also agree in the
motif or in comparatively small details, as in the stories of Ingeld,
Waldhere and Svanhildr. A like age is probably to be attributed
to resemblances in language, such as those shown by the hortatory
addresses and the accounts of dragon-fights cited in the last chapter
(p. 60 f.). The fact that these resemblances sometimes occur in stories
relating to entirely different characters need not prevent us from
believing that they spring ultimately from a common origin.

It cannot of course be proved that the materials from which the heroic
poems are derived were themselves always in poetic (metrical) form. In
principle we must admit the possibility that they were transmitted from
one generation to another in a more or less stereotyped form of prose
narrative, such as we find later in the sagas of Iceland and Ireland.
But in point of fact we have no evidence whatever for the cultivation
of such traditional prose narratives among any of the early Teutonic
peoples, whereas there is good reason, as we shall see shortly, for
believing that narrative poetry was both ancient and widely cultivated.

In the first place we may note that English and German poetry down
to the ninth century shared a common system of metre and that the
Fornyrðislag, which is used in most of the Edda poems, differed but
little from this type, except of course that it was always arranged in
strophes. The application of this common metre to narrative purposes
can scarcely be regarded as a recent innovation, for English and
German poems frequently exhibit verses and half-verses of very similar
construction. Thus in the Hildebrandslied speeches are generally
introduced with the formula: _Hadubrant gimahalta, Hiltibrantes sunu_,
which is almost identical with a formula used in Beowulf: _Wiglaf
maðelode, Weohstanes sunu_. In the same German poem (v. 42) we find the
verse: _dat sagetun mi seolidante_ ('it has been told me by mariners'),
with which we may compare Beow. 377: _þonne saegdon þaet saeliðende_.
Note should also be taken of such phrases as (v. 55) _ibu dir din
ellen taoc_ ('if thy prowess is sufficient') and definitely poetical
expressions like (v. 43) _inan wic furnam_ ('war carried him off'),
as compared with Beow. 572 _ðonne his ellen deah_ and 1080 _wig ealle
fornam Finnes þegnas_. The number of such parallels might be greatly
increased if we were to take into account passages from religious
poems, especially the Old Saxon Heliand.

For a very much earlier period direct evidence is furnished by the
Roman historian Tacitus, who says (_Germ._ 2) that the Germani
possessed ancient poems or songs (_carmina_) even in his time and adds
expressly that they had no other means of preserving a historical
record[116]. That these poems were partly of what may be called a
'heroic' character is clear from another passage (_Ann._ II 88),
where it is stated that Arminius was still a subject of poetry among
barbarian nations (_canitur ... adhuc barbaras apud gentes_). In both
cases the reference is in all probability to the peoples of western
Germany rather than to the Goths.

On the whole then we need not doubt that the heroic poetry which we
find in England and Germany during the seventh and eighth centuries
had a long history behind it. Of course as to the form of the poetry
current in the first century we are entirely without information. Many
scholars hold that it was exclusively choric, not only in Tacitus' time
but for four or five centuries later. This is one of the questions
which we shall have to bear in mind in the course of our discussion.

* * * * *

The earliest historical reference to the cultivation of poetry, or
rather perhaps minstrelsy, in England occurs in Bede's account of the
poet Caedmon (_Hist. Eccl._ IV 24). In this story we are told that
it was the custom that, when the villagers met together to drink and
amuse themselves, everyone should take his turn in singing to the harp.
Caedmon, who had never been able to learn a song, used to leave the
festivities and make his way home as soon as he saw the harp coming
in his direction[117]. No information is given as to the character of
these songs. Probably they would as a rule be quite short--perhaps not
much longer than the hymn learned by Caedmon from the angel, which
contains only nine verses. It is not unlikely that they resembled
some of the metrical riddles more than any other form of Anglo-Saxon
poetry which has come down to us. Longer songs, of a narrative type,
may of course have been known. But it is a question whether such songs
would deal with heroic themes or with folk-tales. We may think of the
Scandinavian story of Svipdagr and Menglöð, which is preserved in a
number of different versions, ranging in date probably from the tenth
century to the seventeenth or later.

But we have already seen (p. 41 f.) that in the eighth century at
least the recitation of heroic poetry was by no means unknown. Indeed
we may infer from the language used by Alcuin (_ridentium turuam in
plateis_) that it enjoyed a good deal of favour with the general
public. Another of his letters[118] speaks to much the same effect.
We may gather from the use of the word _citharista_ that these
recitations also were accompanied by the harp. But the language of the
letters seems rather to suggest that the performers in such cases were
persons who made minstrelsy more or less of a profession. A century
earlier the existence of professional minstrels may be inferred from
the well-known story of Aldhelm[119]--that he used to take up his
position on a bridge, like a professional minstrel (_quasi artem
cantitandi professum_), and sing to the people in order to call them
back to church. We are not informed as to the character of the poems
he recited, but clearly they were of a type calculated to attract the
country people.

On the Continent we find very similar evidence. A passage in the Annals
of Quedlinburg, to which we have already alluded and which dates
perhaps ultimately from the tenth century, states that the country
people used to sing of Dietrich von Bern[120]. From a much earlier
period we have an interesting reference to a Frisian minstrel named
Bernlef, who became a disciple of St Liudger. He had been blind for
three years, when he was brought to the missionary, but "he was greatly
loved by his neighbours because of his geniality and his skill in
reciting to the accompaniment of the harp stories of the deeds of the
ancients and the wars of kings[121]." This incident appears to have
taken place before 785. That minstrelsy was definitely recognised as a
profession among the Frisians is shown by the last clause in the Lex
Frisonum, which fixes a special compensation for injury to the hand of
a harpist[122].

From all this we gather that in the eighth century there existed both
in England and Germany a class of minstrels whose practice it was to
play the harp and recite heroic poetry in the village-streets or on
bridges or wherever they could gather an audience. Now if we turn to
the poems themselves we find that they also contain references to
professional minstrels; but these appear to have been quite a different
class of persons from those with whom we have been dealing.

At the close of his elegy (v. 35 ff.) Deor gives the following account
of himself: "With regard to myself I will say that formerly I was the
bard (_scop_) of the Heodeningas and dear to my lord. My name is Deor.
For many years I have had a good office and a gracious master. But now
Heorrenda, a skilful poet, has received the domain which the king had
before given to me." There may be some difference of opinion as to the
precise meaning of the word _londryht_[123], but it is clear enough
that the poet had been a court-minstrel and that he had been supplanted
in the king's favour by a rival. In Beowulf also we find mention of a
person who seems to hold a similar position. The word _scop_ occurs
three times in this poem (vv. 90, 496, 1066)--always perhaps with
reference to the same man. In each case he is represented as singing or
reciting, and twice mention is made of the harp. On the last occasion,
when he recites the story of Finn and Hnaef at the banquet (cf. p. 2),
he is called _Hroðgares scop_, which seems to imply a sort of official
position.

The case of Widsith is somewhat different. The poet is a traveller
who prides himself on the large number of nations he has visited. He
states also that he served under various princes by whom he had been
handsomely rewarded. The poem ends with some reflections on the life
of wandering minstrels; but these verses may be a later addition, like
the introduction. At all events in v. 94 the poet speaks of his return
home, when he presented to his lord, Eadgils prince of the Myrgingas,
a valuable 'ring' which had been given him by Eormenric. This present
was a reward to Eadgils for his kindness in granting the poet the
land formerly held by his father. It would seem then that the poet is
represented as a man of good position. Whether we describe him as a
wandering minstrel or not, his occupation is clearly to be regarded as
court-minstrelsy and different therefore from that of Bernlef and the
harpists mentioned by Alcuin.

Apart from these personal notices there can be little doubt that
the heroic poems which have come down to us were of courtly and not
of popular origin. In the first place we may note their strongly
aristocratic tone. This may be appreciated from the fact that all the
women mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poems are of royal birth, while the
men are either princes or persons, apparently of noble or knightly
rank, attached to the retinues of princes. On the rare occasions when
persons of humbler rank are referred to, their names are not mentioned.
In Beowulf no name is given even to the court-minstrel. Again the poems
frequently refer to details of court etiquette, with which they seem
to be well acquainted. In the later German poems this feature must of
course be attributed to the conditions of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, when the poems were composed. But it is quite as marked even
in Beowulf. We may note especially the long and detailed account of
Beowulf's arrival at the Danish king's hall and the conversation which
the chamberlain holds with the king on the one hand and the visitor on
the other, before the latter is invited to enter. The chamberlain's
exact position is remarked, when he approaches the king and it is added
that "he knew the custom of knighthood[124]." Other members of the
court also have their position or duties described (vv. 500 f., 1161
f., 1165 f., 1794 ff.); but most of all the poet loves to picture the
movements of the king and queen (vv. 612 ff., 920 ff., 1162 f.).

Then again it should be observed that persons of royal rank are very
seldom spoken of with disrespect. The rare exceptions to this rule
probably all refer to persons of a remote past, Eormenric, Thrytho
and Heremod, and in the last two cases the reprobation is qualified
in a very marked way. Moreover the ground of censure is invariably
violence, cruelty or treachery. Of immoral or unseemly conduct we have
no mention. Indeed, except in the story of Weland--which stands by
itself in many ways, as we shall see later--such subjects seem to be
studiously avoided. More than this the Anglo-Saxon heroic poems are
entirely free from coarseness of language, such as we frequently find
in Saxo's history, and indeed from references of any kind which could
offend even the most fastidious taste. In general the same remarks are
true also of the German and Scandinavian heroic poems, though not in
the same degree. But the gnomic and theological poems of the Edda show
a wholly different tone, which at its worst (e.g. in Lokasenna) verges
on bestiality.

Lastly, we must not overlook the fact that in dignity and polish of
style the heroic poems far surpass any narrative works which the
English language has to offer for many centuries later. It has been
remarked that the composition of epic poetry requires a more or less
professional training, and in the case of such poems as Beowulf this
is doubtless true, not only on account of its length but also because
a very large vocabulary is needed for the constant interchange of
epithets which is one of its chief characteristics, while the allusions
with which it abounds point to the possession of much historical or
traditional lore[125]. At the time when it was produced the knowledge
and leisure necessary for such composition is scarcely likely to have
been found outside the entourages of kings.

On the other hand we have seen that minstrelsy of some kind was
cultivated even by peasants in Caedmon's time. We can hardly doubt
that such was the case to a higher degree in court circles. In Beow.
867 ff. we find a 'king's thegn' composing an account of the hero's
adventure immediately after its occurrence, and utilising apparently
by way of illustration the story of Sigemund. This person may be the
court minstrel; but the identity of the two is scarcely certain. In
a later passage (v. 2105 ff.), referring to the banquet after the
fight with Grendel, we hear of the king himself taking his turn with
the harp: "There we had poetry and music. The old Scylding (Hrothgar)
related stories of old time out of his great store of information.
Now the martial[126] hero would lay his hands on the joyous harp,
the instrument that makes good cheer; now he would recite a poem,
true but sad; now a story of marvel would be related in due course by
the magnanimous king. Now again, bowed with age as he was, the old
warrior would begin to lament that he had lost the martial vigour of
youth. His heart surged within him as he called to mind the manifold
experiences of a long life." It is held that the reference here is
to lyrical effusions rather than to anything in the nature of epic
narrative[127]; but I am inclined to doubt if we are justified in
totally excluding the latter. I would rather favour the view that the
cultivation of minstrelsy, including narrative as well as lyric poetry,
was a general accomplishment in royal households, and that the office
of court-minstrel was an honour given to that member of the court who
had attained the greatest proficiency in his art.

* * * * *

The statements of the poems as to the prevalence of court-minstrelsy
during the Heroic Age are fully confirmed by the testimony of
contemporary Roman writers. Perhaps the most important reference is
a passage in Priscus' account of his visit to Attila in the year
448. After describing the banquet given by the king to his guests he
proceeds as follows[128]: "When evening came on torches were lighted
and two barbarians stepped forth in front of Attila and recited poems
which they had composed, recounting his victories and his valiant deeds
in war. The banqueters fixed their eyes upon them, some being charmed
with the poems, while others were roused in spirit, as the recollection
of their wars came back to them. Others again burst into tears, because
their bodies were enfeebled by age and their martial ardour had
perforce to remain unsatisfied."

It will be noticed that this account bears a curious resemblance to the
passage from Beowulf which we have just quoted. Nothing is said as to
the language in which the poems were composed[129], but at all events
we need hardly doubt that in this as in other respects Attila was
following Gothic custom. For the duet we find an interesting parallel
in a passage of Widsith (v. 103 ff.): "Then Scilling and I began to
sing with clear voices before our victorious lord; loudly rang out
our music as we played the harp. Then it was openly confessed by many
brave-hearted and experienced men that they had never heard a better
song."

Evidence for the cultivation of minstrelsy at Teutonic courts in Gaul
is furnished by letters of Cassiodorus (_Variarum_ II, 40 f.) and
Sidonius Apollinaris (_Ep._ I, 2). The former document is an answer
from the Ostrogothic king Theodric to a request from Clovis, king of
the Franks (d. 511), who had asked him to send him a skilled minstrel.
Sidonius' letter is a very full account of Theodric II, king of the
Visigoths, who reigned from 453 to 466. He states that the king seldom
admitted jesters when he was dining, and that he took no pleasure in
music except when it encouraged manliness of spirit as well as pleased
the ear. In neither of these cases however is it certain that the
performers were Goths.

A clearer case of Teutonic minstrelsy, dating from the same period,
occurs in one of Sidonius' poems (_Carm._ 12[130]), in which the
author complains that he has to live among troops of longhaired and
greedy Burgundians, listening with polite attention, in spite of his
disgust, to their songs. More than a century later we hear of Frankish
court-minstrelsy in a neighbouring district. In a poem addressed to
Lupus, duke of Aquitaine, about the year 580, Venantius Fortunatus
(_Carm._ VII 8. 61) says: "Let the Roman sound your praise with his
lyre and the barbarian with his harp[131]"; and again: "Let us frame
verses for you, while barbarian poets compose their lays; thus the hero
will be greeted with like honour, though in diverse strains[132]."
In the introduction to his poems the same author complains of the
constant buzzing of the harp, as it resounds to the barbarian lays[133].

A curious case of royal minstrelsy is recorded by Procopius (_Vand._
II 6) in his account of the siege of Mount Pappua (A.D. 534). Gelimer,
king of the Vandals, wrote a letter to Faras, the Herulian chief who
commanded the besieging army, begging him to send him a harp, a loaf
and a sponge. The explanation given by the messenger was that the king
had composed a song upon his misfortunes and as he was a good minstrel
he was anxious to accompany it with a mournful tune on the harp as he
bewailed his fate[134]. We are again reminded of Hrothgar, but perhaps
still more of Hrethel's dirge over his son (Beow. 2460 f.).

These examples are sufficient to show that minstrelsy was widely
cultivated in the courts of the Teutonic princes who had established
themselves in Roman territory. Taken together with the references
in Anglo-Saxon poetry, which deals of course with the more northern
peoples, they leave no doubt that the prevalence of court-minstrelsy
was one of the characteristics of the Heroic Age. For the existence of
professional minstrels the Roman evidence is not so clear, though we
may regard in this light the two 'barbarians' mentioned by Priscus (p.
84). On the whole the impression which we gain from our authorities
is that the cultivation of the art was more or less general as in the
north.

But it must certainly not be assumed that the poems of the period were
always of an ephemeral character. Jordanes (cap. 5), in a passage to
which we have already referred, says that the Goths "used to sing
to the strains of the harp ancient poetry dealing with the deeds of
their ancestors, Eterparmara, Hanala, Fridigernus, Vidigoia and others
who are very famous in this nation[135]." Again, when he mentions
the migration of the Goths to the Black Sea (cap. 4), he refers
to "their ancient poems," where this event is commonly related in
almost historical style[136]. From such expressions we must conclude
that Jordanes knew, directly or indirectly, of Gothic poems which he
believed to have been in existence for a considerable time.

Jordanes' language may be compared with Einhard's reference to the
'barbarous and very ancient poems' collected by Charlemagne (cf. p.
62). But in reality there appears to be an essential difference between
the minstrelsy of the Heroic Age and that of Charlemagne's time. In the
latter period we hear only of 'very ancient poems' or of poems dealing
with 'the deeds of the ancients,' as in the story of Bernlef. The two
expressions may really be more or less equivalent, for there is nothing
to show that Bernlef was an original composer. For the existence in
his time of court-minstrelsy, or indeed of any poetry dealing with
contemporary persons and events, we have no evidence which can be
called satisfactory[137].

In the Heroic Age on the other hand we have references not only to
'ancient poems' but also to original compositions, dealing with the
praise or fortunes of living men. The exploits of Attila, one of the
leading figures of that age, were sung in his own presence, as we know
from an eye-witness. We need scarcely doubt therefore that Beowulf
truly reflects the spirit of the times when it makes one of the Danish
king's thegns compose a poem on the hero's exploit immediately after
the event. It is to such compositions that heroic poetry--indeed in a
sense we may say the Heroic Age itself--owes its origin.

The beginning of the process may be seen from a few passages in
Widsith. At the end of the poem we are told that "he who wins praise
(_lof_) shall have his glory (_dom_) established on high beneath the
sky." The meaning of the first expression is explained by another
passage (v. 70 ff.): "I have been in Italy with Alboin. No human being,
as far as my knowledge goes, had a readier hand than had Audoin's
son for the winning of praise, nor a heart more ungrudging in the
distribution of rings and shining bracelets." We may compare also what
the poet says of his patroness, the princess Ealhhild (v. 99 ff.):
"Her praise spread through many lands, when I set myself to declare
in song where under heaven it was that I knew of a gold-adorned queen
who lavished presents in the noblest fashion." The chief object which
the characters of the Heroic Age set before themselves is to 'win
glory'--to have their fame celebrated for all time. Thus in Beow. 1387
ff. the hero says: "Let him, who can, win for himself glory before he
dies; that is the best thing which can come to a knight in after times,
when he is no more." Such glory may be won by brave deeds, as when
Beowulf says to Hrothgar before his second adventure (_ib._ 1490 f.):
"I will win for myself glory with Hrunting (a sword), or death shall
take me," or again when the queen says to Beowulf (_ib._ 1221 ff.):
"Thou hast brought it about that men shall esteem thee far and near
and for all eternity, wheresoever the sea encircleth its wind-swept
barriers." But the same object can be attained by generosity, which
will ensure one's praise being sounded from court to court.

Now perhaps we are in a better position to understand why the Heroic
Age ends when it does. The latest person mentioned in the heroic poems
is Alboin who died about 572. The last Roman author who mentions
Teutonic court-minstrelsy is Venantius Fortunatus, who wrote apparently
about ten years later. Is there a connection between these two facts?
It should be remembered that we have felt some hesitation in including
Alboin among the characters of the Heroic Age, for though his praises
were sung among the Saxons and Bavarians, as well as in England, he
does not figure in any widely known story. We may reasonably expect
that such stories would as a rule--not necessarily--require a certain
time in which to be elaborated. Is it possible that in Alboin's time
the conditions favourable to such elaboration were no longer in
existence--that court-minstrelsy was dying out or had lost its creative
power?

It will perhaps be urged that the absence of reference to
court-minstrelsy after Venantius' time may be due to mere accident.
But a short consideration of the political position will show that
there is good reason for thinking otherwise. During the period which
had elapsed since the time of Priscus and Sidonius--we may say roughly
about a century and a quarter--the Teutonic world had undergone great
changes. Many kingdoms had disappeared, among them those of the
Huns, Rugii, Heruli, Alamanni, Thuringians, Burgundians, Vandals and
Ostrogoths, and probably also the Warni and Gepidae. Of the nations
which survived the Visigoths and Langobardi, and to a large extent
the Franks also, were settled among alien peoples and thus exposed to
denationalising influences. This is partly true also of the Bavarians,
and they moreover had become subject to the Franks before the middle
of the sixth century. Probably the only other Teutonic kingdoms which
remained on the Continent were those of the Frisians and the Danes, for
there is no evidence that the Old Saxons were under kingly government
at this time[138]. Moreover the Danes were almost cut off from the
western peoples by the irruption of the Slavs who now occupied the
greater part of ancient Germany. Hence we may conclude that even if
court-minstrelsy survived in a few places the poems had now no longer
any chance of obtaining a wide international circulation.

The change of faith is of course another consideration which must be
taken into account. One of its effects was to cut off the Christian
kingdoms from those of the Frisians and Danes. Probably also it had an
adverse influence on the cultivation of court-minstrelsy, for there can
be little doubt that this was originally permeated by heathen ideas.
At all events we find in later times surprisingly few traces of heroic
poetry in the territories of the Franks, Visigoths and Langobardi.

Of the purely Teutonic kingdoms, excluding Denmark, that of the
Frisians was the last to retain both its independence and its religion.
It can hardly be due to accident therefore that some of the most
important of the heroic poems, such as Kûdrûn (cf. p. 34) and probably
also the Norse version of the story of Sigurðr (cf. p. 59), appear to
be derived from Frisian sources, though this region was not their
original home. Further, we have noticed that in Frisian law a special
compensation was fixed for injury done to the hand of a harpist. Still
more significant is the fact that in the passage quoted above (p.
80) from the Vita Liudgeri, describing Bernlef's skill in reciting
heroic poetry, one text adds the words _more gentis suae_. It would
seem then that minstrelsy of this type was regarded as a distinctive
characteristic of the Frisians and that heroic poetry retained its hold
upon them at a time when it was little known elsewhere.

In England the conditions appear to have been quite different from
those with which we have been dealing, for at the end of the sixth
century this country probably contained more Teutonic kingdoms than
did the whole of western and central Europe. We have seen reason for
believing that Beowulf was composed within about half a century of
Venantius' time and that the other heroic poems may date from the same
period. From the evidence which we have discussed above we should
naturally conclude that court-minstrelsy lasted somewhat longer in
England than elsewhere, although it dealt entirely with stories derived
from abroad. It is true that there is no external evidence for such
minstrelsy; but that is fully explained by the fact that we have
practically no literature of any kind before the last decades of the
seventh century. Most probably its extinction was due to that wave of
religious fervour which was started by the Kentish king Erconberht
and which in the course of the following half century seems to have
succeeded in enforcing conformity to the new faith throughout the whole
country.

* * * * *

It will be convenient now to consider briefly the court-poetry of the
Viking Age. The history of heroic poetry in the North unfortunately
cannot be traced in its entire course. We have seen that there is a
long gap, extending over some two centuries and a half, in Danish
tradition, and also that the poems which have come down to us are
probably all of Norse (Norwegian-Icelandic) origin. Yet the social
conditions of the Viking Age were very different from those which
prevailed on the Continent during the same period and unquestionably
nearer than the latter to those of the Heroic Age. It is not
unreasonable therefore to expect that the court-poetry of the Viking
Age may throw light on the earlier period.

We saw in an earlier chapter (p. 15 f.) that, apart from the Edda, Old
Norse literature is rich in narrative poems of the ninth and tenth
centuries. These are usually the work of known authors and deal for the
most part with contemporary persons and events, though they contain
frequent references to characters of the Heroic Age, as well as to the
ancestors of reigning princes. Many of the authors, such as Thióðolfr
of Hvín, Thórbiörn Hornklofi and Goððormr Sindri, were what we may
call court-minstrels--or rather court-poets, for the harp seems not
to have been used by such persons, at least in the latter part of the
Viking Age. But they can scarcely be regarded as professionals in any
strict sense of the term. As a rule they appear to have been men of
good family. Thióðolfr was a familiar friend of Harold the Fair-haired,
who entrusted him with the education of one of his sons. Goððormr
Sindri, who composed poems for the same king, refused to receive any
reward and had sufficient influence with Harold to insist on his being
reconciled with his son Halfdan Svarti. Another poet of the same
period, Einarr[139], commonly called Torf-Einarr, was earl of Orkney
and practically an independent prince. Eyvindr Skaldaspillir, who was
attached to the service of Haakon I and Haakon, earl of Lade, was
himself a descendant of Harold the Fair-haired.

It has been mentioned that from the middle of the tenth century onwards
most of the poems quoted in the sagas are of Icelandic authorship.
A considerable number of them may be regarded as court-poems, since
they were composed in honour of princes whom the authors were visiting
at the time. As an example we may take a verse quoted by Gunnlaugs
Saga Ormstungu (cap. 7) from the poem composed by the hero, when he
visited London in 1001: "The whole nation reveres England's generous
ruler as a god; all ranks, warrior prince and people alike, bow
down to Aethelred." Such poems were often handsomely rewarded.
Aethelred presented Gunnlaugr with a scarlet cloak, lined with fur and
embroidered with lace, while Sigtryggr, king of Dublin, gave him a
fur-lined cloak, a lace-embroidered tunic and a gold ring which weighed
a mark. It happened very frequently that men like Gunnlaugr would
enter a king's retinue and remain with him for months and even years.
But they would seldom consent to recognise any lordship permanently,
since as a rule they had lands of their own in Iceland, to which they
eventually returned.

It is hardly probable that any class of persons exactly corresponding
to this existed in the Heroic Age itself, for with the somewhat
doubtful exception of the Old Saxons we have no evidence for
independent commonwealths during that period. In Widsith, it is true,
we have the case of a minstrel who claims to have wandered far and
wide and to have visited many princes by whom, like Gunnlaugr, he
was handsomely rewarded. But Widsith had a lord at home to whom he
subsequently returned. Indeed the introduction, if we may use it as an
authority, seems to make him set out at first on a definite commission
from that prince. The permanent lordless state was probably altogether
foreign to the conditions of the Heroic Age. The lordless man in the
poems is either one who has lost his lord, as in the Wanderer, or one
who has been dismissed from his lord's service, like Deor. Until he
finds another lord he has neither home nor security, and his condition
is pitiable in the extreme.

But it is by no means so clear how the court-minstrels of the Heroic
Age differed from the Norwegian poets of the Viking Age. In Kûdrûn the
minstrel Hôrant (Heorrenda) seems to hold a position quite comparable
with that of Thióðolfr or Goððormr Sindri; indeed he is even described
as a relative (_mâc_) of the king[140]. Again, we may take the case of
Starkaðr. He is commonly regarded as the type of a roving poet-warrior
of the Viking Age. But in reality he seems to belong to the Heroic Age;
for however late the poems attributed to him may be in their final
form, they had their counterparts in England probably as early as the
sixth century. There is no conclusive evidence for denying either that
he was the foster-father of Ingialdr (Ingeld) or that he entered the
service of a number of different kings.

The story of Starkaðr is bound up with the history of heroic poetry in
the Viking Age--a difficult problem, to which we shall have to refer
again shortly. We may note here however that the poems of Thióðolfr
and Hornklofi must have been preserved for some three centuries by
oral tradition before they were committed to writing. There seems to
be no reason therefore for denying in principle the possibility that
poems may have survived even from the Heroic Age. It is to be observed
that court-poets were expected to be able to recite old poems, as well
as works of their own composition. Thus on the morning of the battle
of Stiklestad (A.D. 1030) St Olaf ordered the Icelander Thórmóðr
Kolbrúnarskald to recite the old Biarkamál. This story is interesting
as it shows that the love of the heroic poems was strong enough to
assert itself in an hour of supreme danger and under a most religious
king.

* * * * *

In the course of this chapter we have seen that one of the
characteristics of the Heroic Age was the prevalence of
court-minstrelsy of a certain type, namely the recitation of metrical
speeches accompanied by the harp. The cultivation of such minstrelsy
seems to have been more or less general, and it is certain that princes
had their praises and exploits celebrated in poems of this kind during
their lifetime and even in their presence. But with the close of the
Heroic Age the evidence for minstrelsy of this type apparently ceases
altogether. In the eighth century we hear only of wandering minstrels
who are invited into houses or perform in the streets. The minstrelsy
of this period seems not to have been creative. At all events it deals
only with characters belonging to former times, Ingeld or Alboin or
ancient kings in general. Between these two periods we have to set the
composition of the English heroic poems and probably also those German
poems which were regarded as ancient in Charlemagne's time. Lastly,
we find in Germany a series of poems dating from the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries in which the old stories are treated again but in
a new form.

It appears then that the history of heroic poetry falls naturally
into four stages. To Stage I belong the court-poems of the Heroic Age
itself; to Stage II the epic and narrative poems based on these; to
Stage III the popular poetry of the eighth and following centuries;
to Stage IV the German poems of the twelfth and following centuries,
composed at a time when heroic subjects had again come into favour with
the higher classes.

To Stage I we may assign not only laudatory poems dealing with the
victories and valour of living princes, but also such compositions
as Gelimer's dirge and choric songs like the funeral chant over
Attila[141]. From this stage probably nothing has come down to
us--though it would be difficult to point out any essential difference
between Gelimer's dirge and the Elegy of Deor. We can form an idea
however of these earliest poems from the poetry of the Viking Age,
which seems to have been composed under very similar conditions. As
instances we may cite Gunnlaugr's poem on Aethelred II (cf. p. 91 f.)
and Eyvindr's poem on the death of Haakon I, which we shall have to
discuss later.

Stage II is represented by the Anglo-Saxon poems, which are clearly
products of court-life, as we have seen (p. 81 ff.). From its general
resemblance to these it seems probable that the Hildebrandslied belongs
to the same class. Some writers draw a distinction between Beowulf and
Waldhere on the one hand and Finn and the Hildebrandslied on the other,
classifying the former as epics and the latter as lays (Lieder). It
may be granted that the style of the two latter poems appears to be
more rapid and less diffuse than that of the others. Still I should
prefer to speak of short and long epics, or rather perhaps of short
and long narrative poems. Very probably the earliest narrative poems
were comparatively short. It may be that poems on the scale of Beowulf
were first composed in England--though this can hardly be proved.
But the difference between the two classes seems to me to be one of
degree and not of kind. At all events no one will suggest that the
Hildebrandslied is even approximately contemporaneous with the events
which it professes to describe. One would expect it to be at least as
remote from them as is the case with Beowulf.

Stage III is directly represented only by certain ballads such as the
Seyfridslied, which in their present form date from a time considerably
later than the poems belonging to Stage IV. Much indirect evidence
however can be obtained from various sources of earlier date, e.g. from
Thiðreks Saga af Bern, which is largely based on the popular heroic
poetry of northern Germany, and from parts of Saxo's History which seem
to be derived from Danish ballads. So far as we can judge from our
authorities the popular poems seem to have differed in many ways from
those which we have been discussing. They tended to simplify complex
stories by the loss of minor characters and to amalgamate stories
which were originally quite unconnected. Again, they appear to have
had a preference for biographical sketches, whereas the court poems
are usually occupied with accounts of adventures which lasted only a
few days. We may add also the absence of any detailed acquaintance
with court-life and a general approximation to the characteristics of
folk-tales, e.g. in the introduction of nameless characters and persons
of humble station.

It must be remembered of course that our authorities knew the popular
poems only as they existed in the twelfth century[142]. We cannot
say with any confidence that Bernlef's poems possessed the same
characteristics. There is nothing to show that the Hildebrandslied was
written down before his time, and it may be to persons of his type
that we owe its preservation. The Anglo-Saxon poems may not have been
committed to writing till a still later period. All that we can say is
that they show no obvious signs of popular corruption and that their
diction is much more archaic than that of poems which were composed
in the eighth century. We have seen that in Iceland poems of a rather
elaborate type could be preserved by oral tradition for over three
centuries. This however was in a community which was largely given up
to the cultivation of poetry. A knowledge of the old poems would be a
necessary part of the training of those who hoped to win rewards for
their art in foreign courts. Such favourable conditions can hardly have
existed either in England or Germany. The process of disintegration
which the poems underwent in the latter country points to their being
preserved only by village minstrels, who as time went on became less
and less expert in their profession.

Stage IV is represented by the Middle High German epic poems, which
both in form and spirit show all the characteristics of the age in
which they were composed. In England this stage was never reached.
There may have been a revival of interest in heroic poetry during the
ninth and tenth centuries, but we have no evidence for the composition
of new poems on these subjects.

There can be no doubt that the poems of Stage IV are derived from
those of Stage III. But the question may be raised whether the latter
were necessarily derived from poems of Stages I and II--whether some
heroic poems may not have been entirely of popular origin. It may be
freely granted that the poetry of Stage II was constantly exposed to
popular influence, especially in the form of folk-tales. Most scholars
indeed hold that some of the best known heroic stories, such as those
of Sigurðr-Siegfried and Weland, are derived from popular mythology.
With this problem we shall have to deal later. On the whole however I
am inclined to doubt whether we possess a single heroic story which has
not been treated in court-poetry at an earlier stage in its career.

Again, the relationship between Stage I and Stage II is not so simple
as the bare statement given above might seem to imply. In the first
place it is only as a class that poems of Stage I can be regarded as
the earlier. Individual poems may very well be later than others which
belong to Stage II. Thus it is extremely probable that Gothic princes
were listening to laudatory poems about themselves at a time when
other Gothic poems, of a definitely narrative type, were coming to be
regarded as ancient. Then again, poems of a more or less narrative type
may have been composed quite soon after the events which they treat.
Hornklofi's Hrafnsmál and the poem on the battle of Brunanburh must
be regarded as analogous to poems of Stage I, but it is only a short
step from such works to purely narrative pieces. Indeed, in a sense,
we may almost class among narrative poems Eyvindr's Hákonarmál, which
describes the fall of Haakon I at the battle of Fitje. Yet the author
was himself present at the battle. It is by no means clear then that
poems belonging to Stage II necessarily presuppose the existence of
earlier poems or indeed of materials of any kind beyond the author's
personal knowledge and imagination.

But, more than this, we are scarcely justified in denying the
possibility that even epics may have been composed upon quite recent
events. Few will deny that the poem on the battle of Maldon has a good
claim to that title, whatever its original length may have been. The
extant portion contains nine speeches, by seven different persons.
Twenty-two warriors in the English army are mentioned by name, and in
about a dozen cases the names of their fathers or other relatives are
also given. The poem differs from the heroic type in the fact that it
does not record the name of a single person among the enemy; but that
need not prevent us from regarding it as an epic. Yet there can be no
reasonable doubt that it was composed within a few years, possibly even
months, of the battle[143].

It is likely enough that the author of this poem was well acquainted
with heroic poetry and that his treatment of the subject was affected
thereby. But is that any objection to supposing that poems of this type
may have been composed within the Heroic Age itself? We have no reason
whatever for denying that this age was capable of such compositions.
Indeed there is one piece of evidence which points very much to the
contrary.

This is a passage which occurs in Procopius' History of the Gothic
War (IV 20). After describing the embassy sent to Justinian by the
Utiguri in the year 551, the author goes on to state that 'about this
time' hostilities broke out between the nation of the Warni and the
Angli (Ἀγγίλοι) who inhabit the island of Britain (Βριττία). Not long
before the Warni had been ruled by a king named Hermegisklos who,
being anxious to establish his throne on a secure foundation, sought
and obtained in marriage a sister of Theodberht, king of the Franks.
By a previous wife he had an only son named Radiger, who at this time
was betrothed to a sister of the king of the Angli and had paid her a
large sum of money in furtherance of his suit[144]. One day, when the
king was riding in a certain place with the chief men of his nation, he
saw a bird sitting on a tree and croaking loudly. Now, whether it was
that he really understood what the bird said, or whether he had some
other source of information but pretended that the bird was uttering a
prophecy which he understood--at all events he declared on the spot to
his companions that he would die forty days later, for this had been
clearly foretold to him by the bird[145]. Thereupon he gives advice
as to what should be done after his death, namely that Radiger should
marry his widow, in accordance with national custom, and dissolve
his engagement with the English princess. On the fortieth day the
king died, and Radiger proceeds to carry out his injunctions. But the
princess, infuriated at his conduct, gathers together a fleet of four
hundred vessels and invades the land of the Warni with 100,000 men.
Radiger's army is completely defeated, and he takes refuge in a dense
forest. The princess insists on his being taken alive at all costs, and
eventually he is captured and brought before her. He expects to be put
to death, but after explaining the cause of his action, he is pardoned
on condition that he returns to his former engagement.

This story contains a number of features, such as the prophecy of the
bird, the payment of the 'bride-fee' and Radiger's marriage with his
stepmother, which show clearly that it was derived from someone who
was well acquainted with the peoples of northern Europe. There is no
ground for disputing that it has a historical basis; but at the same
time it is obviously much more than a mere record of facts. Apart from
the incident of the bird and the gross exaggeration apparent in certain
details[146], the pictorial character of the narrative, especially
in its earlier part, indicates a close affinity with heroic poetry.
Un-heroic features are not wanting--the introduction of nameless
persons and the political reflections of Irmingisl--but they may with
probability be attributed to Procopius himself. I do not mean to
suggest that his source of information was an epic poem, but I do think
that the intellectual atmosphere which could produce such a story must
have been exactly of the kind most favourable to the growth of such
compositions.

Procopius, as we have seen, places this war in or about the year 551,
and we can certainly understand the course of events more easily if
it took place after Theodberht's death (A.D. 548). Therefore, since
Procopius' work appears to have been written within the next seven or
eight years, the story had had little time to develop before it came
to his ears. On the other hand we must remember that it refers to a
distant region--a fact I think not without significance for the history
of contemporary narrative poetry. To persons who had themselves taken
part in the events poems like that on the battle of Brunanburh would
appeal much more strongly than purely narrative pieces. It is for
persons who were either ignorant of the events or knew them only by
hearsay that the latter would seem to be primarily intended.

* * * * *

In this discussion we have taken no account of the heroic poems of the
Edda. There can be little doubt that these poems must be assigned to
Stage IV of our scheme; for though some of them are probably three or
four centuries older than the German poems of this class, they bear
fairly obvious marks of the disintegrating process which seems to
characterise popular poetry[147]. It may be asked how such an opinion
is compatible with the view that the story of Sigurðr was derived
from the Continent during the seventh century (cf. p. 59). The true
explanation is, I believe, that heroic poetry passed through Stage III
after it became known in Norway.

We noted in an earlier chapter (pp. 30, 33) that Norway plays no part
in stories of the Heroic Age. On the other hand it has what we may call
a Heroic Age of its own--namely the Viking Age. We have no poems--and
few stories of any kind--dealing with persons of Norwegian nationality
who lived before that period. The remoteness, poverty and mountainous
nature of the country doubtless retarded its development, not only
politically but also in the cultivation of poetry. The strophic
character of all Norse poetry is generally held to point to a choric
origin, and it may very well be that this primitive type of poetry
was the only one used in Norway when the heroic stories first became
known there. Possibly it was to Frisian and Danish minstrels that the
change was due[148]. But the conditions suitable for a flourishing
court-poetry, like that of the Heroic Age, scarcely existed before the
last years of the eighth century, when Norwegian princes had begun to
enrich themselves with maritime enterprises.

FOOTNOTES:

[116] _celebrant carminibus antiquis, quod unum apud illos memoriae et
annalium genus est, etc._

[117] _nil carminum aliquando didicerat. unde nonnunquam in conuiuio
cum esset laetitiae causa decretum ut omnes per ordinem cantare
deberent, ille ubi adpropinquare sibi citharam cernebat surgebat a
media caena et egressus ad suam domum repedebat._

[118] Mon. Germ., Epist. Carol. Aeui, II 21 (ad Hygbaldum episc.
Lindisfarnensem): _lectionis studium exercete. audiantur in domibus
uestris legentes, non ludentes in platea_.

[119] William of Malmesbury, _Gesta Pontif._, V § 190 (from King
Alfred's _Handboc_).

[120] _Amulung Theoderic dicitur ... et iste fuit Thideric de Berne di
quo cantabant rustici olim_ (Mon. Germ., Scr. III p. 31).

[121] _Et ecce illo discumbente cum discipulis suis oblatus est cecus
uocabulo Bernlef qui a uicinis suis ualde diligebatur eo quod esset
affabilis et antiquorum actus regumque certamina bene nouerat psallendo
promere, etc._ Vita S. Liudgeri, II 1 (Mon. Germ., Scr. II p. 412).

[122] _Qui harpatorem qui cum circulo harpare potest in manum
percusserit componat illud quarta parte maiore compositione quam alteri
eiusdem conditionis homini, etc._ (Mon. Germ., Leg. III 699 f.).

[123] Cf. my _Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_, p. 369.

[124] _Cuðe he duguðe þeaw_ (v. 359).

[125] Cf. Brandl, _op. cit._, p. 981 f.

[126] It is generally thought that all these sentences refer to the
king.

[127] Cf. Brandl, _loc. cit._

[128] K. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, IV p. 92.
ἐπιγενομένης δὲ ἑσπέρας δᾷδες ἀνήφθησαν, δύο δὲ ἀντικρὺ τοῦ Ἀττήλα
παρελθόντες βάρβαροι ᾄσματα πεποιημένα ἔλεγον, νίκας αὐτοῦ καὶ τὰς κατὰ
πόλεμον ᾄδοντες ἀρετάς· ἐς οὓς οἱ τῆς εὐωχίας ἀπέβλεπον, καὶ οἱ μὲν
ἥδοντο τοῖς ποιήμασιν, οἱ δὲ τῶν πολέμων ἀναμιμνησκόμενοι διηγείροντο
τοῖς φρονήμασιν, ἄλλοι δὲ ἐχώρουν ἐς δάκρυα, ὧν ὑπὸ τοῦ χρόνου ἠσθένει
τὸ σῶμα καὶ ἡσυχάζειν ὁ θυμὸς ἠναγκάζετο.

[129] The performers who followed are said to have used Gothic, Hunnish
and Latin.

[130] Freely translated by Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, Vol. II,
p. 363. That the songs were in the national language appears from the
phrases _Germanica uerba_ (v. 4), _barbaricis abacta plectris ... Thalia_
(v. 9 f.).

[131] _Romanusque lyra plaudat tibi barbarus harpa._

[132] v. 67 f.

_nos tibi uersiculos, dent barbara carmina leudos:
sic uariante tropo laus sonet una uiro._

The word _leudos_ is generally interpreted as in the next passage
(Ang.-Sax. _leoð_); but is it not possible that here it is an error for
_leudes_ (N. pl.)?

[133] _sola saepe bombicans barbaros leudos arpa relidens_ (Mon. Germ.,
Auct. Antiquiss. Tom. IV i p. 2).

[134] κιθαριστῇ δὲ ἀγαθῷ ὄντι ᾠδή τις αὐτῷ ἐς ξυμφορὰν τὴν παροῦσαν
πεποίηται, ἣν δὴ πρὸς κιθάραν θρηνῆσαί τε καὶ ἀποκλαῦσαι ἐπείγεται.

[135] _antiquo etiam cantu maiorum facta modulationibus citharisque
canebant, Respamarae, Hanalae, Fridigerni, Vidigoiae et aliorum quorum
in hac gente magna opinio est, quales uix heroas fuisse miranda iactat
antiquitas._

[136] _quemadmodum et in priscis eorum carminibus pene historico ritu
in commune recolitur._

[137] For a passage in Saxo Poeta which seems to indicate the existence
of such poems cf. p. 6, note.

[138] At all events they had no kings when we first obtain definite
information about them, towards the close of the following century.

[139] Son of Rögnvaldr, earl of Möre, and half-brother of Gönguhrólfr
(Rollo), first earl of Normandy.

[140] In the Norse form of the story Hiarrandi is the name of Heðinn's
father.

[141] Jordanes, cap. 49; cf. Beow. 3170 ff.

[142] Ekkehard's Waltharius of course belongs to a much earlier period,
but it is not always clear what has been added by Ekkehard himself.

[143] Cf. Liebermann, _Arch._ CI, p. 15 ff.; Brandl, _Grundriss_, II p.
106.

[144] χρήματα μεγάλα τῷ τῆς μνηστείας αὐτῇ δεδωκὼς λόγῳ.

[145] οὗτος ἀνὴρ ξὺν Οὐάρνων τοῖς λογιμωτάτοις ἐν χωρίῳ τῳ ἱππευόμενος
ὄρνιν τινὰ ἐπὶ δένδρου τε καθημένην εἶδε καὶ πολλὰ κρώζουσαν. εἴτε δὲ
τῆς ὄρνιθος τῆς φωνῆς ξυνεὶς εἴτε ἄλλο μέν τι ἐξεπιστάμενος, ξυνεῖναι
δὲ τῆς ὄρνιθος μαντευομένης τερατευσάμενος, τοῖς παροῦσιν εὐθὺς ἔφασκεν
ὡς τεθνήξεται τεσσαράκοντα ἡμέραις ὕστερον. τοῦτο γὰρ αὐτῷ τὴν τῆς
ὄρνιθος δηλοῦν πρόρρησιν.

[146] It is not clear whether the marvellous account of Britain which
follows this story comes from the same source or not.

[147] They certainly resemble poems of Stage II both in form and spirit
much more closely than their German counterparts do. But this may be
due partly to the fact that Stage III was of much shorter duration in
their case.

[148] A reminiscence of such minstrels may perhaps be preserved in the
story of the unfortunate Heimir, who fled to Norway with the child
Áslaug concealed in a harp and was murdered there by a peasant from
whom he had sought hospitality (_Völs. Saga_, cap. 43).

NOTE IV. ON THE HEROIC POETRY OF THE SLAVONIC PEOPLES.

The nearest modern analogy, at least in Europe, to the types of poetry
which we have been discussing is probably to be found among the various
peoples of Serbo-Croatian nationality. As an example we may take the
poetry current among the Mohammedan population of Bosnia[149]. Since
the occupation of that province a large number of narrative poems have
been collected and published, though only a few are as yet accessible
in translations. These poems afford an interesting illustration of our
subject, not only because they deal with similar themes--heroism in
battle, single combats, love and revenge--and often in quite as full
detail, but also since the events with which they are concerned and
the conditions they reflect belong to a well-marked historical period,
which we may regard as a kind of Heroic Age. The period in question
embraces the greater part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
more especially the latter, a time when the Turkish Empire was at the
height of its power, and when its armies were frequently engaged in
hostilities with the Austrians in Hungary and Croatia. Many of the
characters mentioned in the poems are well known historical persons.

But beyond all this the value of the illustration lies largely in the
fact that we have here what may be called a living heroic poetry,
such as we hear of among the Teutonic peoples only through occasional
notices in ancient records. As among the latter it is customary for the
minstrel (_pivač_, dial. for _pjevač_) to accompany his recitation on a
musical instrument, the _tambura_, a kind of guitar with only two metal
strings. Among the Christian population the _gusle_, a primitive type
of fiddle, is in use.

The poems vary greatly in length. Out of 320 pieces collected by
Dr Marjanović thirty contained less than 100 verses, while fifteen
exceeded 2000, the longest of all amounting to over 4000. The average
length of the pieces described as epic is given at 873 verses; a
hundred and three vary from 600 to 1000, and sixty-two from 1000 to
1500. These figures are especially important in view of their bearing
on certain prevalent ideas as to the limits of oral poetry. It is to be
observed that the ordinary Servian metre is decasyllabic, the verse not
being appreciably shorter than the average Teutonic alliterative verse.
The minstrel begins his recitation quite slowly, but after about a
hundred verses he attains such a speed that not even a shorthand writer
can keep pace with him. Such recitations are extremely fatiguing, and
in the longer poems it is customary to allow intervals of rest for
refreshments, questions and criticism. It will be seen that if carried
out on these principles the recitation of a Teutonic poem of 2000, or
even 3000, verses would be nothing impossible in the course of a long
evening's entertainment.

In the 'recitation' great freedom is allowed. A minstrel need only hear
a poem two or three times (once, if it is sung) in order to reproduce
it; but the reproduction is by no means given in the same words. To
a certain degree, says Prof. Murko, every minstrel is a more or less
creative poet ('Nachdichter'). But even by the same man a poem is never
repeated in exactly the same words. In the course of years changes may
be introduced which apparently render it almost unrecognisable. Some
minstrels are experts in particular lines, special popularity being
enjoyed by those who know best how to describe a girl's dress or the
trappings of a horse. The faculty for expansion and compression is
also very marked. Cases are known of minstrels who have doubled and
even trebled the length of poems which they had heard. In one instance
two variants of a poem are known, of which one contains 1284 verses,
the other barely 300. Such cases, as Prof. Murko remarks, supply
interesting evidence for the origin of different recensions of epic
poems--particularly, we may add, for the relationship of lays and epics.

From what has been said it will be clear enough that the poems are
preserved by oral tradition. Vague rumours of written texts are heard
of from time to time and, though none have yet been discovered, it
seems probable that some poems have been committed to writing in the
past. But the minstrels of the present day are invariably unable to
read or write. As to the age and origin of the poems nothing is known
for certain, though most of them are believed to be about two centuries
old. Four minstrels knew of an authoress--a certain 'pale-cheeked Ajka'
from the Lika (in Croatia); but regarding her little or no information
seems to have been obtained. The other minstrels could only give the
names of those from whom they had themselves heard the poems.

The minstrels belong to various stations of life. Some are men of good
family, but the majority are peasant proprietors or workmen. Not many
carry on minstrelsy as a regular profession, except when they have
fallen on bad times. The recitations are given in coffee-houses or at
any holiday gathering. Very often too the minstrels are invited to the
residences of the Begs[150]. The case is recorded of one minstrel who
recited over a hundred poems for a certain Beg within six weeks. The
Mohammedan ladies are especially fond of such recitations. For his
services the minstrel receives payment, sometimes in money, sometimes
in corn or livestock, sometimes only in coffee and cigarettes.

It will not escape notice that a good deal of what is said here
might be applied with considerable probability to the Frisian
minstrel Bernlef or the English minstrels mentioned by Alcuin.
Indeed, apart from the coffee and cigarettes, there is scarcely a
single feature in the description given above for which we should
not expect to find parallels in Teutonic minstrelsy towards the
close of the eighth century. We may therefore reasonably look for
traces of those characteristics which distinguish Stage III in
the history of Teutonic heroic poetry, and in point of fact there
seems to be abundant evidence in this direction[151]. The action is
usually spread over a considerable time. The characters mentioned
by name are few in number and recur again and again in different
stories, each district apparently having a favourite hero who is
introduced as its representative on many different occasions[152].
Geographical indications are very frequently erroneous, while
historical persons figure in quite unhistorical relationships. The
unsympathetic characters are often guilty of atrocious brutality.
Moreover, we constantly find repetitions of the same words or formulae
in consecutive verses after the manner of ballads. Indeed the
characteristics of the poems generally--their merits as well as their
faults--are to a large extent those of popular rather than court poetry.

But, though the poems show the characteristics which we associate with
Stage III, it is questionable whether we are justified in including
them in this category; for there is no evidence that they have passed
through anything corresponding to Stages I and II. Practically the
only court which they know at all is that of Stamboul, and of this
their knowledge is naturally slight and remote. The highest personages
with whom they are really acquainted are the Begs. It is not unlikely
that in the days of Turkish supremacy--the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries--the provincial nobility were much more wealthy and
influential than they now are; and it may be that some Begs then had
minstrels attached to their own personal following. But their position
can never have been comparable with that of even petty Teutonic
princes. Hence, if we are entitled to suggest the previous existence of
court-poetry at all, it can only be in a very restricted sense--so far
at least as the extant poems are concerned.

On the other hand Servian poetry has without doubt had a long history,
and even heroic poems are by no means the exclusive property of the
Mohammedan population. Indeed some of the Christian poems[153] seem to
exhibit the characteristics of Stage III to a far less degree than the
Mohammedan ones; and they frequently deal with much earlier events.
It is likely enough that the beginnings of heroic poetry go back to
the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries[154], at which time its growth
may have been fostered by conditions much more similar to those of the
Teutonic Heroic Age. To this question we shall have to refer again.
The subject as a whole however is one which must be left to experts.
In order to form a sound opinion one would have to take account of
the history of narrative poetry among the neighbouring peoples, more
especially the Bulgarians and Slovenians[155]. The total change of
subjects in the Mohammedan poems would be a necessary consequence of
the change of faith; that heroic poetry survived such a change at all
is probably to be attributed to the fact that a large proportion of the
nobility in Bosnia embraced Islam.

Before we leave the subject however note must be taken of one more
important feature in the poems. The Mohammedan Bosnians were religious
fanatics, and the spirit of religious war is generally present. It
is not absolutely universal; some poems even represent Moslems and
Christians in sworn brotherhood. As a rule however the world is
regarded as divided into two hostile camps, one under the Sultan
(Car), the other under the Emperor (Ćesar). In this respect, as in
several others, Bosnian poetry shows affinity with the Old French
epics, whereas in early Teutonic poetry differences of creed, and even
nationality, are scarcely recognised.

* * * * *

In the north of Russia numerous ballads are still current which seem to
be based on events much more remote than anything treated in Servian
poetry. Many of them deal with stories relating to the time of Vladimir
I, who ruled over Kiev about 980-1015, and their antiquity is rendered
highly probable by the fact that the same king, together with his chief
hero, Ilja of Murom, figures in Thiðreks Saga af Bern. In their present
form these ballads show the characteristics of popular poetry to such
an extent that they are scarcely distinguishable from folk-tales. Yet
it is possible that they are in part descended from poems which might
fairly be brought under Stages I and II of our scheme.

At all events there is some reason for suspecting that in early times
court-poetry was not unknown in Russia. Evidence to this effect is
supplied by the Slovo o polku Igorevě ('Story of Igor's expedition'),
which may be described as an epic, though it has no fixed metrical
form. The subject is a disastrous expedition undertaken by Igor, the
son of Svjatoslav, against the Polovtses on the Don in the year 1185.
It is believed to be an absolutely contemporary work, composed within
two years of the event. Both in language and spirit it shows rather
a striking resemblance to Anglo-Saxon heroic poetry. "Igor leads his
soldiers to the Don: the birds in the thicket forebode his misfortune;
the wolves bristle up and howl a storm in the mountain clefts; the
eagles screech and call the beasts to a feast of bones; the foxes bark
for the crimson shields.... The Russians bar the long fields with
their crimson shields, seeking honour for themselves and glory for the
Prince[156]." There are frequent references also to mythical beings.
It is held by many that this work was composed by a bard who belonged
to the družina or military following of the prince and that it is the
last relic of what may once have been a considerable body of poetry.
Certainly we may note that the author repeatedly refers to a certain
'Bojan the Wise, nightingale of ancient time,' a poet who is unknown
from other sources, but who apparently lived nearly a century before
the composition of the Slovo. This carries us back practically to what
we may call the Russian Heroic Age, for Bojan is represented as singing
the praises of the sons of Vladimir I. In their time the Russian courts
still maintained intimate relations with the Scandinavian kingdoms.
Vladimir indeed appears to have had Norwegians in his service, and
Olafr Tryggvason is said to have been brought up at his court. It is
scarcely impossible therefore that this early poetry may have been due,
in part at least, to Scandinavian influence.

FOOTNOTES:

[149] The first part of this note is mainly derived from an interesting
paper by Prof. M. Murko in the _Zeitschrift des Vereins für Volkskunde_
(Berlin), 1909, p. 13 ff., to which the reader is referred for further
information and authorities. The collections of poems published by
Marjanović and Hörmann have not been accessible to me.

[150] Some interesting remarks relating to the prevalence of
minstrelsy--apparently among the Christian population--during the
eighteenth century are to be found in Fortis' _Travels into Dalmatia_
(London, 1778). "A Morlacco travels along the desert mountains singing,
especially in the night time, the actions of ancient _Slavi_ kings and
barons or some tragic event.... Although the Morlacchi usually sing
their ancient songs, yet other poetry is not altogether extinguished
among them; and their musicians, after singing an ancient piece,
accompanied with the _guzla_, sometimes finish it with some extempore
verses, in praise of the personage by whom they are employed" (_ib._,
p. 85).

[151] The following observations are based on the poems published in
Krauss' _Slavische Volkforschungen_.

[152] Thus in a number of poems the Beg Ljubović appears as the
representative of Hercegovina.

[153] Especially several of those dealing with the battle of Kossovo
(1389), to which we shall have to refer in a later note.

[154] There are references to the existence of heroic poetry in the
neighbourhood of Spalato and Sebenico as far back as the sixteenth
century; cf. Murko, _Arch. f. slav. Philol._, XXVIII 378. A much
earlier reference has been traced in Nicephorus Gregoras' account
(_Hist. Byz._, VIII 14) of his mission to the court of Stephan Uroš
in the year 1326, where it is stated of his followers: φωναῖς ἐχρῶντο
καὶ μέλεσι τραγικοῖς· ᾖδον δ' ἄρα κλέα ἀνδρῶν ὧν οἷον κλέος ἀκούομεν
οὐδέ τοι ἴδμεν. But it is extremely doubtful whether these persons were
Servians.

[155] In the middle of the sixteenth century the Slovenians of Tolmino
used to sing "di Mattia re d' Ungheria e di altri celebri personaggi di
quella nazione" (Murko, _Zeitschr. d. Vereins f. Volksk._, 1909, p. 14,
note). Matthias Hunyadi died in 1490.

[156] Wiener, _Anthology of Russian Literature_, I p. 84.

NOTE V. THE HEROIC POETRY OF THE CELTIC PEOPLES.

In the history of the various Celtic peoples there is evidence for
the existence of more than one Heroic Age. In the first place we
have some traces of heroic poetry among the ancient Gauls, though
unfortunately it has entirely perished, together with all their
vernacular records. Then again Ireland has preserved a great body of
heroic literature, referring to a remote period. But, whatever may
have been their original form, these stories have come down to us for
the most part only in prose. Moreover, the subject is beset with so
many difficulties, both historical and linguistic, that it cannot be
approached with safety except by an expert. We shall have to confine
our attention therefore to the heroic poetry of the Cymry.

Even here the difficulties to be encountered are sufficiently serious.
Yet it is fairly clear that many of these poems deal with events which
are referred by the chronicles to the sixth century and the first half
of the seventh. We may note especially four groups of poems: (1) a few
concerned with the exploits of Arthur and his heroes; (2) a somewhat
larger number referring to princes named Gwallawg, Urien and Rhydderch;
(3) certain poems dealing with _Gododin_ and _Catraeth_; (4) a few
relating to Cadwallon. There are also two or three others, such as the
elegy over Cynddylan, which seem to refer to the same period, though
they cannot be classed under any of these headings. A number of the
above poems, especially those included in the second and third groups,
are attributed to two poets named Taliessin and Aneirin.

There is no doubt that Cadwallon is the well known Welsh king who
overthrew the Northumbrian king Edwin in 633 and was himself destroyed
by Oswald in the following year. But the poems of the second group seem
also to have a historical basis. In the Historia Brittonum (Harleian
text), § 63, we hear of four kings, _Urbgen et Riderch Hen et Guallanc
et Morcant_, who fought against the Northumbrian king Theodric and
his successors, Frithuwald and Hussa. Urbgen is said to have besieged
his opponents for three days in Lindisfarne (_Metcaud_), and to have
perished eventually through the jealousy of Morcant. In another passage
(§ 62) we hear of _Neirin et Taliessin_ among other poets who composed
British poetry in the time of a king named Dutigirn[157], who is made
contemporary with Ida, the father of Theodric. The origin of these
entries is unfortunately obscure. They are incorporated with an English
genealogical document, dating apparently from the end of the eighth
century; but they may quite possibly be derived from earlier sources.
In any case they cannot well be later than the first quarter of the
ninth century.

All the four kings mentioned in § 63 are known to us also from
genealogies of the tenth century. But one of them, Riderch Hen, is
named in Adamnan's Life of St Columba, which is of course altogether
independent of Welsh tradition. It is there stated (I 15[158]) that
Rodercus, king of Dumbarton, consulted St Columba as to his fate and
received the answer that he would die a peaceful death in his house--a
prophecy which was subsequently fulfilled. As St Columba died probably
in 597, the date given for Riderch Hen agrees well enough with what is
stated in the Historia Brittonum; for according to the most trustworthy
records Theodric and his two immediate successors reigned from about
572 to 592 or 593. We have no ground for doubting that the references
to Urbgen and the rest are based on equally good tradition.

For the characters mentioned in the Gododin poems no such evidence is
available. The poems themselves however contain references to the death
of _Dyvynwal Vrych_--doubtless the Dalriadic king Domnall Brecc, who
according to the Irish annals was killed by the Britons three years
after the fall of Oswald, i.e. about the year 645. Unfortunately it
is not made clear in what relationship this event stands to the main
action of the poems[159]. The few identifications which can be made
from the genealogies seem to be compatible with a date somewhere about
this time.

There can scarcely be any doubt that we are justified in regarding
the period covered by the poems as a kind of Heroic Age. The story of
Arthur was the one most elaborated in later times--a process which
must have begun before the ninth century, when it was incorporated in
the Historia Brittonum (§ 56). How much historical truth this story
contains we do not know, though the chronicles refer Arthur to the
early part of the sixth century, i.e. the beginning of our period. To
a certain extent however the other stories have experienced the same
process; for, apart from the question when the poems under discussion
were composed, there are others of undoubtedly later date, such as the
Englynion y Beddau, in which the same heroes are mentioned. Moreover it
must not be assumed that these were the only persons of the same period
whose praises were celebrated in poetry. Maelgwn, king of Gwynedd, who
died about 548, figures prominently in traditions of later times, and
it is likely enough that the beginnings of these stories were due to a
similar cause. On the other hand there is apparently no evidence for
the composition of poems dealing with the exploits of princes who lived
in the latter part of the seventh century or for several centuries
later.

As to the origin of the poems discussed above we have no evidence which
can be called conclusive. Some of the poems themselves claim to be the
work of the poets Aneirin and Taliessin. At the present time however
it seems to be generally held[160] that they are scholastic products
of a later age, based upon chronicles and composed with the intention
of glorifying the ancestry of some distinguished Welsh families. In
support of this view it is contended that the language of the poems
cannot possibly represent the form of Welsh spoken in the sixth or
seventh centuries. But this argument is scarcely decisive; for it
is clear that parts of the poems have undergone a certain amount of
modernisation, and it is by no means incredible that the same process
may have been in operation for centuries. I find it difficult to
believe that in order to celebrate the ancestry of certain families
poems would be composed recording an action which is represented as an
overwhelming disaster for the British forces, such as that described in
the Gododin poems. And can it really be proved that many of the heroes
celebrated in these poems were claimed as ancestors by families in
Wales?

At all events it is clear that the author of the entries in the
Historia Brittonum knew of ancient British poets. _Neirin_ and
_Taliessin_ are only two out of five names recorded by him, the rest
apparently being altogether unknown from other sources[161]. It is
true that he places all these persons about a generation before Urien
and Rhydderch Hen, but chronological accuracy is hardly to be expected
in references to such a remote period. Certainly we should note that
the last British king mentioned in these entries is a certain Cadafael
(_Catgabail Catguommed_), who is said to have escaped alone from the
battle in which Penda was killed (A.D. 655). The wording of this
passage (§ 65) seems rather to suggest acquaintance with a poem on the
subject.

We have seen now that the persons and events celebrated in the poems
belong to a period extending roughly from 500 to 650 and that there
are ancient records of famous British poets, who are referred to
the earlier part of this period and of whom two are traditionally
associated with the poems. Next we must notice that the poems
themselves, even in the corrupt and often unintelligible form in
which they are preserved, plainly show all the marks of Stage I of
our scheme. Their characteristics are those of court-poetry, but they
never attain to true narrative. For analogies to the poems which deal
with Urien we can hardly do better than turn to the court-poetry of
the Viking Age (cf. pp. 15 f., 91); for the Gododin poems perhaps the
best parallels are to be found in the Battle of Maldon and the Story
of Igor's Expedition, though in both the latter the narrative element
is much more fully developed. Taking all the evidence into account,
it seems to me that the choice lies between two alternatives: either
the poems really are works of Stage I, which have survived from the
Heroic Age itself, or they are exceedingly clever imitations of such
works, composed at a time when the latter were still in existence.
The decision between these two alternatives must of course be left to
experts. In the meantime we shall be ready to admit that the poems are
extremely corrupt, and that in some cases perhaps we have nothing more
than disjecta membra of earlier pieces. But until conclusive evidence
is brought forward it seems to me highly improbable that the original
poems have been entirely lost[162].

The history of Cumbrian heroic poetry is easily intelligible when
taken in connection with the national history. It is probable enough
that on the withdrawal of the legions large portions of the country
were occupied by northern Britons from beyond the Wall--who are
represented in tradition by Cunedda and his sons[163]. These were
doubtless affected by Roman influence to a very much less degree
than the inhabitants of the province; and the growth of heroic poetry
during the sixth century may be satisfactorily accounted for by the
wealth and prosperity which would naturally accrue to their princely
families during the early days of their dominion. It was probably not
until the time of Aethelfrith that their power was really broken.
But the following half century was a most disastrous period, ending
in the permanent obliteration of their nationality--in a political
sense--throughout the whole region between the Dee and the Clyde. Any
records which survived must owe their preservation, ultimately at
least, to refugees who escaped into the Welsh highlands.

Now we can see why so many place-names (Reged, Catraeth and dozens of
others) are incapable of identification. But further, the conditions in
Wales, the poorest and probably the most backward part of the province,
were doubtless highly unfavourable to the development of heroic poetry.
Under such conditions we should expect that narrative poems would
rapidly disintegrate into the semblance of folk-tales; and it may be
that here we have the explanation of the medieval stories of Arthur. At
all events they show a certain resemblance to the Russian stories of
Vladimir and his heroes. But Arthur, as we have seen, belongs to the
beginning of the Heroic Age. We have no evidence for the composition
of poems, which can properly be called narrative, dealing with the
later heroes. Here the original type of poem seems to have become
stereotyped--presumably because conditions favourable to development
were no longer present. The only marvel is that so much has been
preserved.

FOOTNOTES:

[157] _Tunc Dutigirn in illo tempore fortiter dimicabat contra gentem
Anglorum, tunc Talhaern Tataguen in poemate claruit, et Neirin et
Taliessin et Bluchbard et Cian, qui uocatur Gueinth Guaut, simul uno
tempore in poemate Britannico claruerunt._

[158] _De rege Roderco, filio Tothail, qui in Petra Cloithe regnauit._

[159] It is possibly worth noting that the Irish annals record a battle
between Oswio and the Britons in the same year as Domnall Brecc's
death; cf. Skene, _Chronicles of the Picts and Scots_, pp. 70, 348.

[160] This view is favoured by Prof. Anwyl in his _Prolegomena to the
Study of Old Welsh Poetry_ (Trans. of the Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion,
1903-4), p. 7 f.

[161] It has been suggested that _Bluchbard_ (cf. p. 106, note) may be
a corruption of the name _Llywarch_. Certainly the form _Neirin_ (which
is thought to be due to a misunderstanding of _aneirin_ as _et neirin_)
seems to show that the scribe himself had no knowledge of Aneirin.

[162] The question of the antiquity of the poems must of course be
distinguished from that of their authorship. If they are, even in part,
the work of Taliessin and Aneirin, we must conclude that these poets
are wrongly dated in the Historia Brittonum.

[163] In dealing with such traditions it is essential to remember that
our authorities date from times when (apart from Strathclyde) the Cymry
had long been confined to Wales and that they represent the point of
view of writers living in Wales. If the kings of Gwynedd were really
descended from the 'men of the north' their settlement in that region
is probably to be regarded as part of a much larger movement, of which
the traces elsewhere were obliterated by the English conquest.

CHAPTER VI.

SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS IN THE HEROIC STORIES.

Most of the heroic poems and stories which have come down to us contain
elements generally comprehended under the term 'folk-tale' (Märchen),
and it will be convenient at once to distinguish tales of this class
from popular tales in general. Under the latter term we may include
all stories which are frequently repeated without being committed to
writing. It is on such foundations probably that all the surviving
heroic poems are built. The lapse of time between the events narrated
and the composition of the poem may amount to weeks or to generations;
in certain cases the story may be wholly fictitious--but this does not
affect our definition. When a story is put into metrical form by a
skilful poet it becomes more or less crystallised and has a good chance
of being preserved. In fact the result is somewhat similar to that of
committing it to writing. Stories which are not put into poetic form
are more liable to become obscured and forgotten.

The term 'folk-tale[164]' is of less wide application. Probably
different scholars would define it in different ways; but in this
book it is applied only to stories dealing with anonymous characters.
The hero or heroine (villain etc.) is described either (1) as 'the
man,' 'the girl,' etc., or (2) by some common name such as Jack or
Hans, which conveys no means of identification, or (3) by a name
which is obviously made to suit his or her special circumstances or
characteristics, such as Aschenbrödel or Sneewitchen. It will be seen
that this limitation would not prevent us from regarding stories about
the gods as folk-tales in origin; for most of the gods bear descriptive
names, e.g. Thunor, Frig, Balder, Frey. Yet by the time of our earliest
authorities these names had come to denote definite personalities; and
consequently we must classify such stories in a separate category,
namely as myths. On the other hand it must not be assumed that the
presence of supernatural features, in some form or other, is a
necessary characteristic of folk-tales. Such features do indeed occur
very frequently; but that is due merely to the fact that in illiterate
societies the marvellous has a special attraction for men's minds.

Into the origin of folk-tales in general we need not enter here. Some
apparently spring from attempts to account for natural phenomena,
social customs or religious rites. Others are probably founded on
adventures, real or fictitious, of individuals whose names have been
forgotten. Thus, to take an instance, the story of Alfred and the
cakes is not a folk-tale according to our standard; but if the king's
name had been forgotten we should have no hesitation in regarding it
as such. Again, there can be no doubt that many modern folk-tales are
derived ultimately from literary sources. In the same way we must
regard it as possible that in earlier times many folk-tales were
descended from heroic poems.

Prof. Olrik[165] has pointed out that it is possible very often to
distinguish between the Danish and Norse sources followed by Saxo in
his History. One of the safest criteria is the presence or absence of
characters whose names are not given. In stories of Norse origin, as in
Old Norse literature generally, it is customary for every character to
have a name--a characteristic which also distinguishes the old heroic
poetry. In stories derived from Danish sources on the other hand the
characters mentioned by name are few in number. A good instance is
to be found in the story of Ingellus (Ingeld), which in consequence
of the loss of proper names has been torn right away from its true
connections--as may be seen by a comparison with Beowulf. Yet there
can be little doubt, as we have seen, that this story is ultimately
derived from heroic poems. It would appear then that Danish tradition
tended to approximate to the folk-tale.

If heroic stories sometimes passed into folk-tales it is still clearer
that the latter tended to make their way into heroic stories. We
shall see shortly that even the early heroic poems relate a number of
incidents which seem to be derived from folk-tales, while in the later
forms of the stories such incidents become more and more frequent, most
commonly in connection with the childhood or ancestry of the hero.
The same phenomenon occurs of course in stories of famous men which
have nothing to do with heroic poetry. Thus there is a widely spread
folk-tale (told of the god Thor in Old Norse literature), which relates
how some animal, a goat, reindeer or calf, is killed and eaten, but
care is taken not to break any of its bones. Then on the following day
the hero restores the animal to life. In the Historia Brittonum (cap.
32) this story is related of St Germain, the well known bishop of
Auxerre.

It is a more difficult question and one which we shall have to discuss
later whether any of the heroic stories are wholly derived from
folk-tales. The story of Balder bears the stamp of a folk-tale, for
the chief characters (Balder, Höðr, Nanna) have names with an obvious
meaning. But it is only in Saxo's History that this story appears in
a heroic setting; and though his account seems to be more primitive
in several respects than that given by the Norse authorities, there
is some reason for suspecting that either he himself or one of his
(comparatively recent) predecessors was responsible for the setting.
It should be observed however that the occurrence of one or more names
with obvious meanings does not in itself prove that a story is derived
from a folk-tale. Thus in the story of Heðinn and Högni the fact that
the heroine (in contrast with the other characters) bears a name which
means 'war' does not of necessity involve her origin in a folk-tale any
more than that of her namesake, the abbess of Whitby.

Apart from the distinguishing feature with which we have been dealing
folk-tales as a class have certain general characteristics which may be
appreciated by a comparison with those of heroic poetry. In the last
chapter (p. 82 f.) we gave a short list of the characteristics by
which the latter is specially distinguished. To all these the typical
folk-tale presents a marked contrast. Some of the leading characters,
including either the hero or the heroine or both, are usually persons
of humble birth. The opponents of the hero or heroine tend to be
represented as monsters of cruelty or vice, even when they are of royal
rank, as is often the case. There is no inclination to avoid horrible
or coarse subjects. Above all we miss those detailed descriptions of
court life upon which the heroic poems are so fond of dwelling. The
life and thought which we find reflected in folk-tales is that not of
the court but of the village.

It would of course be rash to assume that folk-tales formed the
sole intellectual pabulum of the peasantry in early times. No doubt
we have to add 'popular tales,' similar to those which formed the
foundation of the heroic poems. But since these tales were not put
into poetic form--i.e. not into such poetic form as would ensure their
preservation[166]--they were always liable to disintegration and thus
were constantly approximating to folk-tales. Hence, though we must make
allowance for influence of the one upon the other, it is probably not
so very far from the truth that what heroic stories were to the courts
folk-tales were to the rest of the population.

In Norway court poetry flourished down to Christian times, though in
the generation before the conversion it had come mainly into the hands
of Icelanders. But practically nothing is known as to the existence
of court poets in Denmark; and here we have, I think, the explanation
of the peculiar character of the Danish sources used by Saxo. The
old heroic poems had been largely forgotten, and what remained was
preserved only in the form of ballads and popular tales--which in some
cases practically amounted to folk-tales.

Lastly, we must note that the existence of a folk-tale may sometimes be
inferred when we have no knowledge of it in its uncontaminated form.
Such is the case (e.g.) when we find the same adventure, especially
if it be of a supernatural character, related of several different
and unconnected persons, whose historical existence may be quite
satisfactorily authenticated. But such inferences must be used with
caution, for it is not necessary to suppose that supernatural incidents
in heroic stories are always due to the influence of folk-tales. They
may often truly reflect the belief of an age which did not clearly
distinguish between natural and supernatural. That the supernatural is
less prominent in heroic poetry than in folk-tales is due doubtless to
the fact that the courts of that period possessed a far higher degree
of culture than the rest of the population. The same phenomenon is
still more noticeable in Welsh literature than in Teutonic. In the
early court poems the supernatural is comparatively little in evidence,
whereas in the Mabinogion, which are largely made up of folk-tales, it
is developed to a most astounding degree.

* * * * *

Various kinds of supernatural beings are brought before our notice in
heroic stories. In the Northern versions the god Othin is introduced
not unfrequently. Thus, to give a few instances, the Völsunga Saga
brings him into contact with Sigmundr on two occasions: first when he
enters Völsungr's hall at the wedding feast and plants in the tree a
sword which Sigmundr alone is able to draw out (cap. 3), and again in
his last battle when the hero's sword is shattered at the touch of
Othin's javelin (cap. 11). Twice also the same saga makes him meet
with Sigurðr: first when he chooses for him the horse Grani (cap.
13), and later when he accompanies him on his way to attack the sons
of Hundingr (cap. 17; cf. also cap. 18). In all these cases alike the
god's identity is not suspected, at least until after his departure. In
the poem Reginsmál, from which the last of these incidents is taken,
we find also a story of quite a different character and laid wholly in
the realm of the supernatural, namely the adventures of the gods Othin,
Hoenir and Loki with the otter and the dwarf Andvari. Of other divine
or semi-divine beings we may mention Hlióð, the daughter of Hrímnir and
adopted daughter of Frigg, who became the wife of Völsungr and mother
of Sigmundr. As a last instance reference may be made to a passage from
the lost Biarkamál (Saxo, p. 66), where the hero suspects that Othin is
present among the enemy and expresses his desire to attack him.

In the German heroic poems, which are entirely Christian, we find no
mention of the gods. Note should be taken however of an incident in the
Rabenschlacht (v. 964 ff.), where Witege in his flight from Dietrich
gallops into the sea and is rescued by the mermaid Wâchilt. If we were
dealing with a Greek story we should regard this person as a goddess
without hesitation.

In much earlier times a very good instance is furnished by the
legendary history of the Langobardi. According to the story (cf. p. 9
f.) the Langobardi, who were then called Winniles, soon after their
emigration from Scandinavia came into conflict with the Vandals. The
Origo Gentis Langobardorum, an anonymous tract dating from the latter
part of the seventh century, gives the following account of what
happened: Ambri and Assi, the leaders of the Vandals, asked Wodan
(_Godan_) that he should give them victory over the Winniles. Wodan
replied, saying: "Whomsoever I shall first look upon, when the sun
rises, to them will I give victory." Then Gambara with her two sons
Ibor and Aio, who were chiefs over the Winniles, asked Fria (_Frea_),
the wife of Wodan, that she should be gracious to the Winniles. Fria
then gave counsel that the Winniles should come when the sun rose and
that their women should let down their hair about their faces after the
fashion of a beard and should come with their husbands. Then, as it
became light, while the sun was rising, Fria turned the bed, on which
Wodan lay, and put his face to the east and wakened him. And he looked
and saw the Winniles and their women with their hair let down about
their faces and said: "Who are those long-beards?" And Fria said to
Wodan: "As thou hast given them a name, give them also victory." And he
gave them victory, etc.

Woden is mentioned also in the Anglo-Saxon poem on the magic herbs,
and Ing in the Runic poem. In strictly heroic pieces however the only
possible case is the reference to the passionate love of Geat in the
Elegy of Deor (v. 15)[167]. Indeed, were it not for the Langobardic
story we might perhaps suspect that the introduction of the gods in
heroic poetry was a Scandinavian innovation. But as the case stands,
although this story cannot properly be regarded as heroic, it is more
likely that their non-appearance in the English heroic poems is due to
a process of expurgation or elimination. From such passages as Beow.
175 ff. we may infer with probability that no definite reference to the
gods would be tolerated after the courts had become Christian (cf. p.
53 f.).

* * * * *

In the poems which have come down to us the supernatural element is
represented chiefly by what we may call monsters. This is especially
the case in Beowulf, the main part of which is devoted to encounters
with such beings. We can hardly obtain a better example than the hero's
adventures in the first part of the poem. But it will be well at the
outset to guard against the assumption that the story of Beowulf was in
any way typical of early heroic poetry. Thus we have no satisfactory
evidence that either the story of Waldhere or that of Finn contained
supernatural elements of any kind, while even in that of Siegfried they
are comparatively unimportant.

The story of Beowulf's adventures with the monsters seems to be derived
from a folk-tale. In the Icelandic Grettis Saga, cap. 64-66, the famous
outlaw Grettir, who died in 1031, is credited with performing almost
the same exploits. The resemblance between the two stories indeed
descends in some cases even to small points of detail. These, as well
as the points of difference, may best be seen by giving an analysis of
the two side by side.

Hrothgar's hall has been attacked Grettir learns that Steinvör
by night for twelve years and has lost her husband and
many of his warriors carried a trusted servant at two
off and devoured by the monster successive Christmases through
Grendel. He comes and offers his mysterious nightly attacks on
services. her house. He comes to her and
claims hospitality at the third
Christmas.

He is left in charge of the He is left alone in charge of the
hall at night with his fourteen hall at night.
companions.

Grendel (a male monster) attacks He is attacked by a huge female
the hall, devours one warrior and monster and a desperate wrestling
engages in a desperate wrestling struggle takes place.
struggle with Beowulf.

Grendel finds Beowulf too strong Grettir is dragged out of the
and eventually escapes, but with house to a precipice over the
the loss of an arm which Beowulf river, where he eventually
tears off. succeeds in chopping off one of
the monsters arms. She falls over
the edge.

Grendel's mother attacks the There is no further attack, but
hall and carries off a Danish Grettir determines to examine the
knight. Beowulf goes to the river from curiosity.
lake where the monsters were
believed to dwell, in order to
exact punishment.

Beowulf dives into the lake and Grettir dives off the cliff
is seized by Grendel's mother who into the river, just below a
drags him into her cave, where waterfall. He climbs up beneath
there is a bright fire. Beowulf's the waterfall and finds a cave
followers and the Danes remain there with a fire in it. The
above on the bank. priest Steinn waits for him on
the cliff.

The monster overthrows Beowulf Grettir on reaching the cave is
and attacks him with a dirk attacked by a huge male monster
(_seax_); but he succeeds in armed with a _heptisax_[168].
chopping her asunder with a huge This snaps at the first thrust;
sword which he finds in the cave. and as the monster reaches back
After slaying her he comes upon for a sword which is hanging
the dead Grendel and cuts off his behind him, Grettir slashes him
head. He also sees a quantity of down the front. Afterwards he
treasure. finds the remains of the two
missing men in the cave.

The lake is stained with the The river is stained with the
monster's blood. All think that monster's blood, and Steinn,
Beowulf has perished, and the thinking that Grettir has
Danes return home; but Beowulf's perished, leaves the cliff.
followers remain on the bank.

There can scarcely be any doubt that these two stories are connected in
some way. Some scholars indeed hold that the Icelandic story is derived
from the other; but the discrepancies seem to me to be too great for
this to be probable. Moreover there is another Scandinavian story
which has to be taken into account. This is contained in Orms Tháttr
Storolfssonar[169], a document which dates from the fourteenth century,
and also in later ballads from Sweden and the Faroes. According to the
story Ormr was an Icelander who lived towards the end of the tenth
century. Like Beowulf and Grettir he had a reputation for laziness in
his youth. In his time an island called Sauðey off the coast of Norway
was inhabited by the monster Brusi and his mother who had the form of
a black cat. One of Ormr's friends, a Dane named Asbiörn, lost his
life in an attack upon them. Ormr then set out to avenge him. When he
reached the monster's den the cat assailed him fiercely with her claws,
but he ultimately succeeded in destroying her. Then he had an encounter
with Brusi, whose head he tore open with his hands, afterwards cutting
the 'blood-eagle' upon his back. In the den he found a large amount
of gold and silver. The later forms of the story add several features
which recall the adventures of Beowulf, especially in regard to the
situation of the den and the cannibalistic propensities of the monsters.

Here again we have in all probability only another form of the same
story. But it is to be observed that there is no special affinity
between the two Scandinavian versions, while the setting and the names
of the characters are entirely different in all three. Yet if one
version was really the source of the others it is difficult to believe
that every trace of its original connections could have vanished.
With far more probability we may conclude that the story once existed
independently, i.e. in the form of a folk-tale, and as a matter of fact
we possess an Icelandic folk-tale which contains most of the principal
features, though the hero has been split up into five brothers[170].
In its original form the tale was probably only a specialised variety
of the type familiar to us through Jack the Giant-killer. Stories of
this kind seem to have been particularly popular in Norway--a fact due
perhaps in part to the survival of isolated savage communities among
whom cannibalism may not have been entirely unknown[171]. We meet with
them sometimes in quite unexpected places. Thus in the account of
Thóroddr Snorrason's mission to Jemtland in St Olaf's Saga (Heimskr.),
cap. 151, we find a graphic and circumstantial story of a female
monster who killed and devoured eleven merchants in the inn where the
envoy was resting. Thor too, the chief Norwegian deity, came to be
regarded essentially as a giant-killer, his origin in the thunder being
entirely, or almost entirely, forgotten.

It is no serious objection to our view that Grettir seems to be a
perfectly historical character; for no one will contend that the story
of his doings at Sandhaugar is true, any more than a number of other
exploits with which he is credited. The same remark applies to the
story of Thóroddr, whose father, the magistrate Snorri (Grettir's
contemporary), was perhaps the best known and most influential man
in Iceland. We have seen that in the true folk-tale the hero is
nameless; but his adventures are liable to become linked with the
names of historical characters--just as in our own day everyone knows
of remarkable persons who have had associated with them stories
which really were in existence before their time. In Grettir's case
exceptionally favourable conditions for such association were provided
by the man's great strength, by the unruly disposition which he showed
from his childhood and by the many thrilling adventures which he
doubtless did experience during his long outlawry. Indeed, though the
saga in its present form was not composed until nearly three centuries
after his time, we might naturally expect that many untrue stories
about such a person would be in circulation even before his death.

Just as the folk-tale became attached to the historical Grettir, so
it may have been associated with another person in earlier times.
Now the only character in Northern tradition who has been identified
with Beowulf is a certain Boðvarr Biarki, a warrior in the service
of Hrólfr Kraki. The identification is denied by many scholars, but
there are two points in the story of Biarki which seem to me to lend
great probability to it. In the first place as Beowulf goes from the
land of the Geatas (Gautar), where his uncle is king, to the court
of the Danish king Hrothgar, so Biarki goes from the land of the
Gautar, where his brother is king, to the court of Hrólfr Kraki, i.e.
Hrothwulf, Hrothgar's nephew and colleague. Secondly, at a later time
Biarki, like Beowulf, assists the Swedish prince Aðils (Eadgils) in his
victorious campaign against Áli (Onela), though he is represented not
as king of the Gautar but as Hrólfr Kraki's emissary.

On the other hand it is true that no resemblance to the story of
Beowulf is shown by the Scandinavian accounts of Biarki's origin and
death. In Hrólfs Saga Kraka[172], which dates only from the fourteenth
century, Biarki is said to have been born in Norway. His father was
called Biörn ('bear') and his mother Bera ('she-bear'). The former
indeed was actually turned into a bear by witchcraft. Further, from the
time of his arrival in Denmark Biarki remained in the service of Hrólfr
till the end and lost his life in the final attack made upon that king.
A reminiscence of his ursine antecedents appears in the last scene.
When the enemy are attacking the king's hall Biarki cannot be roused
out of slumber, but a huge bear (the warrior's spirit) is seen fighting
among the king's knights.

Saxo says nothing about Biarki's origin and it may be that the story
given in the saga was unknown in his time. At all events it is
doubtless derived from a folk-tale. In the twelfth century Vita et
Passio Waldevi[173] almost the same story is told of the father of
Siward, the famous earl of Northumbria, who died in 1055, while a
further parallel is to be found in the De Gestis Herwardi Saxonis[174],
another work of the same period. Both stories contain indications
of Scandinavian origin and we can hardly doubt that the motif was a
popular one in the folk-tales of the North. Indeed for the version of
the story found in Hrólfs Saga, transformation into animal form through
the agency of a wicked stepmother, analogies are to be found in many
parts of the world.

In his account of the last fight Saxo quotes at great length from
the lost Biarkamál; but here again no reference is made to the bear
motif[175]. We may note however that in this version no explanation
is given of Biarki's behaviour in refusing to rise from his bed in
response to the exhortations of his colleague[176]. It is scarcely
safe therefore, I think, to assume that Saxo's account--apart from the
quotations which consist entirely of speeches--necessarily represents
an earlier form of the story than that given in the saga; for in the
latter Biarki's conduct is quite satisfactorily explained. There is
surely at least as much to be said for supposing that the incident
of the bear--or something which gave rise to it--has been ignored or
forgotten by Saxo.

Now Beowulf is represented as an enormously strong man, but his
strength is not altogether of a natural order. We are told that he
was fated not to gain victory with the sword. It is not only the
struggle with Grendel which he wins by wrestling; in v. 2506 f. we hear
that he hugged or crushed to death the Frisian champion Daeghrefn--a
method of warfare appropriate to a bear rather than to a man. The
explanation is perhaps to be found in the curious phenomenon called
_berserksgangr_[177], which is so frequently mentioned in sagas and
even in legal works. It is to be remembered that in popular belief this
form of madness was connected with the werwolf idea, of which the bear
form was a common variety. The transition therefore to the story found
in Hrólfs Saga is nothing very strange.

In conclusion mention must be made of an incident which has been
brought into connection with the fight between Beowulf and Grendel.
In Hrólfs Saga, cap. 23, it is stated that shortly after his arrival
at the Danish court Biarki encountered and slew an animal demon which
at two successive Yules had ravaged the livestock in the king's farm.
Saxo alludes clearly to the same story when he states that Biarki won
great fame by killing a huge bear[178]. Now it should be observed that
the representation of Grendel is by no means clearly anthropomorphic,
though the human element is much more apparent in the cave scene. The
various accounts may, I think, be satisfactorily reconciled on the
hypothesis that in the original story the hero killed a monster or
demon (_iötunn_) in the form of a bear (_biarnar hamr_). In England
this story must have been expanded and modified by the influence of the
folk-tale of the two cannibal monsters which we have discussed above.
In Scandinavian tradition however no such intrusion took place, though
a totally different folk-tale became attached to the early history of
the same hero.

* * * * *

Two adventures with dragons are recorded in Beowulf. The first, that of
Sigemund, is related quite briefly (vv. 884-900), but the second forms
the subject of the latter part of the poem. The Older Edda (Fáfnismál),
followed by the prose Edda and Völsunga Saga, gives an account of
the killing of Fáfnir by Sigurðr; and in the late Seyfridslied two
adventures of the same kind are narrated in connection with the same
hero. Dragons figure also occasionally in the German epics, especially
in the story of Wolfdietrich. Here too we must mention Saxo's accounts
of the dragons slain by the Danish kings Frotho I and Fridleuus II. The
two stories are almost identical, but the former (p. 38) contains a
description of the dragon and of the means to be used in attacking him,
which is given in Latin verse and may very well be derived from an old
poem.

There are certain resemblances between Saxo's stories and the great
dragon fight in Beowulf, and many scholars are inclined to the view
that they have a common origin. The former however in both cases
ended successfully. Moreover in two points at least they agree rather
with the adventure ascribed to Sigemund in Beowulf, namely (i) that
the hero attacks and kills the dragon alone and (ii) that he carries
away the treasure in a boat. On the other hand it is generally agreed
that the stories of Sigemund and Sigurðr must be connected, though
opinion is divided as to whether the adventure was first ascribed to
the father or the son. Beowulf is at all events by far the earliest of
the authorities. Against this stands the fact that both Scandinavian
and German tradition names Sigurðr (Siegfried) as the hero. But this
argument could have weight only if there was reason for thinking that
the story was known in the North before the composition of Beowulf.

Fáfnir is called _dreki_ in Völsunga Saga, but he seems always to
be represented rather as a reptile than a dragon. It is not at all
clear that he is a being of the same kind as the dragon encountered
by Beowulf, which is said to fly and breathe fire. This is perhaps to
be noticed, since the flying dragon is also known in the North; we
find it mentioned even in old poems such as Völuspá. The description
of Sigemund's dragon is too brief to enable us to determine its
character. It is once called _draca_ and thrice _wyrm_; but the latter
word is used also of the flying dragon. On the other hand it is not
certain that the word _draca_ always denotes a supernatural being. The
_saedracan_ and _niceras_ mentioned in Beowulf 1425 ff. would seem from
the description to be animals of the seal-class.

One feature however is common to all the English and Northern dragons,
namely that they are represented as guarding hoards of gold. In the
North this idea must have been very widespread, since expressions such
as 'bed of the dragon' (or 'snake') are among the commonest terms for
gold in Old Norse poetry. In Anglo-Saxon poetry also it is generally
recognised[179].

It has been mentioned above that many scholars connect the story of
Beowulf's dragon-fight with that related of Frotho I by Saxo. To me the
affinities of the latter seem rather to lie with Sigemund's dragon;
but the truth may be that for adventures of this kind there was a
standard poetic description which could be applied to any number of
cases. More important perhaps is the fact that genealogically Saxo's
Frotho I corresponds to Beowulf the son of Scyld[180]. In common with
practically all Scandinavian genealogical texts Saxo has the series
Frotho[181]--Haldanus--Ro (Hróarr) and Helgo corresponding to the
Beowulf--Healfdene--Hrothgar and Halga of the poem[182]. Quite possibly
therefore it is not without significance that this person is credited
with having killed a dragon.

We have seen that the two stories differ essentially in regard to
the outcome of the adventure. Frotho's death is recorded by Saxo in
quite a different connection and apparently long afterwards. But here
we may turn to the story of the other Frotho, Saxo's Frotho III (the
Peaceful), for there can be little doubt that the two characters were
originally identical. According to Saxo this latter king was killed
in his old age by a sorceress who had taken the form of a 'sea-cow'
(_marituma bos_), though the author does not make clear what kind of
creature he means by that term. It is at least a question whether this
story does not belong to the same class as the others; for whatever
differences there may be in other respects between a 'sea-cow' and a
dragon, it may be observed that nearly all the dragons of Northern
legends make their home by the sea.

If there is a connection between the two stories--the dragon-fight
of Frotho I and the death of Frotho III--their origin must surely be
sought in myth. Fróði the Peaceful (Frotho III) is the central figure
of Danish legend and his fame became proverbial even in Germany.
Moreover, though there is no evidence that he was regarded as a god, it
is clear that he was the Danish counterpart of the god Frey.

It may not be out of place here to cite one more of Saxo's stories
(p. 29 f.). Hadingus, the father of Frotho I, while bathing in the
sea off the coast of Helsingland encountered and killed a sea-monster
of unknown species. As he was having it carried to his camp he met a
woman who uttered a prophecy of dire woe, saying that he had killed
one of the deities who was wandering about in a form not his own[183].
In order to propitiate the gods he instituted a sacrifice to Frey,
which was to be repeated at regular intervals and which the Swedes call
Fröblod. This story seems to take us back to the days of theriomorphic
religion--or perhaps one should say to a time when certain marine
animals were regarded as divine. But is it not also connected somehow
with the story of Frotho's death?

We need not enter here into a discussion of these mythical stories,
though it may be remarked in passing that theriomorphism plays a
very prominent part in the religious practices and conceptions of
primitive peoples, and, what is more, that we hear not unfrequently
of a struggle between a god or national hero and some theriomorphic
being whose sanctuary or attributes he appears to have taken over[184].
But it is perhaps worth noting that in Beowulf also the hero is
repeatedly involved in adventures with water-monsters. This feature
is entirely absent from the story of Biarki and can hardly have a
historical basis. What I would suggest is that it is derived, in part
at least, from the same group of legends which in Danish tradition are
centred round the names Hadingus and Frotho. But in that case there
is considerable probability that these stories have been transferred
to the hero from his namesake, the son of Scyld, who belongs
genealogically to the same group of persons.

This explanation will at all events account for the discrepancy between
the English and Scandinavian accounts of the hero's death[185]. Only
the latter properly comes into consideration for Beowulf the son of
Ecgtheow. For the suggested transference we have a certain analogy in
the various incidents which are connected sometimes with one Frotho,
sometimes with the other. A much better case however occurs in an
English work of later date, the Vitae Duorum Offarum. In that work
Drida, the wife of Offa II (the Mercian king), is represented as a
most desperate character, and incidents are related of her which seem
to be totally incompatible with what we know of this queen--whose real
name was Cynethryth--from contemporary sources. On the other hand they
agree very well with the brief account given in Beowulf of Thrytho
the wife of Offa I (king of Angel). We may compare too the hopeless
confusion which prevails in the chronicles with regard to Anlaf the
son of Sihtric (Olafr Kvaran) and Anlaf the son of Guthfrith. It can
scarcely be doubted that heroic poetry was liable to mistakes of the
same character, although the question has scarcely received as much
attention as it deserves.

In the explanation put forward above I do not mean of course to suggest
that the dragon of northern heroic poetry is always a distorted form
of some marine animal. My view is that this is one of the elements
which have contributed to the formation of the stories--playing a part
similar to that of the crocodile in the legends of southern lands[186].
Dragons endowed with supernatural or at least unnatural characteristics
figure in the folk-tales of many nations throughout the world; and
such stories are by no means restricted to maritime populations. Very
frequently no doubt they are handed on from one people to another, and
their currency is perhaps assisted by works of art. We have to remember
that the word _draca_ is derived from Latin. Yet the conception itself
is probably much older; at all events the association of such monsters
with hoards of gold can be traced back in northern regions to a very
remote antiquity[187].

As regards the origin of this association--which is clearly unnatural
and not due in any way to the influence of marine animals--it may be
noted that the dragon's lair is often a tomb or barrow[188], as in
the case of the one encountered by Beowulf. An explanation of this
phenomenon seems to be afforded by a story relating to the tomb of
Charles Martel, which is found in a number of medieval chronicles. St
Eucherius, bishop of Orleans, in a vision saw Charles in hell, and on
coming to himself begged St Boniface and others to go and inspect the
prince's burial place. On opening the tomb they saw a dragon dart out
suddenly and found the grave all blackened as though it had been burnt
up. Here it would seem that the dragon--a fiery dragon, like the one in
Beowulf--was nothing else than the spirit of the dead prince, and it is
permissible to suspect that such was the case elsewhere. At all events
the fact that dragons are represented as inhabiting tombs is clearly to
be taken in connection with their character as guardians of gold; for
in early times it was customary to bury with the dead a considerable
amount of treasure.

But there is another feature which deserves notice in the story of
Charles Martel's grave. The earliest document[189] in which it is found
dates from the year 858, i.e. about a century after the incident is
said to have taken place. But the closing words of the account[190]
state quite definitely that the writer or writers had known persons
who were present at the opening of the tomb. We have thus to deal with
evidence which is strictly second-hand, as in the case of more than
one remarkable story told by Bede. The explanation lies no doubt in
the fact that the men of that age did not clearly distinguish between
the supernatural and that which is merely unusual. At such a time if a
person asserted that he had seen a fiery dragon, his statement would be
received doubtless with wonder but not necessarily with incredulity. As
a matter of fact we find it stated in the Saxon Chronicle[191], _sub
anno_ 793, that in that year fiery dragons were seen flying in the air.
It cannot therefore be assumed with safety either that the killer of a
dragon must be a fictitious person or that the adventure itself must
have been invented long after the hero's time.

* * * * *

In conclusion we have to take account of supernatural properties
possessed by beings which in themselves are natural. As an instance we
may take the speeches of the birds (nuthatches) which in Fáfnismál 32
ff. warn Sigurðr of the treachery prepared for him by Reginn. Similar
stories occur elsewhere in Old Norse literature. Absurd as this belief
may seem we have good contemporary evidence for its existence in
Procopius' account of the Warni, which we discussed in the last chapter
(p. 97 f.).

Under the same head may be mentioned the faculty ascribed to various
persons of being able to change into wolves or bears. As instances
we may mention the case of Sigmundr and Sinfiötli given in Völsunga
Saga, cap. 8, and the story of Biarki discussed above. For the latter
we have already suggested an explanation. But though the motif may
not have been a common one in heroic poetry--as compared with sagas
relating to the Viking Age--there can be no doubt that the belief in
shape-changing goes back to a remote antiquity. It is of frequent
occurrence in poems and stories dealing with the gods, while similar
ideas are widely prevalent among primitive peoples at the present day.

Among other supernatural characteristics may be mentioned that of
invulnerability, through the use of magic which rendered all weapons
harmless--a feature found in Beowulf (in the case of Grendel) as well
as in later works. Often too heroes are capable of superhuman powers
of strength or endurance, as in Beow. 377 ff., 544 ff.[192], though
many of these cases may be set down to mere exaggeration. On the whole
however such characteristics are scarcely as prominent as they are in
the heroic stories of other nations.

The love of the marvellous is more strikingly displayed in Procopius'
account of Britain (_Goth._ IV 20) than in any of the poems which have
come down to us. In the first place he says that the whole country
beyond the great wall (i.e. the Roman Wall) was inhabited only by
snakes and wild beasts, and that if any man ventured there he would
die at once from the pestilential atmosphere. Then he goes on to say
that Britain was the dwelling place of the spirits of the dead, and
describes in detail how certain people who dwelt on the Frankish coast
ferried the souls across. As to the truth of this story Procopius
himself expresses scepticism; yet he states that he had heard it
from numerous witnesses. It is scarcely permissible therefore to
suppose that he had been victimised by a humorist. More probably he is
reporting stories actually current among the Teutonic soldiery in the
Roman army, which doubtless contained adventurers from many distant
lands. In short we have here to do with folk-tales[193] which had
been localised in Britain and were believed to represent its condition
truly at the very time when Procopius was writing. It is exceedingly
remarkable that such stories should obtain credence at a time when,
as we know from more than one source, there was quite a considerable
amount of communication between Britain and the Continent. Indeed
Procopius himself says that large numbers of English emigrants had
recently settled within the Frankish dominions.

* * * * *

In the course of this chapter we have seen that many of
the heroic stories contain elements derived from myth and
folk-tale. The distinction which we have drawn between the two
categories is that only the former deals with definite--though
unhistorical--personalities[194]. It is commonly held that myth is
a necessary element in heroic stories; but this is a question which
we must reserve for discussion in the next chapter. Further, we have
seen that the presence of supernatural elements does not necessarily
mean that the stories in which they occur were composed or modified
long after the events which they relate; that, on the contrary, such
elements are to be found in contemporary or almost contemporary
narratives. They must be taken as faithful reflections of the beliefs
and ideas of an uncritical age. But it is scarcely correct to regard
these elements as the distinctive characteristics of heroic poetry.
Their chief domain in reality is the folk-tale, a far more primitive
form of composition, which without doubt was in existence during the
same period. The truly distinctive characteristics of heroic poetry are
rather those which differentiate it from the folk-tale.

FOOTNOTES:

[164] Under this heading we may include metrical compositions. The term
'folk-song' cannot conveniently be used here, as it has acquired a
wider signification.

[165] _Kilderne til Sakses Oldhistorie_, p. 18 ff.

[166] Ballads on heroic subjects may of course have begun quite early.

[167] Elsewhere this name occurs only in the genealogies, where it is
borne by an ancestor of Woden. It is possible however that in the Elegy
some unknown hero of the Geatas may be meant (cf. Beow. 640, 1785 etc.).

[168] This word is said to occur only here and in a following verse.
From the description the weapon seems to have been a kind of dirk with
a long wooden shaft.

[169] Fornmanna Sögur, III p. 204 ff. (especially p. 223 ff.).

[170] Cf. Brandl, _Grundriss d. germ. Philol._², II p. 993 f. The
following pages (995 f.) contain an admirable summary of the whole
question.

[171] Cf. Hansen, _Landnåm i Norge_, p. 160. For stories of monsters
which suggest savages, cf. Ketils S. Haengs, cap. 2 f., and Gríms S.
Loðinkinna, cap. 1.

[172] A somewhat similar account of Biarki's origin is given in the
(fifteenth century) Biarkarímur.

[173] _Tradunt relaciones antiquorum quod uir quidam nobilis, quem
Dominus permisit, contra solitum ordinem humane propaginis, ex quodam
albo urso patre, muliere generosa matre, procreari, Ursus genuit
Spratlingum; Spratlingus Ulsium; Ulsius Beorn, cognomento Beresune,
hoc est filius ursi. Hic Beorn Dacus fuit natione, comes egregius et
miles illustris. In signum autem illius diversitatis speciei ex parte
generantium produxerat ei natura paternas auriculas, sive ursi etc._
Michel, _Chroniques Anglo-normandes_, p. 104.

[174] _Illum maximum ursum ... cuius pater in silvis fertur puellam
rapuisse et ex ea Biernum regem Norweye genuisse._ ib. p. 7 f. A
similar story is told by Saxo (p. 345 f.) of the ancestry of Svend
Estrithson.

[175] Yet Hialti's third speech (p. 61) contains the words _igne ursos
arcere licet_, the significance of which is obscure. It is curious, as
Prof. Olrik (_Danmarks Heltedigtning_, p. 51) has pointed out, that
Hrólfs Saga (cap. 33) refers to bears in a corresponding place, though
the context is quite different.

[176] Prof. Olrik (_op. cit._, p. 45) says that Biarki's sleep is
certainly of a supernatural character and suggests that it is due to
magical arts on the part of the enemy.

[177] Cf. especially Yngl. S. 6: Othin's men went to battle without
mail-coats and were frenzied like dogs or wolves. They bit into their
shields and were as strong as bears or bulls. They made slaughter of
other men; but neither fire nor iron took effect upon them. This is
called _berserksgangr_.

[178] The identity of the two stories is shown by the fact that in both
cases Hialti is made to drink the creature's blood--a custom known in
Norway in comparatively recent times (cf. Olrik, _op. cit._, p. 118).
The Biarkarímur tell of two encounters, the first with a she-wolf, the
second between Hialti and a bear.

[179] Cf. the Cott. Gnomic Verses, 26 f.: _draca sceal on hlaewe frod
fraetwum wlanc_.

[180] It is generally held that this person's original name was Beowa
or Beaw. The latter is the form given in the genealogy in the Chronicle
(_ad ann._ 855); but in view of the many corruptions which this
genealogy has suffered it may very well be due to a scribal error for
_Beowa_. This again may be a hypocoristic form for _Beowulf_, though on
the other hand it is by no means impossible that the name of the son
of Scyld has been assimilated to that of the hero of the poem. But in
any case there does not seem to be any adequate ground for the commonly
accepted view that the adventure with Grendel originally belonged to
this person.

[181] In Skiöldunga Saga, Langfeðgatal etc. Halfdan's father is not
Friðfróði (Saxo's Frotho I) but Fróði hinn froekni (Saxo's Frotho IV),
the Froda of Beowulf.

[182] As regards Frotho's parentage--Saxo makes him son of Hadingus,
son of Gram, son of Scioldus. In Skiöldunga Saga, Langfeðgatal etc.
Friðfróði is son of Friðleifr, son of Skiöldr; while Fróði hinn froekni
is son of Friðleifr, son of Danr.

[183]

_Tantum pene uis celica pensat.
quippe unum e superis alieno corpore tectum
sacrilege necuere manus: sic numinis almi
interfector ades._

[184] We may compare the case of Apollo and the Python at Delphi, and
possibly the story of Thor (Miðgarðs véurr) and Miðgarðsormr. Note
should also be taken of the existence of a local tradition--going back
apparently to the Middle Ages--to the effect that the Isefjord was
formerly haunted by a monster which demanded a human victim from every
ship that passed. It was finally expelled by the arrival of the relics
of St Lucius, to whom Roeskilde cathedral is dedicated (cf. Sarrazin,
_Beowulf-Studien_, p. 10 ff.). The traditional burial-place of Fróði
the Peaceful is on the shore of the Roeskilde Fjord; but the two fjords
have a common entrance.

[185] It does not of course remove all difficulties. The chief of these
perhaps is the presence of Wiglaf, who seems clearly to belong to
Beowulf, the son of Ecgtheow. The discrepancy between the names Beowulf
and Fróði is of minor account, since the latter may very well have
originated in a title (cf. Beow. v. 2928). On the other hand if this
person is really a mythical national hero the name _Beowa_ (perhaps for
an earlier form _Biowi_) would seem more natural than _Beowulf_. Yet
there may have been intermediate stages between the original hero and
the person finally credited with the exploit.

[186] Thus upon some of these legends a good deal of light seems to be
thrown by certain usages cited by Mr Frazer in his _Lectures on the
Early History of the Kingship_, p. 180.

[187] Herodotus (III 116, IV 13, 27) speaks of a region in the extreme
north of Europe or Asia which was said to be inhabited by gold-guarding
griffins (χρυσοφύλακες γρύπες, cf. _goldweard_, Beow. 3082).

[188] Cf. the reference to the Gnomic verses quoted on p. 123, note.

[189] Epistola Synodi Carisiacensis ad Hludowicum regem Germaniae
directa (Mon. Germ., Legum Sect. II, Capit. Reg. Franc., Tom. II, p.
432 f.).

[190] _nos autem illos uidimus qui usque ad nostram aetatem durauerunt,
qui huic rei interfuerunt et nobis uiua uoce ueraciter sunt testati
quae audierunt atque uiderunt._

[191] Texts D, E, F. This entry seems to come from the Northumbrian
_Gesta_, which were probably composed not very long afterwards. The
last entry which we can trace is for the year 806.

[192] A curious light on the enormous strength ascribed to Beowulf is
thrown by a passage in the Liber Monstrorum (cf. p. 24). It is there
stated that Hygelac (Beowulf's uncle) was of such immense size that no
horse could carry him after he reached the age of twelve. His bones
were shown as a marvel to visitors.

[193] The folk-tale represented by the second story may of course be
derived ultimately from some ancient custom; cf. Beow. 26-52.

[194] Not, of course, personalities consciously invented by an
individual brain; these must be classed under fiction. On the other
hand myth must be held to include personifications of the heavenly
bodies and natural phenomena--as (e.g.) in Gylfaginning, cap. 10
ff. (from Vafþrúðnismál, etc.), and certain Lithuanian folk-songs
('Dainos')--in so far at least as such personifications are of popular
origin.

CHAPTER VII.

MYTHICAL ELEMENTS IN THE HEROIC POEMS.

We have now to consider the question whether myth is a necessary
element in the formation of heroic poetry. It has been noticed that
historical persons figure in many stories of the Heroic Age, while
others do not contain a single character whose historical existence
can be authenticated. These latter stories are believed to be wholly
mythical in origin, though they may not show any supernatural features
in their final form. But even in stories of the former type it is held
that some of the characters are almost always of mythical origin,
and that their association with historical characters is a secondary
development--due to confusion or to poetic imagination.

In the last chapter we put forward the view that Beowulf, the hero
of the poem, has been confused with a mythical character of the same
name, and that the adventure with the dragon originally belonged to the
latter. It can scarcely be doubted that Scyld Scefing, the father of
this earlier Beowulf, was also a mythical character. The only element
in his story common to English and Scandinavian tradition is that he is
regarded as the ancestor of the Scyldungas or Skiöldungar, the Danish
royal family, and all analogies suggest that he came into existence
as their eponymus. The brief account of him given in the poem might,
except in two particulars, be applied to almost any successful king of
the Heroic Age. One exception relates to the story of the funeral ship,
on which the dead king's body is sent out to sea. In spite of Prof.
Olrik's doubts[195] I cannot but think that this is a reminiscence of
ancient custom. The other is the reference to his arrival as an infant,
likewise by sea--a story told more fully of Sceaf in certain English
chronicles. The only question here is between myth and folk-tale. The
story may fairly be classed under the latter head, though I think
its origin is ultimately to be sought in a ritual myth. Scandinavian
authorities, apart from Saxo[196], record nothing distinctive of
Skiöldr, except that he was a son of Othin and the husband of the
goddess Gefion[197]--which again points to myth.

In Scyld-Skiöldr we have the case of an eponymous ancestor appearing in
the introduction to a poem which deals largely with the fortunes of his
descendants. But there is no evidence that his own deeds ever formed
the subject of an independent heroic poem. It would be somewhat hasty
therefore to use this case as an argument for the origin of characters
who are brought before us in the main action of heroic poems.

Next we may take the story of Weland, as to the mythical origin of
which nearly all scholars seem to be agreed. It has indeed a historical
or semi-historical connection in the fact that Weland is represented
as the father of Widia (Wudga), i.e. the early Gothic hero Vidigoia
mentioned by Jordanes (cf. p. 27); but this is held to be a secondary
element in the story. In its original form the story is believed to
have dealt only with the incidents related in Völundarkviða, viz. (i)
the adventure with the swan-maidens, (ii) Weland's imprisonment by
Nithhad and his revenge[198]. Behind the story itself however there
lies a widespread belief in the existence of a supernatural smith of
this name. Several places in Germany (Westphalia and Holstein) are
reputed to be the scene of his operations, while in this country he
is connected with the cromlech called Wayland Smith, near Ashdown in
Berkshire. In its ultimate origin this belief is traced to the myth of
a fire-demon. Certainly it is to be noted that the name _Weland_ is of
a very exceptional type--apparently participial in form. One can hardly
help suspecting that it once had a definite meaning, though this cannot
now be determined with certainty[199].

Now there can be little doubt that the adventure with the swan-maidens
is derived from a folk-tale. In this part of the story there is no
indication of a fire-demon, or even of a smith, while analogies for
the incident are fairly common both in Teutonic lands and much farther
afield. We may confine our attention therefore to the second and better
known part--that which deals with Weland's imprisonment and revenge.

It is manifest that this story departs very decidedly from the ordinary
standard of heroic poetry--firstly in the fact that the hero is here
clearly represented as a smith, and secondly in the cruelty, treachery
and vindictiveness ascribed to the chief characters. These are features
which would be in place either in myth or folk-tale. But we may note
further that there are analogies for part of this story, just as much
as for the incident of the swan-maidens. As an example we may take
Saxo's account of the robbing of Mimingus by Hotherus (p. 70 f.).
Mimingus is a _satyrus_, i.e. clearly either an elf or dwarf, who
dwells in a cave in an almost inaccessible forest. Hotherus surprises
and binds him and then takes away his sword and a magical ring. A
connection between the two stories is shown even in the name, for
Weland's most famous sword is called Mimming[200]. For a more remote
parallel we may compare the story of Loki and Andvari. Indeed the
spoiling of a dwarf is quite a common motif in Northern tales, while at
the same time such beings are constantly credited with extraordinary
skill in metallurgy. The distinctive feature in the story of Weland,
apart from the revenge, is that sympathy is on the side of the smith.

It is the end of the story--where Weland (Völundr) rises into the air
and flies away--that is supposed to point most clearly to a fire-myth.
But this feature cannot be traced except in the Norse version[201].
Moreover here we have also the adventure with the flying swan-maidens,
in whose case there is no suspicion of such a myth. Setting aside this
incident the story is perfectly explicable as a folk-tale founded on
actual experience. There can be no doubt that in the Heroic Age--and
indeed in much earlier times--princes were especially anxious to obtain
slaves, whether foreigners or not, who were skilled in metallurgy. And
it is by no means incredible that such slaves were sometimes lamed in
order to prevent any attempt at escape--although, quite apart from this
explanation, smith's work may be regarded as a vocation natural to the
lame man, just as minstrelsy to the blind. Further, it is likely enough
that servile smiths, when cruelly treated, would take any opportunity
that presented itself of avenging themselves on their masters. For
the murder of Nithhad's sons we have a somewhat striking historical
parallel in Eugippus' Life of St Severinus (cap. 8). Feletheus, king of
the Rugii, who were settled on the Danube in the time of Odoacer, had a
young son who one day was entrapped by some goldsmiths in the queen's
service. They threatened to take his life; but the saint intervened and
rescued the boy on condition of the smiths obtaining their freedom[202].

What seems to me to be really the most remarkable feature in the
story is that a person in this position should come to be made the
subject of heroic or semi-heroic poetry; for it is plain enough from
many sources, especially Saxo's History, that smiths were generally
regarded with deep aversion. In Deor's Elegy Weland is said to be a
more distinguished man than Nithhad; in Völundarkviða he is called a
chief of the elves, while the introduction makes him the son of a king
of the Finns. Yet, except in the late Thiðreks Saga, his father's name
is never given, and none of our authorities credit him with possessing
a following of his own.

Now is there any real necessity for the assumption that Weland's
relationship to Widia is a secondary development? It is found in two
of the three national versions of the story[203], and hence dates back
in all probability at least to the sixth century. It is not found in
the Völundarkviða; but then Widia is altogether forgotten or unknown in
Northern tradition. Moreover there is a distinct reference to offspring
of Weland and Beaduhild at the end of the poem. Once grant that the
relationship is old and the reason for the heroic treatment of the
story becomes obvious. It is merely the reflection of the son's fame
upon the father. As Widia is never said to be the son of anyone else
the probability is that he was supposed to be illegitimate, and that a
story was soon current as to his being the offspring of a union between
a princess and a bondsmith. In such a case there would be a natural
tendency to the accumulation of material from folk-tales about his
parentage.

If this view is correct the story must of course come originally
from the Goths or some neighbouring people. I cannot see that the
Westphalian traditions are any more conclusive than the Berkshire
cromlech as to its original home. If Weland was a character of
folk-tale and his name had at one time a definite meaning, these
local traditions may have been quite independent of the heroic story.
The real difficulty seems to me to lie in determining the amount of
material from folk-tale contained in the latter. We need not entertain
any doubt as to the adventure with the swan-maidens. But what about
Nithhad and Beaduhild? The latter name is not obviously framed to suit
the character or circumstances of the unfortunate princess. _Nithhad_
might be explained more easily in this way; yet a Gothic prince of
that name is recorded by Jordanes (cap. 22). At all events there is
no conclusive evidence in either case that these characters did not
originally belong to the story of Widia.

Another story which is believed to be of wholly mythical origin is
that of Heðinn and Högni. In Kûdrûn it appears as the introduction to
a much longer story, from which point of view it bears a superficial
resemblance to the story of Scyld and possibly to that of Weland. But
since this feature is peculiar to the German poem and the second story
seems to be entirely unknown from other sources, we can hardly do
otherwise than treat the story of Heðinn and Högni as an independent
narrative.

This must have been one of the most popular stories of the Heroic
Age, since it can be traced in England, as well as in Germany and the
North. None of the characters however can be traced in any historical
work[204], and the time to which it refers is quite uncertain. The
Northern version of the story contains a supernatural element in the
endless battle which forms its conclusion. It is generally held that
this is the oldest element in the story and that Hild, whose name means
'war,' was really a valkyrie. The whole story then is to be regarded
as a myth of 'unceasing strife between conflicting powers[205].' But
we may naturally ask whether it is truly scientific, when dealing
with a story known from three separate national traditions, to regard
as the original element a feature found in only one of the three. It
may be urged of course that the reconciliation, which in Kûdrûn[206]
takes the place of the tragic ending found in the Northern version,
rendered it necessary to drop the mythical element; and again that we
have extremely little information about the English form of the story.
The latter remark is certainly true; but the little that we do know
practically precludes the possibility of a mythical interpretation.
Strictly speaking the passage in Deor's Elegy (cf. p. 56) is not a
reference to the story at all, but a matter of fact statement by the
poet that he had been in the service of the Heodeningas. Hence, in
view of the fact that this passage--together with Widsith, v. 21--is
probably by far the earliest reference to the story which we possess,
I cannot regard the mythical interpretation as anything more than an
extremely doubtful hypothesis[207].

* * * * *

Thus far we have been dealing with stories which are supposed to be
of entirely mythical origin. Now we have to consider certain cases in
which elements undoubtedly historical are believed to be blended with
myth. As examples of this type we may take the stories of Waldhere and
Sigurðr. In both cases the historical elements are practically the same.

In the former case it should be mentioned that the mythical theory is
by no means universally accepted. Those scholars however who do adopt
this interpretation base their view upon a supposed connection between
the story of Waldhere and that of Heðinn and Högni. The chief points of
resemblance between the two are as follows: (i) The heroine is called
in the one case Hiltgund (Hildegyth), in the other Hildr (Hild). (ii)
Both stories deal with abduction (so-called) and then with fighting.
(iii) The man (Waldhere, Heðinn) who carries off the girl has in both
cases to fight with a man called Hagen or Högni. (iv) In both cases the
combatants have previously been friends--though strictly this feature
applies only to the Northern version of the Heðinn story. Now the
first consideration carries no weight at all; for half the feminine
names which occur in Anglo-Saxon heroic poetry contain the element
_-hild-_ (e.g. _Beaduhild_, _Hildeburg_), while in the Continental and
Scandinavian authorities also they are extremely common. Again, the
last consideration obviously has little validity, except when taken
in conjunction with the other two. But these (the second and third)
points of resemblance are, it seems to me, altogether misleading.
To begin with it is hardly correct to apply the term 'abduction' to
an escape of hostages, such as the story of Waldhere relates; at
all events the conditions have nothing in common. Then the fight
which follows is not, as in the case of Heðinn and Högni, with an
aggrieved father, or indeed with a pursuing force of any kind; it is an
unprovoked attack made by a third party in the hope of plunder. Lastly,
the part played by the person called Hagen (Högni) is quite different
in the two cases. In one he is the injured father who is wholly
responsible for the fight; in the other he is a vassal of Gunther
(Guthhere), who is only drawn into it, with great reluctance, through
the obligation of avenging his nephew (Patufrit), who has already been
slain.

It is true that a different version of the story appears in Thiðreks
Saga af Bern[208]. Here Högni (Hagen) is represented as pursuing the
fugitives on behalf of Attila, while Guthhere does not appear. Now it
has been widely assumed that this version is an independent and more
original form of the story than that contained in Ekkehard's work, in
spite of the fact that it does not make its appearance till nearly
three centuries after the latter--and probably nearly six centuries
after the composition of the Anglo-Saxon poem. But the lapse of time in
itself provides a perfectly adequate explanation of such divergencies,
especially if we bear in mind the unfavourable conditions under which
the heroic stories were preserved in Germany during the early Middle
Ages. As the stories gradually became forgotten two tendencies are
constantly observable: (i) to connect stories or incidents which
originally were quite distinct, (ii) within the individual story to
lose sight of all except the outstanding characters and incidents.
Hence it is only in accordance with what we might expect that two
different sets of opponents of the hero should be confused. For a
parallel we may compare the late North German ballad on Eormenric's
death (cf. p. 9), which describes how Theodric with eleven companions
broke into the king's castle and slew him. It is generally agreed that
this ballad is due to confusion of some kind with the story of Hamðir
and Sörli[209], who were likewise enemies of Eormenric, though not
connected in any way with Theodric.

The saga itself really contains evidence which points to an earlier
form of the story agreeing with that given by Ekkehard. For the hero
is called Valtari af Vaskasteini[210], and there can be no doubt that
this expression is to be explained by the rocky defile mentioned by
Ekkehard (v. 490 ff.) in the Vosges (_saltus Vosagus_)--on the confines
of Guthhere's dominions. Further it is to be noted that the story is
introduced as an episode in the relations of Theodric and Eormenric,
and that the hero is represented as a nephew of the last named. All
scholars are agreed that this is due to late combination--and no doubt
rightly. Yet Waldhere is associated with Theodric and Eormenric also in
a number of German poems which are quite independent of the saga, and
consequently it is by no means improbable that these combinations both
preceded and helped to bring about the disappearance of Guthhere from
the story.

In its earlier form the affinities of the story with that of Heðinn and
Högni are, as we have seen, scarcely worth consideration. Yet apart
from this supposed connection there is no case for believing it to have
a mythical foundation--except the assumption that myth is a necessary
ingredient in every heroic story. Whether it is to be regarded as
history or fiction is of course quite a different question and one
which we shall have to consider later.

Of all the stories of the Heroic Age probably none has been more
frequently referred to a mythical origin than that which deals with
Sigurðr (Siegfried). It is held by the great majority of scholars
that the Nibelungenlied and the corresponding Edda poems--or rather
the earlier poems or legends on which both were based--came into
existence through the amalgamation of an essentially mythical story
with historical traditions of Attila and the fall of the Burgundian
kingdom[211]. The original elements of the former are believed to have
been as follows: A young prince is brought up by a cunning smith in
a forest, away from his father's home. On reaching manhood he gains
an immense treasure by killing a dragon; also he releases a maiden
by overcoming difficulties and dangers, by fire or water, which were
insurmountable to any other person. These two adventures are connected
by many scholars. Later, the hero falls into the hands of foes, who
slay him and take for themselves his wife and treasure.

It is held that this story was originally a myth of light and
darkness--applying however to the course of the year as well as to
that of the day. Sigurðr himself is a 'light-hero' and Brynhildr
a 'sun-maiden' whom he releases at the dawn, while the treasure
represents the blossoms of summer which the light-hero likewise wins
by destroying the dragon of winter. Then, in the evening or autumn, he
has to yield to the powers of darkness or winter. The original name
of these powers was Niflungar or Nibelunge, a name connected with Old
Norse _nifl_, 'mist,' _Niflheimr_, 'Hades.' Their chief representative
is Högni or Hagen, who, like Sigurðr and Brynhildr, belongs to the
mythical elements of the story. Many scholars also hold that the
powers which destroyed the hero and appropriated his wife and treasure
were originally identical with those from which he had won them at
the beginning; and this view seems to be more or less involved by the
interpretation given above, since day and night, winter and summer are
constantly alternating with one another.

Now it will be obvious at once that the story as thus reconstructed
differs greatly from both the forms in which it has come down to us.
Indeed the only original feature preserved in both versions is the
slaying of the dragon by Sigurðr. But it is only in the Norse version
that the hero gains the treasure thereby; in the Nibelungenlied this
is obtained by a different encounter, with two princes named Schilbung
and Nibelung, while in the Seyfridslied it really belonged to certain
dwarfs, the sons of Nybling[212]. Again, only the Norse version
records that Sigurðr released Brynhildr--from a perpetual sleep with
which she had been punished; the incident is not connected with the
dragon adventure. The Seyfridslied does relate that the hero rescued
a maiden from a dragon; but here the maiden is Kriemhild, whom the
dragon has carried off from her home. Further, it is only in the German
version that Hagen kills the hero. In the Norse version the actual
perpetrator of the deed is Gutthormr, but the instigator is Brynhildr
herself. Lastly, neither version of the story makes Brynhildr or the
treasure return to their former owners, although--in the German version
only--the first owners of the treasure bear the same name as those into
whose possession it comes after the hero's death.

It appears then that the original form of this story has been greatly
obscured in both versions. The explanation given is that, through
confusion with a historical tradition, the Burgundian kings, Gunnarr
(Gunther) and his brothers, have taken the place (as well as the name)
of the Niflungar. Hence, in order to form a just estimate of the theory
it is necessary to examine the various mythical characters separately.
These are--in addition to the dragon--Brynhildr, Sigurðr and the
Niflungar, including Högni.

The evidence for believing that Brynhildr was originally a mythical
character lies chiefly[213] in the identification of her with the
valkyrie Sigrdrífa (cf. p. 13), who is mentioned only in the Norse
version. The identity of the two characters is clearly recognised in
the Helreið Brynhildar and also in the prose authorities. On the other
hand it is not recognised in Grípisspá, which is supposed to be a late
work, while the other poems leave it uncertain. The evidence therefore
on the whole is not very strong.

In the case of Sigurðr the evidence, apart from the valkyrie incident,
rests upon his being the slayer of the dragon. But it is agreed that
this part of the story must be connected with the similar adventure
attributed by Beowulf to Sigemund (Sigmundr); so that the question at
issue is whether the exploit was first related of the father or the
son. We have already seen (p. 123) that the argument in favour of the
latter based on the agreement of the Norse and German authorities is
in reality misleading. Hence the balance of probability is in favour
of believing that the incident has been transferred to Sigurðr from
Sigemund.

In the case of the Niflungar the evidence depends upon the
interpretation of the name. The use of the name is certainly somewhat
curious. In the Seyfridslied (Part II) the dwarfs are called sons
of Nybling. In the first half of the Nibelungenlied Nibelung is the
name of one of the brothers slain by Siegfried in his youth, while
the people who become subject to him, together with the treasure,
on the death of the brothers, are collectively called Nibelunge. In
the latter half of the poem however the same name is applied to the
Burgundians. In the Norse version _Niflungar_ always means Gunnarr and
his people (i.e. the Burgundians), except perhaps in the expressions
_arfi Niflunga_, _hodd Niflunga_ (in Atlakviða), by which the prose
authorities at all events understood the treasure which Sigurðr had
taken from Fáfnir. The explanation given for this double use of the
name is as follows. Originally it belonged to the mythical enemies of
Sigurðr, i.e. Högni and his people--whether these were identical with
the former owners of the treasure or not. Later, when Högni became
associated with the historical Burgundian kings (Gunnarr etc.), the
use of the term was extended so as to embrace them also. But it is
to be observed that the interpretation of the name _Niflungar_ as
'children of mist' or 'darkness' is not free from difficulty. In the
Edda it is twice written _Hniflung-_[214], and on both occasions the
_H-_ alliterates, whereas alliteration with _n-_ is never found. This
fact suggests that the original form of the name was _Hniflungar_ and
that the form without _H-_ is due to later influence--presumably on the
part of scribes--from German sources, where of course the _H-_ (before
_-n-_) would regularly be lost at a much earlier date. If so the name
cannot originally have had any connection with O. Norse _nifl_, etc.

In all these three cases then the evidence for the mythological
interpretation of the story seems to be at best inconclusive. But
we have yet to consider the case of Högni; and here it must be
remarked that the demonic character of Högni is quite essential
to the mythological theory. In the Norse version Gutthormr is a
mere instrument and the person really responsible for the murder
is Brynhildr herself--a feature obviously incompatible with the
interpretation which we are discussing. Högni's mythical origin is as
necessary for this interpretation as that of Sigurðr or Brynhildr. In
order to maintain the theory the mythical character must be vindicated
in all three cases alike.

Now it has been remarked that Hagen (_Haguno_, _Hagano_ etc.) is
not uncommon as a personal name even in quite early times. This is
a curious fact if the name had such associations[215]. But there
is a much more serious difficulty. It is altogether contrary to
reason or probability to separate Hagen the vassal of Gunther in
the Nibelungenlied from Hagen the vassal of the same Gunther in the
story of Waldhere. His character in the two cases is certainly quite
different. He is brave in both; but in the former he is both faithless
and cruel, whereas in the latter he is an honourable man who is
reluctantly drawn by circumstances into a course of action of which
he heartily disapproves. But this is precisely the character borne by
Högni in the Norse version of the story of Sigurðr--a fact which is
the more remarkable since this type of character is extremely rare in
heroic poetry. The agreement between the story of Waldhere and the
Norse version seem to me to render it overwhelmingly probable that the
character which they ascribe to Högni was that which he originally bore.

I am not arguing now to prove that Högni was a historical person. He
may be of fictitious origin or even mythical (though the latter seems
to me extremely improbable). But if so clearly he must have been taken
either from the story of Sigurðr into that of Waldhere, or from the
story of Waldhere into that of Sigurðr. Which of the two he belonged
to originally is a question of minor importance. The essential point
is that an earlier German form of the story of Sigurðr must be the
link between the Norse version and the story of Waldhere; for there is
no evidence that the story of Waldhere itself was ever known in the
North. The conclusion to which we are naturally brought is that in this
earlier German form of the story Högni bore the same character which is
attributed to him in the Norse version. This character however is of
course totally incompatible with a demonic origin; and here, it seems
to me, the interpretation which we are discussing hopelessly breaks
down.

I cannot help thinking that the investigation of the whole story has
been greatly prejudiced by the application of wrong methods. There
can be no doubt that a story of some kind--in which the adventures of
Sigurðr were already combined with those of the historical Burgundian
princes--was in existence long before the date of the earliest
extant records, and that from this story, whether it was embodied in
a single poem or consisted only of a mass of lays or legends, both
the Norse and German versions are ultimately derived. It seems to me
that, before trying to ascertain the origin of the various elements
contained in the story, the object should be to determine the main
features of this common foundation. The way to achieve this end is
surely not by arbitrarily selecting one feature from the Norse version
and another from the German, but by bringing together all the various
features which the two have in common. To carry out such a process
systematically would be quite beyond the scope of this book, but a
brief outline of the scheme may not be out of place here.

First then we will take the part of the story relating to the hero's
early adventures, which is preserved mainly in a different set of
authorities from the rest. The chief German authority is the late
Seyfridslied which, as we have seen, is really made up of two
different ballads, inconsistent with one another. The Nibelungenlied
contains only allusions to this part of the story, the action proper
beginning shortly before the hero's arrival at Worms. The Norse version
is given in the trilogy, Reginsmál, Fáfnismál and Sigrdrífumál, as well
as in Völsunga Saga, which is derived from these poems. The account
given in Thiðreks Saga is mainly a combination of the German and Norse
versions, though it has one or two features peculiar to itself.

In this part of the story the common elements are very few in number.
(1) Sigurðr kills a dragon; (2) Sigurðr gains a great treasure.
In the Norse version the two adventures are combined, but in the
Nibelungenlied the treasure belonged to Nibelung and his brother
who had quarrelled and who are both killed by the hero. It may be
noticed that Reginn and Fáfnir are also brothers who have quarrelled
over a treasure, and they too are both killed by Sigurðr; but Fáfnir
has become a dragon--or perhaps a reptile. The Seyfridslied, Part I
mentions only the killing of a dragon (serpent), while Part II unites
the acquisition of the treasure with the killing of a dragon--a fiery
dragon--but states that the hero erroneously thought that the treasure
belonged to the dragon. Really it belonged to the three sons of the
dwarf-king Nybling, who are friendly to the hero and not killed by
him. As a further common element we may mention (3) that Sigurðr
is brought up by a smith. This story is found in the Seyfridslied,
Part I, and in Thiðreks Saga--practically also in the Edda, since
Reginn is represented as a smith. Again, (4) both in the ballad
and in Norse prose authorities Sigurðr breaks the smith's anvil,
though the circumstances are quite different. It is doubtful whether
we should connect the eating of Fáfnir's heart, which enabled the
hero to understand the birds, with the German story that he became
invulnerable by bathing in the dragon's blood. Further, we have seen
that the awakening of the valkyrie in Sigrdrífumál has practically
nothing in common with the rescue of the maiden (Kriemhild) from the
dragon related in the ballad (Part II). Lastly, it is to be observed
that though the hero's father has the same name (Sigemund) in all
authorities, there is great discrepancy as to his childhood. In the
Edda he is posthumous but knows his parentage, in the Nibelungenlied
he is brought up at his father's court, in the ballad, Part I, he
leaves his home and goes to the smithy, in Part II and Thiðreks Saga
he does not know his parentage--in the latter indeed he is a foundling
and suckled by a hind. It will be seen that this part of the story is
permeated throughout by the supernatural and marvellous.

From the time of the hero's arrival at the Burgundian court we may
take the Nibelungenlied for the German version, while the Norse one is
best represented by the poems from the fragmentary Sigurðarkviða I to
Atlamál. For the earlier portion we have also to use Völsunga Saga and
the prose Edda in place of certain poems which are lost (cf. p. 13). In
this part of the story the elements common to the two versions are far
more numerous and striking. (1) Sigurðr comes to the Rhineland (Worms
in the German version) and marries a sister (Guðrún, Kriemhild) of King
Gunnarr (Gunther). (2) Sigurðr in supernatural disguise wins Brynhildr
for Gunnarr. (3) Sigurðr again in supernatural disguise sleeps with
Brynhildr and takes from her a ring[216]. (4) Brynhildr quarrels with
Sigurðr's wife, and the latter shows her the ring[216]. (5) Brynhildr
bitterly resents the treatment she has received and devises the hero's
death. (6) Sigurðr is killed by treachery; but the versions differ in
regard to the perpetrator of the deed. (7) The hero's widow is for a
long time irreconcilable, but eventually is married to Atli (Etzel).
(8) Gunnarr with Högni and many others are invited to Atli's home. (9)
The gold is sunk in the Rhine. (10) Gunnarr and Högni are captured
alive and the rest killed in Atli's land. (11) A demand for the gold is
made and refused. (12) Gunnarr and Högni are killed.

It will be seen that the supernatural is here confined to (2) and (3);
indeed these are almost the only incidents in which it occurs in this
part of the story. There is a difference between the two versions in
regard to the character of the supernatural disguise. In the Norse
version, where the two incidents are combined, Sigurðr and Gunnarr have
exchanged forms; in the German Gunther is present in both cases, though
Siegfried, who has rendered himself invisible, is the real actor.
Several other important differences between the two versions have
already been noted (p. 13 f.). In addition to these each version has of
course many characters and incidents peculiar to itself.

Of the discrepancies enumerated on p. 13 f. the fifth is by far the
most important, since Kriemhild's revenge for Siegfried forms the
central motif of the second half of the Nibelungenlied. In the Norse
version no such central motif is to be found. In the prose piece
Dráp Niflunga Atli's conduct is attributed to revenge for the death
of Brynhildr, while in Völsunga Saga it is ascribed to his lust for
Sigurðr's gold. But in the poems themselves no real explanation is
given, and the connection between this part of the story and that
relating to Sigurðr is scarcely more than a personal one--viz. that
Guðrún, Gunnarr and Högni figure in both. This however is a phenomenon
for which parallels are to be found in other heroic stories, e.g.
those of Beowulf and Weland. It is now held--and doubtless rightly--by
the majority of scholars that the unity of interest imparted to
the Nibelungenlied by the motif of Kriemhild's revenge is a later
improvement on the somewhat disconnected story given in the Edda. For
our present purpose however the question is immaterial, since it is not
contended that this part of the story is of mythical origin.

In spite of the discrepancies noted above it cannot be denied that
the two versions contain a remarkable number of identical features in
this part of the story--a fact which renders all the more striking the
very slight amount of agreement in the part dealing with the hero's
early adventures. Unless all analogies are misleading the conclusion to
which we are driven is that the original story began more or less where
the Nibelungenlied begins, and that the hero's youthful adventures
are later accretions, such as we see gathering round the childhood or
ancestry of other heroes, e.g. Biarki (cf. p. 120). We may add also the
cases of Starkaðr, Hagen in Kûdrûn and perhaps Witege (cf. p. 135).
They appear to be derived, in part at least, from folk-tales. One of
these--affecting probably only the Norse version--may be identified
with the Scandinavian story of Svipdagr and Menglöð (cf. p. 12), a
variety perhaps of that of the Sleeping Beauty. Another is that of the
forest dwarf who forges or preserves a magical sword. We may note
that in Thiðreks Saga the smith is called Mimir, a name which recalls
Saxo's Mimingus (cf. p. 133)[217]. The story of the treasure-guarding
dragon may also be included in this category, though strictly perhaps
it belongs rather to popular belief than to folk-tale. From the fact
that some of these elements are common to both versions we may probably
infer that the process of accretion had begun before the story reached
the North. Yet there do seem to be some indications of a reflex
influence[218]--from the North or some region exposed to Northern
influence--upon the development of the story in Germany.

In addition to folk-tales we must take into consideration also a
tendency which is often associated with them--the desire to account for
an obscure name. This seems to be the most reasonable explanation of
the names _Nibelung_ and _Nibelunge_ in the first part of the German
epic and _Nybling_ in the ballad--all denoting the original owners of
the treasure. We have seen that in the Norse version, as well as in the
latter half of the Nibelungenlied, _Niflungar_ means the Burgundians.
May we not suppose that it was really a dynastic name[219] like
_Scyldungas_, _Uffingas_, _Merewioingas_? In that case of course _hodd
Niflunga_ (_hort der Nibelunge_) ought to mean the family treasure of
the Burgundian kings. But is it quite certain that Atlakviða does not
use it in this sense? That it is identified with Fáfnir's treasure in
later authorities may be due to subsequent German influence. As for
the fact that the name _Nibelunge_ is used for the Burgundians only
in the second half of the German epic, may not this spring from some
stylistic peculiarities of the 'common foundation'? It is not necessary
to suppose that the latter was all the work of one author or even of
one generation.

In dealing with questions such as these we cannot hope to get beyond a
reasonable hypothesis, since the paucity of common features between
the two versions admits of few definite conclusions. But from the
time when the hero arrives at the Burgundian court the case is quite
different. In spite of certain discrepancies there is no difficulty in
determining the main outline of the story. Even in the most important
point of all--the true cause of the hero's death--the two versions are
really in full agreement. Gutthormr does the deed in one version, Hagen
in the other; but in both alike it arises out of the bitter resentment
cherished by Brynhildr, owing to the deception which has been practised
upon her. We have seen that this motif is incompatible with the current
mythological interpretation of the story. But more than this, it is
plainly not a motif derived from mythology at all, but from real life.

It must not be overlooked that the Brynhildr and Högni of the Norse
version are in the nature of character-studies. Both appeal to our
sympathies, though we do not approve of the actions which they commit
or allow. Here we are in a region of thought as alien as possible to
that of the folk-tale. But it is also alien to that period of thought,
which was most open to the influence of folk-tales, the period which we
have called Stage III in the history of German poetry. In such a period
the person who destroyed the hero must necessarily be a villain as
black as Hell. Between the instigator of the deed and the perpetrator,
who by this time was Hagen--whether this was so originally or not is
immaterial--the choice was made, not unnaturally in the circumstances,
in favour of the latter, while the former was allowed, awkwardly
enough, to drop out of the story. Thus the peculiarities of the German
version may be explained quite naturally as modifications of an earlier
form similar to the other--modifications necessitated by the conditions
under which heroic poetry was preserved in Germany. The effect produced
is somewhat similar to that which would be obtained by converting a
modern problem play into a popular melodrama.

The conclusion then to which we are brought is that the supposed
traces of myth, so far as they have any foundation at all, are due
to late accretions to the story, while the central motif in both
versions alike is by no means of a mythical character, but essentially
human. Consequently the story of Sigurðr stands quite on a line with
the other stories of the Heroic Age. Most of them contain elements
which may be interpreted as mythical; but these elements are always
most prominent in the latest forms of the story. It must not escape
notice that those scholars who most strongly uphold the mythical
interpretation base their arguments chiefly on such works as the
Seyfridslied and Thiðreks Saga af Bern. The explanation is that
myth is a growth which requires time to develop. Even Beowulf is no
real exception to the general rule, for in the latter part the hero
is probably confused with a namesake whose story may have been of
considerable antiquity, while the only character in the poem who is
quite clearly of mythical origin is the first ancestor of the Danish
royal family[220].

FOOTNOTES:

[195] _Danmarks Heltedigtning_, p. 248 ff. With this subject I have
already dealt in _The Origin of the English Nation_, p. 287 f.

[196] Saxo (p. 11 f.) records several incidents of which we know
nothing from other sources. He represents Skiöldr (_Scioldus_) as a
reformer of the laws, but not as the first king.

[197] This is stated only in Ynglinga Saga (cap. 5); but the question
to be asked is whether it is likely that such a combination would be
invented in late times.

[198] From Deor's Elegy and the picture on the Franks casket in the
British Museum it is clear that almost all the main features of the
second part of the story were known in England. Reminiscences of the
first part occur in the medieval German poem _Herzog Friedrich von
Schwaben_.

[199] It is usually connected with O. Norse _vél_, 'contrivance,'
'artifice.'

[200] Waldhere, I 2 f.; Thiðreks Saga, cap. 23 etc.

[201] In Thiðreks Saga, cap. 30, Weland flies away in a garment which
he has made from feathers collected for him by his brother Egill. It
is thought by some that the engraver of the Franks casket had the same
story in mind, since a figure catching birds is represented behind the
form of Beaduhild.

[202] It is commonly held that this account has been influenced
somehow by the story of Weland. If so it is a valuable illustration of
the process discussed in p. 119 ff. above. But the view seems to me
somewhat far-fetched.

[203] Waldhere is the only English poem which mentions Weland as the
father of Widia; but I cannot admit that there is any ground for
supposing this poem to have had a different origin from the rest (cf.
p. 57 f.). The variant forms _Widia_--_Wudga_ may be explained by
English sound-laws, while _Niðhad_, whatever its explanation, occurs
also in Deor's Elegy.

[204] Saxo (p. 158 ff.) connects the story with the reign of Frotho III
(Fróði the Peaceful), and this may be an ancient feature, as Fruote von
Tenemarke appears as one of Hetel's chief men in Kûdrûn.

[205] "Ein Bild des unaufhörlichen, allgemeinen, aber nie entschiedenen
Kampfes entgegengesetzter Mächte, des Aufgangs und des Niedergangs,
des Entstehens und Vergehens, des Seins und Nichtseins" (Müllenhoff,
_ZfdA._ XXX 229). Prof. Sijmons (_Grundriss_, III 711, where
this interpretation is quoted with approval) regards the story
as 'tiefsinnig.' I confess the interpretation is too deep for
my comprehension. A totally different view is taken in Panzer's
_Hilde-Gudrun_, where the origin of the story is traced to a folk-tale
(p. 250 ff.). It seems to me that this theory is open to somewhat the
same objection as the other, namely that it is founded too much upon
features peculiar to one or other version. At the same time I doubt
whether Wate's original connection with the story can be properly
inferred from Wids. 21 f. The influence of folk-tales is clear enough
in both versions of the story, but I think it is secondary.

[206] From a passage in Lamprecht's _Alexander_ (v. 1321), a work of
the twelfth century, it appears that Hagen (Högni) was killed in the
earlier German version of the story.

[207] For the endless battle there are a number of parallels; cf.
Panzer, _op. cit._, p. 327 ff. (also Pausanias, I 32. 3, with Mr
Frazer's note).

[208] There is also a Polish version which has several peculiarities of
its own but shows no special affinity with the form of the story found
in Thiðreks Saga.

[209] The early North German version of this story, represented by the
Annals of Quedlinburg (cf. p. 37, note), apparently made Eormenric
perish in the fight.

[210] It is held by many that this name was originally connected with
_Wascono lant_, an early German name for Aquitaine (Gascony) and that
the introduction of the Vosges (_Wasgunberg_) was later and due to
the confusion of two similar names. But, if there has been any such
confusion at all, chronological considerations render it far more
probable that the transference was in the reverse direction.

[211] Among the exceptions mention may be made especially of an
interesting paper by Prof. Mogk in _Neue Jahrbücher_, I pp. 68-80.

[212] It is stated however that Seyfrid thought that it belonged to the
dragon. Hence this story is often connected with the Norse version.

[213] The only German evidence worth consideration is the fact that
certain rocks in the Taunus and the Palatinate are called the 'bed'
or 'chair of Brynhildr' (_lectulus Brunnihilde_, _Brinholdestul_) in
medieval documents. But I do not see how these names can prove anything
more than the popularity of the story. In all lands it is customary to
adopt such names from remarkable characters, whatever their origin may
be. We may think of the cave of Frederic Barbarossa at Berchtesgaden or
the numerous places called after Robin Hood in England.

[214] Helgakv. Hund. I 48, Atlamál 88. In the former case the name is
used quite generally, like _Ylfingar_ in the same poem. In the latter
_Hniflungr_ is the name of Högni's son.

[215] There was of course another heroic character of the same name;
but this does not meet the objection.

[216] On both these occasions the Nibelungenlied mentions also a girdle.

[217] It seems likely that Mímir was the dwarf's original name and that
Saxo has given him a name which properly belonged to his sword; cf. the
phrase _Hoddmímis holt_ (Vafðr. 45), etc.

[218] E.g. the name Schilbung and the references to Norway. The story
of Sigemund and the dragon also belongs to a maritime region.

[219] Cf. Skaldsk. 42: "Gunnarr and Högni are called Niflungar and
Giúkungar."

[220] Cf. Schütte, _Oldsagn om Godtjod_, pp. 35-38, where it is well
pointed out that all the clearest cases of myth in early Teutonic
records belong to stories dealing with the origin of nations or
dynasties. "Den eneste udtrykkelige Myte, der udenfor specielt
religiøse Gøremål har været episk frugtbar i Folkevandringstiden er
Ophavsmyten."

CHAPTER VIII.

THE USE OF FICTION IN THE HEROIC POEMS.

The question how far the use of fiction was permitted in heroic poetry
is of course one to which we cannot possibly hope to give a definite
answer. All poetry which deserves the name claims to do something
more than provide a bare record of facts. According to the ancient
definition[221] its proper function is to express the universal rather
than the particular--what may happen or may have happened rather
than what has happened. Some freedom of play for the imagination is
therefore essential. These remarks hold good for early Teutonic poetry
just as much as for Greek. If we could recover the poems recited in
Attila's presence (cf. p. 84) we should doubtless find that they
contained far more than a mere statement of facts. In the works which
have come down to us however the degree to which freedom is allowed
to the imagination varies very greatly from case to case. Thus in the
poem on the battle of Brunanburh it is restricted within comparatively
narrow limits, while in the almost contemporaneous Hákonarmál the
historical fact on which the poem is based is very largely obscured by
a wholly fictitious narrative. We may naturally expect that the authors
of heroic poems likewise differed in the treatment of their subjects,
though not necessarily to the same degree.

As an instance of a poem which obviously contains a large amount of
fiction we can hardly do better than take the Anglo-Saxon Widsith. The
greater part of this poem consists, as we have seen, of a speech by a
minstrel enumerating the various peoples and princes with whom he was
acquainted. Amongst others he states that he had visited the Gothic
king Eormenric (who died before 375), the Burgundian king Guthhere
(who died about 437) and the Langobardic king Aelfwine (who died about
572). Now it is commonly held that the poem is of composite formation,
and there can be little doubt that additions have been made to it from
time to time. This will account for statements such as those given
above and, though it does not prevent them from being fictitious, it
may enable us to form some idea as to how fiction was used. Poets of
the seventh century probably possessed no chronological tables, and
consequently they may not have been aware that the foreign princes of
whom they were speaking belonged to quite different ages. Yet without
such knowledge the visits of the minstrel may clearly be placed among
the 'things which may have happened.' What these poets certainly did
know was that Eormenric was a prominent figure in some traditional
stories, Guthhere in others. It did no violence to the story (μῦθος)
itself to bring an anonymous character into contact both with Eormenric
and Guthhere, although doubtless no one would have done this while
either of the two was alive or indeed for some time after their death.
But we must not in such cases apply the principle that, since _A_ comes
into contact with both _B_ and _C_, therefore _B_ may come into contact
with _C_--and conclude from it that poets of the seventh century
thought it right to bring Eormenric and Guthhere together in the same
story. That is a more advanced stage and one for which we have no
satisfactory evidence in Anglo-Saxon poetry[222].

Now, if we turn to the Old Norse poems, which date of course from a
much later period, we certainly find this stage reached. Here Guðrún,
the sister of Gunnarr (Guthhere), is represented as the mother of
Svanhildr, the wife of Iörmunrekr (Eormenric), as well as of Hamðir
and Sörli who attacked that king. It is to be observed that there is
no hint of a connection between this story and that of the Burgundian
family except in Norse literature. Even here Guðrún is the sole
connecting link between the two stories, and there can be little doubt
that the confusion is due to a mistaken identification of two different
women. In the account of Iörmunrekr given by Saxo, who apparently
knows nothing of the Norse version of the story of Sigurðr, Guðrún is
the name given not indeed to the mother of Hamðir and Sörli but to a
sorceress consulted by them. If the wife of Sigurðr had originally the
same name the difficulty would be capable of explanation; and it is to
be remembered that the evidence for believing that she was originally
called Grímhildr (Kriemhilt) is by no means of a conclusive character.
For the identification of persons bearing the same name we may compare
the confusion which pervades Scandinavian tradition in regard to the
various kings called Fróði[223].

In other cases where we find two stories which seem to be wholly
irreconcilable with one another, the difficulty can be traced to the
misinterpretation of an epithet. Thus the relationships and adventures
of the Swedish kings mentioned in Beowulf differ a good deal from
what is recorded of the same persons in Norse literature. In Beowulf
the Swedish king Ongentheow has two sons Onela and Ohthere, the
former of whom is married to a sister of the Danish kings Hrothgar
and Halga[224]. Strife breaks out between Onela and his two nephews,
Eanmund and Eadgils, the sons of Ohthere (who is perhaps dead); Eanmund
is slain, but Eadgils with the help of Beowulf succeeds in defeating
and killing his uncle and gaining for himself the throne. In Norse
tradition Aðils (Eadgils) is the son and successor of Óttarr (Ohthere),
but the grandfather is called Egill and there is no mention of Eanmund.
Aðils again is married to Yrsa, who is both the wife and daughter of
Helgi (Halga)--which is hardly compatible with the account given in
Beowulf. He engages in war with a king Áli (Onela) whom he defeats and
kills with the help of Biarki (Beowulf) and other warriors sent to him
by his stepson Hrólfr Kraki. But Áli is said to be a Norwegian, and
there is no hint of any relationship on his part to either the Swedish
or the Danish royal family.

In this story it seems clear that the Norse tradition has been led
astray by a misinterpretation of the expression _hinn Upplenzki_ ('the
man of the Uplands'), which is applied to Áli. There was a district
called Upplönd in Norway, but it was also the name of the Swedish
province in which the capital (Upsala) was situated. Since, according
to Beowulf, Onela was the actual king of the Swedes, there can be no
doubt that it was the latter to which the title originally referred.
The erroneous identification with the Norwegian district--natural
enough in Norse tradition--led to the idea that Áli was an invader, and
hence to further dislocations in the story.

In the group of stories which cluster round Dietrich von Bern we find a
number of unhistorical situations, which may largely be due to similar
mistakes rather than to deliberate invention. Thus when Dietrich
appears at Etzel's court, as in all German authorities, including
Thiðreks Saga af Bern, it is probable that the hero has been confused
with his father (Theodemir), who, as we know from Jordanes, was really
subject to Attila. This situation cannot be traced in Anglo-Saxon
poetry, while in Old Norse literature (apart from Thiðreks Saga) it
is limited to Guðrúnarkviða III[225] and the prose introduction to
Guðrúnarkviða II, which is believed to be derived from the other poem.
The association of Dietrich with Siegfried occurs only in Thiðreks Saga
and some of the later German poems, which seem to invent combinations
quite freely[226].

But a much larger number of authorities, including the Annals of
Quedlinburg, bring Dietrich into connection with Ermanrich and the
early Gothic hero Wittich; and this combination is believed to be of
much greater antiquity, as the names Theodric and Widia are associated
also in the Anglo-Saxon poem Waldhere. Here we are confronted with
a question of great difficulty. The association of Theodric and
Eormenric is unknown to all the early Scandinavian authorities, and
even in Germany it cannot be traced back beyond the end of the tenth
century; in the old Hildebrandslied Dietrich's enemy is called Otachar,
i.e. Odoacer. Further, apart from the passage in Waldhere, there is
little or no decisive evidence for a knowledge of the story of Dietrich
von Bern in England[227]; for the statement in Deor that Theodric
possessed the _Maeringa burg_ for thirty years may just as probably be
applied to the exile of Wolfdietrich with Berchtung of Meran[228]. Now
Dietrich and Wolfdietrich must be confused to some extent in German
tradition, since they are both credited with an exile of thirty years.
Perhaps this confusion goes deeper than is generally recognised. The
true explanation may be that a considerable portion of Wolfdietrich's
story has been transferred to his namesake. I cannot admit that the
identification of Wolfdietrich with the Frankish king Theodberht is
anything more than a very doubtful hypothesis; he may really have been
an early Gothic prince[229]. Certainly the name was extremely common in
that nation, for we meet with four Gothic kings called Theodric within
half a century of one another.

* * * * *

So far we have been dealing with stories which have been
distorted--apparently in quite late times--either by mistaken
identifications or by an erroneous interpretation of some title or
incident. The lapse of time in itself will account for some of these
changes, especially if we bear in mind the influence of Stage III (cf.
p. 94 ff.), through which the stories have passed both in Germany
and in the North. Fiction of a type however, especially the tendency
towards combination, is certainly not wanting. In the medieval German
poems indeed it is widely used and on a scale far more ambitious than
what we have observed in Widsith. Here however we have to take into
account the influence of romantic poetry. The nature of the use of
fiction in the North is not so clear. If it could be proved that such
stories as those of Oddrún and the ordeal of Guðrún originated in
the North we should certainly have to grant that it was of a fairly
advanced type.

Now we must consider certain cases which seem to have originated in
much earlier times. As an instance we may take the Norse story that
Atli was murdered by Guðrún. Now this story conflicts with what appear
to be the true facts in two distinct points: (i) that Attila was
murdered at all; (ii) that the person who was present with him when he
died was anyone whom we can identify with Guðrún. The story that Attila
was murdered by a woman is, as we have seen, one of great antiquity;
but there is nothing to show that this woman was Guðrún. It is true
that Norse and German tradition agree in stating that Attila married a
sister of Guthhere. This is a statement which cannot be proved, though
there is nothing intrinsically improbable in such a marriage. But both
traditions represent Attila and his Burgundian wife as married for a
number of years, and both speak of their children. Yet there can be
little doubt that according to the original story Attila was murdered
by his bride (Ildico) on the night of the wedding. Hence we must surely
trace the origin of the Norse story to a combination between two much
earlier traditions: (1) that Attila married a sister of Guthhere;
(2) that Attila was murdered by his wife. In view of the story of
Guthhere's death--which is common to both traditions and undoubtedly
ancient--it required but little poetic imagination to identify the two
women and to represent the murder as an act of vengeance. I see no
ground for supposing that this combination took place before the Viking
Age. The other story is of course much older; but the evidence seems to
me to point to an origin in common report rather than in poetic fiction.

The story of Hamðir and Sörli is a somewhat different case. Here again,
as we have already seen, Guthhere's sister was drawn into the story
only in the Norse version and probably quite late. But even before this
time it contained features which cannot be regarded as historical.
In the Danish (Saxo's) version also Svanhildr appears as the wife of
Iörmunrekr; but there is no satisfactory evidence for this except in
the North, and it is clearly contrary to Jordanes' account. Again, the
North German form of the story[230] agreed with the Northern versions
in stating that the king lost both his hands and both his feet in
the encounter. Consequently this feature may be regarded as at least
comparatively ancient; but it seems not to be known to Jordanes. As
in the last case, therefore, we can trace the gradual development
of the story more or less clearly. In its earliest known form, as
given by Jordanes, Svanhildr is said to have been the wife of a man
(apparently the prince of a dependent tribe) who deserted Eormenric
(perhaps by joining the Huns). To punish his disloyalty the king had
her tied to wild horses and thus torn to pieces. In an attempt to
avenge this outrage her brothers gave him a serious wound, which was
partly the cause of his death[231]. In the last point Jordanes may
have been trying to combine the tradition with another account of
Eormenric's death which he knew from historical sources. Otherwise the
story contains nothing incredible[232]. Yet the element of fiction
was probably present from the beginning. In the earlier stages its
influence may be detected at least in the elaboration of the incident
and in exaggeration of its effects, whereas in later times it shows
itself in the invention of relationships and in false combinations.

Next we will take the story of Beowulf's death, which has the great
advantage of being preserved in an early form. This story may be
regarded in a sense as pure fiction. Strictly speaking however it
consists of at least three distinct elements: (i) Beowulf's encounter
with the dragon, (ii) the hero's funeral, (iii) incidental references
to the past history of the Geatas. The last element is in part, and
probably to a very large extent, founded on fact; so we will confine
our attention to the other two. The account of the hero's funeral is
a good illustration of Aristotle's dictum as to the true function of
poetry--to express the universal rather than the particular. We have
no reason for supposing that the poet had any information regarding
Beowulf's real funeral. The description which he composed is that of
such a funeral as might reasonably be expected for a man of Beowulf's
rank and reputation. But the same remark is largely true also of the
first element. Grant that the latter part of Beowulf's career was
really unknown and that, through confusion with an earlier hero, it had
come to be said that he perished in an encounter with a dragon--nearly
all the rest[233] can be attributed to the same faculty for elaboration
which we find in the funeral scene. More imagination perhaps was
required in this case; but it must not be supposed that our author was
the first to describe an encounter of this kind. Far more probably he
was working upon a theme which in his time was already well worn.

* * * * *

We have now seen that fiction in early times shows itself especially in
the way of elaboration, or perhaps we may say in the structure of the
story[234]. The subject itself (the μῦθος) may be based upon fact or
upon common report or rumour which was clearly false or even totally
incredible, as in the last instance. But I know of no story, dealing
with historical characters, which can be shown to be the product of
deliberate and conscious invention. We have still however to consider
the most important question of all. Did the use of fiction include the
invention of characters?

It is not safe to assume this. We know that some of the characters are
historical in most of the heroic stories. On the other hand it is not
obvious that a single one of the characters mentioned in the primary
authorities is fictitious[235]. This being so it is unreasonable to
take the view that characters should be regarded as fictitious, unless
they can be proved to be historical[236]. On the contrary, until the
use of fictitious characters is proved there is a decided presumption
in favour of believing any given character to be historical--unless of
course his name or some other special circumstance gives clear ground
for suspicion.

Wiglaf is a character known to us only in connection with the story of
Beowulf and the dragon. Consequently he may be regarded with a certain
amount of suspicion. But in one passage it is stated that his father,
Weoxtan, had served under the Swedish king Onela and slain Eanmund, the
brother of Eadgils. Now in the Kalfsvísa (cf. p. 20) we find a Vésteinn
mentioned among those who accompanied Áli (Onela) to the 'ice,' i.e. to
the battle on the frozen lake Vener, in which that king lost his life.
This can hardly be a different person. But if we grant the identity
chronological considerations render it highly improbable that he is a
fictitious character.

A somewhat different case is presented by another of the characters
which figure in Beowulf, namely Unferth, the Danish king's 'spokesman.'
The name does not occur elsewhere in English works, and it is of an
unusual, though by no means unknown, type[237]. According to the
current explanation name and character are alike fictitious, the
former being framed to express the man's malevolent disposition.
He is said (vv. 587 f., 1167 f.) to have killed his brothers, and
on Beowulf's arrival he soon proceeds to wrangle with him[238].
But against this stands the fact that his father is called Ecglaf,
an ordinary unsymbolical name, while his quarrel with Beowulf is
afterwards amicably settled. It seems to me therefore that the
hypothesis is at best uncertain. We may note that Hrothgar's other
retainers (Wulfgar, Aeschere, Yrmenlaf) bear names which betray no
special significance.

A somewhat similar interpretation, though on a more ambitious scale,
is applied to the story of Hamðir and Sörli[239]. The name _Sunilda_
(for _Sōnahildi_ or _Sōnihilds_) is supposed to have been chosen for
Eormenric's victim in order to express the fact that her death was an
'expiation' (O. High Germ. _suona_) of the offence committed by her
husband, while Hamðir and Sörli themselves have got their names from
their armour (O. Norse _hamr_, A.-S. _hama_, etc.; Goth. _sarwa_,
A.-S. _searu_). Now an interpretation of this kind deserves careful
consideration when it provides a reasonable and more or less simple
explanation of the names involved; but not otherwise. In this case
it is held, contrary to all analogies, that the name _Hamðir_ (for
_Hama-þius_[240]) is extended from an earlier Gothic form _Hamjis_
(Jordanes' _Ammius_). But even then the etymology is hardly rendered
any more probable; for _ham-_ by itself can only mean 'dress,'
'covering.' It is only when compounded with words meaning 'war' (as
in A.-S. _guð-hama_) that it can be used in the sense of 'mail-coat.'
Again, _Sörli_ is regarded--and this is probably correct--as a
diminutive of _Sarus_, which is held to represent Goth. _sarws_, though
no such word is known (in any Teutonic language) except as a proper
name. What is important to notice however is that a Gothic prince
of this name was fighting in Italy in the year 405, i.e. little more
than thirty years after Eormenric's death. Lastly, we may note that
there appears to be no satisfactory evidence for regarding _Svan-_ (in
_Svanhildr_) as a transformation ('Umformung') of _Sōn-_[241]. Such
a change would be intelligible enough if the name had become known
through a document written in Latin letters; but that is a hypothesis
which we need not discuss. As the evidence stands, considering the
extremely corrupt state of the proper names given by Jordanes, it
is far more probable that his form has lost an _-a-_, than that the
Northern name has been changed. The conclusion therefore to which
we are brought is that, whether the story be fictitious or not, its
interpretation must be considered without regard to such etymological
speculations as these[242].

I am far from denying of course that the etymological interpretation is
applicable in its proper sphere. We have a reasonably safe instance in
the name _Widsith_ (cf. p. 44), as well as in the case of characters
derived from folk-tale or myth. In particular we have the eponymous
ancestors of families and even nations. But these are not characters
invented by the poet himself. Further they are always referred to a
more or less distant past, and their occurrence in heroic poetry is not
very common.

Next we will take the stories of Waldhere and Sigurðr. Here again the
etymological interpretation is often brought forward, especially in
connection with the women's names; but on the whole it is of minor
importance. Now we have seen that several of the chief characters,
Guthhere, Hagena and Attila, are common to both these stories. There is
no question of course that Guthhere and Attila are historical persons;
but for Hagena this cannot be proved. If he is fictitious, then one
of the two stories necessarily presupposes the other. But it is by no
means clear to which of them we should assign the priority. There is no
valid reason for doubting that both of them go back to the Heroic Age.

The story of Waldhere contains no feature which can be regarded as
intrinsically improbable if allowance be made firstly for poetic
elaboration, and secondly for the influence of Stage III (cf. p. 94
ff.). To the first we may perhaps assign the account of the single
combats; to the second probably the somewhat grotesque conclusion of
the last fight, as given by Ekkehard, and certainly the discrepancy
which prevails in regard to the hero's origin. Ekkehard[243] says
that his father (Alpharius) was king of Aquitaine, while the medieval
German poems speak both of Spanie (Spain) and Lengers (Langres) as
his home. Now the name _Aquitani_ cannot be taken from an old native
poem, and the same remark is probably true of _Spanie_. Moreover, if
we were to suppose that the hero belonged to either of these regions
we should have to conclude that he was a Visigoth. As a matter of fact
this conclusion is generally accepted; but it involves, obviously
enough, many difficulties. Langres however is scarcely open to any
such objection, and it further has the advantage of proximity to
Chalon-sur-Saône, which according to Ekkehard was the home of Hiltgund.
These districts must have been occupied at some time by settlers from
the lower Rhine, as appears from the names _Pagus Attoariorum_ and
_Pagus Amauorum_, the former of which lies directly between Chalon
and Langres. We have no definite evidence as to when the occupation
took place, but probably it was considerably anterior to the time of
Clovis[244]. Small Teutonic communities of this kind were doubtless too
insignificant to be mentioned in the scanty chronicles of that age; but
there is nothing unlikely in the story that children belonging to their
princely families were given as hostages to the Huns.

The case of Sigurðr must be considered independently of the hero's
youthful adventures, which, as we have seen, are probably to be
regarded as later accretions to the story. Hence it is practically
only in connection with the Burgundian royal house that the hero is
known[245], and as soon as we lose sight of this we drift at once into
fruitless speculation. The story represents Sigurðr as wealthy, brave
and personally attractive; but it does not credit him with achievements
which changed the destiny of nations. Consequently he is not the
type of person whom we could reasonably expect to find mentioned in
the chronicles of that period. Guðrún (Kriemhild) again is unknown
to history; we do not even know that Guthhere had a sister. But we
are certainly not justified in assuming either that such a person
never existed or that she could not have married a prince from the
Netherlands. The same remarks, mutatis mutandis, apply to the case of
Brynhildr, the king's wife.

From the analysis given on p. 146 it will be seen that the original
story appears to have contained two features which we may more or
less safely regard as fictitious. One of course is the disguise; the
other is the incident of the ring. In the former case the two versions
differ--from which we may perhaps infer that this feature was not very
clearly indicated in the original form of the story. The incident of
the ring also is introduced in quite different circumstances. But at
the same time it is really the central feature of the plot; for the
ring is the instrument chosen to bring about the ἀναγνώρισις--the
recognition by Brynhildr of the deception which has been played upon
her. This is an incident such as we frequently find in modern works of
fiction. Yet it cannot by itself be held to prove the fictitious origin
either of the characters or of the story as a whole. It may equally
well be regarded as a device for explaining the subsequent course of
events, in which case we may set it down as an instance of poetic
elaboration.

Perhaps the objection may be raised that the sequel--Brynhildr's
resentment against Sigurðr--necessarily presupposes the deception
practised upon her and that this deception is in both versions of a
supernatural character. That is doubtless true; but the explanation
is not far to seek. Both versions of the story are really aware of a
previous acquaintance between Sigurðr and Brynhildr. In the Völsunga
Saga[246] we hear of two distinct meetings, firstly when he awakens her
from the enchanted sleep (cap. 20 f.) and again when he woos her on
his visit to Heimir (cap. 24). If Brynhildr is really to be identified
with the sleeping valkyrie, these two accounts may be regarded as
variants of one original story. On the other hand the Grípisspá treats
the two events separately, like the saga, though unlike the saga it
does not identify Brynhildr with the valkyrie. Both forms of the story
however agree that there had been some meeting, through which Brynhildr
had been led to expect marriage with Sigurðr. Now the Nibelungenlied
says nothing of a relationship of this kind. But at the same time it
states more than once--without any explanation--that Siegfried had
known Brünhild and her dwelling. There is some ground therefore for
suspecting that a portion of the story has been suppressed or lost in
the German version. If so, then the explanation of the supernatural
disguise becomes clear enough. It is a device, doubtless an ancient
device[247], for saving the hero's character. Then also we obtain a
much stronger motive for Brynhildr's resentment. It was a case not
merely of deception but of faithlessness. There is nothing incredible
in that, though in real life the ἀναγνώρισις would probably come about
in a different way.

If the story is fictitious--i.e. if Sigurðr, Brynhildr, Högni, Guðrún
(Kriemhild) and all their doings are creations of fancy--one conclusion
at all events must, I think, be accepted. Such a story must be the
product of the brain of one gifted poet; it cannot be the result of a
fortuitous concourse of lays by different authors. The analysis shows
that the strength of the story lies chiefly in that element which
is common to both versions. Here we have the character-studies of
Brynhildr and Högni; for even in the Nibelungenlied, greatly defaced
as they are, the original outlines can still be traced. The plot too
conforms to the highest standard of tragic art. It has complete unity
in itself[248]; all the characters are more or less sympathetic; and
the hero's downfall is due not to any villainy (μοχθηρία) on his
own part, but to a great error (ἁμαρτία). Lastly, whatever view may
be taken as to the fate of Brynhildr--a point in which the versions
differ--nothing could be more tragic than the grief of Guðrún
(Kriemhild), which is common to both. For the creation of a story
possessing all these features--a story too which lived in different
parts of Europe for many centuries under somewhat unfavourable
conditions--we must surely assume not only a talented poet but also a
poem of some considerable length.

I do not of course regard this as a conclusive argument for believing
that the story is based on fact. For even in that case its presentation
would require epic form, as well as poetic talent. The decision between
the two interpretations rests ultimately on the question whether such a
story is more likely to have been invented or drawn from life. It seems
probable that some of the characters added in the Norse version are
products of fiction. But here we have to deal with a period removed by
many ages from the times to which the story relates, and with a people
who had developed the cultivation of imaginative poetry to a very
high standard. The origin of the story however must surely date from
a period when Guthhere and the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine were
still remembered. In that period we have no positive evidence for the
composition of fiction at all, much less for fiction of this extremely
elaborate type. On the other hand we have in Procopius' account of
Irmingisl and Radiger (cf. p. 97 ff.), written within six or seven
years of the events, practically all the materials for the composition
of an epic poem on a very similar subject. Indeed they can hardly be
called merely crude materials; for certain incidents are depicted, in
poetic fashion, rather than related, and even the supernatural element
is not wanting. The evidence of this passage seems to me to tell
decidedly in favour of the view that the story of Sigurðr is founded on
fact[249].

* * * * *

In the course of this chapter we have examined a number of heroic
stories with a view to determining how and to what extent fiction has
been employed in their composition. We have seen that in early times
its influence was shown chiefly in the imaginative presentation or
structure of stories, some of which were founded on fact, others on
popular report or rumour which frequently introduced elements from
folk-tales, occasionally even from myth. All such cases however may be
included among the 'things that may have happened,' if we take into
account the spirit of the times. On the other hand for the composition
of wholly fictitious narratives--narratives which the author himself
knew to be fictitious--and more especially for the deliberate invention
of characters there seems to be no conclusive evidence in the stories
which we have considered; and I am not aware of any others for which
a stronger case could be made out. I am not prepared of course to
state dogmatically that such fiction was not known. The case is far
too uncertain for such a statement as that; there is no question here
of such gross improbabilities as those which beset the hypothesis of
'rationalised myth.' One is certainly entitled to doubt whether all
the characters even in early poems, such as Beowulf, are taken from
life. But if we grant, as I think we must, the existence of earlier
poems dealing with the Danish court, there is nothing incredible in the
supposition.

These remarks apply of course only to poems belonging to Stage I and
Stage II. The effect of Stage III was to disintegrate the stories and
to introduce unhistorical elements of all kinds. Hence in poems of
Stage IV we meet with numerous situations which are quite incompatible
either with history or with the older forms of the traditions. In the
same period we find also many fictitious characters, not only in the
German poems, where they may be ascribed to romantic influence, but
also probably in those of the North.

There is one type of fiction which we have not taken into account in
our discussion. Various scholars from time to time have put forward the
theory that some of the chief characters of the Heroic Age are really
well-known historical persons under fictitious names. Thus Sigurðr
has been identified with a number of famous princes from Arminius to
Sigebert. It cannot be said that any one of these identifications is
of a nature to carry conviction; in no case indeed have they gained
wide acceptance. But I cannot help thinking that an error in principle
underlies the whole theory. It was scarcely through the greatness of
their power, much less through the effects of their achievements on
after generations, that the characters of the Heroic Age acquired
celebrity; it was far more through the impression made upon their
neighbours and contemporaries by their magnificence and generosity,
by their personality, and perhaps above all by the adventures and
vicissitudes of fortune which fell to their lot. This is a question to
which we shall have to return in a later chapter.

FOOTNOTES:

[221] Aristotle, _Poet._ IX: ὁ γὰρ ἱστορικὸς καὶ ὁ ποιητὴς ...
διαφέρουσιν ... τῷ τὸν μὲν τὰ γενόμενα λέγειν, τὸν δὲ οἷα ἂν γένοιτο.
διὸ καὶ φιλοσοφώτερον καὶ σπουδαιότερον ποίησις ἱστορίας ἐστίν· ἡ μὲν
γὰρ ποίησις μᾶλλον τὰ καθόλου, ἡ δ' ἱστορία τὰ καθ' ἕκαστον λέγει.

[222] In Wids., v. 112 ff. we find a list of Gothic heroes belonging
to various ages introduced by the expression _innweorud Earmanrices_
('Eormenric's household-troop'); but this expression need not be
interpreted literally with reference to the whole list.

[223] Frotho I and Frotho III were no doubt originally identical; but
the confusion extends also (especially in Skiöldunga Saga) to Frotho
IV (the Froda of Beowulf), who cannot reasonably be connected with the
others (cf. p. 124, note).

[224] The MS. here (v. 62) is defective, but no other interpretation is
probable.

[225] The MS. once has Thióðmar, as against two examples of Thióðrekr
in the verses and one in the introduction. Is it really impossible that
the name has been altered by a scribe familiar with Thiðreks Saga? Cf.
Jónsson, _Oldn. Litteraturs Historie_, I 295.

[226] This tendency is doubtless due largely to the influence of
romantic poetry.

[227] Prof. Brandl, _Grundriss_, II 953, calls attention to the fact
that the Bernician king Ida is said to have had two sons called
Theodric and Theodhere. But is not the date rather early? The
occurrence of the name _Sigesteb_ in the council of Ecgberht, king of
Wessex (Birch, 395), is perhaps stronger evidence. The name _Omulung_
which is found more than a century earlier (Birch, 76, 116) scarcely
necessitates acquaintance with the story of Dietrich von Bern.

[228] The case would be different if it could be proved that the person
described as _skati Marika_ (_Maringa_) in the inscription of Rök was
Dietrich von Bern.

[229] It is worth noting that in Widsith, v. 115, Seafola and Theodric
(i.e. Saben and Wolfdietrich) appear among the Gothic heroes.

[230] This version (represented by the Ann. Quedl., cf. p. 37, note),
like the Norse, added a third brother, though he bears a different
name. But the person killed, whose name is not given, is said to have
been the father of the brothers, not their sister.

[231] _Hermanaricus rex Gothorum ... de Hunorum ... aduentu dum
cogitat, Rosomonorum gens infida, quae tunc inter alias illi famulatum
exhibebat, tali eum nanciscitur occasione decipere. dum enim quandam
mulierem, Sunildam nomine, ex gente memorata, pro mariti fraudulento
discessu rex furore commotus equis ferocibus inligatam incitatisque
cursibus per diuersa diuelli praecepisset, fratres eius Sarus et Ammius
germanae obitum uindicantes, Hermanarici latus ferro petierunt; quo
uulnere saucius, aegram uitam corporis imbecillitate contraxit.... inter
haec Hermanaricus tam uulneris dolorem, quam etiam Hunorum incursiones
non ferens ... defunctus est_ (cap. 24).

[232] The Frankish queen Brunhild was put to death in a similar way in
the year 613. We may also compare the Thuringian atrocities described
by Gregory of Tours (III 7).

[233] The chief exception is the part played by Wiglaf; possibly also
the incident of the cowardly knights.

[234] ἡ τῶν πραγμάτων σύστασις (Aristotle, _Poet._ VI 9).

[235] For the case of Widsith see p. 56 f. Supernatural beings, such
as Grendel, and mythical personages of the past, such as Scyld, cannot
fairly be regarded as exceptions, since it is not at all likely
that they were invented by the poet himself. They figure largely in
skaldic poems of the Viking Age (e.g. Hákonarmál) which probably never
introduce fictitious contemporary characters. On the other hand some of
the characters in the Edda poems may have been invented in the North.

[236] This must be emphasized because one constantly finds theories of
fictitious origin introduced with some sentence such as the following:
'It has not yet been proved that this story has any historical
foundation.' Such an attitude seems to me not only unreasonable but
wrong in principle.

[237] Cf. _Unwona_, the name of a bishop of Leicester who died about
the beginning of the ninth century, and _Unwine_ (_Unwenes_, Gen.), the
name of Eastgota's son (Wids. 114). The name _Unfrid_ itself occurs in
Germany during the eighth and ninth centuries.

[238] Prof. Olrik (_Danmarks Heltedigtning_, p. 25 ff.) suggests
further that he was the instigator of a quarrel between Hrothwulf
and Hrothgar or his sons. But I cannot help thinking that his
interpretation of vv. 1166 ff., ingenious as it undoubtedly is, goes a
good deal beyond what the passage actually warrants.

[239] Cf. Jiriczek, _Deutsche Heldensagen_, I 63 f., Sijmons,
_Grundriss_, III² 683.

[240] The true form is probably _Hami-_. It is surely far more probable
that _Ammius_ is a shortened (hypocoristic) form from the compound name
(cf. A.-S. _Hemma_, _Hemmi_). But in that case of course we shall have
to conclude that the name had been familiar for some time before it
came to Jordanes' knowledge.

[241] No argument can be based upon the name _Suanailta_ which is
found in a document at St Gall dating from 786 (in conjunction with
other names which show a knowledge of the story of Eormenric), for it
may contain either _swan-_ or _sōn-_. It is admitted that the name
_Swanahilt_ was in use.

[242] With how much greater plausibility could the name _Eormenric_ be
accounted for! Had it not been for the incidental reference to this
king in Ammianus Marcellinus' history, nothing could possibly have
saved him from being regarded as a purely fictitious personage.

[243] In Ekkehard's case the influence of Stage III is supplemented
or amended by erudition. The national names which he gives (_Franci_,
_Burgundia_, etc.) are accommodated to the political divisions of his
own time.

[244] Cf. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme_, p. 582 ff.,
where a much earlier date is suggested.

[245] It is impossible here to enter into a criticism of theories such
as those brought forward in Boer's _Untersuchungen über den Ursprung
und die Entwickelung der Nibelungensage_.

[246] Owing to the great lacuna in the MS. of the Edda (cf. p. 13) the
poems which dealt with this part of the story are lost.

[247] The story may have come to the North in two different forms, one
of which related the wooing of Brynhildr by Sigurðr, while the other,
a later form, contained the incident of the supernatural disguise. But
it is also possible that even the original poem or poems on the subject
dealt with this incident, though without altogether suppressing the
previous relations between Sigurðr and Brynhildr.

[248] There is no need to assume that the story of Guthhere's death was
embodied in the same poem, though the two were doubtless connected from
quite early times.

[249] It would be difficult to doubt its historical origin if it
could be proved that the hero's father was originally identical with
Sigemund the son of Waelse (Völsungr), who figures in Beowulf; for the
two stories are almost entirely independent of each other and refer
to quite different regions. The adventure with the dragon, which is
related both of Sigurðr and Sigemund, shows that they were connected in
very early times. Still I know no real proof of original identity.

CHAPTER IX.

THE HEROIC AGE OF GREECE.

The literary records of the Heroic Age of Greece resemble those of
the northern Heroic Age in several respects. Both literatures alike
begin with heroic poems which, as we shall see later, possess many
common characteristics. Then, at a much later date, we find in both
literatures a new series of narrative works dealing again with the old
stories. Lastly, in both cases works of all periods, both poetic and
prose, contain frequent incidental references to the same stories,
testifying thereby to their popularity. In Greek literature indeed
such references occur more frequently than in that of the Teutonic
peoples--a fact doubtless due to the preservation of great poems of the
former period, which at an early date came to be regarded as classics
or something more. Among the northern peoples, as we have seen, it
was only in England that any considerable amount of the early heroic
poetry was preserved; but here the continuity of literary development
was broken through political causes, and consequently all memory of the
Heroic Age was practically lost.

On the other hand we have no evidence for the Heroic Age of Greece in
any way comparable with those more or less contemporary Roman works
which enable us to identify many of the characters and incidents of
the northern Heroic Age. In Greece the Heroic Age had passed away
long before the date of the earliest historical documents which have
come down to us; while though inscriptions of a remote antiquity are
still in existence, none prior to the seventh, or possibly the eighth
century, have as yet been deciphered. Further, the monuments of the
surrounding countries, such as Egypt or Assyria, make no reference to
Greece beyond the occasional bare mention of a geographical or tribal
name. Hence it comes about that we cannot with certainty pronounce any
single person or event of the Heroic Age to be historical. All that it
has been possible as yet to verify is the existence of ancient centres
of civilisation in certain localities which figure prominently in
stories of the Heroic Age. Archaeological investigation has shown that
some of these places possessed at one time an extraordinary amount of
wealth and splendour, though within the historical period they were
inconsiderable or even uninhabited.

* * * * *

Of the early heroic poetry very little has come down to us except the
two great epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which between them contain
nearly 28,000 verses. These poems are, strictly speaking, anonymous,
though from very ancient times, at least from the seventh century,
the name Homer has been associated with them. In the Alexandrian age
there were critics who believed that the Iliad and Odyssey were the
work of different authors; but it is only within modern times that they
have been considered to be of composite formation. At present it is
probably the most prevalent view that the Iliad was formed gradually
in the course of the ninth century and that it attained substantially
its present form about the middle of the eighth century. The Odyssey is
generally thought to be a later work. Its date is set by many as late
as the seventh century, though it is believed to have used and probably
incorporated earlier poems, of the ninth or eighth century. There
are however still a number of scholars who both deny the composite
authorship of the poems and also believe them to be of greater
antiquity than the dates here given.

Apart from the Iliad and Odyssey the only early heroic poem which has
come down to us is the Shield of Heracles, a work containing 480 verses
and giving an account of the single combat between Heracles and Cycnos.
It has been attributed to Hesiod by various writers, at least since the
Alexandrian period; indeed the Argument cites Stesichoros as authority
for this belief. At the present time however most scholars regard it
as the work of an unknown poet of the seventh century[250].

In ancient times there were a considerable number of other early epic
poems, of which only a few insignificant fragments now remain. Some
of these, the Cypria, Aithiopis, Little Iliad (Ἰλιὰς μικρά), Iliu
Persis and Nostoi, dealt with the same cycle of story as the Iliad
and Odyssey. They seem however to have been of much smaller compass
and to have treated their subjects in a far less detailed manner. It
is thought by many that the Cypria was composed as an introduction to
the Iliad and the others as continuations of it--the Nostoi connecting
on to the Odyssey. At all events they were utilised by the authors of
the prose κύκλοι, in Alexandrian and Roman times, for the purpose of
presenting a connected account of the whole story[251].

The authorship of these poems is attributed in late writings to a
number of persons--Stasinos of Cyprus, Arctinos of Miletos, Lesches of
Lesbos and Agias of Troizen--of whom nothing definite is known, but
who are believed to have lived either in the eighth century or in the
early part of the seventh. In early times however--indeed probably
down to the fourth century--it seems to have been the general belief
that several, possibly all, of them were by Homer. Herodotus (II 117)
expresses his disbelief in Homer's authorship of the Cypria; but his
words imply that he was contesting a commonly accepted view. On the
other hand Hellanicos[252], who was approximately contemporary with
Herodotus, is said to have attributed the Little Iliad (including
possibly the Iliu Persis) not to Lesches or Arctinos but to a certain
Cinaithon of Lacedaemon, who is said to have lived before the middle
of the eighth century. Lastly we must mention the Telegoneia, a sequel
to the Odyssey, which is said to have been composed by Eugammon of
Cyrene[253], probably in the sixth century.

Apart from the series of poems dealing with the siege of Troy the
most famous of the early epics was the Thebais, which gave the story
of the legendary kings of Thebes. This poem was attributed to Homer by
Callinos of Ephesus[254] who lived early in the seventh century--which
probably implies that it was not of recent composition even then.
It had a sequel called Epigonoi, which likewise seems to have been
attributed to Homer, though Herodotus (IV 32) again apparently felt
doubtful. In addition to these mention may be made of the Oidipodeia,
which also dealt with the Theban story, and of the Oichalias Halosis
and Phocais, which were concerned with adventures of Heracles.

All the poems mentioned above were probably composed in quite early
times, though we have practically no trustworthy data as to their age
or authorship. A number of other epics bore the names of persons who
were attributed to the eighth or seventh centuries, such as Cinaithon
(see above), Eumelos of Corinth and Asios of Samos. These however seem
to have been rather of a genealogical than heroic character. Peisandros
of Rhodes, the author of an epic on Heracles, is also referred, though
on rather doubtful authority, to the close of this period. But the
other epic poets whose names have survived seem to have belonged to
a considerably later time. The didactic epos began, under Hesiod,
apparently before the end of the eighth century, while early in the
following century there arose new types of poetry, elegiac and iambic,
concerned chiefly with present topics and the personal interests of the
poets, and seldom even referring to the Heroic Age. The last remark
is true also, though to a less extent, of the early lyric poetry. But
in the early part of the sixth century Stesichoros of Himera began to
utilise it for presenting stories of the Heroic Age in a new form. In
Pindar's odes too, nearly a century later, the allusions to heroic
stories are very frequent and often of considerable length. One ode
indeed contains almost an epos.

In the fifth century however the Heroic Age figures most prominently
in Athenian tragedy. Of the seven extant plays of Aeschylus four or
five[255] deal with the Heroic Age and one with contemporary history,
while the last is concerned exclusively with supernatural beings. Of
the two later dramatists, Sophocles and Euripides, all the surviving
plays[256] take their subjects from the Heroic Age. Further, we know
the names of a large number of lost plays, both by these and other
authors, and from them it appears that the surviving pieces are fairly
representative, so far as choice of subjects is concerned. During the
same period we hear of a few epic poets whose works are now lost. Some
of these, such as Panyasis and Antimachos, dealt with stories of the
Heroic Age and some, as Choirilos, with contemporary history. About
two centuries later heroic epic poetry was cultivated at Alexandria,
especially by Apollonius Rhodius.

Among incidental references to the Heroic Age one of the most
interesting occurs in Hesiod's Works and Days (vv. 156-170), where
an age of the heroes[257] who fell at Thebes and Troy is introduced
between the bronze age and the iron age. Herodotus' history abounds
with references to the Heroic Age, and even Thucydides refers to it not
unfrequently, though in a more critical spirit. In later times we have
to notice especially antiquarian writers such as Strabo and above all
Pausanias. The last-named derived his information very largely from
local tradition and consequently the stories which he gives may often
be independent of the poems.

* * * * *

We may now consider briefly the chronological aspect of the Greek
Heroic Age. It has already been mentioned that a passage in Hesiod's
Works and Days speaks of an age of heroes intermediate between the
bronze and iron ages, and that it further defines these heroes as
those who fought at Thebes and Troy. To the latter number belong no
doubt the various characters of the Iliad and Odyssey and the other
poems (Cypria, etc.) which dealt with the Trojan cycle of legend,
while the deeds of the former must have been treated in the Thebais
and the Epigonoi. In the surviving Attic dramas which deal with
the Heroic Age the distribution of subjects is as follows. Sixteen
plays (three by Aeschylus, three by Sophocles and ten by Euripides,
including the Cyclops and Rhesos) treat of the heroes of the Trojan
war or their children; six plays (one by Aeschylus, three by Sophocles
and two by Euripides) deal with the Theban story; and six plays (one
by Sophocles and five by Euripides) are concerned with the doings of
Heracles, Theseus or Iason. It is to be observed that the heroes of
the Theban story are always represented as belonging to the generation
immediately preceding that of the heroes of Troy, while Heracles,
Theseus and Iason are all loosely connected with one another and made
roughly contemporary with the Theban heroes. The remaining three plays
(Aeschylus' Suppliants and Euripides' Ion and Bacchai), if we are
justified in regarding them as heroic at all, refer to persons much
farther back in the genealogies.

It appears then that the characters who figure most prominently in
stories of the Heroic Age were, with few exceptions, ascribed to a
period covering not more than three or four generations. There are, it
is true, a number of stories referring to much earlier generations--in
addition to those treated in the three plays mentioned above--but they
seem to have been distinctly less popular than the others. On the other
hand there is scarcely any reference to persons later than the children
of the heroes who fought at Troy.

With the evidence at our disposal it is impossible to fix any absolute
dates for the Heroic Age. All that we can say is that the end of that
age appears to coincide with the movement or series of movements,
traditionally known as the Return of the Heracleidai, to which the
Dorian states in the Peloponnesos were believed to owe their origin.
According to the story, the Return took place in the second generation
after the siege of Troy, and the grandsons of Agamemnon, the Achaean
leader at the siege, were killed or expelled by the Dorians. Certainly
it is to be noted that the scheme of tribal or political geography
presented to us in the Homeric poems seems to show no trace either of
Dorians in the Peloponnesos or of Ionic settlements in the eastern
Aegean--another series of movements which are said to have been brought
about by the Dorian conquest.

The great majority of scholars apparently regard the story of the
conquest as containing at least a nucleus of truth, though it refers to
times long anterior to what we should call the historical period. The
ancients themselves dated the events in question back to the twelfth or
eleventh century (B.C.). But the evidence on which their conclusions
were based is not of a very satisfactory character and will require
careful consideration.

* * * * *

Before entering upon this question it will be convenient to notice
briefly the scenes of the stories and the localities and peoples to
which the various characters belong. The scene of the Iliad is laid
in the north-west corner of Asia Minor, a short distance south of the
Dardanelles. But the stories introduced incidentally refer for the most
part to places on the mainland of Greece, less frequently to localities
in Asia Minor or Thrace. The distribution of the principal heroes is
as follows: Agamemnon's territories, according to the Catalogue of
Ships (Il. II 569 ff.), lie in the north-east of the Peloponnesos,
including the north-western part of what was later called Argolis
and at least the eastern half of Achaia. Elsewhere (Il. IX 149 ff.,
291 ff.) he appears to have possessions in Messenia. His brother,
Menelaos, rules over Sparta and other places in Laconia. Nestor's
kingdom is on the western side of the Peloponnesos, to the south
of Elis. Idomeneus belongs to Crete, Achilles to southern Thessaly
(Phthiotis), Aias, the son of Telamon, to Salamis, his namesake to the
eastern Locris, Diomedes to the eastern and southern parts of Argolis
and Odysseus to the Ionian Isles. It must not be overlooked that most
of these districts were of little or no political importance during the
historical period and, further, that the territories of the kingdoms
appear not to have coincided as a rule with the political divisions
which we find in later times.

The scene of the Odyssey is laid chiefly in the Ionian Isles, to a much
smaller extent in the Peloponnesos. The wanderings of the hero himself
appear to lie chiefly in regions to the west of Greece, though there
may be reminiscences of the Black Sea. Some scholars relegate them
largely or altogether to the realm of fairyland. Incidental references
occur to Thesprotis (Epeiros) and the Aegean, as well as to more
distant lands such as Egypt.

Thebes was doubtless the scene of the lost Thebais and Epigonoi. The
story of Pelops seems to have been connected chiefly with Elis and
that of Perseus with Mycenae and Tiryns, while Minos belonged to Crete
and Theseus to Athens. Iason's home was in eastern Thessaly, but his
story is largely taken up with journeys in the Black Sea and other
distant regions. Heracles' adventures are spread over the greater part
of Greece and many other lands, though Boeotia and Malis are perhaps
the districts most prominent in his story. The scene of the Shield of
Heracles is laid in Phthiotis.

It appears then that the heroic stories are distributed over the
greater part of the ancient Greek world. Certain districts however are
excepted, and to these special attention should be given. In the first
place we have practically no reference to Greek cities in Italy or
Sicily or to heroes belonging to them, though we do hear occasionally
of travellers' acquaintance with these countries. More important is
the absence of any mention of Greek cities in Asia Minor[258] and the
adjacent islands, except those off the coast of Caria. The legends
which speak of colonies led to Lesbos by Penthilos the son of Orestes
or to Miletos and elsewhere by the sons of Codros are hardly to be
reckoned among heroic traditions. The names indeed, at least in the
first case, are taken from this source, but they form the subject of
no connected story. Miletos is mentioned in the Trojan catalogue (Il.
II 868), but it is said to be in the possession of the Carians. To
Chios there is only a geographical reference (Od. III 170 ff.), and
though Lesbos is mentioned more frequently its inhabitants are treated
as enemies by the Achaeans. The only real exceptions are the southern
islands, several of which, such as Rhodes and Cos, send contingents
to Agamemnon's army. Cyprus too seems to be fairly well known and its
princes, though they take no part in the expedition, are on friendly
terms with the Achaeans--a fact which renders the absence of reference
to the Ionic cities all the more striking. In Greece itself nearly
every district has a story connected with it. Attica however is one of
the least prominent and possesses no hero of much note except Theseus.

For the tribal distinctions which figure so prominently in later Greek
history there is extremely little evidence in stories of the Heroic
Age. The name Αἰολέες is not mentioned in the Homeric poems, while
Δωριέες occurs only once, as the name of one of the five peoples of
Crete, and Ἰάονες once as that of a people (perhaps the Athenians)
associated with the Locrians and Boeotians. On the other hand the
most frequently used of all national designations is Ἀχαιοί, a
name which in later times was borne only by the inhabitants of two
comparatively unimportant districts, Phthiotis and the north coast of
the Peloponnesos. In the Homeric poems it appears to be a collective
term for the inhabitants of Greece and the surrounding islands. In the
same sense we find also Δαναοί, a name which later is used only in
archaistic poetry. Ἀργεῖοι and Ἕλληνες seem properly to be geographical
terms, though the former occurs frequently (the latter only once[259],
in the form Πανέλληνες) as a synonym for Ἀχαιοί. Names of peoples,
such as Ἄβαντες, Ἐπειοί, Αἰτωλοί, are of course frequently used; but
they denote comparatively small sections of the nation.

Though the term Ἀχαιοί is used for the inhabitants of Greece
collectively, it may of course really be the name of a tribe or people
which was regarded as dominant at the time. At all events in Od. XIX
176 we find the Achaeans mentioned as merely one of five peoples which
inhabit Crete. As an instance of a people who were apparently never
included among the Achaeans we may take the Pelasgoi mentioned in the
same passage. Here however we are faced with a question of nationality,
for Herodotus speaks of the Pelasgoi of his own time as a barbarous
people[260], though at the same time he holds that several Greek
peoples, especially the Ionians and Athenians, were sprung from them.
No indication is given in the Homeric poems that the Pelasgoi spoke a
foreign language; but this remark is true also of many Asiatic peoples,
including the Trojans.

On the question of Greek nationality there is unfortunately very little
evidence either in the Homeric poems or in other stories relating to
the Heroic Age. We cannot even tell whether the population of the
Greek mainland was believed to be homogeneous. Only in the case of
Crete is detailed ethnographical information given. In a passage cited
above we are told that this island contained five peoples, namely
the Achaeans, Eteocretes, Cydones, Dorians and Pelasgoi. The first
and fourth of these are well-known sections of the Greek nation, but
we have no satisfactory evidence as to the nationality of the others.
Herodotus (I 173) says that the Lycians came originally from Crete and
adds that the whole of the island was once possessed by barbarians.
Interesting light on the latter statement has been thrown by the recent
discovery of certain inscriptions at Praisos, in what is said to have
been the Eteocretan part of the island. These inscriptions are written
in forms of the Greek alphabet which were current in the sixth and
fourth centuries (B.C.) respectively, but the language is not Greek.
Besides these numerous inscriptions dating from much earlier times
have been found at Cnossos and elsewhere; but they have not yet been
deciphered. All that can be said at present is that we have no reason
for discrediting Herodotus' statement.

In Greece itself we have not such clear evidence for the prevalence
of a non-Greek language. Here we are dependent on somewhat doubtful
inferences from place-names. Yet the majority of scholars would not
admit that the language was indigenous. Indeed the tendency at present
is to believe that Greece and the Aegean islands were originally
inhabited by peoples of one stock, the existence of which can be traced
back in Crete for many thousands of years, and that these peoples were
ultimately overwhelmed and absorbed--perhaps in the course of the
second millennium--by invaders from the north. Asia Minor is supposed
to have had a somewhat similar history. Originally it is believed
to have been occupied by various kindred peoples, of which the most
prominent were the Hittites of Cappadocia. Eventually--about 1200
B.C. according to the most recent view[261]--there took place a great
irruption of Thraco-Phrygian peoples from the north-west, who became
dominant throughout the larger part of the peninsula[262].

In the Iliad the forces ranged in defence of Troy are drawn from a
wide area, extending from the Axios (Vardar) on the west to Paphlagonia
on the east and Lycia on the south. The nationalities represented seem
to be chiefly of Thraco-Phrygian stock, though a few, such as the
Lycians and perhaps the Carians, belong to the indigenous population.
On the other hand there is no reason for supposing that any of the
peoples represented in Agamemnon's army were of other than Greek
nationality. The story may therefore be regarded as one of national
conflict. Yet it cannot be said that this feature is ever emphasised in
the poems themselves, although the point of view throughout is that of
an Achaean.

For local or tribal patriotism the Homeric poems furnish us with little
or no evidence. No Greek communities and few even of their princes are
described otherwise than in terms of respect. We may point also to the
old controversy regarding Homer's birthplace--a controversy which owes
its very existence to the absence of any local patriotism in the poems.
In this respect it will be seen that Greek heroic poetry agrees with
Teutonic.

* * * * *

We must now return to the consideration of the chronological problem.
In ancient times, especially during the Alexandrian period, various
attempts were made to calculate the exact date of the siege of Troy. Of
these the most generally accepted was that of Eratosthenes, which was
based on the length of the reigns ascribed to the kings of Sparta. This
calculation brought the foundation of the Dorian kingdom at Sparta to
the year 1104-3, and eighty years were added to obtain the date of the
fall of Troy. But it has long been pointed out that the figures given
for the reigns of the early kings are so greatly above the average that
they cannot be regarded with any confidence. Thus the first Olympiad
(B.C. 776-5) was made to coincide with the tenth (or eleventh) year of
Alcamenes and Theopompos. Alcamenes was the ninth in succession from
Eurysthenes and Theopompos the eighth from Procles, and the number of
years ascribed to the previous reigns amounts on the average to over
thirty-five years for one dynasty and over thirty-nine for the other.
But in kingdoms for which we have reliable information extending over
a long period of time the usual average length is apparently between
twenty and twenty-five years[263]. Hence, if the lists of kings
themselves are to be trusted--and even this is very doubtful in view
of the fact that they are almost identical with the genealogies--it is
difficult to avoid suspecting that the total period ascribed to their
reigns collectively is more than a century too long.

More reliance is perhaps to be placed on the genealogies of the two
royal families given by Herodotus (VII 204, VIII 131). Leonidas (r.
488-480) and Leotychidas (r. 491-469), with whom we are on sure
historical ground, are represented as fifteenth in descent from
Eurysthenes and Procles respectively. According to all analogies
therefore we should expect that the two latter flourished not very
long before the middle of the tenth century. In other words the date
given by Eratosthenes for the 'Return of the Heracleidai' would
seem to be from a century to a century and a half too early. A very
reasonable explanation of the difficulty has been suggested by Prof.
Meyer who points out that several passages in Herodotus' history seem
to imply the reckoning of a generation at forty years[264]. Among the
figures given we find (II 145) Heracles dated about 1330. Cleomenes,
his descendant in the twentieth generation, was born about 530, or at
all events not much later. For Eurysthenes and Procles, in the fifth
generation from Heracles, this would give about 1130, which is not very
far from the date fixed by Eratosthenes.

It is to be remembered in the first place that the date fixed for
Eurysthenes and Procles is apparently that of their birth, and,
secondly, that Eratosthenes' scheme is probably only a modification
of a previously existing system, other varieties of which are quoted
by Prof. Meyer[265]. Indeed it would not require any great exercise
of ingenuity to point out traces of a more or less symmetrical
distribution of the period covered by the reigns of the early Spartan
kings[266]. But, apart from any such speculations, we can hardly
doubt, in the light of Prof. Meyer's showing, that the date for
Eurysthenes and Procles is derived ultimately from a calculation based
on the genealogies rather than from any contemporary written record
or tradition. The genealogies themselves of course may represent
tradition, so far as they are not interpolated[267], but they point,
as we have seen, to a much later date than that which we have been
discussing[268]. If we substitute 32 × 15 for 40 × 15, starting from
the birth of Cleomenes, we are brought to about the year 1000. That
must be regarded as the date really indicated by Spartan tradition for
the birth of Eurysthenes and Procles.

We may now turn for a moment to the genealogies of the other Heraclid
families, namely those of Argos, Messenia and Corinth. The first
of these places Pheidon in the sixth generation, according to one
version, in the ninth according to another, from Temenos, the uncle
of Eurysthenes and Procles. Unfortunately different dates are assigned
for Pheidon. The earliest, which is not generally accepted, places
his reign about the middle of the eighth century. But even this,
taking the longer form of the genealogy, does not carry us appreciably
farther back than the Agiad list. The Corinthian genealogy places the
last king, who is said to have been killed in 747, in the thirteenth
generation from Heracles. This would agree with the longer form of the
Argive genealogy; several of the names however are generally regarded
as suspicious. The Messenian genealogy is materially shorter.

Apart from these Dorian genealogies there are some notices relating
to the ancestry of persons belonging to other parts of Greece, which
must not be ignored. Herodotus (II 143) states that Hecataeus, who
was a prominent man at the beginning of the fifth century, claimed to
be descended in the sixteenth (i.e. fifteenth) generation from a god.
This probably takes us back to the Heroic Age, when divine parentage
is common, whereas later it appears to be almost, if not entirely,
unknown[269]. Again, it is believed that the genealogy of the Philaidai
at Athens, which actually survives, though only in a corrupt form[270],
placed Philaios, the son of Aias, in the twelfth generation above
Hippocleides, who was archon in 566. Further, according to Pausanias (I
11), Tharypas, king of the Molossoi, who was born soon after the middle
of the fifth century, claimed to be descended in the fifteenth or
sixteenth generation from Pyrrhos the son of Achilles. It will be seen
that, though these genealogies do not agree exactly, the discrepancy is
not very great. They seem to indicate the existence of a belief that
persons who flourished in the first half of the fifth century were
removed by about fifteen generations from the Heroic Age.

On the other hand Pindar (_Pyth._ IV 9 ff.) in an ode written in 466
and addressed to Arcesilaos IV, king of Cyrene, places that king's
seventh ancestor, Battos I, in the sixteenth generation from Euphemos
the Argonaut, a contemporary of Heracles. This exceeds even the Agiad
reckoning, for Pleistarchos, the representative of that family reigning
in 466, was only in the twenty-first generation from Heracles. From the
other non-Heraclid genealogies we should have expected that the number
of generations to Arcesilaos would be about what is recorded for Battos
I[271].

Whatever may be the explanation of this case, it will be seen that
the other non-Heraclid genealogies are shorter than that of the
Agidai by at least three generations--if we equate Philaios, Pyrrhos
(Neoptolemos) and the grandson of Hecataeus' god with Aristomachos
the grandfather of Eurysthenes. The dates which they indicate for the
'floruit' of these persons are in no case earlier than the middle of
the tenth century. As to the relative value of the two traditions we
have nothing to guide us, and the same remark applies to the Greek
genealogical evidence in general. Two points however must be insisted
upon: (i) that the calculations of scholars of the Alexandrian age, or
even earlier times, are not to be interpreted as evidence of tradition;
(ii) that the evidence of tradition, whatever be its value, brings
the end of the Heroic Age at least towards the close of the eleventh
century.

* * * * *

Apart from the evidence discussed above, unsatisfactory as it doubtless
is, chronological data for the Heroic Age itself seem to be entirely
wanting. We know however that a highly advanced civilisation flourished
in the Aegean in early times, and that it was succeeded by a long
period in which both art and general culture were at a very low ebb.
This latter period, which is commonly known as 'geometrical' from the
type of art which prevailed in it, lasted, so far as one can judge,
until about the end of the eighth century, at which time oriental
influence began to make its appearance. The 'orientalising' period
again continued down to the beginning of the classical age. It is a
common and natural hypothesis to equate the low-watermark of culture
early in the geometrical period with the generations immediately
following the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesos. But unfortunately
we cannot thereby obtain any certain date for the latter, since Greece
appears to have had little contact with the outside world during the
geometrical period.

In recent years some advance has been made through the operations
carried out by the British School at Sparta, which is perhaps the most
important site for our purpose. From the stratification of the deposits
Mr Dawkins, the director, has come to the conclusion that the earliest
temple and altar at the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia date from the ninth
or even the tenth century[272]. The temple, which must have been one
of the earliest known, appears to have been a narrow and unpretentious
structure of crude brick and timber. Some geometrical sherds were found
beneath the floor, a fact which shows that the sanctuary had been in
use somewhat earlier. If the sanctuary was founded at the beginning of
the Dorian settlement at Sparta it is obvious that this result agrees
well enough with the date indicated for the conquest by tradition. No
relics of pre-geometrical times appear to have been found.

When we turn back to the times of the earlier civilisation it is
much easier to establish chronological equations; for the presence
of Egyptian objects among Aegean remains and of Aegean objects or
representations of Aegean objects in Egypt shows that there was
frequent communication between the two areas. Thus there is little
doubt that certain Cretan remains date from periods contemporaneous
with the twelfth and Hyksos dynasties. Others again clearly belong
to the period of the eighteenth dynasty--at all events the earlier
part of it. As to the date of the destruction of the Cretan palaces
opinions still differ considerably; the most recent statement by Dr
Evans is in favour of about 1350[273]. But this catastrophe did not
bring the Aegean civilisation to an end. We find inscriptions dating
from the subsequent period (Late Minoan III) apparently quite similar
to those discovered in the earlier stratum, and the various artistic
types, though decadent, show no breach of continuity. Indeed 'Mycenean'
influence seems to have been more widespread (e.g. in Thessaly and
Italy) at this time than in any earlier period. In Egypt vases of the
same type are depicted in the wall-paintings on the tomb of Rameses
III, who died about 1170. After this time however traces of Mycenean
influence are rarely found in that country.

Within the last few years it has come to be noticed that the deposits
dating from the last Mycenean period fall into two well-marked groups.
The remarks made above, as to the art of Late Minoan III being a
continuation of that of the preceding period, apply properly only to
the first of these groups--represented by the cemeteries of Zafer
Papoura (Cnossos) and Phaistos, the late Mycenean megaron at Hagia
Triada (also in Crete) and the late palace at Phylakopi in Melos.
Other deposits, represented by the tombs found at Mouliana, Milatos,
Kavousi and Erganos (all in Crete), though they have certain features
in common with the former group, yet at the same time show a number of
characteristics which are entirely new. Of these the most important are
the practice of cremation and the use of fibulae and iron weapons, all
of which are unknown in the Aegean before this time. From a careful
study of the pottery found in these deposits Dr D. Mackenzie[274] has
come to the conclusion that it belongs to the same period as the famous
'Warrior Vase' from Mycenae. This again is obviously contemporary with
a painted stele, likewise representing warriors, which was found in
one of the latest graves in the lower town at the same place. Fibulae
also were found here in the same group of graves. The importance of
these observations lies in the fact that the armature of the warriors
depicted on the vase and the stele corresponds in all essentials to
what is described in the Homeric poems. This had already been pointed
out by Prof. Ridgeway[275]; but many scholars have attributed both
objects to a much later period. Now however in view of the sequence
which Dr Mackenzie has succeeded in tracing, in Cretan pottery and
other articles, from the time of the destruction of the palaces
onwards, it appears that the latter view can hardly be maintained.
Lastly, Dr Mackenzie has pointed out that all the above deposits
differ radically from those of the strict geometrical period found
in cemeteries at Cnossos and Courtes and in the 'beehive' tomb near
Kavousi (all in Crete). There are clear indications that all the latter
belong to a subsequent time.

As a result of his investigations then Dr Mackenzie has come to the
conclusion that three well-marked periods can be distinguished in
Cretan history, after the destruction of the palaces. But further, he
believes that each of these periods coincides with a new settlement in
the island--the true geometrical period with the Dorian settlement, the
'sub-Mycenean' with that of the Achaeans, and the last true Mycenean
period (Late Minoan III) with a settlement of Pelasgoi. The evidence of
the deposits found at Sparta and elsewhere tends distinctly to favour
the first of these identifications. For, though geometrical art was
by no means confined to the Dorians, it may be presumed that their
settlement was the latest of those which took place in Crete. Some
scholars hold that they came there from the Peloponnesos, while others
place their settlement in the island prior to the invasion of the
peninsula--and ancient authority can be obtained for both views. But in
either case it is improbable that the two events were separated by a
long interval. Again, the identification of the second or sub-Mycenean
period with that of Achaean settlement is rendered extremely probable
by the resemblance which deposits of this period show to objects and
customs described in the Homeric poems, e.g. in regard to armature and
the use of fibulae and cremation. In the poems the Achaeans are clearly
represented as dominant even in Crete, while in Greece itself, as we
have seen, the existence of other nationalities is practically ignored.

In regard to the earliest of the three settlements Dr Mackenzie's
theory may be open to more serious question. The ethnical affinities
of the Pelasgoi are still quite obscure. Again, although new types,
apparently derived from the mainland, do occur at this time, the break
of continuity with the preceding age does not seem to be anything like
so marked as in the subsequent periods. It is scarcely impossible that
the destruction of the palaces may be due to naval warfare or piracy
on a large scale, or even to commotions within the island itself. For
our purpose however this part of Dr Mackenzie's theory is of minor
importance[276].

In other respects at all events the theory seems to provide a very
satisfactory explanation of the phenomena. We have seen that the
Spartan evidence, whether traditional or archaeological, affords no
justification for dating the Dorian invasion very long before--or
after--1000 B.C. Now we find very good evidence for two distinct
periods of culture between that event and the destruction of the Cretan
palaces, which took place probably in the fourteenth century. The
later of these periods is the one with which we are chiefly concerned;
for Greek tradition universally places the Heroic Age in times
immediately preceding the Dorian invasion. It is therefore a fact of
great significance that the deposits of this age agree in so striking
a manner with the evidence of the Homeric poems. As to the relative
duration of the two periods (Late Minoan III and sub-Mycenean or
Achaean) archaeologists apparently have not as yet ventured to express
an opinion. But it may be observed that the poems themselves give no
indication that the Achaean dominion was believed to be of recent
growth. The Cretan king Idomeneus is one of the oldest leaders at Troy,
and his grandfather is said to have reigned at Cnossos before him. The
evidence of the poems then favours the idea that even in Crete Achaean
dominion lasted at least a century.

This brings us back nearly to times when, fortunately, historical
evidence is available once more, namely from the Egyptian monuments.
During the thirteenth and twelfth centuries Egypt was threatened
on several occasions by formidable armies. During the reign of
Merenptah, probably about 1220, it was attacked by a host of Libyans
and "foreign soldiers of the Libyans" whom "the miserable Libyan had
led hither[277]." The names given to the confederates are Akaiuasha,
Thuirsha (Turusha), Shakalesha (Shakarusha) and Shardina. Very early
in the next century, during the reign of Rameses III, a fresh attack
was made from the same quarter. A few years later Rameses encountered
both by land and sea a great host coming from the north. "The Isles
were restless, disturbed among themselves at one and the same time. No
land stood before them, beginning from Kheta (Cappadocia and Cilicia),
Kedi (the 'circling' of the Syrian coast at the Gulf of Iskanderun),
Carchemish, Arvad and Alashiya. They destroyed them, and assembled
in their camp in the midst of Amar (_Amurru_; Palestine)[278]." The
invaders here are called Shardina, Pulesatha (or Purusatha), Vashasha,
Tchakaray (Zakar) and Danaau (or Danauna)[279]. Other Shardina appear
to have been fighting on the side of the Egyptians. About a century
earlier the Hittites brought a great confederacy against Rameses II.
Among the names given here are Luka, Pidasa, Kalakisha, Dardenui and
Masa[280]. On this occasion also we find Shardina in the Egyptian army.
In the Tell-el-Amarna tablets, which date from shortly before the
middle of the fourteenth century, we hear of Sirdana (apparently the
same people) serving under the Egyptians in Palestine, and of attacks
made upon the coast by Lukki, who are believed to be identical with the
Luka[281].

Unfortunately scholars have not yet been able to come to any general
agreement as to the identification of most of these names. It is
commonly held that Pulesatha and Luka denote the Philistines and
Lycians respectively. Many writers also identify the Shardina with
the Sardinians and the Shakalesha with the Siceloi, but others
connect these names with Sardis and Sagalassos in Asia Minor. Other
identifications which have received more or less assent are those of
Akaiuasha, Thuirsha, Danaau, Dardenui and Masa with the Achaeans,
Tyrrhenians, Danaoi, Dardanoi and Mysians, and of Vashasha and Pidasa
with the inhabitants of Oaxos (in Crete) and Pedasos (in Caria)
respectively. It has been supposed also that the Tchakaray, who are
mentioned occasionally as mariners in later times, likewise belonged to
Crete.

In spite of the large element of doubt attaching to most of these
identifications one important conclusion may be drawn with safety,
namely that several of the nations mentioned had come from a
considerable distance. Even those scholars who deny the references
to Sicily and Sardinia hold that nearly all parts of the Aegean are
represented in the lists. The inscriptions frequently speak of the
invaders as coming from the sea or from islands. Thus the Pulesatha are
said to be "in the midst of the sea." Again the king "slaughtered the
Danauna in their isles[282]." We find also the expressions "Vashasha
of the sea," "Shardina of the sea," "Thuirsha of the sea[283]." Such
terms are said to be often used loosely; but under the eighteenth
and nineteenth dynasties the territories of the Hittite kingdom in
Syria and Cappadocia had become so well known to the Egyptians that
it is incredible that any of the peoples of that region can be meant.
The appearance too and the armature of the Shardina, as portrayed
on the monuments, are quite incompatible with the supposition that
they belonged to any of the countries round the south-east of the
Mediterranean.

We have seen that the northern invasion repelled by Rameses III was
preceded by 'disturbances in the isles,' while the lands of the
Hittites and their neighbours had apparently been overrun by the
invaders before the attack upon Egypt. Now it has been noted that the
great Hittite kingdom (in Cappadocia) appears to have been destroyed
about the same time. In explanation of this the theory has recently
been put forward[284] that the invasion repelled by Rameses III was
closely connected with that irruption of Thraco-Phrygian peoples into
Asia Minor to which we have already referred (p. 178). It will be seen
that this theory has an important bearing on the Homeric question;
for in the Iliad we find the Thraco-Phrygian peoples already fully
established in Asia Minor, and no hint is given that their settlement
there was believed to be in any sense recent.

But it is by no means impossible that the 'disturbances in the isles'
may refer to a displacement of population in a different quarter--which
may or may not be connected with the Phrygian settlement in Asia Minor.
The movement against Egypt was, in part at least, a maritime one, and
when Rameses is said to have slaughtered the invaders in their islands
the reference can hardly be to the old Hittite kingdom, which had long
been known to the Egyptians. Surely it is more natural to connect the
'disturbances' with those national movements in the southern Aegean
which eventually brought the Mycenean civilisation to an end. We have
seen that the last period of this civilisation is believed to have
begun in the fourteenth century and to have lasted some considerable
time. The convulsions of Rameses' time (the early years of the twelfth
century) may therefore mark a stage in the movements which brought
about its destruction.

In any case it is from the Egyptian monuments of this period that we
obtain the clearest evidence for contact between the true Mycenean
civilisation and that 'sub-Mycenean' or 'Achaean' type which followed
it. The warriors of the invading forces[285] are represented as armed
with swords of the regular Mycenean pattern or with spears of no
very great length. Some of them--the Pulesatha and Tchakaray--wear a
peculiar head-dress, apparently made of feathers[286], which recalls
the type used in later times by the Lycians according to Herodotus (VII
92). On the other hand the Shardina are depicted with very elaborate
helmets[287], which, except that they have no plumes, are almost
identical with those borne by the figures on the Warrior Vase (cf. p.
185). The Shardina and many of the Pulesatha also carry round shields,
held in one hand, as in the case of the warriors represented on the
Vase[288] and the Stele. This fact is especially noteworthy, since
the round shield seems to have been totally foreign not only to the
Egyptians themselves, but also to the Hittites and all neighbouring
peoples[289], while even in the Aegean area it was apparently not used
in centres of Mycenean civilisation[290]. On the other hand both these
features correspond to the type of armature described in the Homeric
poems. It would not be correct of course to say that the portraits of
the Shardina might be taken as faithful representations of Homeric
warriors. We find no trace of greaves, while the body-armour is of
a less elaborate type than that described in the poems[291]. The
Homeric type of armature--represented by the Warrior Vase as well as
in the poems--belongs clearly to a later stage of development than
the Shardina type, and therefore probably to a later age than the
early part of the twelfth century. Yet there is sufficient resemblance
between the two to render it more than likely that the one is descended
from the other.

Whatever may have been the causes which brought about the movement
encountered by Rameses III, some of the other references point
distinctly to bands of mercenary soldiers, rather than to national
migrations. This is especially clear in the case of the Shardina,
who are mentioned for the first time as serving under the Egyptians
in Palestine. But the earliest reference--in the Tell-el-Amarna
letters--carries us back to the destruction of the Cretan palaces, if
Dr Evans' date for this catastrophe is correct. It has been remarked
that, in striking contrast with Mycenae and other early centres of
civilisation in Greece, the Cretan palaces were almost entirely
unfortified; and the explanation commonly given of this fact is that
their owners ruled the seas. If this is true we must conclude that the
earliest maritime expeditions of the Shardina and their confederates
did not take place without their consent.

* * * * *

In the course of this discussion we have seen that, though historical
evidence for the Greek Heroic Age is entirely wanting, later tradition
points to the eleventh century as the time to which the poems and
legends refer; and further, that, unsatisfactory as it doubtless is,
this evidence is corroborated to a considerable extent by the results
of archaeological investigation. In much earlier times various parts
of the Greek world possessed a high civilisation, which has left
remains of magnificent palaces and many elaborate works of art. The
evidence of these remains does not correspond at all to the state of
society revealed in the poems. But at the close of this earlier period
many new objects--belonging, it would seem, to a new population--make
their appearance; and these latter do fulfil the conditions required.
Lastly, it is of interest to note that from the fourteenth to the
twelfth century Egypt and the Levant were frequently visited by bands
of soldiers, who seem to have come from the Aegean or neighbouring
regions and who outwardly bear a somewhat striking resemblance to the
warriors described in the poems. It would appear that at this time the
East must have been more familiar to the Greek world than Greek records
would lead us to expect. This is the more noteworthy since during the
following centuries the Greeks seem to have had but little contact with
foreign nations.

FOOTNOTES:

[250] Chiefly because the description of the shield (vv. 139-320)
appears to correspond to the art of that period.

[251] The κύκλοι embraced much more than the story of Troy; cf. _W. v.
Christs Geschichte d. griech. Litteratur_⁵, § 47 f. The relationship of
these works to the poems may be compared with that of Völsunga Saga to
the heroic poems of the Edda.

[252] Schol. to Euripides, _Troades_, 822.

[253] Eusebius, _Chron._, ad Olymp. 53. The same authority however also
attributes it to Cinaithon of Lacedaemon (ad Olymp. 4).

[254] Fragm. 6 (Bergk), from Pausanias, IX 9. 5.

[255] The Suppliants is hardly to be reckoned as a heroic play. It
is referred to a time many generations before the siege of Troy and
all the characters appear to be personifications of nationalities.
Regarding the epic Danais little information seems to be obtainable.

[256] The Ion and Bacchai are perhaps rather to be regarded as
pre-heroic; the former deals with a story which apparently belongs to
the same type as Aeschylus' Suppliants.

[257]

αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ καὶ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν,
αὖτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ
Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον,
ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἳ καλέονται
ἡμίθεοι, προτέρη γενέη κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν.
καὶ τοὺς μὲν πόλεμός τε κακὸς καὶ φύλοπις αἰνὴ
τοὺς μὲν ὑφ' ἑπταπύλῳ Θήβῃ, Καδμηΐδι γαίῃ,
ὤλεσε μαρναμένους μήλων ἕνεκ' Οἰδιπόδαο,
τοὺς δὲ καὶ ἐν νήεσσιν ὑπὲρ μέγα λαῖτμα θαλάσσης
ἐς Τροίην ἀγαγὼν Ἑλένης ἕνεκ' ἠϋκόμοιο. κ.τ.λ.

In this passage the word ἥρως seems to have already begun to acquire
its later meaning, viz. a distinguished man of the past (generally of
the Heroic Age) who was honoured with worship, though not as a god. For
such worship Teutonic records naturally furnish few parallels, since
most of the Teutonic peoples became Christian either during the Heroic
Age itself or soon after. We may compare however what Jordanes (cap.
13) says of the Goths: _proceres suos, quorum quasi fortuna uincebant,
non puros homines sed semideos, id est Ansis, uocauerunt_. In Old Norse
the name _æsir_ (*_ansīz_) is applied only to the gods (Othin, Thor,
etc.); but we do hear occasionally of worship paid to heroes of the
Heroic Age, as well as to distinguished persons of later times. An
instance of the former (in the case of Hrólfr Kraki) occurs in Yngl. S.
41.

[258] In the Nostoi after the departure from Troy some of the Achaeans
(Calchas, Leonteus and Polypoites) were made to arrive at Colophon.
The story of Calchas' contest with Mopsos perhaps comes from the same
source.

[259] Once also, together with Ἀχαιοί (Il. II 684), as a name for the
subjects of Achilles, or rather Peleus. Ἑλλάς is used sometimes for a
place or district in Peleus' kingdom, sometimes apparently in a wider
sense.

[260] He states (I 57) that in his time they inhabited Placia and
Scylace, on the south coast of the Sea of Marmara, and Κρηστῶνα πόλιν,
probably in the Chalcidian peninsula (though some scholars emend this
name to Κρότωνα, i.e. Cortona in Tuscany). Down to the fifth century
they are said to have also occupied Lemnos and Imbros (IV 145, V 26,
VI 138 ff.), and in early times Samothrace (II 51), while their name
was preserved at Antandros, in the Gulf of Adramyttion (VII 42). Later
writers speak of the Pelasgoi as having formerly inhabited many other
regions. Into the difficult problems connected with this name we need
not enter here; for the most recent and perhaps fullest discussion of
the subject reference may be made to Prof. Myres' paper in the _Journ.
Hell. St._ 1907, p. 170 ff. As regards the etymology analogies indicate
that Πελασγοί represents an earlier form *_Pelag-skoi_. If this is a
Greek word the most probable meaning is 'people of the sea' (though
another explanation has been proposed; cf. Kretschmer, _Glotta_ I 16
f.). But it may really be a national name (cf. Πελάγονες). In that case
we may note that the use of the suffix _-sko-_ in national names is
Indo-European, though not Greek.

[261] Meyer, _S.-B. d. Akad. zu Berlin_, 1908, p. 18.

[262] Into the linguistic affinities of these various peoples we need
not enter here. It will be sufficient to notice that the Thracian
and Phrygian languages are commonly believed to have belonged to the
eastern division of the Indo-European group. Certainly this is the
case with the language of the Armenians, who according to Herodotus
(VII 73) were an offshoot (ἄποικοι) of the Phrygians. The evidence
of the Phrygian inscriptions themselves is unfortunately somewhat
ambiguous. To the same eastern division belonged the ancient Illyrian
languages, if the present dialects of Albania are descended from them.
On the other hand the languages of the indigenous peoples throughout
Asia Minor and the Aegean area are commonly believed to have been
non-Indo-European. Yet Prof. Conway (_British School at Athens_, Ann.
VIII, p. 141 ff.) holds that the inscriptions of Praisos belonged to a
language of this group. If this should turn out to be the case with the
earlier Cretan inscriptions current views as to the early history of
the Indo-European languages would require considerable modification.

[263] For England from its unification under Alfred the Great to the
present time the average is about twenty years; for France from 840 to
1793 it is between twenty-three and twenty-four years.

[264] _Forsch. z. alten Geschichte_, p. 170 f. The reckoning is not
due to Herodotus himself but taken over by him from an earlier writer.
Prof. Meyer suggests as its author Hecataeus, who was a contemporary of
Cleomenes.

[265] _Op. cit._ p. 178 ff.

[266] Eratosthenes reckons nearly 320 years from the accession
(birth) of Eurysthenes to that of Alcamenes in the ninth generation,
while the reigns of the father, grandfather, great-grandfather and
great-great-grandfather of the latter make up 159 years. Sosibius,
who reckoned by the Eurypontid dynasty, appears to have had a similar
period of 320 years from Procles to Theopompos, although his dates
were different from those of Eratosthenes--1091/0 to 771/0 according
to Prof. Meyer (_op. cit._ p. 179 f.). The accession of Theopompos was
equated with that of Alcamenes by Eratosthenes. Possibly these periods
were originally subdivisions of a longer period of 640 years, reckoned
from the fortieth year of Cleomenes (or Leonidas?).

[267] Two names (Prytanis and Eunomos) in the Eurypontid list are
generally regarded with doubt, but none of the Agiad names is really
of a suspicious character. The fact that Agis and Eurypon are not the
first names in the genealogies ought not to be used as an argument
against the trustworthiness of the tradition. In many Teutonic
genealogies--e.g. the Gothic, Frankish (Merovingian), Kentish, East
Anglian and Mercian--the name which performs patronymic function is not
that which stands first in the list.

[268] Prof. Meyer's view is not that the chronologists fixed too
early a date for the Dorian invasion, but that the early parts of the
genealogies themselves are unhistorical.

[269] Prof. Meyer (_op. cit._ p. 173 and note) cites the case of
Telamon the son of Poseidon, ancestor of the priests of Poseidon at
Halicarnassos, whom he places after the Return of the Heracleidai. But
the question is a complicated one. The genealogy cannot be used for our
purpose, as we do not know where it ends.

[270] Cf. Töpffer, _Attische Genealogie_, p. 278 f.; Meyer, _op. cit._
p. 174, note.

[271] Battos I is believed to have founded Cyrene about 630. It may be
observed that the interval between that date and 466 is surprisingly
short for the lapse of seven generations.

[272] _British School at Athens_, Ann. XIV, pp. 3, 18 f.

[273] Cf. Hawes, _Crete the Fore-runner of Greece_, p. 18. A much later
date is favoured by Dr Dörpfeld (_Ath. Mitteilungen_, XXXII 602),
whose views on Cretan chronology differ greatly from those of English
archaeologists. To this question we shall have to refer again in a
later chapter.

[274] _British School at Athens_, Ann. XIII, p. 423 ff.

[275] _Early Age of Greece_, p. 317. Representations of both the Vase
and the Stele are given in the same work (p. 313 f.).

[276] Dr Mackenzie's theory would certainly gain in probability if it
could be shown that the Pelasgoi were identical with the Pulesatha
or Philistines (cf. p. 188). The arguments in favour of such an
identification are obvious enough; but they are scarcely of such a
nature as to carry conviction. The appearance of _-st-_ for _-gsk-_ in
the name is perhaps hardly to be regarded as an insuperable difficulty;
for we know nothing of the languages involved or of the sound-changes
to which they were subject.

[277] Cf. Hall, _The Oldest Civilization of Greece_, p. 180 f.; _Ann.
of the Brit. School at Athens_, VIII, p. 180; Petrie, _History of
Egypt_, p. 108 ff.

[278] Hall, _Ann. of the Brit. School_, VIII 183; cf. also Breasted,
_Ancient Records of Egypt_, IV, p. 37 f.

[279] Prof. Breasted (_l.c._) gives these names as _Peleset_, _Thekel_
(i.e. Zakar), _Shekelesh_ (omitted above), _Denyen_ and _Weshesh_.

[280] Cf. Hall, _op. cit._ p. 177 f.

[281] Cf. Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 336, 386; Hall, _op. cit._
p. 176 f.

[282] Cf. W. M. Müller, _Asien und Europa_, pp. 361, 363; Petrie,
_History of Egypt_, III, p. 150.

[283] Cf. W. M. Müller, _op. cit._ pp. 361, 371; Petrie, _op. cit._ pp.
151, 162.

[284] Cf. Meyer, _S.-B. der Akad. zu Berlin_, 1908, p. 18 f.

[285] A considerable number of the figures are reproduced in W. M.
Müller's _Asien und Europa_ (cap. 27, 28); many also in the Histories
of Egypt by Meyer and Petrie.

[286] This head-dress is figured on a discus recently found at Phaistos
(Crete) among deposits dating from 'Middle Minoan III' (cent. XVII?).
The discus, if not actually of Cretan origin, is said to come clearly
from some district under the influence of Cretan civilisation. Cf.
Meyer, _S.-B. d. Akad. zu Berlin_, 1910, p. 1022 ff.

[287] They are said to be white; but it is difficult to believe that
they are not metal--possibly bronze overlaid with tin (cf. Il. XXIII
560 ff.).

[288] The shields figured on the Vase (apparently also those on the
Stele) seem to have a section cut out of them; but they can hardly be
regarded otherwise than as round shields. Cf. Lippold, _Münchener Arch.
Studien_, p. 406.

[289] Except the Assyrians (cf. p. 203, note); but there the evidence
comes from much later times.

[290] It occurs probably on the discus from Phaistos (cf. Meyer _l.c._)
and on a porcelain fragment from the third shaft-grave at Mycenae (cf.
Reichel, _über hom. Waffen_, p. 58)--both times in conjunction with
head-dresses of the Pulesatha or Shardina types--as well as on ivory
objects from Enkomi in Cyprus (cf. Evans, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._, XXX
209), here also in conjunction with similar armature, though only the
lower part of the helmet is visible.

[291] Many of the figures, both Shardina and Pulesatha, wear
body-armour of some kind. Greaves are first found at Enkomi.

CHAPTER X.

THE HOMERIC POEMS.

It has been mentioned that, according to the theory now most commonly
accepted, the Homeric poems were not the work of one author or even
of one generation--that on the contrary they grew up gradually in the
course of several hundred years, reaching their final form (in the case
of the Odyssey) perhaps not before the middle of the seventh century.
We must now review briefly the evidence on which this theory is based.

The earliest historical references to the poems reach back only to
the beginning of the sixth century, and even these are not altogether
satisfactory. Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, according to Herodotus (V
67) prohibited rhapsodists from reciting the Homeric poems, because
they were full of the praises of Argos and its people. But the
reference here is perhaps rather to the Thebais or Epigonoi than the
Iliad. Again, it is said that when Athens and Megara were disputing
about the possession of Salamis, both parties appealed to the authority
of Homer in support of their contentions. If this story may be trusted
it is of importance as showing that the poems were generally venerated
at such an early date. And though all the evidence is late[292], the
form in which the passage in question (Il. II 557 f.) has survived does
clearly suggest Athenian influence.

References in the works of other poets carry us back to a considerably
earlier period. It has already been mentioned that Callinos is said
to have attributed the Thebais to Homer, from which we may infer
that poems under this name were already known. Archilochos, who
likewise flourished before the middle of the seventh century, seems
to have attributed the Margites to Homer[293]. The extant fragments
of his works also contain several passages which apparently show
Homeric influence[294]. Terpandros, probably an older contemporary
of Archilochos, is said to have invented a musical accompaniment
for the Homeric poems[295]. In Hesiodic poetry we find a number of
references to heroic subjects. The Catalogue appears to have dealt with
certain adventures of Odysseus, which were probably derived from the
Odyssey[296].

This evidence, vague and somewhat uncertain as it is, renders it
probable that Homeric poetry was in existence before the seventh
century. Further than this we cannot hope for any direct external
evidence, for the authors cited are the earliest of whom we know
anything worth mention. Indeed the age of the various Hesiodic poems
themselves is very problematical. It is customary now to attribute the
Theogony and the Works and Days to the close of the eighth century and
the other poems to the seventh. But Herodotus (II 53) referred Hesiod,
as well as Homer, to a period about 400 years before his own time, i.e.
to about the middle of the ninth century.

Turning now to the internal evidence, we may at all events regard one
fact as established, namely that the subject-matter was determined at a
period considerably anterior to those of which we have been speaking.
It is not merely that the persons mentioned are uniformly referred to
the Heroic Age, for we have yet to discuss the possibility that all the
characters of this age are fictitious. But we have also to take into
account the ethnographical indications contained in the poems. There
is no hint of the presence of Dorians in the Peloponnesos, nor of the
existence of Ionic states in Asia Minor or even in the Cyclades[297];
indeed the scheme of tribal or political geography which they present
is far removed from anything we find even in the earliest records of
the historical period. We shall see later that the same remark holds
good with regard to the system of government depicted in the poems,
e.g. in the universal prevalence of kingship, and so also with their
indications as to social organisation, religion and even ethical
standards. Then there is the fact that in references to weapons bronze
is far more frequently mentioned than iron; yet it is generally agreed
that iron must have been in common use by the tenth century, while
some scholars would refer its introduction to a much earlier date.
Lastly, we may take note of certain passages and expressions which
seem to contain reminiscences of the prehistoric civilisation of the
Aegean--a civilisation which, as we have seen, had passed its zenith
in the fourteenth century and which was probably altogether submerged
in the convulsions which accompanied the Dorian and Ionic migrations.
Among such reminiscences we may probably count the descriptions of the
palaces of Menelaos and Alcinoos and the use of such terms as κύανος.
Of course it is not to be supposed that any part of the poems goes
back to the period of the early civilisation. Yet the features noted
above seem to me to point quite clearly to a time when some of the
ancient palaces were still known and perhaps still inhabited. Hence it
is not merely the case that the poems are concerned exclusively with
characters of the Heroic Age. We are bound to conclude further that the
environment in which these characters are placed is in general such as
belonged to the same period. This of course involves the existence of
a verbal tradition practically from the Heroic Age itself. Indeed, we
may say that it probably involves a poetic tradition, for we have no
evidence for the existence of traditional prose narratives, whereas
references to the cultivation of poetry in early times are fairly
numerous.

Now it is generally agreed that the Heroic Age--or perhaps we should
say the type of civilisation and the ethnographical conditions with
which this age is associated--cannot have lasted much beyond the close
of the eleventh century. Hence the date accepted by many scholars for
the completion of the Odyssey (cf. p. 169) involves a period of more
than three centuries, during which the Homeric poems were in process
of formation. That is a long period for continued composition in one
subject, and it will be well now to review briefly the evidence on
which this theory rests.

Kirchhoff[298] dated the 'later redaction' of the Odyssey between Ol.
30 and Ol. 50, or at all events not much before Ol. 30 (B.C. 656). To
this conclusion he was led primarily by the reference to the voyage of
the Argo in XII 59-72. It is probable enough that this passage implies
acquaintance with a poem dealing with Iason's adventures; but the same
can hardly be said of Kirchhoff's further suggestion, viz. that this
lost poem must have been composed some considerable time after the
colonisation of Cyzicos[299]. The accounts which we have of the travels
and adventures of the Argonauts can scarcely be said to indicate
that the earliest poems on this subject were composed at a time when
the Black Sea was already familiar to the Greeks; on the other hand
travellers from time to time may have penetrated into that region
centuries before the foundation of Cyzicos[300].

Others have sought to show that the later parts of the poem betray an
intimate acquaintance with the western seas, such as would be possible
only after the development of Corinthian maritime enterprise about the
close of the eighth century, whereas the knowledge of the same regions
shown by the earlier parts is of the vaguest description[301]. Here the
evidence is derived chiefly from the references to Sicily (Σικανίη)
and the Siceloi, Alybas (traditionally placed in the Gulf of Otranto,
but perhaps rather a coined name) and Temesa, which is identified with
Tempsa in Calabria. This theory seems to me to be open to much the same
objections as the other. It is clear now that in prehistoric times the
south of Italy was intimately connected with the eastern coast of the
Adriatic, and we have no ground for denying that the former may have
been known to Greek traders or pirates long before the date of the
earliest colonies.

A third argument, and one which has exercised a much wider influence,
is based on the relationship of certain portions of the poems to the
lost Cyclic poems (Cypria, etc.). It is held for instance that the
Catalogues in Il. II, at all events the Trojan catalogue, were taken
from the Cypria, and again that in the Nekyia (Od. XI) and elsewhere
use has been made of the Little Iliad and the Nostoi, as well as
the Cypria. But, granting the correctness of these hypotheses, no
conclusions as to date can be drawn from them unless the dates of the
lost poems themselves are established. We have seen however that such
is not really the case; it is admitted that the attribution of these
poems to Arctinos, Lesches and others does not occur until very late
times. All that can be said is that they appear to have contained
certain 'post-Homeric' features, such as purification for manslaughter
(in the Aithiopis). With these we shall have to deal later. There is no
need however to suppose that the lost poems were any more homogeneous
than the Iliad and Odyssey.

Again it is thought that certain passages betray the influence of
Hesiodic poetry, while others indicate genealogies or relationships
which are at variance with statements contained in the latter[302].
Among the former we may note especially the list of women in the Nekyia
(Od. XI 235-327[303]), which is compared with the Hesiodic Catalogue
of heroines. This evidence would be useful for chronological purposes
if we knew (i) when Hesiod lived, (ii) that he was the first to
compose catalogues of this kind. But unfortunately neither of these
propositions can be admitted. To the first we have already referred.
The majority of scholars hold that Hesiod cannot have lived much after
the end of the eighth century. But there is nothing to show that he did
not live before that time; for no sound argument can be founded on the
last verses of the Theogony. As for the Catalogue it belongs to a class
of poetry of which the beginnings may go back to a remote antiquity.
The presumption is that it originated in times when descent was still
traced through the mother.

On internal grounds many arguments have been brought forward for the
purpose of showing that the poems in their present form have undergone
a long process of development. With discrepancies in the narrative
itself we need not concern ourselves. They are doubtless of importance
for determining the question of single or composite authorship,
but they do not necessarily point to authorship of quite different
ages. For instance, one poet may have conceived of the Achaean camp
as fortified, another as without fortifications. But that does not
prove that the two poets were not contemporary, for it will not be
disputed that the people of the Heroic Age were capable of building
fortifications. Again, it may be that the original poem on the 'Wrath
of Achilles' did not originally contain Books II-VII. But, apart from
one or two details which we shall discuss presently, there is nothing
to suggest that these books are the product of an entirely different
period.

We may even take what is perhaps the most extreme case, that of the
Doloneia. This book is joined on very loosely to what precedes, and its
contents are practically disregarded in the rest of the Iliad[304].
Some critics even in ancient times seem to have believed that it did
not originally belong to the poem. Moreover it contains a number of
features peculiar to itself and several expressions which are regarded
as indications of lateness. In particular there are some striking
parallels to the passages in the Odyssey, and it is held that in
certain cases they are due to direct influence from the latter[305].
But, granting all this, we are still not in a position to decide
whether the chronological difference between the Doloneia and the
earlier parts of the Iliad is to be reckoned at three centuries or two
or one[306].

As no definite results can be attained from such considerations as
these we will now confine our attention to arguments which are founded
upon real or supposed differences of culture. The most important class
of evidence for our purpose is that which relates to the use of the
metals. Both bronze and iron are frequently mentioned and there can
be no doubt that both were well known. But it has been observed that
weapons are nearly always said to be of bronze (χαλκός, χάλκεον ἔγχος,
etc.[307]), whereas iron is usually mentioned either as a substance
or in reference to tools, especially hatchets[308]. Only in seven
verses do we hear of iron weapons, even if we include in this category
the knives mentioned in Il. XVIII 34 and XXIII 30. Two verses (_ib._
VII 141, 143 f.) speak of an iron club and one (_ib._ IV 123) of an
arrowhead, while the other two (Od. XVI 294, XIX 13) refer to the arms
in Odysseus' house collectively.

The obvious inference from the statistics is that iron tools came into
use before iron weapons, and though this was long thought incredible it
has recently been shown that there is some evidence for the prevalence
of such conditions in Palestine[309]. Moreover a somewhat striking
confirmation of the Homeric evidence was furnished by the excavations
at Troy, where a small lump of unwrought iron was found among deposits
belonging apparently to the fifth stratum[310]. It has been compared,
and doubtless rightly, with the lump mentioned in Il. XXIII 826 ff.,
though the latter must have been much larger. The presumption is that,
like this, it was intended for some tool or agricultural implement;
for all the weapons found at Troy--few as they were unfortunately--up
to the seventh stratum were of bronze. It is probable therefore that
the use of the metals not only in the fifth stratum but also in the
sixth--the great Mycenean fortress--was similar to that which is
indicated in the Homeric poems.

For those who believe that these poems are the work of a single author
the words "Iron does of itself attract a man[311]" (Od. XVI 294, XIX
13) present a serious difficulty. I cannot believe in view of the
evidence given above that iron weapons were regularly employed in the
Heroic Age[312] and that the use of the word χαλκός is a piece of
traditional poetic archaism. Otherwise however there is no alternative
but to regard the Odyssey verse as an interpolation[313]. But in
reality it is no great step from iron knives and arrow-heads to the use
of the same metal for spears or even swords. If we were to adopt the
view that the age of the composition of the Homeric poems coincides
with the period of transition between the first use of iron for cutting
and piercing instruments to its general employment for weapons of all
kinds, we should not necessarily require much more than a century for
their development. Indeed the presence of iron swords in graves of the
sub-Mycenean period in Crete (cf. p. 185) would seem to show that the
transition had begun within what may be regarded practically as the
Heroic Age itself.

Again, it is held that many anachronisms or chronological
inconsistencies appear in the battle scenes of the Iliad. Sometimes
we find descriptions of armour and tactics which are thought to be
copied from those of Ionic hoplites in early historical times and to
be irreconcilable with the type of warfare depicted in other passages.
Many of the chief men are represented as armed with breast-plates,
for which, it is said, there is no evidence in the Mycenean
age[314]--though this statement is more than doubtful[315]. In regard
to the form of the shield also there is a discrepancy. Sometimes it
is described as being of great length, 'like a tower' or 'reaching to
the feet'--terms which would suit the long shields often depicted on
objects of the Mycenean age. Sometimes on the other hand we hear of
'round' shields, which suggest the comparatively small circular shield
of the historical period.

These inconsistencies only concern us in so far as they are supposed
to point to widely different ages. Unfortunately our information
regarding the geometrical period is still very defective and we do not
know how far its characteristics were the same in all parts of Greece.
The same remarks apply with still greater force to the preceding or
sub-Mycenean age. Hence, though it may be true that the round shield
does not make its appearance in Attica till the close of the eighth
century, we cannot argue from this that it was unknown in other parts
of Greece[316]. In the more northern parts of Europe it appears to
be the earliest form of shield which has been found. More important
however is the fact that the Shardina and their confederates used the
round shield as far back as the thirteenth century, while the shields
represented on the Warrior Vase and the Stele from Mycenae (cf. p. 185)
can hardly be regarded otherwise than as a variety of the same type.
Hence, whatever may be the connection between the disappearance of
the long shield and the growing use of body armour, there is not the
slightest justification for supposing that the round variety was not
used in the Heroic Age itself.

The commonest type of Mycenean shield, the oval type contracted in the
middle, belongs to a class of shields which occur in various parts of
the world. It is probably akin to the Zulu shield, though in this the
lateral contraction has lost its meaning and almost disappeared. The
primary purpose of the whole class appears to be for defence against
missile weapons (ἕρκος ἀκόντων), whether light javelins or arrows.
But the special characteristic of the Mycenean variety is the use of
a suspending strap (τελαμών[317]) in place of a handle. The object
of this was to leave both hands free for the use of a long spear in
fighting at close quarters--as we see in the representation of a
lion-hunt engraved on a dagger-blade found at Mycenae. But it is to
be observed that the method of fighting most commonly employed by
Homeric warriors is of quite a different character. First the spear
was hurled--apparently with one hand (cf. Il. XXII 320)--and then an
attack was made with the sword. For both these movements the Mycenean
shield was obviously ill adapted. Indeed for the second, which required
agility above everything, it would be more of an encumbrance than a
protection. But even when the spear was used for thrusting there is
nothing to show that it was usually held in both hands[318]. Hence we
can hardly avoid concluding that the Homeric tactics were due to the
use of a different type of armature, which included a comparatively
small and mobile shield. We need not suppose of course that the
Mycenean shield was unknown or even uncommon. It seems fairly clear
that Aias the son of Telamon uses one of this type[319], and so also
Periphetes the Mycenean whose shield reached to his feet and caused
him to stumble (Il. XV 645 ff.)[320].

A further suggestion is that the Homeric use of the chariot was due to
the long shield[321]. The argument in this case is that such shields
could not be carried on horseback, while their weight was too great to
allow them to be borne for any distance on foot. This is an extremely
dubious theory for two reasons. In the first place the Homeric use
of the chariot is a problem which concerns not Greece alone but a
considerable part of Europe, including countries where there is no
evidence for the Mycenean shield[322]. Secondly, it may be regarded as
a general rule that those peoples which use the long shield not only
fight but also go to battle on foot. Moreover the evidence of the poems
themselves does not really bear out the suggested connection. Thus
there is no instance of the long shield more clear than that belonging
to Aias the son of Telamon, and this hero is one of the few leading men
who are never said to wear breast-plates. But he is also apparently one
of the very few who do not possess chariots. Indeed a better case could
probably be made out for connecting the chariot with the breast-plate.

The Homeric use of the chariot gives rise to another question which
probably deserves more careful consideration. In the action itself
driving appears to be universal; at most we have only one doubtful
case of riding (Il. X 513). But there are at least two incidental
references (Il. XV 679 ff., Od. V 371) which betray acquaintance with
the latter art. It is quite possible therefore that the knowledge
of riding was a comparatively recent accomplishment which the poet
or poets knew to have been foreign to the Heroic Age. Unfortunately
the history of equitation is a very obscure subject. In more eastern
countries the use of chariots--which here were war-chariots in the true
sense--continued until quite late times. In Cyprus we hear of them at
the beginning of the fifth century; and in Italy they were introduced,
or re-introduced, still later. But we do not know when riding began.
In the wall-sculptures at Karnak[323] which commemorate the victories
of Sety I and date from towards the close of the fourteenth century
several Hittites are shown on horseback. The scene represents a battle,
and it may have been the artist's intention to depict what was not a
normal custom but the last resource of fugitives whose chariots had
broken down. But even then the possibility remains that in emergencies
or under special conditions riding may have been practised by the
Greeks long before it was in regular use. The whole subject however
requires further investigation, in particular the question whether
there is reason for supposing the Hittites to have been more skilled in
horsemanship than other nations.

Another series of inconsistencies has been pointed out in references to
marriage customs, particularly in regard to the use of the word ἔεδνα
(ἕδνα). In several passages this word evidently denotes the sum paid
by the bridegroom to the bride's guardian; but in others it seems to
mean presents given to the bride at marriage by her own relatives. We
can scarcely doubt that a difference of custom is involved in these
usages; but it does not necessarily follow that the second group
of passages belong to a later period than the first. Account must
be taken of local divergencies, for there is hardly any subject in
which early Teutonic custom varied so much as in this, even from the
time of our oldest records. Again, it has been suggested[324] with
considerable probability that the inconsistencies of the Odyssey are to
be attributed to a change of custom--not in the sense that the earlier
parts of the poem reflect one form and the later parts another, but
that the poem as a whole belongs to an age of transition when different
forms of matrimonial arrangements were in vogue. This is a question
with which we shall have to deal more fully in a later chapter.

We have yet to consider certain inconsistencies in regard to religious
observances. Once only (Il. VI 303) is mention made of the figure--a
seated figure--of a deity, and consequently it is held that the passage
in question must be late. Recent discoveries however have tended to
throw doubt on this view; for a number of statuettes, apparently
representing deities, have come to light in deposits belonging both to
the Mycenean and Geometrical periods, while primitive female figures,
often in a sitting position, are quite common. The finding of a larger
image would now scarcely call forth much surprise, though it cannot be
supposed that such statues were of frequent occurrence.

In references to sanctuaries we sometimes hear of temples (νηοί), but
more frequently only of shrines or sacred groves. The most certain
examples[325] of the former are those of Apollo and Athene at Troy
(Il. V 446, VI 88, VII 83, etc.) and another of Athene at Athens (Il.
II 549, Od. VII 81). The sanctuary of Apollo at Chryse is also once
described as a temple (Il. I 39), though the account of the sacrifice
(_ib._ 440 ff.) suggests an open-air shrine. Besides these we have
a general reference to temples among the Phaeacians (Od. VI 10) and
a vow made by Odysseus' followers to construct a temple to Helios
on their return home (_ib._ XII 346). Now it is held that all these
passages belong to a late stage in the growth of the poems and that in
their original form temples were unknown. Sanctuaries of the earlier
period are described only by such terms as ἄλσος or τέμενος βωμός τε
θυήεις. There can be little doubt that the grove and the open-air
shrine represent more primitive types of sanctuary than the temple.
But the advocates of this theory seem to have overlooked the fact that
among many peoples the more primitive and the more developed forms of
sanctuary are found existing side by side[326]. Thus beside the great
temple at Upsala, the chief sanctuary of the North, there stood a grove
which appears to have been regarded with still greater veneration,
even down to the very end of heathen times. Close by was a spring in
which human victims were sacrificed[327]. This case shows how entirely
unjustifiable it is to assume the non-existence of a temple, when
only a shrine or sacred grove happens to be mentioned. We may cite
as an example the proposed sacrifice to Spercheios in Il. XXIII 145
ff.[328] In general however the Homeric evidence clearly suggests
that temples--and the same may possibly be the case with images--were
chiefly to be found in cities, while the more primitive forms of
sanctuary remained in less populous places.

I cannot but think that to any student of comparative religion the
argument derived from the references to sanctuaries will appear
entirely worthless. The argument against the antiquity of the round
shield also can hardly be maintained. Of the rest all except the one
based on the use of the metals contain a certain element of doubt.
But even if we grant their validity in every case it cannot be said
that either individually or collectively they necessitate the lapse
of a long interval between the earlier and later portions of the
poems. If the interval had amounted to anything like three centuries
discrepancies of a far more striking character must have come to light.

* * * * *

As yet we have taken no account of linguistic inconsistencies. The
poems as we have them present a medley of forms belonging to different
ages and different dialects. But these inconsistencies appear
everywhere; it is not the case that certain portions of the poems
contain only early forms and others only late ones. The Odyssey is
said to contain a certain number of apparently late usages, especially
of prepositions and conjunctions, which are wanting or only occur
rarely in the Iliad. It is held also that within the poems themselves
earlier and later portions can be distinguished to a certain extent by
similar differences of usage. But the evidence on the whole is slight
and generally somewhat ambiguous[329]; and consequently linguistic
criteria have as a rule played only a subordinate part in the attempts
which have been made to determine the stratification of the poems. We
must conclude then either that the later parts were composed in an
artificial type of language, thoroughly permeated with archaisms, or
that the earlier parts have undergone a very considerable amount of
modernisation. Indeed the latter explanation must be admitted to some
extent in any case; for relatively modern forms occur frequently in
what are usually regarded as the very earliest parts of the poems. But
if the preservation of the poems was dependent on oral tradition for
any considerable length of time it is very difficult to set a limit to
the operations of such a process. In Anglo-Saxon poems--even in those
which were not entirely dependent on oral tradition--modernisation
prevailed to such an extent that archaic forms disappeared practically
everywhere, while substitutions of one word for another were very
frequent. The more elaborate character of Greek metre doubtless acted
as a check on this tendency to change, but at the same time I cannot
help thinking that its importance in the history of Homeric poetry has
been greatly underrated.

On the question of dialect something more must be said. It is true no
doubt that the language of the poems as we have them must be regarded
as Ionic--but only with certain reservations. In the first place
we have to note the regular preservation of _h-_, which in strict
Ionic--the language of the Asiatic coast--was lost in the seventh
century, if not earlier. Again, we find a considerable number of forms
which cannot be assigned to any Ionic dialect, e.g. such as contain
_-ā-_ (λαός, Ἀτρείδαο, αἰχμητάων). Special attention must be paid to
forms which are definitely Aeolic, such as πίσυρες, ἄμμε, ἐρεβεννός.
Whatever may be the explanation of the preservation of _h-_, it is
universally agreed that the Aeolic element is deeply rooted in the
history of Homeric poetry. Some scholars indeed hold that the poems
were originally composed in Aeolic and that their present form is
practically an Ionic translation. The more general view however is that
Ionic was the language of epic composition from the beginning and that
such forms as πίσυρες and ἄμμε are derived from early Aeolic lays on
which the epics were for the most part based.

The legends as to Homer's birthplace are perhaps not without
significance for this question. In ancient times, from Pindar[330]
downwards, Smyrna's claim to this honour was the one most generally
recognised, and the majority of modern scholars are inclined to the
view that the birthplace of Homeric poetry is to be sought in or
around that city. Now Smyrna was originally an Aeolic state, but was
captured by the Ionians of Colophon[331], apparently towards the close
of the eighth century, from which time onwards it appears as Ionic.
The mixture of dialect found in the poems--an older stratum of Aeolic
underlying a later stratum of Ionic--would therefore be perfectly
in accord with what we know of the history of the city, although
unfortunately no early inscriptions are extant[332].

The most serious competitor of Smyrna was Chios, the claim of which
found favour with several of our earliest authorities. Especially
important is the fact that in a fragment published among the remains of
Simonides of Ceos (fragm. 85, Bergk), but now frequently attributed to
Semonides of Samos, who lived about the middle of the seventh century,
a verse of the Iliad (VI 146) is ascribed to the 'man of Chios.' In
this island also there dwelt in later times a clan called Ὁμηρίδαι[333]
who claimed descent from the poet. But here again there is a tradition
that the population was at least in part Aeolic[334]. Moreover, though
the language of the earliest extant inscriptions is Ionic in its main
features, it possesses certain Aeolic characteristics, especially
the change of _ō̆n_ to _ō̆i_[335] before _s_ (e.g. πρήξοισι, λάβωισι
against Ion. πρήξουσι, λάβωσι). There is no record of an Ionic conquest
of the island, as in the case of Smyrna, but we know that it did not
enter the Ionic confederation until a comparatively late period,
probably the seventh century[336].

It appears then that the peculiarities of Homeric language can be
satisfactorily accounted for by the history of either Smyrna or
Chios[337]. But now we are confronted with a very grave difficulty.
The same scholars who hold that Smyrna was the birthplace of Homeric
poetry yet insist that the language of the epics themselves was never
anything else than Ionic, although they allow that the Iliad was nearly
complete some considerable time before the conquest of Smyrna. This
position is quite incomprehensible to me. The only explanation offered,
so far as I am aware, is that the language of this district may have
been of a mixed character[338]. It is no doubt true that when the coast
was first occupied settlers may have come from many different quarters.
But when Mimnermos speaks of the capture of 'Aeolic Smyrna' we are
surely not justified in assuming that the city had become Ionicised
before that time. On the other hand the supposition that the two
dialects were not yet differentiated to any considerable extent appears
to me to be irreconcilable with the evidence of the poems themselves as
well as with all that we know of the history of the Greek dialects.

The question which we are discussing is one which concerns not only
the Iliad and Odyssey, together perhaps with certain Hymns and other
Homeric poems, but also the various works attributed to Hesiod. In
particular we may note the Works and Days and the Theogony, both of
which claim to be of Boeotian origin. Whether by chance or not they
contain few forms[339] which are peculiar to Aeolic proper, i.e. the
dialect of Asiatic Aeolis. But in all other respects their language is
of the Homeric type, i.e. generally speaking Ionic, though with certain
reservations, notably that ϝ is generally kept and _ᾱ_ frequently
occurs before ο, ω. Now it cannot be contended seriously that this
extraordinary mixed dialect sprang up naturally on both sides of the
Aegean. The only alternative however is to suppose that Boeotian poets
borrowed it from Asia. But is this really probable at such a time?

Before leaving this subject we must notice briefly the alternative
theory that the Homeric poems were originally composed in Aeolic.
According to the form in which this theory has become most widely known
they were translated into Ionic at a comparatively late date--towards
the close of the sixth century[340]. It is rather a serious objection
to this hypothesis that the poems contain no trace of late Aeolic
characteristics, such as the change of _n_ to _i_ before _s_ (e.g.
τοίς, παῖσα). Further, if the poems had been known so long in Aeolic,
though doubt might have prevailed as to Homer's birthplace, the fact
that he was an Aeolian could never have been called in question. Above
all it is difficult to see how the need of a translation could have
arisen at such a date, for the Aeolic dialect was then well known
throughout the Greek world through the poems of Alcaeus and Sappho.

On the other hand there can be no possible objection in principle to
the idea that the poems have undergone a change of dialect. We have
seen that a large proportion of Anglo-Saxon poetry has passed through
a similar process, generally from one English dialect to another,
but occasionally, as in the case of Genesis (vv. 235-851), from a
continental to an English dialect. In some few cases we still have
parallel texts preserved in different dialects[341]. Indeed, when
the poetry of one community becomes current in another community, it
would seem that under certain conditions such changes were not merely
possible but even inevitable. This is a question to which we shall have
to return in the course of the next few pages.

* * * * *

There is still one vexed question which we have not as yet touched
upon, namely the relationship of the Homeric poems to the art of
writing. Wolf and his immediate successors held that the art was
unknown when these poems came into existence. Among more recent
scholars however the general tendency has been to regard this view as
mistaken. Some leading authorities even hold that considerable portions
of the poems were written down from the time of their composition.

The poems themselves contain only one reference to writing, namely in
Il. VI 168 ff., where it is stated that Proitos sent Bellerophon to
Lycia "and gave him baneful tokens, writing many deadly things in a
folded tablet, which he bade him show to his (Proitos') father-in-law,
with a view to his own destruction[342]." So long as no further
evidence was forthcoming there was a natural inclination either to
regard this passage as an interpolation or to interpret it as denoting
something which could not properly be called writing. But of late years
archaeological investigation has brought to light, especially in Crete,
numerous inscriptions dating from very remote times, and there cannot
now be any question as to the antiquity of writing in the southern
Aegean. Moreover the Homeric poets themselves can hardly have been
ignorant of the existence of such an art, for rock-hewn figures with
inscriptions dating from pre-Homeric times--including one which has
been identified with the figure of 'Niobe' mentioned in Il. XXIV 614
ff.--are to be found quite close to the Asiatic coast.

Yet in spite of all this it is a very remarkable fact that the whole
28,000 verses of the Iliad and Odyssey contain only one reference to
writing. The significance of this may be appreciated by turning to
modern Servian poetry, which abounds with allusions to letters and
written orders, although the minstrels themselves are quite ignorant
both of reading and writing. It is true that in Beowulf we find only
one direct reference to writing. But the Iliad and Odyssey together
contain nearly nine times as many verses as Beowulf.

On the whole it seems to me that the evidence for the antiquity
of writing given above does not prove exactly what it is commonly
supposed to do. The inscriptions on the rock-hewn figures are Hittite.
The ancient Cretan inscriptions have not yet been deciphered, and
in view of the later inscriptions found at Praisos the probability
as yet is distinctly against their being in the Greek language. But
in any case they date from ages long anterior to Homeric times, and
there is nothing to prove their continuity with the writing of the
historical period. With regard to the passage in Il. VI 168 ff. it
is to be observed firstly that Proitos is one of the very earliest
persons mentioned in the poems--some three generations removed from
the characters of the Trojan story--and secondly that the curious
phraseology seems rather to suggest that the poet was speaking of
something which he did not clearly understand. On the whole then it is
much to be doubted whether writing was a current and native practice
during the period when the poems were composed.

A reservation should perhaps be made with regard to the latest elements
in the poems. Although definite evidence is wanting, the beginnings of
the Greek alphabet may quite probably go back to the ninth century, and
it may very well be that the poems had not then attained their final
form. But it should not be assumed that the alphabet was introduced
simultaneously throughout the Greek world. Some districts may have
acquired it generations before others, and Aeolis (including even Chios
and Smyrna) was probably not one of the more advanced. Further, we must
admit that in all probability its use was at first very limited. From
all analogies we should expect that it was employed for inscriptions,
correspondence, etc. for a very long time before it was made to serve
any literary purpose. Such apparently was the case with the alphabet of
ancient Rome and with the Runic alphabet almost throughout its history.
Unless the conditions in Greece were quite exceptional we should not
expect the alphabet to come into contact with heroic poetry for a
considerable time.

The theory that certain portions of the poems were written down from
the beginning presupposes of course a use of writing quite different
from that which is brought before us in the story of Bellerophon. This
theory[343] is, and necessarily must be, bound up with another theory,
which we have already discussed, that these portions date from a period
not earlier than the seventh century. Our discussion has led us to the
conclusion that the evidence for the latter theory is unsatisfactory.
But, apart from this, it is inconceivable that the 'literary' portions,
which are said to amount to several thousand verses, should contain no
reference, direct or indirect, to the use of writing. In Beowulf we
find only one direct reference to writing (v. 1694 f.)--an inscription
in Runic letters such as had long been in use. But in the Christian
additions or 'interpolations' we meet with three examples of the verb
_scrifan_ (_forscrifan_, _gescrifan_--from Lat. _scribere_), which
of course is indirect evidence for the use of writing, though in a
different language[344]. If large portions of the Homeric poems were
really of literary origin the authors could scarcely have failed to
betray themselves by usages of this kind, even though they deliberately
avoided all mention of writing.

In addition to this general consideration we have to take account of
the linguistic difficulties discussed above. We have seen that Hesiod's
works show almost the same form of language as the Homeric poems,
although the Boeotian dialect was quite different from anything spoken
on the other side of the Aegean. Did Hesiod, who lived in the eighth
century, probably before the Ionian conquest of Smyrna, really employ
the 'impure Ionic' in which his poems have come down to us? He himself
says (W. and D. 650 ff.) that he had never crossed the sea except
(once apparently) to Chalcis. Presumably then his knowledge of heroic
poetry was derived either from Boeotia, where he lived, or from Cyme in
Aeolis, from whence his father had emigrated. But Cyme never came into
Ionian hands. Are we to suppose then that either here or in Boeotia
poets were already employing as their vehicle a form of language which
according to the theory under discussion owed its existence (whether
in ordinary speech or only in poetry) to certain political changes in
a third district--changes too which had hardly begun much before the
time of Hesiod? This hypothesis seems to me quite incredible[345].

On the other hand if Hesiod's poems have undergone a change of dialect
since their original composition may not the Homeric poems have
passed through the same process? In this case of course such a change
would come about quite naturally if Smyrna or Chios was the original
home of the poems. But here we must notice a curious feature in the
'epic dialect' to which we have already referred. Except in Aeolic
forms--and this exception deserves to be remarked--the poems almost
always preserve initial _h-_[346]. This is a characteristic which the
'epic dialect' shares with western or European Ionic but not with the
language of the Asiatic coast[347]. Its presence raises a distinct
difficulty in the way of supposing that the poems were Ionicised in
their original home.

Now if the Homeric poems had been written down in Aeolic and preserved
in literary form we can hardly doubt that they would have retained
their original dialect, just like the works of Alcman, Alcaeus, and
Sappho. It must not be argued that Ionic was the proper language of
the epic, Doric and Aeolic of the lyric; for if the Homeric poems had
become generally known in Aeolic nothing could have prevented this
dialect from becoming the language of the epic also. We may assume then
that they were not transmitted in written Aeolic. But the same argument
really militates against the theory that they were written in Asiatic
Ionic[348], though in this case the difference of dialect is less
striking.

A form of language practically identical with that of the epics
appears in the remains of several poets of the seventh and sixth
centuries, such as Archilochos and Solon. The only noticeable
difference is in the proportion of non-Ionic forms which they use. Now
since these authors belonged to quite different districts we must, if
we are to trust our evidence, infer the existence of a kind of literary
language at this time. Its difference from Asiatic Ionic is of course
comparatively slight, and in the texts which have come down to us it is
not always carefully observed[349]. Still there is a sufficient amount
of regularity to show that it was generally recognised.

The true home of this literary language must not be sought in Athens,
but rather in Euboea or the Cyclades; and we may probably attribute
its spread, in part at least, to the influence of the poems of
Archilochos. But it certainly affected the writing of Attic for some
two centuries, and there can be little doubt that it was thoroughly
domiciled in Athens at quite an early date--probably in the seventh
century. I cannot see any objection therefore to supposing that it
was in Athens that both the Homeric and Hesiodic poems acquired those
peculiar linguistic characteristics which we comprehend under the
term 'epic dialect.' This of course brings us back to the story that
the poems were collected or written down by order of Peisistratos.
The evidence for the story is late, and its truth is hotly contested
by many scholars. But at all events it has the merit of providing a
satisfactory explanation of the linguistic phenomena.

Certainly, if we may judge from the analogy of other peoples, heroic
poetry would not by any means be among the first species of literature
to get committed to writing. There is no reason whatever for supposing
that anything of this kind was written down in England before the
eighth century, i.e. at least a century after the language was first
applied to literary purposes, in Aethelberht's time. The same remark
seems to be true of Ireland, Germany and the North, while Bosnian
heroic poetry is being written down only in our own generation, and not
by natives of the country. It is only natural therefore to expect that
the Homeric poems would be written down according to an orthography
which was already well established.

This orthography no doubt represents more or less truly the form in
which the poems were recited in Athens at the time. But does it also
represent the form in which they were recited at (let us say) Sicyon?
That is a question upon which we have no direct evidence. But it is
worth noting that in Doric and other non-Ionic states we find a number
of ancient inscriptions in hexameters or elegiacs which contain epic
words and forms. We may note especially the Gen. sg. ending -οιο, e.g.
κασιγνετοιο, οδοιο, Αραθθοιο, and above all false imitations of epic
forms, such as Τλασκιαϝο[350]. But in all these inscriptions Ionic
characteristics are conspicuously absent[351]. Does this mean that
wherever the heroic poems were introduced the rhapsodists tried to
accommodate them, as far as possible, to the language of the district?
But if so, is it possible that the Ionic element in our texts is
wholly due to the rhapsodists? A Chalcidian or Naxian or Athenian
audience would certainly experience at least as much difficulty in
following a purely Aeolic Iliad as a southern English audience would
have in listening to a purely Northumbrian or Mercian Beowulf. On the
other hand an Iliad Ionicised in Chalcis or Naxos would be easily
intelligible in Athens[352].

At all events we have seen that there is a very serious objection on
chronological grounds to the view that Hesiod's poems were composed
in a form of 'impure Ionic' borrowed from the Asiatic coast. In this
case it is surely far more probable that the Ionic element is due
to the rhapsodists, whether in Chalcis or Athens. But is there any
real reason for denying that the Homeric poems may have had a similar
experience? This is a question which I do not feel qualified to answer.
But it seems to me to deserve more attention from scholars than it has
received as yet.

* * * * *

In this chapter we have seen that the Homeric poems contain elements
of great antiquity. Although we have no means of fixing an exact date
for these elements, we can hardly doubt that they originated at a
time before iron had come into general use for weapons. According to
the prevailing opinion of archaeologists this innovation cannot have
taken place after the tenth century. We need not suppose that any
considerable portions of the poems in their present form date from such
an early period. But the 'type' must have been fixed by that time, and
to a considerable extent also the subject-matter.

Still more clearly we have seen that there is no ground for supposing
that the earlier and later elements are separated from one another
by a wide interval. For the idea that the earlier elements reflect
the conditions of the last age of Mycenean splendour--probably about
the thirteenth century--while the later elements betray acquaintance
with conditions of the seventh century, we have not been able to find
any justification. The period intervening between the Mycenean age
and the beginning of the classical age is certainly one which has as
yet yielded comparatively little to archaeological research. But our
discussion has led us to infer that the conditions of life reflected
in the poems throughout belong to some part of this period, rather
than that they are due to a combination taken from the preceding and
following ages[353] with a more or less blank interval of some five or
six centuries.

I have spoken advisedly of earlier and later 'elements' rather than of
earlier and later 'portions' in the poems. Elaborate analyses, such as
that proposed for the Odyssey by Prof. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, are
admittedly hopeless unless we assent to the hypothesis that the person
responsible for the final form of the poem possessed a written text;
and we have seen that this hypothesis is open to grave objections. The
existence of different strata in the work must doubtless be conceded.
We may even allow that it is built up out of shorter epics. But I
cannot admit that such a poem as the Odyssey can be successfully
constructed out of shorter ones by stringing the latter together,
even if we do grant that the additions made by the editor amount to
a sixth part of the whole[354]. It is questionable therefore whether
we are justified in regarding the last stratum as the work of an
'editor'--whether we ought not rather to regard this person as the
'author' of our poem. He must have used earlier pieces, and he may have
incorporated them in large mass in his work. But we have no guarantee
that he did not greatly expand his materials as well as provide
connecting links between them.

In the Iliad we are confronted to a certain extent with the same
problems. But the process of unification does not appear to have
been carried out so thoroughly and the proportion of early matter
incorporated is probably much greater. The point however which I would
especially emphasise in both cases alike is that the unification
process cannot be used as an argument for lateness of date. If we bear
in mind the undoubtedly archaic character of both poems, the paucity of
inconsistencies points to an entirely opposite conclusion. The greater
the amount of matter which we attribute to the last strata, the shorter
must be the period during which the poems grew until they reached their
final form.

Lastly we have seen that though the linguistic evidence agrees very
well with the tradition that 'Homer' belonged to Smyrna (or Chios),
there are very serious objections to the view that the poems were
originally composed in the Ionic dialect[355]. They may have been
subsequently Ionicised in their original home, but even that is
scarcely certain. The form in which they have come down to us belongs
properly to the western Ionic of the islands, which in early times was
used as a literary language in Athens.

FOOTNOTES:

[292] Plutarch, _Solon_, cap. 10; Diogenes Laertius, _Solon_, cap. 48,
etc. In some form or other the story was known to Aristotle (_Rhet._ I
15).

[293] Archilochos, Fragm. 153 (in Bergk's _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_).

[294] Cf. Croisset, _Rev. des deux Mondes_, 1907, 5, p. 605.

[295] Plutarch, _De Musica_, III 9.

[296] Hesiod, Fragm. 65 f. (in Rzach's edition, 1902).

[297] In Od. VI 162 ff. there is a reference to the sanctuary of Apollo
in Delos.

[298] _Die Composition der Odyssee_, p. 85 f.; _Die hom. Odyssee_², p.
287 ff.

[299] The references to the spring Ἀρτακίη (cf. Od. X 107 f.) cannot
be regarded as conclusive, since such connections are capable of more
than one explanation--even if we bear in mind the name of the adjacent
mountain (Ἀρτάκη). The mountain itself may have been known to the
Greeks from early times.

[300] In view of the evidence pointed out at the close of the last
chapter one will do well to hesitate before denying the possibility of
such distant expeditions in early times. But any communication which
may have existed must have been interrupted by the invasions of the
Bithynoi and Treres, probably in the ninth and eighth centuries. Note
may also be taken here of what is said about the Cimmerioi in Od. XI
14-19; cf. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, II, pp. 367 f., 445 f.

[301] Cf. especially Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _Hom. Unt._ p. 24 ff. The
theory that the Ephyre of II 328 must be a different place from the
Ephyre of I 259 seems to me very problematical if the author of the
second book had only a vague knowledge of the geography of western
Greece. Again, if Ilos Mermerides (I 259) is taken from the story of
the Argo, is it really necessary that the source should be a different
one from that referred to in XII 69 ff.?

[302] From this it has been argued that the 'Odyssey' known to Hesiod
must have differed greatly from the poem which has come down to us. But
it is to be remembered that there are quite as noticeable discrepancies
between the Odyssey and the Iliad.

[303] We shall have occasion later to notice more than one point in
which this passage departs from the customary Homeric standards.

[304] Except probably in XIV 9 ff., as has been ingeniously pointed
out by Mr Lang (_Homer and his Age_, p. 276 ff.). In the same chapter
Mr Lang shows that several features in the Doloneia which have been
interpreted as marks of lateness may very well be due to the peculiar
circumstances of the situation.

[305] Gemöll, _Hermes_, XV 557 ff. (cf. XVIII 308 ff.). Cf. also
Shewan, _Class. Quarterly_, IV 73 ff., where this view is rejected.

[306] Mr Lang (_Homer and his Age_, p. 265 ff.) has called attention to
the fact that in v. 261 ff. Odysseus is represented as wearing a cap
of a type which appears to have been in use during the Mycenean age.
If it could be shown that the article in question was peculiar to that
period, the lateness of the book would certainly be open to serious
question.

[307] Bronze is mentioned 279 times in the Iliad and 80 times in the
Odyssey. In a large proportion of these cases the reference is to
weapons. Cf. Helbig, _Das homerische Epos_, p. 329 ff.

[308] Iron is mentioned altogether 48 times. In nine cases it is spoken
of merely as a substance--a possession or article of trade. To these
we may add fifteen more in which the word is used metaphorically as
a standard of hardness, etc., and one (Od. IX 393) which refers to
the testing of iron in water. Iron tools or implements are mentioned
thirteen times, apart from the two references to knives given above. We
hear also of iron chains (Od. I 204), the iron axle-tree of a (divine)
chariot-wheel (Il. V 723), and the iron door of Tartarus (_ib._ VIII
15); cf. Cauer, _Grundfragen der Homerkritik_², p. 281 ff.

[309] Cf. Macalister, _Palestine Expl. Fund, Quart. Rep._, 1903, p.
199; Lang, _Class. Rev._ XXII, p. 47.

[310] Cf. Dörpfeld, _Troja und Ilion_, p. 368.

[311] αὐτὸς γὰρ ἐφέλκεται ἄνδρα σίδηρος. Cf. Burrows, _The Discoveries
in Crete_, p. 214 ff.

[312] Cf. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, p. 294 f. Prof.
Ridgeway allows the occasional use of bronze swords, e.g. in the case
of Euryalos the Phaeacian (Od. VIII 403-6). But the swords of Paris,
Patroclos, Achilles and Odysseus (Il. III 334 f., XVI 135 f., XIX 372
f., Od. X 261 f.) are described in very similar terms (ξίφος ἀργυρόηλον
χάλκεον). Further, the tendency of bronze swords to snap off short at
the hilt is well illustrated by the case of Lycon in Il. XVI 338 f.

[313] Cf. Lang, _Homer and his Age_, p. 192 f.

[314] Cf. Reichel, _Über homerische Waffen_ (Abh. d. arch.-epigr.
Seminares d. Univ. Wien, Heft XI), p. 79 ff.

[315] Cf. p. 191 and Evans, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
XXX 213 f.

[316] Cf. Ridgeway, _op. cit._ pp. 324 f., 475.

[317] This strap seems to have been used for carrying even
comparatively small shields down to a much later period. It is not
found apparently in the representations of the Shardina, though they
have an arm-strap as well as a handle.

[318] The Shardina on the temple of Medinet Habu and the warriors
represented on the Stele hold their spears poised in their right hands,
precisely at the same angle. But it is not quite clear to me whether a
cast or thrust is intended.

[319] φέρων σάκος ἠΰτε πύργον (Il. XII 219, etc.). There is a reference
no doubt to the hero's great stature.

[320] Very recently the history of Greek shields has been treated
at length by Dr G. Lippold (_Münchener Archäologische Studien_, pp.
399-504). This work is largely taken up with a criticism of Reichel's
theories, and in the course of the discussion it is pointed out that
the latter are in many points insufficiently supported by evidence.
Dr Lippold (pp. 406, 474) seems to have no hesitation in assigning
the Warrior Vase and its congeners to the late Mycenean age--he does
not distinguish between 'Mycenean' and 'sub-Mycenean'--and he also
recognises (p. 461 ff.) that two kinds of shields figure in the Homeric
poems. The 'tower' shield however is identified by him with the Dipylon
shield, from which he believes the 'Boeotian' shield to be descended.
He holds that the round shield was of Oriental origin, since it was
used by the Assyrians in the ninth century, and that it was first
introduced into Greece towards the end of the Mycenean period; then,
after being banished for a while from the Greek mainland by the Dipylon
shield, it was re-introduced, in a somewhat modified form, towards the
end of the Dipylon (Geometrical) period. The Homeric poems are held to
reflect the time of transition when it was re-introduced; but no date
appears to be given except that it was before the eighth century (p.
468). This explanation seems to me to be open to a serious objection,
namely that the Homeric shields will then have to reflect a different
age from that indicated by the Homeric evidence on the use of the
metals; for the latter clearly belongs to the close of the Mycenean--or
rather 'sub-Mycenean'--period. So far as I can see, it is only by Dr
Mackenzie's equation of the Homeric poems with the Warrior Vase and
certain East Cretan graves (cf. p. 185) that we can obtain a consistent
and intelligible sequence. Of course it may very well be that the round
shield was banished for a time from the Greek mainland by the Dipylon
type. On the other hand the suggestion that the former was of Assyrian
origin surely requires evidence earlier than the ninth century; for
we find it used by the Shardina, who cannot properly be regarded as
Oriental, as far back as the thirteenth century. I have to thank Mr A.
B. Cook for calling my attention to Dr Lippold's work.

[321] Cf. Reichel, _op. cit._ p. 53 f.

[322] Long shields were regularly used during the La Tène period by
the Celtic peoples, and also by many of the Teutonic peoples probably
much later. But they seem to have been of a totally different type
from the Mycenean. In late times they were certainly of great length
(cf. Diodorus, V 30, and the figures on the bowl of Gundestrup); but
the earliest examples (e.g. the oval shields depicted on the Hallstatt
sword-sheath) may really be modifications of the round shield.

[323] Cf. Ridgeway, _The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred
Horse_, p. 510. A similar case occurs in a painting representing the
victory of Rameses II over the Hittites, figured in Meyer's _Geschichte
des alten Aegyptens_ (plate following p. 290).

[324] Cauer, _Grundfragen d. Homerkritik_², p. 294 ff.

[325] It is uncertain whether the sanctuaries of Apollo at Pytho
(Delphoi) and of Poseidon at Scheria (Il. IX 404 f., Od. VIII 79 ff.,
VI 266 f.) are regarded as temples; cf. Cauer, _op. cit._ p. 301 f. In
the former case however it is decidedly probable.

[326] Many well-known survivals of such usage occur in Greece itself.

[327] Adam Brem. IV 27: _corpora autem suspenduntur in lucum qui
proximus est templo. is enim lucus tam sacer est gentilibus ut singulae
arbores eius ex morte uel tabo immolatorum diuinae credantur._ Cf. also
the (contemporary) schol. 134: _prope illud templum est arbor maxima
late ramos extendens, semper uiridis in hieme et aestate, cuius illa
generis sit nemo scit. ibi etiam est fons ubi sacrificia paganorum
solent exerceri et homo uiuus immergi. qui dum non inuenitur ratum erit
uotum populi._

[328]

Σπερχεί', ἄλλως σοί γε πατὴρ ἠρήσατο Πηλεὺς
κεῖσέ με νοστήσαντα φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν
σοί τε κόμην κερέειν ῥέξειν θ' ἱερὴν ἑκατόμβην,
πεντήκοντα δ' ἔνορχα παρ' αὐτόθι μῆλ' ἱερεύσειν
ἐς πηγὰς ὅθι τοι τέμενος βωμός τε θυήεις.

[329] The Appendices in Miss Stawell's _Homer and the Iliad_ (pp.
238-326) suggest that many of the instances commonly cited are due to
insufficient consideration.

[330] Fragm. 189, Boeckh.

[331] Cf. Mimnermos, fragm. 9. 5 f. (Bergk), Herodotus, I 150, etc.
According to Pausanias (V 8. 7) Smyrna had become Ionic before the year
688; cf. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _S.-B. der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin_,
1906, p. 52, note.

[332] Acquaintance with the district round Smyrna is shown by the
reference to the figure of 'Niobe' on Mt Sipylos in Il. XXIV 614 ff.,
although the identification of this figure is still disputed.

[333] On the problems connected with this name see Allen, _Classical
Quarterly_, I 135 ff.

[334] Stephanus Byzant. s. v. Βολισσός.

[335] But not the corresponding change of _an_ to _ai_ (cf. τάς, πᾶσα).

[336] Cf. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _op. cit._ p. 52 f.

[337] The Ionic states of Clazomenai and Phocaia, to the west and
north-west of Smyrna, seem to have been founded at a comparatively late
period, though probably in the eighth century. Since the promontory
of Ἄργεννον opposite Chios and to the south-west of Erythrai, has an
Aeolic name, it is possible that the whole of the coast north of Teos
was once occupied by Aeolians.

[338] Cf. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, _op. cit._ p. 75 and (for a
criticism) Cauer, _Grundfragen_², p. 181 ff.

[339] The Shield of Heracles contains a number of clearly Aeolic forms
(ἄμμες, ὔμμι, etc.).

[340] Cf. Fick, _Die homerische Odyssee_ (1883), and _Die homerische
Ilias_ (1886), where the poems are reconstructed in their original
Aeolic form.

[341] E.g. the two texts of Riddle XXXVI (both printed in Sweet's
_Oldest English Texts_, p. 150 f.) and the texts of Caedmon's Hymn
from the Moore MS. of Bede's Eccles. History (_ib._ p. 149) and the
Anglo-Saxon version (IV 24). Reference may also be made to the Dream
of the Cross and the extracts given in the inscription on the Ruthwell
Cross. A portion of the Old Saxon Genesis is printed, together with
the Anglo-Saxon version, in Cook and Tinker's _Translations from Old
English Poetry_, p. 184 f.

[342]

πέμπε δέ μιν Λυκίηνδε πόρεν δ' ὅ γε σήματα λυγρὰ,
γράψας ἐν πίνακι πτυκτῷ θυμοφθόρα πολλὰ,
δεῖξαι δ' ἠνώγειν ᾧ πενθερῷ ὄφρ' ἀπόλοιτο.

[343] The analysis of the Odyssey given by Prof. v.
Wilamowitz-Möllendorff admittedly postulates a written text (_Hom.
Untersuch._ p. 293). But I cannot assent to the proposition that the
Catalogue of Ships in itself must come from a written source. This list
scarcely differs in principle from the catalogues of Widsith.

[344] Further indirect evidence, of native origin, is supplied by the
word _facenstafas_ (O. Norse _feiknstafir_) in v. 1018, if the original
meaning of this compound was 'harmful runes' (used magically). Cf. also
vv. 317, 382, 458, 1753.

[345] It may be added that we really know nothing of the Ionic of
Hesiod's time. It is quite uncertain how far it had already developed
those characteristics which we find in our texts.

[346] The few exceptional forms such as (τ') οὖλον (Od. XVII 343) may
be due to fairly late scribes familiar with (eastern) Ionic texts.

[347] We may note also the absence of the literary Ionic forms κότε,
κῶς, etc.

[348] It is true that we do not know exactly when _h-_ was lost.
But before that change took place Η cannot have been used for _ē_;
consequently a wholesale μεταγραμματισμός would be involved (doubtless
also affecting the representation of _ō_), just as in the case of
Athens.

[349] Cf. Hoffmann, _Griech. Dial._ III, p. 549 f.; Fick, _Neue
Jahrbücher_, I 504 ff.

[350] Cauer, _Delectus Inscr. Graec._ 83, 84, 91. We may compare also
such epic expressions as ευρυχορο, γαιας απο πατριδος, πολυμελο,
κλεϝος απθιτον (_ib._ 54, 83, 445, 202), and, more particularly, an
inscription on a bronze discus from Cephallenia (cf. Cook, _Class.
Review_, XIII 77 f.):

Εχσοιδα μ ανεθεκε Διϝος ϙοροιν μεγαλοιο
χαλκεον hοι νικασε Κεφαλανας μεγαθυμος

(cf. Hom. Hymn. XXXIII 9; Il. II 631).

[351] The same remark is true of heroic names occurring in Doric
inscriptions, e.g. Ϝεκαβα, Κεβριονας, Δαιφοβος on a vase (Cauer, _op.
cit._ 78) found near Caere. So also with the heroic names used by
Pindar and other non-Ionic poets--not to mention the Latin forms. Yet
these poets use the Ionic forms of foreign names, such as Μῆδοι (Cypr.
_Ma-to-i_), which had come to them presumably through Ionic channels.
On the other hand we find in inscriptions on Chalcidian vases more
purely Ionic forms, e.g. Αινεες (_ib._ 545), than those preserved in
our text. These seem to count against any place except Athens as the
home of the final form of the 'epic dialect.'

[352] From the fact that Pindar and other non-Ionic authors use what is
apparently an Ionic form--indeed, strictly speaking, a western Ionic
form--in the poet's name (Ὅμηρος), while they give the names of the
heroes themselves in non-Ionic form, we are justified in concluding
that they had acquired the former from a different (presumably
literary) source. Certainly the earliest references to the poet come
from Ionic authors. Again, Thucydides (III 104) is clearly recording
a generally accepted opinion when he quotes the Hymn to the Delian
Apollo under Homer's name; and I can see no reason for doubting the
identity of Semonides' Χῖος ἀνήρ (cf. p. 209) with the author of this
poem (v. 172: τυφλὸς ἀνὴρ, οἰκεῖ δὲ Χίῳ ἔνι παιπαλοέσσῃ). The Hymn
dates probably from the period when Chios was in process of becoming
Ionicised. At such a time the repertoire of a Chian minstrel would have
an exceptionally favourable opportunity of gaining currency (naturally
under his own name) in Ionic circles--in the Cyclades probably as well
as in Ionia itself.

[353] Cf. Reichel, _op. cit._ p. 59: "Das Epos schildert, wie in allen
Dingen, auch hier die ältere Prachtzeit," and pp. 63, 102 f., where
the first appearance of the round shield (of which the knowledge is
granted, p. 55 ff.) is referred to the middle of the eighth century,
and that of breast-plates to about the beginning of the seventh century.

[354] Prof. v. Wilamowitz-Möllendorff holds that the editor was a
person of inferior ability and that the poem as a whole is not a
success; but this view is scarcely in accordance with the generally
received opinion.

[355] It is worth noting that these objections apply even to what
are commonly regarded as among the latest parts of the poems. Thus
in Od. XXIV 305, where Odysseus describes himself as υἱὸς Ἀφείδαντος
Πολυπημονίδαο ἄνακτος, the point is entirely spoilt by the Ionic form.
That the true form should be Aeolic (-παμμον-) is rendered more than
probable by such names as Ἁλιθέρσης, Πολυθερσεΐδη--of which at least
the second likewise belongs to the 'later' portions of the poem.

CHAPTER XI.

EARLY GREEK POETRY AND MINSTRELSY.

In Chapter V we saw that four well-marked stages may be distinguished
in the history of Teutonic heroic poetry. The first is that of strictly
contemporary court poetry, dealing with the praises or the adventures
of living men. The second is that of epic or narrative court poetry,
which celebrates the deeds of heroes of the past, though not of a very
remote past. The third is the popular stage, during which the same
stories were handled by village minstrels. The last stage is that in
which the old subjects again found favour with the nobility in Germany
and were treated in a new form which reflected the conditions of the
age of chivalry. We must now see whether any such stages can be traced
in the history of Greek heroic poetry.

For the first stage plenty of evidence is supplied by the Homeric
poems. In the Odyssey we meet with several persons who seem to be
professional court minstrels. Such are Demodocos at the court of
Alcinoos and Phemios at that of Odysseus, while others are mentioned at
the courts of Agamemnon and Menelaos. Both Demodocos and Phemios are
represented as singing of recent events, namely the adventures of the
Achaeans on their return from Troy, though the former also produces
one song upon a mythical subject. The song or recitation is invariably
accompanied upon a lyre, probably much in the same way as the Teutonic
minstrel used his harp[356].

As among the Teutonic peoples, we hear also occasionally of royal
minstrels. Paris appears to be a skilful musician (Il. III 54), while
Achilles is amusing himself by singing the 'glories of heroes' (κλέα
ἀνδρῶν) when he is visited by Aias and Odysseus (_ib._ IX 189). But the
status of even the professional minstrel was, sometimes at least, one
of considerable importance. Agamemnon, on his departure to Troy, is
said to have entrusted his queen to the care of a certain minstrel (Od.
III 267 f.)--a case which may be compared with several Teutonic stories
relating both to the Heroic Age and the Viking Age. The Phaeacian
minstrel Demodocos is blind, like the Frisian Bernlef; but, unlike the
latter, he seems to have a recognised position at Alcinoos' court.
He is evidently regarded as a person of distinction; in VIII 483 we
find him described as ἥρως, a term frequently applied to princes. For
minstrels of Bernlef's type we have no clear evidence in the Homeric
poems. In Od. XVII 382 ff. we hear of invitations given to minstrels;
but the reference may be to persons of Widsith's class. The same seems
to be true of the Thracian minstrel Thamyris mentioned in Il. II 595
ff.; for it is stated that he was coming from Eurytos of Oichalia when
disaster befell him.

On the whole then the court minstrelsy of the Homeric poems bears a
striking resemblance to that of the Teutonic Heroic Age. We cannot,
it is true, obtain any corroborative evidence for its existence from
contemporary historical documents. But the negative evidence is almost
as decisive. Even in the earliest times of which we have record no
trace of such an institution is to be found in Greece. We hear of
rhapsodists at Sicyon as early as the beginning of the sixth century;
but they are clearly persons of Bernlef's type, reciting 'Homeric'
poems, i.e. stories of ancient times. Moreover they were viewed with
disfavour by the ruler. Another type of professional poet may be seen
in such persons as Alcman. These were what may be called 'state-poets';
sometimes they were trainers of the state choruses. But there is
nothing to show that they were court poets. We hear also of poets,
sometimes men of noble birth, like Eumelos, who composed hymns for
festal occasions. But these too worked for the glorification of the
state, or indeed for that of any state which employed them, and their
position was essentially different from that of the court minstrel who
composes for his lord's gratification. Minstrelsy of the Homeric type
is conceivable only in an age of real kingship, and it is incredible
that such a type could have been invented after that institution had
ceased to exist. Indeed the nearest Greek analogy to it is probably to
be found in such poets as Anacreon who flourished at the courts of the
later tyrants. Their poems however dealt with an entirely different
class of subjects.

It is true that minstrels are mentioned beside kings in a passage
in Hesiod's Theogony (v. 94 ff.), both being said to derive their
endowment from divine sources[357]. But there is nothing to show that
these were court minstrels. At all events it is clear enough from
another passage in the same poem (v. 22 ff.), as well as from the Works
and Days, that Hesiod himself was not a man of this type. Moreover,
the subjects with which the minstrels are said to deal are the 'famous
deeds (glories) of men of old' (κλέεα προτέρων ἀνθρώπων). The reference
then is to heroic poetry, but in a stage not earlier than Stage II of
our scheme. The passage however is undoubtedly interesting as showing a
stage intermediate between Homeric minstrels and the later rhapsodists.
From the word κιθαρισταί we may perhaps infer that the musical
accompaniment, which the latter seem to have discarded, was still in
use.

* * * * *

Probably no one will suggest that the Homeric poems themselves are
products of the type of minstrelsy (Stage I) which we have been
considering. Now therefore we must try to ascertain which of the other
three stages they correspond to. Curiously enough no such question as
this appears to have been discussed in any of the numerous Homeric
researches which the last half century has produced. Nearly all writers
have completely ignored the existence of the Anglo-Saxon heroic poems.
On the other hand medieval German poems, such as the Nibelungenlied,
have been freely used in illustration of Homeric problems, and there
can be no question that in many respects the supposed analogy has had
far-reaching influence on their interpretation. In the application of
these illustrations as a rule no account whatever has been taken of
what we may call the stratification of Teutonic heroic poetry.

Let us now consider briefly the history of the Nibelungenlied. We have
seen that the origin of the story is to be sought in poems composed
probably within memory of certain events with which it deals, and that
the subject appears to have been worked up into a somewhat elaborate
form within the next two centuries. It can scarcely be doubted that
these early poems were products of court-minstrelsy and that their
form was that of the old Teutonic alliterative verse. Later however
there came a time when all heroic poetry passed out of fashion among
the higher classes, and when this story, like the rest, must have been
preserved only by village minstrels. Then, after a lapse of several
centuries, it appears again in an entirely different metrical form,
and permeated through and through with the ideas and customs of the
age of chivalry. Little beyond the bare outlines of the story can have
been inherited from the original poems, and even these appear to have
undergone considerable modification.

Now if the history of Homeric poetry is really parallel to this, we
shall have to suppose that the stories were first treated in court
poetry about the close of the pre-migration period; that after
flourishing for a while they fell out of favour in royal circles and
were preserved only by village minstrels, at whose hands they underwent
a long process of disintegration; and that finally they formed the
basis of new aristocratic poems some six or seven centuries after they
first saw the light. In order to present a complete parallel the later
poems must use a new metrical form, of foreign derivation, which will
preclude the possibility of their containing a single verse of the
original poems. The customs and ideas too which they reflect must be
wholly, or almost wholly, those of their own period, and not those of
the Heroic Age.

But it is manifest that this description will not fit the Homeric
poems in any way. According to the opinion held by the majority of
scholars the customs and ideas reflected by the Homeric poems are
inconsistent--sometimes they are those of the Heroic Age, sometimes
those of the poets' own age. Indeed many scholars hold that the
former type predominates. Personally I am not ready to admit that
the difference between the two ages was anything like so great as is
commonly assumed. But in any case it must be granted that in some
respects, e.g. in regard to political geography and the use of the
metals, the conditions of the Heroic Age are truly reflected almost
everywhere. Further it is commonly held that considerable portions of
the poems go back, more or less in their present form, not perhaps
to the Heroic Age itself, but at all events a long distance in that
direction. We must conclude therefore that, unless modern criticism has
gone hopelessly astray, the Nibelungenlied presents no true analogy to
the history of the Homeric poems.

Now let us take the Anglo-Saxon heroic poems. It is obvious enough that
here there is at all events a superficial resemblance between the two
cases, although the Greek poems are on a much larger scale. Both sets
of poems are the work of colonists who had crossed the sea, and both
equally suppress all reference to the existence of such settlements. It
is true that the scene of the Iliad is laid in a district not far from
that in which it appears to have been composed. But this district is
represented as being in possession of an alien people. The compatriots
of the poets--who clearly speak from the Achaean side--are uniformly
represented as dwelling on the west of the Aegean. But these after all
are merely accidental coincidences. Far more important for us is the
fact, which we have already noted, that both sets of poems carry the
history of heroic poetry back to court minstrels who are represented as
living in the Heroic Age itself. The question which we have to face is
whether or not the Iliad and Odyssey likewise resemble the Anglo-Saxon
poems in being themselves products of court-minstrelsy in direct
continuation of that which they depict as existing in the Heroic Age.

If this question is incapable of being answered we must, I think,
conclude that the historical study of early Greek poetry is futile. No
impartial observer can fail to have been struck by the immense strides
made within the last generation by Greek archaeology, as compared with
the very small amount of progress made from the literary side--at
least if progress is to be judged by the attainment of any general
consensus of opinion. Experienced archaeologists can now very soon
determine whether the remains which they find are those of a village
or a palace, and whether they belong to (let us say) the classical
or the geometrical or the Mycenean period. Again, in the case of
sites long occupied they can easily detect the existence of different
strata--especially if a palace has been built on the site of an
earlier village, or if a village settlement has intervened between two
'palace-periods.' Is it really impossible to distinguish such strata
in the history of poetry, or is the absence of progress which we have
noted to be attributed to other causes--perhaps that the criticism has
been of too subjective a character?

Now it is almost universally agreed that the Homeric poems are
considerably older than any other form of Greek literature which has
come down to us. Some scholars indeed hold that the latest portions of
the Odyssey belong to the seventh century; but we have seen that the
evidence for this view is by no means satisfactory. Certainly by the
middle of the seventh century, and probably somewhat earlier, we meet
with totally different types of poetry. In the first place we find a
number of new metrical forms, elegiac, iambic and trochaic, not to
speak of the numerous varieties of lyric metre. In matter and in spirit
too the difference is just as marked as it is in form. The new poets
are primarily concerned with the affairs of their own day. Callinos and
Tyrtaios are inspired by national patriotism. Their fragments may be
compared with the poem on the battle of Brunanburh, though even this is
nearer to the heroic spirit. Archilochos again is almost entirely taken
up with his own experiences and passions. A good analogy for his case
is to be found in the Icelandic adventurer Egill Skallagrímsson. In all
respects then the poetry of this age is as far removed as possible from
the heroic type of poetry.

Yet traces of an intermediate or transitional stage are not altogether
wanting. From the fragments of the Hesiodic Catalogue and other works
which are attributed to the close of the eighth and the early part
of the seventh centuries it is clear that--apart from hymns--the old
hexameter metre was retained for a time in a class of poetry which
appears to have been largely genealogical in character. In matter
also, as well as in form, this class had certain elements in common
with Homeric poetry, since both were concerned with the far past. But
in spirit its affinities were rather with the poetry of the following
age; for its object seems clearly to have been the glorification of the
state.

These observations lead us to conclude that a sequence can be traced
in the history of poetry, as in that of art. It is at least a natural
hypothesis that the great development of original poetry in the age of
Callinos and Archilochos was connected in some way with those political
and social movements which so greatly affected the Greek world during
the eighth and seventh centuries--changing almost every kingdom into
a republic. Moreover the existence of the transitional (genealogical)
type of poetry which we have noted is altogether favourable to this
idea; for the form of government which took the place of kingship
was at first that of a strictly limited aristocracy. But have we any
ground for believing that heroic poetry was the poetry of the age of
kingship? How far is such an equation in accord with the chronological
data at our disposal? In Greece itself kingship generally seems to
have come to an end about the middle of the eighth century. In Aeolis
however, with which we are primarily concerned, the change was in
all probability somewhat later; for the Phrygian king Midas (Mita of
Muski), who perished in the Cimmerian invasion about the beginning of
the seventh century, is said to have married a daughter of Agamemnon,
king of Cyme. But few will deny that the great bulk of Homeric poetry
was in existence by this time. The equation therefore seems to be fully
justified. Survivals and imitations may occur in later times, as in the
case of art; but, broadly speaking, it appears that heroic poetry is
properly the poetry of the age of kingship.

We must not assume forthwith however that it was the only type of
poetry which existed during this age. Certain passages in Hesiod's
poems (Theog. 80 ff., W. and D. 38 f.) render it clear that kingship
in some form or other still existed when they were composed; yet they
differ very greatly from the Homeric type. Our next object therefore
must be to try to ascertain the true provenance of Homeric poetry.
Was it court poetry or popular poetry, or are we to trace its origin
to conditions which cannot well be brought under either of these
categories?

It cannot seriously be contended, I think, that the Homeric poems
are of popular origin. In the first place their length is scarcely
compatible with such a hypothesis[358]. Their metrical form also is
clearly the product of a long artistic development; it is inconceivable
that popular poetry could be capable of creating anything so elaborate.
Again they are by no means in the nature of biographical sketches (cf.
p. 95); in spite of their great length the action in both cases extends
over quite a brief period of time. Further, there is little or no
definite evidence--certainly none which can be called conclusive--for
that confusion of different stories which characterises popular poetry.
The heroes who figure in the Homeric poems are scarcely the most
famous representatives of their states. Most of them are little known
elsewhere. Popular poetry could hardly have failed to introduce into
the action such persons as Heracles, Theseus, Peirithoos, Minos, Iason
or Adrastos. Then again we may note the presence of nearly all those
features which distinguish the heroic poetry of the Teutonic peoples
(cf. p. 82 f.). The characters brought before us in the Iliad are
almost invariably either princes or persons attached to the retinues of
princes, and themselves apparently of what we may call knightly rank.
The chief exception (Thersites) is described in a way which only proves
the rule. It is true that this principle is not so strictly observed
in the latter part of the Odyssey. Several persons of humble rank
are introduced here, though it is to be noted that the most prominent
of them (Eumaios, the swineherd) is said to be of princely birth. In
other respects however the Odyssey conforms to the rules of Teutonic
court poetry just as much as the Iliad. Thus it is fond of describing
in detail the movements of kings and queens in their palaces and the
conventions observed in the reception of strangers. Again, persons of
princely rank are seldom spoken of with disrespect in either poem.
Dialogues must of course be excepted, and also references (especially
in the Nekyia) to persons of the far past--precisely as in Teutonic
poetry. But in general there is a noteworthy absence of any display
of feeling against the opponents of the poet's heroes--as much in the
case of Penelope's suitors as in that of the Trojans. Perhaps the most
striking instance is the semi-apologetic account of Clytaimnestra's
conduct given by Nestor (Od. III 263-272), a passage which may be
compared with the story of Offa's wife in Beowulf. We may note also
the surprisingly lenient treatment of Paris in the Iliad. Indeed the
characters represented in the most unfavourable light are gods--a
phenomenon for which we have analogies in Old Norse poetry. Lastly,
we must observe the strict avoidance of coarseness and of things not
mentioned in polite society.

Before we proceed further it will be convenient to turn for a moment
to Hesiod's poems. For these also early Teutonic literature presents
a number of fairly close parallels. In particular the proverbial
part of the Works and Days has many analogies in gnomic poetry, both
English and Scandinavian. As an example we may cite the first and last
portions of Hávamál. Again the precepts on husbandry and the calendar
resemble several Anglo-Saxon works both in prose and verse. For the
Theogony the closest Teutonic parallel--and it is very close--is the
prose Gylfaginning; but earlier poetical works, such as Völuspá and
Hyndlulióð, run on somewhat similar lines. There is evidence too that
subjects of the same kind were once popular in England[359]. Lastly,
the verses (22 ff.) which relate how the poet received his inspiration
may be compared with the story of Caedmon.

Now if we compare the characteristics of Hesiodic and Homeric poetry
we cannot fail to notice that they present a very striking contrast in
several respects, even apart from the absence of a common theme. In the
first place Hesiod takes no pains to conceal his personality. Again,
his poems contain little in the way of detailed description, except
where the occupations of a farmer's life are discussed. Thirdly, they
show no tendency to avoid indelicate subjects. Lastly, they betray no
acquaintance with court life. Kings are occasionally mentioned, though
not by name, but all the references are to their public appearances, as
judges or mediators. We may notice too that though in the Theogony (v.
80 ff.) they are spoken of with respect, in the Works and Days (v. 38
f.) the title is coupled with an opprobrious epithet (δωροφάγους). No
one can fail to observe that in nearly all these respects[360] Hesiod
shows the characteristics which commonly distinguish popular poetry.

But we have to remember that in spite of all these differences Hesiod
uses the same metrical form and to a large extent the same style of
language as the Homeric poems. There can be little doubt that priority
lies with the latter; indeed Hesiod frequently betrays acquaintance
with Homeric poetry. But it must not be assumed that his themes were
new; they are far more primitive than anything of the heroic type. If
Hesiod was the founder of a new era in poetry we must conclude that his
innovation consisted in the application of the forms of heroic poetry
to purposes for which they had not previously been used. The heroic
hexameter is the only form of metre which can be traced back beyond the
seventh century, and we can hardly doubt that it is the oldest form of
cultivated Greek poetry. But less elaborate forms of verse--perhaps
rude precursors of the iambic and lyric metres--must also have been in
popular use for ages in ballads, songs and hymns. We may infer then
that what Hesiod did was to turn to popular use the form of poetry
which represented the highest standard of art in his day.

But what were the conditions which produced this elaborate and highly
artificial type of poetry? The characteristics of Homeric poetry
enumerated above are conclusive evidence that it was not of popular
origin. Some of them are extremely difficult to account for unless its
true home was in the king's courts. It may be objected that Hesiod was
familiar with Homeric poetry, though he knew nothing of court life.
But Hesiod probably belonged to the last days of the kingly period,
when that institution was losing its power and popularity. It is only
in accordance with what we might expect that in such an age court
poets--in view of Theog. 94 f. we should perhaps say minstrels--would
frequently try to get a hearing from a wider circle. Hesiod's own
activity falls in with this explanation perfectly well. His popularity
was due to the fact that he preserved the artistic form of court
poetry, while at the same time he discarded its conventions and turned
to subjects which were more in accordance with the tastes and interests
of his own class.

Apart from the courts it is difficult to see where conditions
favourable to the growth of Homeric poetry could have existed. Aeolis
in the eighth century must have differed very greatly from the city
states of the sixth and fifth centuries. Hesiod himself belonged
to a family which was possessed of some property. His father was a
merchant; but we can hardly suppose that this class was either numerous
or wealthy, in a land which consisted essentially of agricultural
communities. We shall hardly go astray, I think, in believing that the
conditions here at the time of which we are speaking bore far more
resemblance to those which prevailed in Teutonic kingdoms some twelve
or thirteen centuries later than to those of cities like Miletos or
Athens at their prime. There as here the wealth was probably to a large
extent in the possession of the kings. Indeed from the story of Midas'
relations with Agamemnon of Cyme (cf. p. 227) we may perhaps infer that
the kings retained a certain amount of influence even in the latter
part of the eighth century. On the other hand the name of this king
may certainly be taken as evidence that the courts were interested in
heroic poetry[361].

We have now seen that Homeric poetry goes back to the age of
kingship and that it is not of popular origin (Stage III), but in
all probability a product of court life. Our next object must be
to consider whether this poetry was a direct continuation of the
court-minstrelsy of the Heroic Age (Stage I), represented by Demodocos
and Phemios--in which case of course it will correspond to Stage II of
our scheme--or whether it is rather a secondary outgrowth from popular
poetry (Stage IV). The problem, it will be seen, is essentially one of
stratification. If we may, in archaeological language, speak of the
Homeric poems as a 'palace-structure'--it ought surely to be possible
to determine whether traces of a 'village settlement' lie immediately
beneath it.

It has been pointed out above (p. 224 f.) that the Nibelungenlied
cannot furnish any true analogy to the history of Homeric poetry. The
other type of Stage IV which we have considered (p. 99 f.) is that of
the Edda poems. But I do not think that anyone will seriously expect
to find a strict parallel here. In that case we should have to suppose
that heroic poetry was originally unknown to the Aeolians, whether in
Asia or Thessaly. But the Thessalian element--including as it does such
striking conceptions as the location of the gods on Mount Olympos--is
too deeply engrained in this class of poetry to render such a
hypothesis probable. We shall see shortly that a better analogy for the
history of the Edda poems is perhaps to be found in quite a different
quarter.

The theory which obtains most currency at the present time is that
Homeric poetry grew up in the Greek settlements on the Asiatic coast
on the basis of ballads derived from Thessaly--perhaps also from other
parts of Greece. This theory does not exactly answer to our definition
of Stage IV; but we may treat it under the same heading, as it likewise
involves the development of heroic poetry out of popular poetry.
According to any explanation of this kind we must of course assume that
the court-minstrelsy depicted in the poems is a reflection of court
life in the Asiatic settlements. This is conceivable enough in itself,
provided that the requisite conditions are carried back at least to
the ninth century. But is the theory probable? No one will suggest, I
suppose, that the wealth or culture of the Aeolic settlements during
the tenth and ninth centuries was superior to that of the Greek
kingdoms in general towards the close of the Achaean period. Briefly
stated then the current theory comes to this: the wealthier and more
cultured period produced nothing but popular ballads, while the poorer
and ruder period produced a most elaborate and magnificent court poetry.

We have seen that Homeric poetry possesses certain characteristics
which are incompatible with the idea that it is itself of popular
origin. But a closer inspection will show that some of these
characteristics are almost as difficult to account for on the
hypothesis that it was a recent outgrowth from popular poetry. In
particular this is true of their metrical form, if we are justified
in believing that the Homeric type of verse presupposes a long
artistic development. Again, the confusion of different stories which
characterises popular poetry (Stage III) will not be removed in its
more cultivated successor (Stage IV); Dietrich von Bern (Theodric)
remains by the side of Etzel (Attila) in the Nibelungenlied. The same
remark too applies to those changes of character which popular poetry
is apt to produce. In the Nibelungenlied Hagen remains as cruel and
Kriemhild as passionately vindictive as popular fancy had painted
them. The poets of a later age will not trouble themselves to save the
characters of persons who lived long ago. We shall see shortly that
this is true of Greek poetry just as much as of German. But the Homeric
poems--except perhaps in the Nekyia--will not supply us with examples.

Finally, we must bear in mind those reminiscences of Mycenean--or
rather 'sub-Mycenean'--splendour which the poems contain and their
almost invariable use of bronze as the material for weapons--not to
mention the fact that the political and national boundaries which they
record are totally different from those which existed in the ninth
century. Will anyone seriously maintain that such traditions could be
preserved through the medium of popular ballads alone? I confess that
such a hypothesis is altogether incredible to me.

Now let us take the alternative explanation, suggested by the
Anglo-Saxon poems. It is generally agreed that the Aeolic settlements
are older than the Ionic in Asia; but since even the former are ignored
in the poems it is hardly probable that they came into existence
until towards the close of the Achaean period. When the storms broke
upon Greece crowds of refugees, not only from Thessaly but also from
many other parts of the country, fled to the new Aeolic settlements
across the Aegean. Among them, according to the suggested analogy,
were many court minstrels, of the type represented by Demodocos and
Phemios, who brought with them not only a poetic technique matured
by long experience but also a number of poems, of which the newest
would probably be the most in favour. This poetry was developed
and expanded by the court minstrels of subsequent generations;
but the subject-matter became stereotyped and--precisely as in
England--everything relating to the new settlements was completely
ignored. This is the conclusion to which all the evidence at our
disposal seems to me to point.

* * * * *

We must now turn for a moment to the Cyclic poems. And here it is to be
remembered in the first place that our information is very defective,
if not actually misleading. Herodotus (II 117) doubted Homer's
authorship of the Cypria on the ground that it contained a statement
in direct contradiction with the Iliad, namely that Alexandros arrived
at Troy with Helen on the third day after leaving Sparta, whereas it
is stated in the Iliad (VI 290 ff.) that he wandered out of his course
(to Sidon) when he brought her. But the epitome of the Cypria which has
come down to us states expressly that Alexandros did go to Sidon. Hence
we can only conclude that its trustworthiness as an authority for the
contents of the poem is open to serious doubt.

Taking the evidence as it stands we can detect at once an important
difference between the Cypria and the Nostoi on the one hand and the
Iliad and the Odyssey on the other. In the two former poems the action
seems to have been spread over a considerable number of years, while
in the latter it was limited to a few days or weeks. Again, as far as
we can judge, the two former treated a much larger number of events,
in proportion to their length--events too which were not so closely
connected with one another. Indeed they seem to have been almost in
the nature of chronicles. These however are characteristics of popular
rather than court poetry.

The story of the Cypria, as we know it, bears a curious resemblance
to the Edda trilogy Reginsmál--Fáfnismál--Sigrdrífumál (cf. p. 13).
Both the Cyclic poem and the trilogy served as introductions to famous
stories. Both stories were essentially concerned with the adventures
and passions of human beings; but in both cases the introduction begins
with the gods, and the origin of the tragic events which follow is
traced ultimately to irresponsible, not to say mischievous, conduct
on the part of certain deities. There can be no doubt that the whole
theme of the Northern poems is a late addition to the story of Sigurðr,
and that the poems themselves were composed as an introduction to this
story. Is it not possible that the Cypria was of somewhat similar
origin? The latter part of the poem, if we are to trust the epitome,
contained some extraordinary features. The story of Odysseus' pretended
madness and how he was eventually compelled to join the expedition is
difficult to reconcile with the general tone of Homeric poetry. Again,
the army is represented as assembling twice at Aulis and twice starting
for Troy. The account of the first of these incidents agrees with what
is stated in the Iliad (II 303 ff.), while the second contains the
story of the sacrifice of Iphigeneia, according to the version in which
she was rescued by Artemis. On the other hand it is worth bearing in
mind that the poem is said to have ended with a catalogue of the Trojan
allies, presumably the same list which we find in the Iliad (II 816
ff., or perhaps 840 ff.)--and this can hardly be regarded as a late
composition.

The chief characteristic of the Nostoi seems to have been absence of
unity. Beginning with the departure of the Achaeans from Troy, it
narrated the adventures which befell various heroes on their return.
These formed, as far as we can tell, a number of quite distinct
stories, unconnected with one another except at the beginning. If we
may judge from the number of books contained in the poem--five as
against eleven in the Cypria--these stories must have been very short,
and consequently it is perhaps questionable whether we are justified
in regarding the Nostoi as an epic at all, except in the same sense
in which that term is applied to Hesiodic poetry. Indeed it seems to
have had an affinity with the latter in more than one respect; for
the stories of the various heroes were probably not uninfluenced by
genealogical interests. In the same light we may perhaps regard the
fact that one scene is laid in an Ionic city (Colophon). All these
features suggest that the poem came into existence at a fairly late
period. If the Cypria was designed as an introduction to the story
of the siege of Troy there can be little doubt that the Nostoi was
composed as an epilogue to the same. On the other hand many scholars
hold that it has been used by the Odyssey. But it is at least
questionable whether the references in question do not come from the
sources of the poem rather than the work itself[362].

The other poems of the Trojan series--the Aithiopis, Little Iliad and
Iliu Persis--resembled the Cypria and the Nostoi in the fact that
they dealt with a considerable number of separate episodes[363]. But
the resemblance was perhaps only superficial; for these episodes were
apparently represented as following one another in regular sequence. If
we had only a fragmentary epitome of the Iliad we might gather from it
much the same impression. All these poems were on a small scale, eleven
books in all; but, unlike the Cypria and the Nostoi, the action covered
only a short interval of time. Several incidents which they related
are referred to or even told at length in the Odyssey; but we have not
sufficient information to enable us to determine whether the references
are taken from the poems themselves. The chief argument to the contrary
is that these poems seem to have contained certain 'post-Homeric'
features, notably the rite of purification from bloodshed, in the
Aithiopis, and the sacrifice of a virgin (Polyxene), in the Iliu
Persis. The former case is especially significant, because--in
striking contrast with the spirit of later Greek poetry--the ideas of
pollution and purification seem to be entirely ignored in the Iliad and
Odyssey[364].

These so-called post-Homeric features are of course really
characteristics of a more primitive religion, and it would be better to
describe them as 'non-Homeric' or 'non-heroic.' But the fact that such
practices are ignored in the Iliad and Odyssey, while later poets had
a special affection for them, renders it probable that their presence
in the Cyclic poems is due to popular influence. Are we then justified
in assigning these poems to Stage IV of our scheme? That is a question
which, considering the evidence at our disposal, I feel a good deal of
hesitation in answering. Certainly they cannot have differed from the
Iliad and Odyssey in anything like the same degree that the medieval
German poems or even the heroic poems of the Edda differ from Beowulf.
They may actually have incorporated a good deal of ancient matter. On
the whole the balance of probability seems to me to incline towards the
view that the Cyclic poems are derived ultimately from the same body of
early heroic court poetry upon which the Iliad and Odyssey themselves
are based; but that their composition took place in later times, when
the 'Homeric' standard was no longer preserved in its purity.

Whatever may be the case with the Cyclic poems there are other poetic
works which may be assigned to Stage IV without hesitation. For our
purpose it will perhaps be best to take an illustration from the drama;
for, though such works are only secondary authorities, they are on the
whole less open to objection than lost poems on which our information
may be misleading. A good example is furnished by Aeschylus' Oresteia,
a series of plays which deals with a subject treated at some length in
the Odyssey. The chief incidents are the murder of Agamemnon by his
wife Clytaimnestra, the vengeance taken upon her by her son Orestes,
the persecution of the matricide by the Erinyes, his purification
by Apollo, and his trial by Athene and the citizens of Athens. In
the Odyssey the first of these incidents, the murder, is ascribed
to Aigisthos, Clytaimnestra's paramour. As regards the second we
have nothing but a passing reference to Clytaimnestra's funeral. The
other incidents are not mentioned at all. Again, in Aeschylus' work
prominence is given to an attempt on Clytaimnestra's part to placate
the dead Agamemnon, to an invocation of him for vengeance by his
children, and to the instigation of the Erinyes by Clytaimnestra's
ghost. These features too are unknown in the Odyssey; indeed they are
directly opposed to all that we know of Homeric religion. Then again
we find frequent and detailed allusions to tragic events which had
occurred previously in the history of Agamemnon's family--especially
the 'banquet of Thyestes' and the sacrifice of Iphigeneia. On these
matters too both the Iliad and the Odyssey are completely silent. Yet
in the latter case this silence cannot be due to accident. Either the
poets were ignorant of the story, or they deliberately suppressed it.

Few modern readers can fail to appreciate the Oresteia as an almost
unrivalled masterpiece of poetic art, in spite of the fact that the
ideas with which it is permeated are largely strange and unreal to us.
But what would have been the effect if such a work had been recited at
one of those courts in which Homeric poetry was patronised in early
times? There can scarcely be any doubt, I think, that the recitation
would not have been tolerated. To such an audience the poet's religious
conceptions would have been intelligible enough, but only as products
of a degraded and baneful superstition, while his skilful presentation
of various painful incidents in the history of a royal house--the most
distinguished in Greece--would have appeared not merely an offence
against good manners but rather a wanton insult to the kingly class in
general.

The social conditions and the ethical standard of Aeschylus' time
differed no doubt very greatly from those of the Homeric age. This is a
subject with which we shall have to deal later. It should be observed
however that nearly all the special features which characterise
Aeschylus' treatment of this story can be paralleled from Scandinavian
works which we may assign to Stage IV. A very close analogy for the
'banquet of Thyestes' is furnished by the story of Guðrún, Atli and
their children; and it is to be remembered that, though Atli at least
was a historical character, this story cannot possibly have any
foundation in fact. The persecution of Orestes by the Erinyes may
be compared with Saxo's story (p. 246) of the curse inflicted upon
Haldanus[365], likewise as a result of the shedding of 'kindred blood.'
With the sacrifice of Iphigeneia we may compare that of Vikarr in
Gautreks Saga (cap. 7), which was also brought about by the prevalence
of contrary winds. Invocation of the dead is not uncommon in such
works. On the other hand it is extremely doubtful whether any of those
features would have been permissible in early heroic poetry. They do
not occur in the extant poems of Stage II.

There is sufficient evidence that most of the characteristic features
of Aeschylus' story were not invented by him, though as to his sources
our information is not very satisfactory. The lost Oresteia of
Stesichoros was doubtless one of his chief authorities, and there is
some reason for believing that the version given in this work differed
from the Homeric account quite as much as that of Aeschylus. Beyond
Stesichoros we may perhaps think of the Cyclic poems, especially the
Nostoi; but it is very doubtful if they would have furnished such a
very markedly divergent form of the story. Stesichoros himself is said
to have treated his authorities with great freedom. But some of the
non-Homeric features can hardly be due to deliberate alteration. We
may notice especially the differences in the personal relations of
Agamemnon's family. In the Iliad he is the son of Atreus; Stesichoros
and others call him son of Pleisthenes. In the Iliad he has three
daughters, Laodice, Chrysothemis and Iphianassa; Aeschylus gives him
two, Electra and Iphigeneia, the latter of whom seems to have figured
also in the Cypria[366]. There is also a good deal of discrepancy in
regard to the scene of the events. In the Iliad and Odyssey Agamemnon
belongs to Mycenae; in Aeschylus' account this place is forgotten
and the story transferred to Argos, while Pindar, apparently also
Stesichoros and Simonides[367], placed it at Amyclai (close to Sparta).
Now these are just the kind of corruptions and discrepancies which
characterise popular poetry everywhere. Taken together with the other
non-Homeric features discussed above they seem to me to afford ground
for suspecting that Stesichoros and his followers drew upon a popular
and perhaps Doric or Peloponnesian version of the story[368] which was
independent of Homeric poetry. Their work then would be similar in more
than one respect to that of those Norse poets who rehabilitated the
old story of Sigurðr and Guðrún after the (strophic) type of their own
national poetry.

* * * * *

The course of our discussion has led us to conclude that the Homeric
poems are products of court poetry or minstrelsy in direct continuation
of that type of minstrelsy which we considered at the beginning of the
chapter. As yet however we have expressed no definite opinion as to the
length of time involved in their development, although we have noticed
that the evidence commonly adduced in favour of a long interval between
the earliest and latest portions of the poems is highly unsatisfactory.
It must be admitted that beyond a certain point the evidence at
our disposal does not admit of anything more than an estimation of
probability.

We have seen that there is good reason for believing that the history
of heroic poetry in Aeolis and in England proceeded on similar lines
in several respects, and also that the chief monument of English
heroic poetry was probably composed within not much more than a
century after certain events which it records. Now in any comparison
between English and Greek heroic poetry we must of course leave out
of account the frequent Christian allusions which occur in the former
(cf. p. 47 ff.); for there is no reason whatever for supposing that
any change comparable with the introduction of Christianity came over
the Greek world during the times which saw the development of Homeric
poetry. Apart from this element anachronisms are not very numerous or
marked; but they do occur. Thus the road which leads to the Danish
king's dwelling is described as a Roman road (_straet_), paved with
stone (Beow. 320), while the members of the same king's court (_ib._
768) are termed 'inhabitants of a chester' (_ceasterbuendum_). Such
cases may be compared with the Homeric inconsistencies discussed in
the last chapter--e.g. perhaps the occasional use of iron for weapons.
It can hardly be maintained, I think, that the latter are of greater
significance than the anachronisms in English heroic poetry.

This absence of striking anachronisms decidedly favours the view that
the period involved in the development of Homeric poetry was not very
long. Against such a conclusion it may of course be urged that there is
a constantly recurring phrase (οἷοι νῦν βροτοί εἰσι) which contrasts
the 'men of the present day,' i.e. the men of the poet's own time, with
the heroes of the siege of Troy, emphasizing the superior strength
of the latter. But it is quite unnecessary to suppose that a long
interval of time is intended here. The old Nestor uses almost the same
expression in Il. I 272 (τῶν οἳ νῦν βροτοί εἰσιν ἐπιχθόνιοι), when he
compares the men among whom he was then living with those he had known
in his youth. Again, in Od. VIII 122 f., Odysseus contrasts the 'men of
the present day' (ὅσσοι νῦν βροτοί εἰσιν ἐπὶ χθονὶ) with the 'men of
old' (ἀνδράσι προτέροισιν); but by the latter phrase he means persons
belonging to the generation next above his own (Heracles and Eurytos).
The same usage occurs elsewhere. Thus in Il. IX 524 Phoinix speaks of
the 'glories of those heroes that were of old' (τῶν πρόσθεν ἐπευθόμεθα
κλέα ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων); but the story which he proceeds to relate is of
Meleagros, the uncle of Diomedes. Indeed persons of more than two
generations back are seldom mentioned in the Homeric poems.

An expression very similar to the one last quoted is used by Hesiod
(Theog. 99 ff.) when he speaks of the minstrel as singing the "glories
of men of old and the blessed gods who hold Olympos[369]." Here of
course the reference is not to persons of the last generation, but to
the heroes of Homeric poetry. In the Works and Days, vv. 156 ff., 174
ff., the Heroic Age is distinguished with all possible clearness from
the period in which the poet himself lived. It is not to be overlooked
that antiquarian interest forms a prominent feature in all Hesiodic
poetry. Even in the Works and Days it is obvious enough, although
such topics have little in common with the main theme of the poem. In
the Catalogue we meet with such characters as Hellen and Doros, who
owe their existence to speculations in tribal origins. The poetry of
the following period seems to have been essentially of a genealogical
character.

For such antiquarian interest the Homeric poems furnish no evidence,
except perhaps in the Nekyia. Not only are the genealogies of the
heroes seldom carried back more than two generations, but--what is more
important--there is scarcely any reference to their descendants, beyond
the first generation. Again, Achilles is said to have been singing the
'glories of heroes' (κλέα ἀνδρῶν) when he received the embassy (Il.
IX 189); but it is not stated that these were heroes of former times.
The songs of Demodocos and Phemios deal with the adventures of the
Achaeans at Troy and on their return home. That this is no accident is
shown by Od. I 351 f., where Telemachos pleads in excuse for Phemios
that "men always prize that song the most which rings newest in their
ears." No sentiment could well be more foreign to the tone of Hesiodic
or post-Hesiodic poetry than this. If any poet of that school had
interested himself in contemporary history our knowledge of the eighth
century would not be the blank which unfortunately it is. Clearly the
only heroic poetry known to them was the κλέεα προτέρων ἀνθρώπων. That
means very much the same thing as Einhard's _ueterum regum actus et
bella_ or the _antiquorum actus regumque certamina_ sung by Bernlef
(cf. pp. 80, 87). At such a time if anyone was composing a heroic poem
it would probably have seemed natural enough to use the formulae with
which several of the Edda poems begin: "It was long ago," or "It was in
early times that," etc. On the other hand Telemachos' remark would be
perfectly appropriate in the earlier stages of Teutonic poetry. We have
seen (p. 85) that in Beowulf one of the Danish king's knights begins to
compose a poem on the hero's adventure within a few hours of the event.
Procopius' account of Hermegisklos and Radiger (p. 97 ff.) must also be
borne in mind, although this story may not have attained the form of an
epic poem.

The conclusion then to which the Teutonic evidence leads us is that at
all events the type of narrative was fixed very early. The growth of
the Homeric poems may or may not have taken longer than that of their
Teutonic counterparts. Records of the eighth century B.C. speak of
κλέεα προτέρων ἀνθρώπων; records of the eighth century A.D. speak of
_antiquorum actus_. But in neither case do the poems themselves give
expression to a consciousness of the antiquity of the events which they
relate.

FOOTNOTES:

[356] In Od. IV 17 ff. two acrobats give a performance while Menelaos'
minstrel is singing, and in VIII 261 ff. Demodocos' song on the love
of Ares and Aphrodite is both accompanied and followed by dancing.
More usually however the minstrel's song and music is the only form of
entertainment.

[357]

ἐκ γὰρ Μουσάων καὶ ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος
ἄνδρες ἀοιδοὶ ἔασιν ἐπὶ χθόνα καὶ κιθαρισταί·
ἐκ δὲ Διὸς βασιλῆες· ὁ δ' ὄλβιος ὅντινα Μοῦσαι
φίλωνται· γλυκερή οἱ ἀπὸ στόματος ῥέει αὐδή.

[358] Cf. Breal, _Pour mieux connaître Homer_, p. 24: "Attribuer à la
poesie populaire une composition en vingt-quatre chants, quelle folie!"
But one must bear in mind the length sometimes attained by Bosnian
poems (cf. p. 101). I may remark here that this work--like many others
dealing with the Homeric poems--frequently uses arguments which would
not have been put forward if attention had been paid to the heroic
poetry of other European peoples.

[359] Cf. especially a letter from Daniel, bishop of Winchester, to
St Boniface, written about the year 720 (Jaffé, _Bibliotheca Rerum
Germanicarum_, III 71 ff.).

[360] The suppression of the poet's personality is not a mark of heroic
poetry as such, but of epic or narrative heroic poetry.

[361] Unfortunately there seems to be hardly any material which might
enable us to estimate the popularity of heroic names in Greece in
early times (cf. pp. 42 ff., 64 ff.). Note however may be taken of the
existence of a prince named Hector in Chios, perhaps shortly after the
time of Agamemnon of Cyme.

[362] Athenaeus (281 b, 395 d) mentions a poem called Κάθοδος Ἀτρειδῶν,
of which nothing seems to be known elsewhere. As it contained at least
three books it can hardly have formed part of the Nostoi.

[363] Cf. Aristotle, _Poet._, XXIII 4, where it is stated that the
Iliad and Odyssey provide material for only one or two tragedies each,
the Cypria for many and the Little Iliad for eight.

[364] The 'purification' of the house of Odysseus (Od. XXII 437 ff.) is
of an essentially different character: cf. Harrison, _Prolegomena to
the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 24 f.

[365] This incident may also be compared with a passage in the Iliad
(IX 453 ff.). Phoinix' speech (perhaps designedly) shows a nearer
approximation to this type of religion (cf. also v. 568 ff.) than any
other part of the Homeric poems.

[366] The version of the sacrifice given in the Cypria (cf. p. 235) is
probably to be regarded as later than the other, although it occurred
in what was doubtless a much earlier poem.

[367] Cf. Pindar, _Pyth._ XI 32; Stesichoros (Bergk), fragm. 39.

[368] The Spartans possessed a tomb of Agamemnon at Amyclai (cf.
Pausanias, III 19. 6). Indeed, from Herodotus, VII 159, it would seem
that they claimed him as one of their own kings as far back as the time
of Xerxes. It has been suggested that a similar version of the story
is implied in Od. IV 514 f.; but the inference is doubtful. Aigisthos
rules Mycenae (after Agamemnon's death in III 305.)

[369]

εἰ γάρ τις καὶ πένθος ἔχων νεοκηδέϊ θυμῷ
ἄζηται κραδίην ἀκαχήμενος, αὐτὰρ ἀοιδὸς
Μουσάων θεράπων κλέεα προτέρων ἀνθρώπων
ὑμνήσῃ μάκαράς τε θεοὺς οἱ Ὄλυμπον ἔχουσιν, κ.τ.λ.

NOTE VI. THE TROJAN CATALOGUE.

In the last chapter we have endeavoured to estimate in general terms
the position of the Homeric poems relatively to the poetry of the
Heroic Age itself on the one hand and to Hesiod and genealogical poetry
on the other. I have avoided entering into details in regard to the
relationship between the extant poems and the lost Cyclic poems because
I did not wish to load the discussion with matter which, owing to the
fragmentary nature of the evidence, must largely be of a hypothetical
character. At the same time I am inclined to think that the Trojan
Catalogue (Il. II 816 ff.) does contain some indications which may
permit the date of its composition to be determined with a fair amount
of probability.

According to Proclus' Chrestomathy[370] the Cypria contained
(apparently at the end) a κατάλογος τῶν τοῖς Τρωσὶ συμμαχησάντων,
and it is commonly believed[371] that this is the list which has
been incorporated in our text of the Iliad. Proclus' words, taken
literally, would seem to indicate that the list did not include the
Trojans themselves. The 'allies' proper begin perhaps at v. 840, and
consequently it has been held that vv. 816-839 are a later addition.
Considering the nature of the evidence, this view can scarcely be
regarded as beyond question. But there certainly are noticeable
differences between the first and second portions of the list, apart
from the fact that the former contains no national names except Τρῶες
and Δαρδάνιοι. The first part is much more dependent on the Iliad than
is the second. Thus all the personal names which occur in it are to
be found in other parts of the poem, while several passages (eight
verses[372] out of the twenty-four) have been borrowed practically
verbatim. On the other hand, out of the twenty-five persons mentioned
in the second part of the list eleven are not met with elsewhere in the
Iliad, while four of the others are not elsewhere associated with the
nations (Mysians, Phrygians and Meiones) to which they belong here.
Again, though several verses show acquaintance with other passages in
the Iliad, there is apparently no single verse which has been borrowed
entire. The most striking fact however is that in two cases we have
references to heroes who are said to have been slain by Achilles in
the river. Neither of these persons is mentioned in the account of the
river fight given in the Iliad. In explanation of this it has been
suggested that another scene of this kind occurred in the Aithiopis;
but we have no evidence to this effect, and it is surely at least as
probable that they are derived from a different version of the river
fight described in the Iliad.

In both parts of the list we meet with a considerable number of
geographical names--of cities, rivers and mountains--many of which
(five in the first part and twelve in the second) do not occur
elsewhere in the Iliad. The majority of the names mentioned belong to
the immediate neighbourhood of the coast, and it is a fact worth noting
that these almost all fall into three distinct groups--in Paphlagonia,
the Troad and Caria respectively. There is a great gap covering
apparently the whole of the Bithynian coast and another embracing the
coast of the Aegean from Troy itself to Mycale. In explanation of this
fact it has been suggested[373] that the names in the coast-districts
are derived from an early poem or poems on the voyage of the Argo. This
hypothesis might certainly account for the mention of the Paphlagonian
names in v. 852 ff. But they are the only names in the second part of
the list for which it gives any explanation; for the suggestion that
the references to the Carian localities in v. 868 f. are connected
in any way with the story of the Argo can hardly be taken seriously.
Hence, if we are to trust the hypothesis in any form, it is more
probable that v. 853 ff. are a subsequent addition to the list. But
even in the first part the evidence in its favour is of the most
slender description[374]. Of the thirteen place-names which occur
in this section eight are found elsewhere in the Iliad; of the rest
only two apparently are mentioned in the accounts of the voyage of
the Argo which have come down to us. What is more important however
is that these accounts do mention a considerable number of Bithynian
localities[375], both on the coast of the Sea of Marmara and on that
of the Black Sea, as well as several peoples who do not appear in
the Catalogue. We must conclude then that this hypothesis in no way
accounts for the peculiarities of the Catalogue.

The true explanation is not far to seek. It was well known to the
ancients that the Bithynians were an intrusive Thracian people who
had crossed over from Europe. Again, the Aegean coast, at all events
from the Gulf of Adramyttion southwards[376], was covered with Aeolic
and Ionic settlements. Greek tradition unanimously held that these
settlements were planted subsequently to the Trojan War, and we have
no reason for supposing that the author of the Catalogue thought
differently. At the same time we may infer from his silence that he did
not claim to know what peoples had occupied these regions previously.
On the other hand he did claim such knowledge of the previous
occupants not only of the Troad but also of the Carian coast.

This fact surely furnishes the means of dating the composition of the
Catalogue with a fair amount of probability. It is generally agreed
that the Ionic settlements were later than the Aeolic; but probably
no one will contend that the Greek occupation of Miletos and Mycale
began appreciably later than the end of the tenth century. It is not
necessary of course to suppose that these places were still in Carian
hands when the Catalogue was composed. But at the same time the memory
of their former possessors is not likely to have been perpetuated in
an incidental reference like this much more than a century after they
became Greek settlements. The more northern part of the list contains
at all events nothing incompatible with the view that it was drawn
up in the first half of the eighth century. The excavations in the
Troad have certainly brought to light the fact that that district was
overrun by barbarians. But there is nothing to show that this took
place at the time of the Bithynian invasion, whether the two movements
were connected in any way or not. The evidence on the whole seems to
indicate that the barbarian occupation occurred not very long before
the foundation of the Ionic colonies on the Hellespont. There is
nothing very remarkable in the fact that the places mentioned in the
Catalogue lie chiefly on the coast; for such places would naturally be
the most familiar to the Asiatic Greeks, who must have been a seafaring
people to some extent from the beginning.

Now in other parts of the Iliad we find mention of several peoples
which apparently occupied the districts left blank in the Catalogue.
Thus in X 429, XX 329 we hear of the Caucones, who seem to have
belonged to Bithynia[377]. In XXI 86 f., VI 396 f. (cf. II 691, etc.)
we meet with peoples called Leleges and Cilices, the positions of which
are quite definitely stated. The former are said to have dwelt in the
valley of the Satnioeis, in the south of the Troad, the latter somewhat
further to the east, about the Gulf of Adramyttion. Again, in Od. XI
519 ff. we hear of a certain Eurypylos the son of Telephos, chief of
the Ceteioi. Telephos and his son figured in the Cypria and the Little
Iliad; and Greek tradition placed their home (Teuthrania) in the region
between the Gulf of Adramyttion and the Hermos. The name Κήτειοι has
been connected with that of the Hittites (Kheta); but without going
into this question we may probably follow Strabo (XIII 1. 70) in
tracing a reminiscence of them in the name of a stream called Ceteios,
a tributary of the Caicos. The Catalogue contains no reference to any
of these peoples, presumably because their names were not familiar
to the author. In later times we hear no more of the Ceteioi, while
Cilices are found only in Cilicia. The Leleges indeed are mentioned
frequently and on both sides of the Aegean, but only as a people of the
past.

It is an easy and popular method of interpretation to discredit
evidence for which no obvious explanation is forthcoming; and following
this method many scholars have regarded the names under discussion as
phantoms. The point against which adverse criticism has chiefly been
directed is the location of the Cilices in the Gulf of Adramyttion.
It is to be remembered however that we have no evidence earlier than
the seventh century for the presence of a people called Cilices in
the land which ultimately bore their name. In the eighth century this
people apparently dwelt to the north of the Taurus. In earlier times
we hear of them, so far as I am aware, only in the 'Poem of Pentaur,'
a work which celebrates the battle fought at Kadesh early in the
thirteenth century, between Rameses II and the Hittites. It is there
stated that the "chief of Kheta had come, having gathered together all
countries from the ends of the sea to the land of Kheta, which came
entire[378]." In addition to a number of Syrian names which occur in
the accounts of earlier wars the poem contains a group of new names
of peoples, consisting of _Pidasa_, _Dardenui_, _Masa_, _Kalakisha_
and _Luka_, with two others[379]. The last two of these names are
almost universally identified with the Cilices and Lycians, and the
first is usually connected with the name Πήδασος or Πήδασα, while many
scholars accept the identification of the second and third with the
Dardanoi and Mysians respectively. If the names _Pidasa_ and Πήδασος
are connected we are brought to the Aegean, where we find both Pedasos
on the Satnioeis and Pedasa[380] in Caria. Evidence to the same effect
is furnished by the procession of ten warriors depicted on one of the
monuments[381]. Of these five are of the Hittite type and two Semitic;
but the other three are of Aegean physiognomy and wear different
varieties of that feather head-dress which is known in Crete from much
earlier times[382]. When we find that this earliest reference to the
Cilices associates them with a group of peoples[383], of whom some
clearly belong to the west of Asia Minor, and some quite probably to
the north-west corner of the peninsula, it must be admitted that we
have no valid ground for discrediting the evidence of the Iliad as to
their presence around the Gulf of Adramyttion.

On the other hand it must not be overlooked that later authorities
know nothing of Cilices in this region; neither do they mention Leleges
in the south of the Troad or Ceteioi anywhere. If these peoples had
survived the Aeolic invasion it is difficult to believe that they
could have perished subsequently without leaving some trace of their
existence in Greek tradition. The Pelasgoi of Larissa in the valley of
the Hermos[384] appear to have been remembered in tradition, although
their territories were occupied by the Aeolians--probably at quite an
early date. The presumption then is that the other peoples had already
been destroyed by Greek raids--as is stated in the Iliad--or else that
they had been expelled or absorbed by the surrounding nations before
the Greek colonies were fully established. In either case we shall have
to carry back the poetic traditions relating to them practically to the
beginning of the first millennium.

We have seen that it is difficult to date the composition of the Trojan
Catalogue--at all events the latter part of it--after about the middle
of the eighth century. I am not aware of any valid reason for denying
that the Cypria as a whole may have been composed about this time or
for supposing that the Catalogue ever existed independently. It is
in the preceding period--presumably between the eleventh and eighth
centuries--that we must place the composition of the Iliad, though
its form may not have been finally settled when the Cypria came into
existence. Any more definite conclusion is rendered difficult by the
unsatisfactory nature of our information regarding the Cypria. But
the general impression conveyed by the epitome is that an appreciable
portion of the poem was derived from incidental references in the
Iliad, and that as a whole it possessed to a considerable degree the
characteristics of popular poetry. If this impression is correct we
must conclude that heroic court-poetry was in its decadence when the
Cypria was composed; and consequently we shall do well to place the
flourishing period, which produced the great epics, at least a century
earlier.

FOOTNOTES:

[370] Cf. Kinkel, _Epicorum Graec. Fragmenta_, p. 20.

[371] See the Addenda.

[372] v. 822 f. from XII 99 f., vv. 831-4 from XI 329-332, v. 838 f.
from XII 96 f. The borrowing of vv. 831-4 can hardly be ascribed to the
same man who took Amphios (the son of Selagos) from V 612. Ignorance
of the contents of the poem such as we find here is very rare; its
occurrence therefore in what is probably a very late addition to the
text deserves to be noticed.

[373] Cf. Niese, _Der homerische Schiffskatalog_, p. 53 ff.

[374] The argument that Abydos and Sestos cannot have been connected
except in a περίπλους (cf. Niese, _op. cit._ p. 54) is one which will
appeal probably to no student of early Teutonic history.

[375] Cf. Apollon. Rhod. I 1164 ff., II 649 ff., 720 ff., 901 ff., etc.

[376] It is held that the Aeolic settlements in the south of the Troad
were established at quite a late period, probably in the seventh
century. But we are not justified in assuming that no such settlements
existed previously. It is highly probable that the whole of this
district was devastated by the barbarians whose remains have been found
at Troy (cf. p. 295, note).

[377] Cf. especially Strabo XII 3. 5.

[378] Cf. Breasted, _Ancient Records, Egypt_, III p. 138.

[379] One of these names has been variously read as _Maunna_ or
_Ariunna_ (_Arwena_) and identified with the Μῄονες and Ἴλιον of the
Iliad, as well as with Oroanda and other places. The other, _Keshkesh_,
seems to bear the same relationship to the cuneiform _Kasku_ which the
Eg. _Kalakisha_ (_Kelekesh_ in Breasted's orthography) bears to the
cuneiform _Hilakku_ (beside _Hilak_). If _-ku_ is a suffix _Kasku_ may
possibly be connected with Κᾶρες (which seems to represent an earlier
_Ka(s)-ar-_).

[380] Perhaps also called Pedasos (cf. Herod, V 121). According to
Strabo (XIII 1. 59) this place also belonged to the Leleges who, he
says, once possessed a considerable part of Caria and Pisidia.

[381] Reproduced in W. Max Müller's _Asien u. Europa_, p. 361.

[382] Cf. p. 190, note 2.

[383] There is no question here of a national migration on the part of
these peoples. They were mercenaries hired by the Hittite king, who
"left not silver nor gold in his land (but) he plundered it of all his
possessions and gave to every country, in order to bring them with him
to battle." (Cf. Breasted, _op. cit._, pp. 129, note, 138.)

[384] Cf. Strabo XIII 3. 3 f. I see no reason for doubting the
existence of traditions relating to the presence of Pelasgoi in this
region. The identification of Larissa Phriconis with the Larissa of the
Iliad (II 841, XVII 301) seems to be at least as likely as any of the
others which have been proposed.

CHAPTER XII.

SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS IN THE HOMERIC POEMS.

In Chapter VI we saw that the heroic poetry of the Teutonic peoples
was very largely affected by folk-tales; that supernatural beings were
frequently introduced, while ordinary human beings or animals were
credited with supernatural properties--in short that the distinction
between natural and supernatural was not clearly drawn. We saw further
that these features were by no means confined to the later stages of
heroic poetry--that on the contrary some of them were prominent even
in the Anglo-Saxon poems, while the others appeared to be of equal
antiquity.

The same phenomena appear in Greek heroic poetry. Mythical beings and
features obviously derived from folk-tales figure quite as frequently
as in the Teutonic poems. Their presence is often regarded as a proof
that the stories into which they enter and the persons with whom they
are brought into contact are themselves products of myth or fiction.
This is a question with which we shall have to deal in the following
chapters. For the present it will be sufficient to quote what may be
regarded as a typical expression of the attitude of more cautious
scholars towards the problem of the story of Troy[385]: "It is
fantastic to treat the siege of Troy as merely a solar myth--to explain
the abduction of Helen by Paris as the extinction of the sunlight in
the West, and Troy as the region of the dawn beset and possessed by the
sunrise. It is equally fantastic, and more illogical, to follow the
rationalising method--to deduct the supernatural element, and claim
the whole residuum as historical fact. Homer says that Achilles slew
Hector with the aid of Athene. We are not entitled to omit Athene, and
still to affirm that Achilles slew Hector."

It may be observed that the gods are introduced in the Homeric poems in
many different ways. The incident just cited--where Athene takes the
form of Deiphobos (Il. XXII 226 ff.)--belongs to one of the commonest
types, and one which requires comparatively little imagination, if we
are prepared to grant the existence of a belief that the gods were
capable of disguising themselves in human form. Sometimes again deities
render themselves visible only to certain individuals out of a crowd,
as in Il. I 194 ff., where Athene intervenes in order to stay Achilles
from drawing his sword upon Agamemnon. Another type is the disguise of
gods as birds, as when we find Athene and Apollo sitting upon an oak in
the form of vultures, before the combat of Hector and Aias (_ib._ VII
58 ff.). On other occasions birds are sent by a god as a sign of his
favour or protection, as in Il. XXIV 315 ff. and many other passages.
Somewhat akin to this type is the dream sent by Zeus to Agamemnon in
Il. II 5 ff.

It has been remarked that in such cases as these a sceptical person
might have accounted for everything that passed without reference to
any intervention on the part of a deity. But there are a number of
other cases where the action is affected by gods in ways which could
not be accounted for on any rationalistic hypothesis. We may refer to
Il. III 380 ff., where Aphrodite snatches Paris away from Menelaos and
conveys him to his own house in Troy. Or again to several passages in
the Diomedeia where deities show themselves almost or quite without
disguise and even take an active part in the fighting. A still greater
amount of imagination perhaps is required for the scenes which depict
the quarrels and amusements of the gods in Olympos, and their schemes
for helping or destroying the combatants. It has been held that all
such passages as these belong to a later period than those of the less
imaginative types described above.

In Teutonic stories of the Heroic Age, as we have already seen, very
few notices relating to the gods have been preserved. The appearances
of Othin in Völsunga Saga (cf. p. 114) may be compared with those of
Apollo in the Iliad or Athene in the Odyssey; for his divinity is not
recognised at once, though he does not take the form of a person known
to his favourites. Again, though I know no exact Homeric parallel
to the incident in Sigmundr's last battle, when the hero's sword is
shattered at the touch of Othin's javelin, the idea is in complete
harmony with several passages in the Diomedeia (e.g. V 129 ff., 438
ff., VI 128 ff., 306 f.). It is true that we do not know whether these
incidents in Völsunga Saga are based on old tradition or not. But a
good parallel for the last of the Homeric types is furnished by the
Langobardic story of Wodan and Fria and the victory granted by them
to the Winniles (cf. p. 115). The similarity between this story and
the incident related of Zeus and Hera in Il. XIV 153-353 gives us
some ground for suspecting that the heathen poetry of the Teutonic
Heroic Age may have possessed decided 'Homeric' characteristics in its
treatment of the gods.

As the case stands however we shall have to take our illustrations from
stories of the Viking Age. A somewhat curious parallel to the incident
of Athene and Hector in Il. XXII 226 ff. is to be found in the story
of Haraldr Hilditönn, as told in Saxo's History, pp. 255, 263. Haraldr
had a confidential servant named Bruno, whom he employed to drive his
chariot and to carry messages to his nephew Ringo (Sigurðr Hringr).
This man eventually was drowned; but Othin took his place and form, and
exerted himself to sow discord between the two kings. It was not until
the battle at Bravalla had begun that Haraldr had any suspicion of the
treachery which had been played upon him. Then suddenly recognising
the identity of his charioteer he begged him to grant him victory. But
Othin threw him out of the chariot and slew him.

The story of Haraldr Hilditönn refers, it is true, to times for
which we have no historical records. But a still more graphic story
of intervention on the part of divine beings occurs in connection
with a well-known event--the expedition made against Norway by the
Jómsvíkingar. In the latter part of the tenth century a number of
Scandinavian adventurers had established and fortified a settlement at
Jómsborg on the island of Wollin at the mouth of the Oder. About the
year 994 their leaders, Sigvaldi and Búi, made a vow to attack Haakon,
earl of Lade, who then ruled Norway. The earl was taken by surprise
and had not been able to muster all his forces when he encountered the
hostile fleet at Hiörungavágr, near the mouth of the Romsdal Fjord.
The battle at first went against him; and, according to the story, he
took advantage of a respite in the fighting to retire to one of the
islands and pray to Thórgerðr Hölgabrúðr. He was not able to obtain
her assistance until he had sacrificed to her his youngest son. When
he resumed the fight, the weather, which had been hot, underwent a
complete change. A snow-storm came from the north and beat in the
faces of the pirates, so that they were numbed with the cold and could
neither move nor see. But worse was to come. "It is said that Hávarðr,
one of Búi's companions, was the first to see Thórgerðr in Haakon's
fleet; but soon she was seen by many, both those who had second sight
and those who had not. When the snow abated a little they saw also
that arrows were flying, as it seemed, from every one of the demon's
fingers, and each arrow brought about a man's death." Then they tell
Sigvaldi, who says: "It seems to me that we have got to fight today not
against men, but against the worst of devils." Still he continues the
fight. When Haakon saw that the snow was abating he cried with all his
might to Thórgerðr and her sister Irpa, reminding them how much he had
given up to them in sacrificing his son. Then the storm began again,
and soon Hávarðr saw two female figures on Haakon's ship, both acting
as the one had done previously. Then Sigvaldi said that he would now
take to flight and that all his men were to do likewise, for they had
made no vow to fight against devils[386].

Here also we may cite a story connected with another historical event,
which took place about ten years before the battle of Hiörungavágr.
Eric the Victorious, king of Sweden, expelled his nephew Styrbiörn from
the kingdom; and the latter invaded the country with the help of the
Danish king Harold Blue-tooth. On the eve of the battle Eric went into
Othin's temple and in order to obtain victory promised to give himself
up dead at the end of ten years. Soon afterwards he saw a big man
with a long hood, who put a cane into his hand and told him to throw
it over Styrbiörn's army saying: "You all belong to Othin." When he
threw the cane it seemed to turn into a javelin and brought blindness
upon Styrbiörn and all his host. On the same occasion Thor was seen
in Styrbiörn's camp[387]. Such cases are by no means isolated. Olafr
Tryggvason, who reigned over Norway from 995 to 1000, is said to have
been visited both by Othin and Thor[388].

Of dreams perhaps the most interesting case is a story told of an
Icelander named Glúmr, a contemporary of Earl Haakon of Lade. A
certain Thórkell possessed an estate which he was compelled to sell to
Glúmr. Before leaving he went to Frey's temple, sacrificed an ox and
prayed that Glúmr likewise might be forced to give up the estate. This
actually came to pass. But before he left, Glúmr dreamed that he saw a
great crowd on the river banks coming to see Frey, who was seated on
a chair. In his dream he asked who they were. They replied that they
were his departed relatives and that they were praying Frey that he
(Glúmr) should not be driven from his estate. But it was of no use;
Frey answered curtly and angrily, remembering the ox which Thórkell had
given him[389].

For the action of Homeric deities in sending birds as a mark of favour
or omen of success a good parallel is to be found in another incident
in the life of Earl Haakon of Lade. When Jutland was invaded by the
Emperor Otto II in 974 Harold Blue-tooth summoned Haakon to his
assistance. After the campaign the Danish king adopted Christianity
and compelled Haakon to do likewise. But the latter set off with his
fleet as soon as possible and, landing on the coast of Östergötland,
proceeded to offer a great sacrifice. Thereupon there came two ravens
flying by and screaming loud. The earl interpreted this as a sign that
Othin had accepted the sacrifice and that he would have a favourable
time for battle[390].

The importance of the last case is enhanced by the fact that it is
derived from a contemporary poem, the Vellekla (cf. p. 16), in which
the ravens are mentioned. In the other cases given above no such early
authority is extant, and our texts themselves are separated by a period
of from two to three centuries from the events which they relate. But
there is no reason for doubting that the stories had long been in
existence. It is questionable indeed whether the account of the battle
of Hiörungavágr could have been invented after all recollection of
Haakon and his religious observances had died away. The earl's devotion
to the worship of Thórgerðr Hölgabrúðr is known from other sources;
but she seems not to have been a generally recognised member of the
Northern Pantheon.

However that may be, no doubt can be entertained with regard to the
poem Hákonarmál, which deals with the death of King Haakon I at the
battle of Fitje in 961 (cf. p. 15). The author, Eyvindr Skaldaspillir,
was himself present at the battle. The poem relates how Göndul and
Skögul were sent by Othin to select a prince of Yngvi's line, who
should go and dwell with him in Valhöll. Then, after a short account of
the battle, we are told that "the princes sat with their swords drawn,
with scarred shields and mail-coats pierced; in no cheerful mood was
the host which had to make its way to Valhöll. Then said Göndul, as she
leaned upon her spear: 'Now will the forces of the gods be increased,
since they have summoned Haakon to their abodes with a great host.'
The prince heard what the noble Valkyries were saying. Thoughtful was
their mien, as they sat on their steeds, with helmets upon their heads
and holding their shields before them. 'Why hast thou thus decided the
battle, Skögul? Surely we have deserved success from the gods.' 'We
have brought it about that thou hast won the day and that thy foes
have fled. Now,' said the mighty Skögul, 'we must ride to the green
homes of the gods, to tell Othin that a monarch is coming to enter his
presence.'" Then the scene changes to Valhöll; and Othin sends Hermóðr
and Bragi out to meet the king and bid him welcome[391].

Such poems as Hákonarmál and Eiríksmál must be regarded as products of
vivid poetic imagination. They are clearly in the nature of conscious
fiction, though it should not be assumed that the pictures of the
gods and their abode which they present were conceptions altogether
unreal to the poets' audiences. I suppose that ultimately this type of
composition is derived from visions or dreams, such as the story of
Glúmr given above. For, though the latter in its present form dates
from a period at least two centuries later than Hákonarmál--both
referring to persons who lived more or less about the same time--it
will probably be agreed that the conception there is far more primitive.

Now we have good evidence that visions which took the form of visits
to the home of the gods did really obtain credence in the Viking Age.
When St Ansgar visited Sweden for the second time, not long after 850,
he found that the success of his mission was seriously endangered. A
man had come to Birca (Biörkö, on the Mälar), where the king, Olaf,
was residing, and stated that he had been present at an assembly
of the gods, who had sent him to deliver a message to the king and
nation. This was to the effect that the gods had long been gracious
to the Swedes and had preserved their land in peace and prosperity.
Yet now the Swedes were abandoning their accustomed sacrifices and
introducing a strange god. If they wished to retain their favour the
sacrifices must be resumed on a larger scale, and the new god must
be refused admittance. "But if you desire to have more gods, and we
are not sufficient for you, we unanimously enrol in our body Eric who
was formerly your king, so that he shall be counted among the gods."
This story created a profound impression among the inhabitants. "They
founded a temple in honour of the above-mentioned king, who had long
been dead, and began to offer prayers and sacrifices to him as a
god[392]."

The Life of St Ansgar, from which this story is taken, is practically a
contemporary authority. It was written by St Rembert, one of Ansgar's
disciples, who succeeded him as Archbishop of Hamburg in 865 and died
in 888. In face of such evidence we have no reason for doubting that
stories such as that of Glúmr would readily obtain credence. Indeed
it seems scarcely impossible that the doings of Thórgerðr Hölgabrúðr
at Hiörungavágr may have been believed by persons who were alive at
the time. Yet credulity was no special characteristic of the Northern
peoples. We learn from inscriptions that Asclepios was in the habit
of showing himself to pilgrims in his temple at Epidauros. Still
more striking evidence is furnished by Herodotus' story (I 60) that
Peisistratos recovered the tyranny at Athens by dressing up a woman
to personate Athene and accompanying her in a chariot to the city.
Herodotus himself remarks that this took place at a time when the
Greek race had long been distinguished from the rest of mankind by its
superior sagacity and freedom from silly credulity--and in a state too
which was held to be intellectually supreme among the Greeks. Whatever
doubt may be entertained as to the truth of the story it is significant
enough that Herodotus should record it, apparently without any
hesitation, in less than a century after Peisistratos' death. Some four
centuries earlier men may well have been ready to hear that the gods
took an active part in the battles of their fathers or grandfathers,
while the latter themselves may have been quite as ready to attribute
their success or failure to the disguised agency of the same powers.

It is clear at all events that the Scandinavian evidence fails to
provide any justification for the view that poems which introduce the
gods must date from times far removed from the events which they claim
to commemorate. In the contemporary Hákonarmál we find two of the most
advanced Homeric types. First, we have deities participating without
disguise in battle; then a change of scene carries us to the actual
home of the gods. The second scene in Hákonarmál--which is likewise the
scene of Eiríksmál--may be compared both with the various 'Olympic'
episodes and also with the two Nekyiai. For, since Othin is a god of
the dead, his abode corresponds in a sense both to Olympos and the
home of Hades. On the whole perhaps the nearest affinities of the two
Norwegian poems are with the second Nekyia (Od. XXIV 1-204), which is
commonly regarded as one of the latest portions of the Odyssey.

Lastly, the Scandinavian evidence gives no support to the belief that
the more imaginative types of divine intervention necessarily belong to
a later date than the others. In principle of course it may be admitted
that they are less primitive. But in Old Norse literature it so happens
that they occur in both earlier and more nearly contemporary works. The
explanation lies doubtless in the fact that the theological apparatus
of Norse poetry was fully developed before the time of our earliest
authorities. So far as I can see, there is no good reason for denying
that the same remark holds good for the Homeric poems. But if so it is
futile to use evidence of this kind as a criterion for determining the
date of the various portions.

* * * * *

Monsters and theriomorphic demons are by no means unknown in Greek
heroic stories, though in the poems which have come down to us they
figure prominently only in episodes dealing with past events. The
nearest Homeric analogies to Beowulf's adventures are perhaps to be
found in the stories of Bellerophon and Meleagros[393] (Il. VI 178 ff.;
IX 538 ff.). It may be that these stories and others, such as that of
Perseus, themselves once formed the main themes of heroic poems, and
that the backward position which they ultimately came to occupy, as
compared with stories of anthropomorphic deities, is due to the growth
of poetic art and humanistic tendencies. But on the other hand we have
to remember that heroic poetry is always liable to the intrusion of
folk-tales, in which adventures with monsters form one of the favourite
themes.

The chief store-house of folk-tales in the Homeric poems is the
narrative of his adventures given by Odysseus to the Phaeacians (Od.
IX-XII). This narrative contains a considerable number of incidents, of
which ten may be regarded as more or less distinct: (i) the encounter
with the Cicones, (ii) the visit to the land of the Lotus-eaters, (iii)
the adventure with Polyphemos, (iv) the two visits to Aiolos, (v) the
disaster in the land of the Laistrygones, (vi) the two visits to Circe,
(vii) the journey to the home of Hades, (viii) the singing of the
Sirens, (ix) the adventure with Scylla and Charybdis, (x) the slaughter
of the cattle of Helios.

The first of these incidents bears no obvious traces of derivation or
influence from a folk-tale; but it is the only one of the series of
which this can be stated with any confidence. The adventures with the
Lotus-eaters and the Laistrygones should perhaps be regarded rather as
travellers' stories--founded possibly on actual experience of foreign
peoples--yet the latter at least contains certain distorted features
which may fairly bring it within our category. As to the origin of the
adventure with Polyphemos there can be little doubt. It appears to be
found with slight variants in many different parts of the world[394].

The last incident of the series is perhaps the one least widely known;
but a parallel may be cited from one of Saxo's stories (p. 286 f.). A
certain Danish king named Gormo[395] was an ardent explorer. Above all
he desired to visit the abode of Geruthus (Geirröðr), which lay beyond
the ocean in a land of perpetual darkness. Taking with him as guide an
experienced traveller, named Thorkillus, he set sail with three ships
and made his way beyond Halogaland (the north of Norway). There, having
lost its way in a storm, the expedition came to be in want of food.
Eventually they arrived at an island which contained herds of extremely
tame cattle. Against the advice of Thorkillus the mariners slaughtered
a large number of these. The following night they were attacked by
monsters, one of whom declared that they would not be allowed to sail
away until they made compensation for the losses they had inflicted on
the herd of the gods. In order to save themselves they had to give up
one man from each ship.

It will be seen that this incident bears a general resemblance to the
slaughtering of the cattle of Helios, and we need scarcely hesitate
to regard both stories as variant forms of a folk-tale. As to its
origin we are not altogether without evidence in the Northern case. In
Alcuin's _Vita Willebrordi_, I cap. 10, it is stated that a certain
island (now Heligoland) was entirely sacred to a god named Fosite.
So great was the sanctity with which it was regarded that no one
ventured to touch any of the animals which grazed upon the island. The
violation of the sanctuary, in this and other respects, cost one of St
Willebrord's companions his life. Hence there is no need to doubt that
a basis of fact underlies the stories of islands in which animal life
was held sacred--just as in holy woods throughout the north of Europe.
It is scarcely impossible that similar island sanctuaries may once have
been known in the Mediterranean.

The subsequent course of the story has a certain affinity with that
of Circe. After leaving the island Gormo and his men sailed in safety
to the farther part of Permland, where they were met by a giant named
Guthmundus[396], the brother of Geruthus, who invited them to his
house. Thorkillus strictly enjoined his companions to abstain from all
food and drink offered them, even from the fruits which grew in the
garden, and to avoid contact with members of the household. Those who
yielded to temptation, as a few eventually did, would have to spend the
rest of their lives among monsters. There is no actual transformation
as in the story of Circe; but this in itself is a widely known incident
in folk-tales.

When the travellers at length reach the abode of Geruthus the scene,
though horrible in every way, seems to be a variety of the Enchanted
Castle rather than a parallel to the home of Hades[397]. We have
seen above that the poems Hákonarmál and Eiríksmál may in a sense be
compared with the two Nekyiai; for Valhöll is the abode not only of
the chief god but also of the spirits of fallen warriors. But here
we have to deal with elaborate conceptions of court poetry which are
further removed from the spirit of the true folk-tale than either of
the passages in the Odyssey[398]. A better parallel to the first Nekyia
is perhaps to be found in another of Saxo's stories (p. 31). Once upon
a time, when King Hadingus was feasting, there appeared to him a woman
who was carrying hemlocks. She wrapped him in her mantle and took him
with her underground in order to show him where the hemlocks grew. On
the way they passed through a dark cloud and then along a well-worn
path, where they saw many men richly attired. After viewing the sunny
regions where the hemlocks grew, they crossed a rapid river and then
saw two armies engaged in desperate conflict. The woman told Hadingus
that these were men who had been slain by the sword and continually
rehearsed the manner of their death. They are obviously to be connected
with the _einheriar_ of Old Norse poetry--the slain warriors who dwell
in Valhöll and spend their days in combat--though possibly this passage
represents a more primitive form of the idea. It is to be observed that
Saxo himself explicitly interprets the story as a visit to the region
of the dead.

Stories of this kind are to be found in many parts of the world--among
peoples as widely apart as the Algonquins, the Zulus and the
Maoris[399]. There can be little doubt that to a large extent the first
Nekyia belongs to the same category. At the same time of course I do
not mean to imply that it is wholly to be regarded as a folk-tale.
In the interview with Agamemnon and his companions (vv. 385-564) we
find ourselves in much the same world of ideas as is presented to us
in Eiríksmál and Hákonarmál. Again, it is to be remembered that the
object of Odysseus' journey was to consult the spirit of Teiresias, and
this is perhaps the original kernel of the story. Such an idea however
may be derived from ancient religious observances rather than from a
folk-tale. Herodotus (V 92) records that Periandros, tyrant of Corinth,
about the close of the sixth century, sent an embassy to the oracle of
the dead (νεκυομαντήϊον) on the river Acheron in Thesprotis, in order
to consult the spirit of his wife Melissa. After making all allowance
for antiquarian and etymological speculation[400] it seems probable
that this oracle did influence the conceptions of the home of the dead
current in Greek poetry.

It would appear then that in the composition of the first Nekyia we
have to take account of the influence of at least three different
elements--court poetry, folk-tale and religious (necromantic)
observances. If we are right in supposing that Aeolis was the true
home of all Homeric poetry, the absence of any precise geographical
indications is easily accounted for. During the centuries which
intervened between the end of the Heroic Age and the beginning of
the historical period there is extremely little evidence, whether
traditional or archaeological, for communication with distant lands;
and it is likely enough that at that time Thesprotis was as unfamiliar
as Egypt to the inhabitants of Aeolis. Few scholars will dispute
that the geographical indications throughout the story of Odysseus'
wanderings are both vague and contradictory. Sometimes he appears
to be in the west; sometimes again he is following the track of the
Argo--presumably in the Black Sea. That is after all the kind of
confusion which might reasonably be expected from poets who were
dealing with traditions of voyages made long before in regions now
altogether forgotten.

* * * * *

The ascription of supernatural properties to men or animals is not a
very striking feature in Homeric poetry--unless we include under this
head stories of exaggerated prowess. As an example we may cite Il.
XIX 404 ff., where one of Achilles' horses speaks and prophesies his
master's death. Incidents such as the flame on the same hero's head in
Il. XVIII 205 ff. and the changes in Odysseus' appearance (Od. XIII 429
ff., etc.) are attributed to the direct action of deities. On the other
hand exaggeration is common and often carried out systematically. Among
such cases we must include the feats of valour performed by some of the
combatants, and also presumably the numbers of the forces stated in the
catalogues, if we admit that the story of the siege of Troy has any
historical foundation.

On the whole it appears that those elements in the Homeric poems
which may quite safely be derived from myth or folk-tale resemble
the corresponding elements in Teutonic heroic poetry very closely.
We may perhaps doubt whether the gods ever figured so conspicuously
in Teutonic poetry as they do in the Iliad and Odyssey; but the
difference between the two cases is one of degree only. In the use made
of folk-tales the difference is very slight. It remains for us now
to consider whether the remaining elements in the poems--their main
groundwork in fact--should be regarded as of similar origin in both
cases.

FOOTNOTES:

[385] Jebb, _Introduction to Homer_, p. 147.

[386] Jómsvíkinga Saga, cap. 44 (Fornmanna Sögur, XI p. 136 ff.);
Flateyiarbók, I 191 f. Snorri gives a different account of the battle
in the Heimskringla (Olafs S. Tryggv. 43 ff.); but he was acquainted
with at least part of the story given above.

[387] Styrbiarnar Tháttr, cap. 2 (Fornm. Sög., V p. 250).

[388] Olafs S. Tryggv. A (Heimskr.), cap. 71; Olafs S. Tryggv. B, cap.
213 (Fornm. Sög., II p. 182 f.).

[389] Víga-Glúms Saga, cap. 9, 26.

[390] Olafs S. Tryggv. (Heimskr.), cap. 27 f.

[391] This latter part of the poem is copied from Eiríksmál (cf. p.
15), in which Othin sends out Sigmundr and Sinfiötli to meet Eiríkr. We
do not know either the date or the author of Eiríksmál; but it would
seem from the Saxon Chronicle that Eiríkr was still alive about the
year 954.

[392] _Porro, si etiam plures deos habere desideratis, et uobis non
sufficimus, Ericum, quondam regem uestrum, nos unanimes in collegium
nostrum asciscimus, ut sit unus de numero deorum.... Nam et templum in
honore supradicti regis dudum defuncti statuerunt, et ipsi tanquam deo
uota et sacrificia offerre coeperunt._ Rembertus, _Vita S. Anscharii_,
cap. 23.

[393] The first stage in the growth of such a story as this may be
illustrated from the message of the Mysians given by Herodotus, I 36.
The development which it may ultimately attain can be seen from the
story of Kilhwch and Olwen.

[394] Cf. Macculloch, _The Childhood of Fiction_, p. 279 ff.

[395] The historical connections of this story are somewhat obscure.
But this is immaterial for our purpose, as the part with which we are
dealing is clearly derived from folk-tales.

[396] Guðmundr of Glæsisvellir is a well-known figure in the
unhistorical parts of sagas.

[397] A better parallel is perhaps furnished by Thorkillus' subsequent
visit to the abode of Ugarthilocus (p. 292 ff.). The description of
this place recalls that of Náströnd in Völuspá 39, Gylfaginning, cap.
52.

[398] The home of Hades resembles the abode of Hel rather than Valhöll.
To this also we have a visit (by the god Hermóðr) in Gylf. 49.

[399] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_⁴, I p. 346, II p. 50 ff.

[400] As seen (e.g.) in the application of the name Κωκυτός to a
tributary of the Acheron. The presumption is that this name was
originally a creation of poetic fancy, just as much as Πυριφλεγέθων.
The diffusion of the names Acheron and Acherusia in other regions
(Italy, the Black Sea, etc.) is doubtless due to the influence of
poetry or tradition.

CHAPTER XIII.

MYTH IN THE HOMERIC POEMS.

It is commonly held that history, myth and fiction have all contributed
to the formation of the Greek heroic stories; but opinions differ
widely as to the relative importance to be attributed to the three
elements. Among modern scholars the general tendency has been to assign
the chief weight to myth. By many indeed the heroes of the Trojan War
are believed to be as mythical in origin as the gods themselves.

One conclusion may safely be drawn from the Northern evidence discussed
in the last chapter: we must definitely dismiss the argument that the
Homeric heroes cannot have been men of flesh and blood because they
are brought into contact with the gods. No one will be so hardy as to
suggest that King Haakon or his namesake, the famous earl of Lade,
were products of myth or poetic imagination. Yet Göndul is as much
responsible for the death of King Haakon as Athene is for that of
Hector. There is certainly this difference between the two cases, that
we have no historical evidence for the existence of the Homeric heroes.
But the fact that deities participate in their destruction does not in
itself prove that they are themselves products of myth or fiction.

There was a time, not so very long ago, when most of the characters
of the Greek Heroic Age were believed to owe their origin to
nature-myth--personifications of light, darkness and so forth. At the
present time however it is only in some few cases that this view is
generally maintained. Its chief stronghold is the case of Achilles; and
here we are invariably referred for proof to the story of Sigurðr. The
two characters have of course a good deal in common. Both are more
or less idealised types of youthful strength and valour, and both die
prematurely. But it would be pure folly to regard these features as
in themselves proofs of mythical origin. In order to prove this it is
necessary to point to features which can only be mythical, and to show
that such features formed an original element in the stories.

Now we have seen (p. 140 ff.) that the current explanation with
regard to Sigurðr is open to the most serious--in my opinion
fatal--objections. On the other hand there certainly was a tendency for
myth to grow up in later times round this hero. As an instance we may
take his invulnerability, a feature which is peculiar to the German
version of the story. Achilles possesses the same characteristic--but
not in the Iliad or Odyssey. It is as much unknown in the Homeric
account of Achilles as in the Norse account of Sigurðr. Indeed the only
essentially mythical feature which the poems themselves record in the
case of Achilles--and it is by no means peculiar to his case--is that
he is the son of a deity[401]. But divine descent was claimed also by
many Teutonic princes, though the heroes of our stories are usually
separated from their divine ancestors by two or three generations[402].
Whatever may be the explanation of this phenomenon it is doubtless to
be connected with the stories of conjugal relations between human and
divine beings which we find both in Greece and in northern Europe.
This is a subject to which we shall have to return in a later chapter.
Above all, however, we have to take account of the influence of
folk-tales[403] and popular beliefs, which, as we have seen from the
Teutonic evidence, may make itself felt even in the description of very
recent events.

The story of the abduction of Helen is another case for which many
scholars still claim a mythical origin. It is perfectly true that
stories of (e.g.) the abduction of the sun or the incontinence of the
moon[404] do occur, though examples of this type are by no means so
common or widespread as many writers have assumed[405]. But what is apt
to be overlooked is that these stories arise from a personification of
the sun or moon, and that it is in consequence of this personification
that the heavenly bodies are believed to be exposed to perils and
passions such as affect human beings. It is surely nothing less than an
inversion of the natural order of things to suppose that the numerous
class of folk-tales which deal with the abduction of a girl or wife
originated in the type--a comparatively rare type--in which this motif
is applied to the sun. There can be no reasonable doubt that the
prevalence of such folk-tales is due to the innumerable occurrences of
abduction in real life. But the theory we are discussing involves not
merely the personification of heavenly bodies and natural phenomena but
their complete anthropomorphisation[406]--a very doubtful process in
the best of cases--whereas the story which it seeks to explain bears no
trace even of derivation from a folk-tale. In other words we are asked
to assume a most complex and precarious hypothesis in order to account
for a story for which parallels are to be found very frequently in
almost all stages of human society.

Of course I do not mean to say that the story of Helen is entirely
devoid of mythical elements. On the contrary, it is a most instructive
example of the growth of myth, and as such it furnishes an interesting
parallel to the history of similar stories in the north of Europe. In
the Iliad Helen possesses no mythical characteristics, except that she
is the offspring of a divine father. In the Cypria she had apparently
also acquired a divine mother (Nemesis). By the seventh century we find
her figuring in quite a different story of abduction--a story which
seems to have been treated by Alcman and Stesichoros, as well as on the
'Chest of Cypselos.' This time she is carried off by Theseus, with the
help of Peirithoos, and rescued by her brothers, the Dioscoroi[407].
Somewhat later we find a new version of the story of her abduction by
Paris. Now it is said to be only her εἴδωλον which is carried off by
Paris; Helen herself is taken by Hermes to Egypt[408]. There seems
to be little reason for doubting that the εἴδωλον was a deliberate
invention of Stesichoros, though in other respects this version of the
story may well have been influenced by the Egyptian version, recorded
by Herodotus (II 112 ff.). The latter again comes in all probability
from Greek settlers in Egypt, who connected the narrative of Helen's
sojourn in Egypt, related in the Odyssey (IV 125 ff., 351 ff.), with
a cult which they found existing in that country. This version of the
story then should perhaps be regarded as a product of fiction rather
than myth. The other story however--that of Theseus, Peirithoos and the
Dioscoroi--is doubtless of popular origin. It is important to notice
that both these pairs of heroes are connected with other stories of
abduction[409]. Moreover in both cases these stories have certain
elements in common with that of Persephone. There can be little doubt
therefore that we have to deal with a folk-tale. The introduction
of Helen into the story may be due partly to her kinship with the
Dioscoroi and partly to the influence of the story of her abduction by
Paris.

* * * * *

At the present time it appears to be the more general opinion that the
Homeric heroes originated mainly not in personifications of natural
phenomena, but in tribal divinities or personified conceptions of
peoples ('hypostasierte Volksindividualitäten'). Now we have seen (p.
131 f.) that in Teutonic heroic poetry we occasionally meet with the
mythical eponymous ancestors of families, though such persons are
referred to the past and not introduced into the main action of the
stories. Similar characters are to be found in the Homeric poems.
Perhaps the best example occurs in a speech of Aineias (Il. XX 200
ff.), where the names Δάρδανος, Τρῶς, and Ἶλος are included in the
hero's genealogy. The Cadmos of Od. V 333 is probably to be regarded,
in some sense or other, as the eponymous ancestor of the Cadmeioi,
though he is not mentioned in connection with Thebes. Again, in Od.
XVII 207 we have a reference to eponymous heroes of places, Ithacos
and Neritos. They are perhaps creatures of the poet's own imagination,
i.e. fictitious rather than mythical beings; but it is probable that
they were modelled upon existing types. Other examples of both types
may be found elsewhere in the poems[410]. Yet it cannot be said that
they are common. In Greece, as in northern Europe, the true home of
eponymous ancestors (Hellen, Doros, Achaios, etc.[411]) is to be found
in post-heroic, or at least non-heroic, literature.

In recent years however several scholars have put forward the theory
that the characters who figure in the main action of the Iliad are
tribal heroes in disguise. For a simple example of this theory we may
refer to the interpretation put upon Il. V 43 ff., where the Cretan
leader Idomeneus is represented as slaying a man named Phaistos
(Φαῖστος). Now there was in Crete a well-known city called Phaistos
(Φαιστός). According to Prof. E. Bethe (_Neue Jahrbücher_, VII 669)
it cannot be disputed that the man Phaistos is the 'eponym' of the
city and that we have here the remains of an ancient Cretan heroic
lay. But the origin of the man is stated explicitly enough in the poem
(_l.c._): he is the son of Boros the Maeonian and had come from a place
called Tarne. Before we can assume that he was the 'eponym' of a Cretan
city we must surely ask how he came to be represented as a Maeonian
(Lydian). Is it inconceivable that a name identical with that of a city
should be borne by anyone except the eponymous hero of the city?

This is not the only case of the kind which has been brought forward.
In Il. V 706 we hear of an Aetolian named Trechos slain by Hector and
in Il. XX 455 of a Trojan named Dryops slain by Achilles. Here we are
said to have 'eponyms' of Trachis and the Dryopes. In England during
the centuries immediately following the Heroic Age we find mention in
historical documents of princes or ecclesiastics called Walh, Cumbra,
Seaxa, Dene, Fronca, etc. Are we to suppose that these persons are the
eponymous heroes of the Welsh or Cymry, the Saxons, Danes and Franks?
But national names of this type seem to have been just as frequently
used by the Greeks, at least in historical times. We may mention
Achaios of Eretria, Ion of Chios and Dorieus the brother of Leonidas.
Is there any reason for denying their use in earlier times[412]?

The evidence of these names has been brought forward in support of
a far-reaching theory--that the conflicts which we find described
in the Iliad are echoes of tribal struggles which once took place
in Greece, and that the warriors, Trojans as well as Greeks, are in
reality mythical heroes in whom the various contending tribes have
become personified. If this theory is sound it will be obvious that the
resemblance between Greek and Teutonic heroic poetry must be merely
superficial--that the two groups of poems spring from essentially
different sources. It will be well then to examine somewhat carefully
the evidence on which the theory is based.

The first argument in its favour is derived from a story quoted by
Plutarch (_Theseus_, cap. 34) from Istros, a writer of the third
century, to the effect that Alexandros (Paris) was overcome by Achilles
and Patroclos on the banks of the Spercheios. In confirmation of this
story it is pointed out that the warriors with whom Paris fights
in the Iliad mostly belong to Thessaly, while his sister Alexandra
(Cassandra) was worshipped by the Locrians. Another argument rests on
a story derived from the Little Iliad, that Andromache was brought
to Pharsalos after the fall of Troy. The inference that she belonged
originally to this region is supported by the proposed identification
of Thebe Hypoplacie, her home in the Iliad, with the Phthiotic Thebes,
to the east of Pharsalos. Yet a further argument relates to Hector.
It is noted that he was worshipped as a hero at Thebes in Boeotia,
and that most of the persons associated with him, either as friends
or foes, are connected with Boeotia, Thessaly and the intervening
districts. In Prof. Bethe's words "Hector's tracks lead from southern
Thessaly, through Phocis and Boeotia, to the Cadmean Thebes." "In other
words Hector, or rather the tribe which honoured Hector as their hero,
migrated by this road. More accurately, the tribe gradually, in how
many centuries none can tell, moved in a south-easterly direction,
driven by a pressure which was no doubt exerted by the Aeolic tribe
represented in the Epos by Achilles[413]."

Now it is manifest that the argument derived from Istros' story
can have validity only if it can be shown that there is reason for
believing it to be based on genuine native tradition, independent of
the Homeric poems. For everyone who has studied the history of Teutonic
heroic poetry knows that in the later forms of the stories the scene is
liable to be changed to entirely different countries. Thus the fight
of Heðinn and Högni is located in the Orkneys in the Norse version of
their story, while in Kûdrûn Hagen is made a king in Ireland. Again,
in the Vitae Duorum Offarum the whole story of Offa and his single
combat is transplanted to the English Mercia, the home of the hero's
descendants. Yet in the case of Istros' story the requisite evidence
seems to be altogether wanting. If the story really comes from local
tradition it may very well be due to an imperfect acquaintance with the
Homeric poems. But the context, which mentions Hector as well as Paris,
suggests rather that Istros was referring not to the story of the Iliad
at all but to an early adventure of the two brothers[414]--presumably
one of those accretions to the old heroic cycles, for which so many
parallels can be found in late Teutonic authorities like Thiðreks Saga
af Bern.

The argument relating to the Locrian cult of Alexandra (Cassandra)
need scarcely be considered at length; for, however ancient this cult
may have been, it was always connected with the sanctuary of Athene
at Troy[415]. The cult of Hector at Thebes likewise seems to have
been derived from the same quarter, perhaps in comparatively late
times[416]. Again, the identification of Andromache's home with Thebes
in Phthiotis is admittedly nothing more than a conjecture.

One argument still remains for consideration, namely that the persons
brought into contact with Hector come chiefly from the north-eastern
parts of Greece and those encountered by Paris chiefly from Thessaly.
Now it is to be observed that several of the persons whose names
figure in Prof. Bethe's lists (_op. cit._, p. 670 ff.) are not said
to come from Thessaly, Boeotia, etc. in the Iliad itself. That they
were derived from this quarter is merely an inference from the fact
that other persons belonging to Thessaly, Boeotia, etc. bear the same
names. It cannot for a moment be suspected that in V. 705, XV. 547 ff.
the poets themselves were thinking of Orestes the son of Agamemnon or
of Melanippos the famous Theban hero. But surely nothing can be more
absurd than the proposition that persons who bear the same name must
necessarily be identical in origin. In the Teutonic Heroic Age we know
from historical sources of five kings named Theodric, all of whom were
living within half a century of one another. Have we any reason for
supposing that the ancient Greeks were more careful to avoid the use of
names which had already been appropriated?[417]

Again, the lists given by Prof. Bethe contain merely a selection of
the warriors encountered by Paris and Hector. The former fights in
the Iliad not only with the Thessalian heroes Machaon, Eurypylos and
Menesthios, but also with Menelaos from Sparta, Diomedes from Argos and
Euchenor from Corinth. Hector's antagonists include, among others, Aias
from Salamis, Stichios from Athens, Periphetes from Mycenae, Lycophron
from Cythera and Amphimachos from Elis. On the other hand Melanippos is
merely one, and by no means the most conspicuous, of the same hero's
supporters. Considering the evidence as a whole therefore I fail to see
that this argument is worth any more than the others.

It appears then that the evidence adduced in favour of the theory which
we are discussing is open to serious objection at every point[418].
But, leaving questions of detail, we have yet to notice that the theory
as a whole consists of two main propositions. The first of these is
that the warriors of the Iliad are really 'tribal heroes,' i.e. in some
sense or other personifications of tribes. In other words the contests
described in the poem were originally conflicts of tribes and not of
individuals. The second proposition is that these conflicts must have
taken place between neighbouring tribes. It will be seen that this
proposition depends very largely upon the first. If the conflicts of
the Iliad really took place, as the poem states, between individual
warriors or bands of soldiers, there is no occasion for supposing that
the combatants were necessarily neighbours. As far back as the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries Egyptian monuments testify, as we have seen,
to enterprises far more distant than the expedition against Troy.

Now the first proposition is of course nothing new in itself. On the
contrary, Prof. Bethe's theory is an outgrowth from a view which has
been long and widely current--that the conflicts recorded in the Iliad
are a reflection of the Aeolic settlement of the Asiatic coast. His
purpose has been to show that only a comparatively small portion of the
story comes from this source[419], and that the bulk is derived from
reminiscences of earlier tribal struggles in Greece, which have become
embedded in the story of Troy. The two theories differ very greatly in
the explanations which they give of the origin of various incidents
and characters. But it is not to be overlooked that the principle of
interpretation is the same in both cases.

No one will deny that the personification of tribes and nationalities
is to be found in both the poetry and the prose literature of many
peoples. In certain passages of the Old Testament this principle
of interpretation has been recognised from ancient times. But the
authorities in which these passages occur cannot be described as
heroic poems. Again Greek literature itself also yields plenty of
obvious examples, such as the stories of Hellen and his sons and
Danaos, several of which can be traced back to quite early poems.
But these poems appear to have been of the Hesiodic, and not of the
Homeric school. If we turn to the Teutonic peoples, evidence for
such personification is abundant, and some of it belongs to our very
earliest records. But, except in genealogical references such as we
have dealt with above (p. 267), examples are not to be found in heroic
poetry. The idea that the characters who are brought before us in
the poems--let us say Beowulf or Sigurðr or Witege--are themselves
personifications of tribes is one which probably no scholar would
entertain.

Now in the Homeric poems, as we have them, just as much as in Teutonic
heroic poetry, the interest of the poets lies in the fortunes of
individual heroes, not in those of the communities to which they
belong. Even in those Teutonic stories which have the least claim to
be regarded as historical there is no reason for doubting that such
was the case from the very beginning. On the other hand the current
hypothesis with regard to the origin of the Greek heroic stories
postulates what can only be described as a complete revolution in the
interests of the poets and their audiences. This however is a postulate
which ought not to be accepted, unless decisive evidence is forthcoming
in its favour.

In the first place it must be observed that the existence of a poem or
story which deals with reminiscences of tribal conflicts necessarily
presupposes an absorbing interest in tribal history. It will probably
be admitted by everyone that this interest can hardly have been of
an academic character; indeed, we may assume, I think, that it must
be inspired by patriotic motives. If so, the foremost place will
naturally be taken by that tribe or community with which the story
originated. Now it is generally agreed that the Homeric poems contain
both Aeolic and Ionic elements. Further, though opinions differ
widely as to the relative importance of the two, there is a practical
unanimity in believing that the Aeolic element is the earlier one. The
tribal interest then, at least in the earlier elements in the poems,
should be essentially Aeolic. For 'Aeolic' we may practically say
Thessalian (using the term of course in a geographical sense); for the
Aeolic settlements, mainly at least, had proceeded from Thessaly. But
Achilles, the chief hero of the Iliad, himself belongs to Thessaly; and
so all is well. Further, many scholars hold that the later or Ionic
elements in the poem are marked by the introduction of Nestor. There
was, apparently, a tradition current in Colophon that the inhabitants
of that city had originally come from Pylos. Nestor therefore may be
regarded as typifying the later or Ionic interests of the Iliad, just
as Achilles typifies its earlier or Aeolic interests. This opinion
however is by no means so widely entertained as the other.

So much for the Iliad; now let us turn to the Odyssey. Here we are
confronted with a serious difficulty. Odysseus is at least as much the
hero of the Odyssey as Achilles is of the Iliad. But Odysseus belongs
to the Ionian Isles; and there is no trace of either an Aeolic or an
Ionic population in these islands. It is not surprising then that
the Odyssey is put aside by the advocates of the theory which we are
discussing. The tendency is to regard it as a later work--originating
perhaps at a time when tribal interests had become forgotten. We must
confine our attention therefore to the Iliad.

As applied to the Iliad the theory was long ago seen to be open to
one serious objection. Achilles is the only one of the chief Achaean
leaders who can be referred to Thessaly. His nearest neighbour is the
Locrian Aias; but the Locrians, in spite of their connection with Troy,
cannot be regarded as an Aeolic people. All the other Achaean leaders
who may be termed 'heroes of the first rank' belong to the southern
and western parts of Greece. Their positions geographically cannot be
reconciled with the theory of Aeolic tribal wars. In order to obviate
this difficulty various suggestions have been put forward. On the one
hand we have Prof. Bethe's hypothesis which brings the Trojan leaders,
Hector and Paris, to the north-eastern parts of Greece. Upon this
enough has been said above. On the other hand there is an older and
still very popular hypothesis, according to which some of the southern
leaders, Agamemnon in particular, originally belonged to the northern
parts of the country. It is to this that we must now turn our attention.

In the Iliad Mycenae is represented as being the home of Agamemnon.
But it has been observed that this place is comparatively seldom
mentioned, and that sometimes Agamemnon is said to rule over 'Argos.'
Unfortunately there is a considerable amount of ambiguity in the use
of the latter name. Occasionally it denotes the well-known city in
Argolis; but more often it is clearly used in a much wider sense, for
the Peloponnesos or the whole of Greece. Once however (II 681) we find
the expression τὸ Πελασγικὸν Ἄργος as a name for the home of Achilles.
In ancient times the meaning of this expression was not known. Some
authorities believed it to be the name of a city, while others
understood it as a designation for the plain of Thessaly. Many modern
scholars have adopted the latter interpretation. But further, they
hold that this was the original Argos, and that the application of that
name to the Peloponnesos or any part of it is due to a misunderstanding
on the part of later (Ionic) poets, by whose time the northern Argos
had been forgotten.

In favour of this view Prof. Cauer[420] brings forward the following
arguments. "If Agamemnon, as well as Achilles, belongs to the oldest
elements in the story, he also must come from a land in which Aeolic
was spoken; and indeed not Aeolic in the extended sense which the
ancients gave the term--where the name includes Elean and Arcadian--but
Lesbian-Aeolic. This was, as inscriptions show, the language of the
original inhabitants of Thessaly." Again "Agamemnon started with his
fleet from Aulis.... He was associated with Achilles in the story from
the beginning. His Argeioi are the companions of the Achaeans led by
Achilles. The two tribal names are used for one another indifferently,
and either of them can be employed as a designation for the forces
which fought at Troy. Consequently the Argeioi and the Achaeans
must have been neighbours." Further, it is urged by Prof. Cauer
that the epithet ἱππόβοτον as applied to the Peloponnesian Argos is
inappropriate. This state possessed no cavalry in the fifth century,
and none of consequence at any time. On the other hand it is a very
suitable epithet for the plain of the Peneios; Thessalian cavalry were
famous. Lastly, it is argued that the expression καθ' (ἀν') Ἑλλάδα καὶ
μέσον Ἄργος, which occurs four times in the Odyssey, must originally
have denoted two neighbouring districts, though in the passages in
question it is used in a very wide sense--perhaps for all Greece.

The last argument does not seem to me to have any decisive bearing
upon the question under discussion. If we admit, as I think we must,
that Homeric poetry is essentially Aeolic and that Aeolis was settled
mainly from Thessaly, it is only natural that the poems should preserve
traces of traditional Thessalian phraseology, just as they preserve
poetic conceptions which must have originated in the same country.
But, though we grant that the phrases in question may possibly have
been used originally of the Thessalian Argos mentioned in II 681, we
are not bound thereby to conclude that this was the only Argos known
to the earliest poems on the siege of Troy. Again, it is scarcely
inconceivable that the traditional epithet ἱππόβοτον may have been
transferred from one Argos to the other, though on the other hand there
seems to be good reason for doubting whether the application of this
term to the Peloponnesian Argos is as much out of place as has been
alleged[421]. Still less cogent is the argument relating to Aulis. For
the assembling of such a fleet as the story describes the choice of a
convenient central position in sheltered waters would be suggested by
the most elementary notions of strategy.

All these however are comparatively minor considerations. I doubt if
they would have been seriously brought forward except as reinforcements
to the main contention--viz. that Agamemnon, like Achilles, must have
come from an Aeolic district, if he belongs to the oldest elements in
the story. It is surprising to see how this principle appears to have
commanded the assent of Homeric scholars. To anyone who has made a
study of Teutonic heroic poetry such an argument seems nothing less
than absurd. Out of 132 personal names which occur in the Anglo-Saxon
heroic poems only three or four, so far as we know, belong to persons
of English nationality (cf. p. 32 ff.). Beowulf is concerned almost
exclusively with the doings of princes of the Danes, Götar and Swedes.
In Waldhere, another English poem, the characters are Burgundians and
(perhaps) Franks; in the German Hildebrandslied they are apparently
Goths. The Norse poems of the Older Edda are occupied chiefly with the
adventures of Huns, Burgundians and Goths. What need then is there
for supposing that Agamemnon must have belonged to the same branch
of the Greek race as Achilles? And what need is there for supposing
that an Aeolic poem must contain any Aeolic characters at all? In the
Odyssey it is not the case. In the Iliad, as we have it, only a small
proportion of the characters at most can be regarded as Aeolic[422].

The reason why Agamemnon must belong to an Aeolic district is
clearly to be found in the assumption that both he and Achilles were
originally not individuals but personifications of tribes. Starting
from this assumption we become involved in a series of hypotheses each
of which is dependent upon the preceding one. i. The sources of the
Iliad were concerned only, or at least chiefly, with the fortunes of
tribes (though in point of fact the Iliad, as it stands, is concerned
only with the fortunes of individuals). ii. These tribes belonged
to adjacent districts (though in fact the heroes of the Iliad are
represented as coming from nearly all parts of Greece). iii. Since
Achilles belongs to an Aeolic district, Agamemnon and the Argos over
which he rules must be located in the same quarter. But the third
hypothesis is by no means the only one which is dependent upon the
second. Menelaos must have been transferred from the north, i.e. from
Thessaly, with his brother. Again, Pylos lies far away from any Aeolic
district. Here we have a choice between two hypotheses. Some hold that
Nestor, like Agamemnon, belonged originally to Thessaly (the district
of the river Enipeus); others that he is a late and Ionic addition
to the story. With Diomedes the case is somewhat similar. He cannot
have ruled over Argos even in the second stage of the story; for then,
before Mycenae was introduced, Argos belonged to Agamemnon. Either
then he has been transferred from Aetolia, the home of his ancestors;
or he is a late addition, due to Ionic poets. Again, Idomeneus' case
is due to 'attraction'; originally he belonged to quite a different
cycle of story, like Tlepolemos. Aias, the son of Telamon, is clearly
a 'doublet' of the Locrian Aias; and so forth. By this process we are
enabled to dispose satisfactorily of all the southern Greek heroes.

It will be seen that according to some scholars only a few of the
leading heroes belonged to the original form of the story, and that
their number has grown by gradual accretions. According to others the
majority were there from the beginning; but they belonged originally
to the northern parts of Greece, more especially the Aeolic districts.
With reference to this latter view it may be observed that the Aeolic
districts are by no means unrepresented in the Iliad as we have it.
On the contrary we find a considerable number of leaders both from
Thessaly and Boeotia; but they are all what we may term 'heroes of the
second rank.' Are we to suppose that these are 'Ionic' substitutions
for the original heroes, when the latter were transferred to the
southern parts of Greece?

But we have yet to consider a more important question than this. In
the Iliad itself only two of the leading heroes, namely Achilles and
the Locrian Aias, are represented as coming from the northern parts
of Greece. But the Locrians cannot be regarded as an Aeolic people.
Achilles then is the only leading hero whose Aeolic nationality
rests on any solid evidence, and it is, as we have seen, chiefly
owing to their association with him that the same nationality is
claimed by hypothesis for Agamemnon and the rest. But before we bring
our discussion to a close it will be well to ask whether Achilles'
nationality really is established beyond question by the evidence.

It has been mentioned above that 'the Pelasgian Argos' is said to be
the home of Achilles, though unfortunately neither ancient nor modern
scholars have been able to determine with certainty what is meant by
that name. Of the other places recorded in the same context (Il. II 681
ff.[423])--viz. Alos, Alope, Trechis, Phthia and Hellas--all except the
third are involved in somewhat similar obscurity. Phthia--whether it
be a city or a district--was generally located between Mt Othrys and
the Malian Gulf. Hellas was believed to be in the same neighbourhood,
if not actually identical with Phthia; some placed it on the north
side of Othrys, a short distance away. The names Ἄλος and Ἀλόπη were
borne in historical times by places in Locris, and also by other places
in Phthiotis, on the Pagasean Gulf and the Malian Gulf respectively.
Opinion was divided as to which of these were the places mentioned in
the Iliad. Trechis (Trachis) lay on the south of the Spercheios.

It must not be overlooked that, except the indefinite Hellas and
Phthia, all these places, including 'the Pelasgian Argos,' are
mentioned only in the Catalogue of Ships, a section of the poem which
is commonly regarded with very little respect. Indeed the same scholars
who lay so much stress upon the Pelasgian Argos as the home of Achilles
have no hesitation about rejecting the evidence of the Catalogue as
to the homes of Agamemnon, Menelaos, Nestor, Diomedes and others.
Yet the Thessalian section of the Catalogue is admittedly far more
difficult to understand than any other. It is scarcely credible that
the poet responsible for it can have been personally acquainted with
the places he was enumerating. Now in other parts of the poem Achilles
and his followers are associated with the Spercheios or Ellada; from
XVI 173 ff., XXIII 144 ff. it is quite clear that his home was supposed
to be in the immediate neighbourhood of that river. According to
IX 484 his vassal Phoinix rules over the Dolopes, a people who, at
least in historical times, inhabited the mountainous country to the
north-west[424]. These indications, it will be seen, agree perfectly
well with the only place in the Catalogue which can be identified with
certainty, namely Trechis. On the whole also they favour the view that
'Alope' is the Phthiotic Alope. Achilles' country then is the basin of
the Spercheios, together probably with the coast lands on the Malian
Gulf between the mountains of Oite and Othrys. It may have included the
northern slopes of the latter, in the territory of the Dolopes; but
neither the evidence of the Catalogue itself nor references in other
parts of the Iliad give us any warrant for supposing that it extended
into the plain of Larissa[425].

Now there is not a particle of evidence that an Aeolic dialect was
ever spoken either in the basin of the Spercheios or in the districts
bordering on the coasts of the Malian Gulf. A form (Μαχαειος) which may
be an Aeolic patronymic occurs in an inscription from Melitaia[426];
but the inscription in other respects is definitely non-Aeolic,
although Melitaia lies to the north of Othrys. A similar form
(Ευβιοτεια) occurs in an inscription found near Pteleon[427], which
is too short for us to determine its character; but Pteleon lies in
the extreme east of Phthiotis, outside the Malian Gulf, and according
to the Catalogue belonged to Protesilaos. The only inscription of
definitely Aeolic (Thessalian) character as yet found in Phthiotis
comes from near Eretria, just inside the boundary. This place is not
mentioned in the Catalogue, or elsewhere in the Iliad; but Strabo
(IX 5. 10) conjectured that it belonged to Achilles' territories. If
we are to follow the indications given by the Catalogue the question
would seem to lie between the territories of Protesilaos and those of
Eurypylos; there is nothing to show that Achilles' country was believed
to extend so far. It is most surprising therefore to find Prof.
Cauer[428] concluding from such evidence as this that "we are justified
in claiming the valley of the Spercheios also as an Aeolic district and
Achilles as a hero of Aeolic nationality."

For the language of Achilles' country itself we are by no means without
evidence. Fairly long inscriptions have been found at Hypate in the
valley of the Spercheios and at Lamia, to the north of the Malian
Gulf--to which may be added an inscription, apparently of the Oitaioi,
at Drymaia in Phocis. All these show the form of language usually known
as 'north-west Greek,' and the same is true of other inscriptions found
in the north and east of Phthiotis. Although they are all late, there
is no valid reason for doubting that this language is indigenous[429].
Only two inscriptions[430], so far as I know, contain references to
Aetolian magistrates. The dialect is almost identical not only with
that of the Aetolian inscriptions, but also with those of the Locrians
and Phocians, the former of which is well known from much earlier
times. Greek communities as a general rule were slow to change their
language, and the influence of the Aetolian League was scarcely of such
a character as to favour the permanent extension of its dialect[431].

If we are to trust all the evidence which we possess Othrys, and not
Oite, was the southern limit of the Aeolic (Thessalian) dialect. The
communities of Phthiotis were politically dependent upon Thessaly,
but they seem never to have been subjugated in the same way as
the Aeolic population north of the mountains[432]. They had their
own troops and sent a separate contingent to Xerxes' army. Indeed
Herodotus (VII 173, 196 ff.) clearly distinguishes between 'Thessaly'
and 'Achaia' (i.e. Phthiotis). Moreover it appears to have been the
general opinion among the Greeks themselves that this district was
the original home of the Achaeans of the Peloponnesos. Pausanias (VII
1. 6) traces the Peloponnesian Achaeans to Archandros and Architeles,
the sons of Achaios, who had come from Phthiotis[433]. Herodotus (II
98) was evidently familiar with some form of this story, though he
calls Archandros son of Phthios and grandson of Achaios. The supposed
connection therefore goes back at least to the fifth century. How far
these genealogies were constructed upon linguistic affinities is a
question which needs some discussion. We may remark in passing however
that the dialect of the Peloponnesian Achaia, so far as it is known to
us[434], shows but little difference from the dialects north of the
Gulf of Corinth. It is commonly included in the list of 'north-west
Greek' dialects.

In the meantime we may notice an argument which has sometimes been
brought forward in support of the hypothesis that Aeolic was once
spoken much further south. This is the presence of an Aeolic or
semi-Aeolic form of language in Boeotia. The ancients themselves
believed that the Boeotians were not indigenous. Thucydides (I 12)
states that they had been expelled by the Thessalians from 'Arne'
after the Trojan War; but this was not the only form of the story. On
the other hand many modern scholars have adopted the view that the
'north-western' dialects of Locris and Phocis were intrusive[435], and
that the non-Aeolic characteristics of the Boeotian dialect itself
were due to an extension of the same movement--in short that Aeolic
was the earliest form of Greek spoken throughout the whole region
from Thessaly down to the borders of Attica. For such a displacement
of population[436] no evidence is to be found either in history or
tradition. Moreover this hypothesis has opposed to it the evidence of
what may be called linguistic geography. The Ionic dialects of Euboea
and Attica have much more in common with the 'north-western' dialects
of Locris and Phocis than they have with Boeotian. The latter indeed
stands quite isolated in many respects among the dialects of this part
of Greece. It will be sufficient here to notice the close pronunciation
of _ē_ (e.g. in Gen. sg. μεινός) and the open pronunciation of _ŏ_
(e.g. in Acc. pl. τώς)--both of which are probably to be regarded
as Aeolic characteristics--the use of Aeolic patronymics in _-ios_
(e.g. Ἵππων Ἀθανοδώριος) and more especially the Aeolic tendency
to change labiovelar explosives into labials before _ē̆_, which we
find exemplified at both extremities of the Boeotian area (Βελφοί,
Πευματτός). The last peculiarity is doubtless one of the earliest
cases of dialectal variation which can be traced in the Greek language;
but it is impossible to date. All this evidence tends to show that
Aeolic was the intrusive element--in other words, to confirm the
tradition that Boeotia was at some time invaded by settlers from an
Aeolic-speaking district[437].

In recent years there has been a tendency to classify the Greek
dialects in two main groups--'East Greek' and 'West Greek.' In the
former are included Arcadian, Cypriot, Ionic (with Attic) and the
Aeolic dialects, i.e. Thessalian and Lesbian-Aeolic, together with the
Aeolic element in Boeotian. To the latter are referred the remaining
dialects, i.e. the Doric dialects and all the dialects of the mainland
of Greece except Arcadian, Attic, Thessalian and Boeotian, so far as
Boeotian can be regarded as Aeolic. It may be doubted whether this
classification is altogether satisfactory, since the affinities of
Aeolic with Ionic and Arcadian are by no means close; as much perhaps
might be said for a division into 'North Greek' (Aeolic) and 'South
Greek' (non-Aeolic). But there can be no doubt that the 'West Greek'
dialects, i.e. Doric and north-western Greek, except perhaps Elean, do
really form a homogeneous group. Indeed it can hardly be maintained
that the Doric dialects as a whole show any divergence from the other
members of the group[438], though there are marked differences between
one Doric dialect and another. It is this West Greek group which
specially requires our attention, for according to all the evidence we
possess it included the dialects of both the Phthiotic Achaeans and the
Peloponnesian Achaeans.

Now let us return to the genealogical problem. We have seen that
Herodotus was familiar with a story which traced the descent of the
Peloponnesian Achaeans from Phthios the son of Achaios. The same writer
elsewhere (I 56, etc.) draws a distinction between 'Hellenic' and
'Pelasgian' peoples. Among the former he includes the Dorians; among
the latter the Athenians (I 56, VIII 44), the Ionians (VII 94), the
Arcadians (I 146) and the Aeolians (VII 95). By Αἰολέες he means here
the inhabitants of the Asiatic Aeolis. But in view of other passages (I
57, VII 176) it can scarcely be doubted that he would have included the
earlier population of Thessaly in the same category.

Now Herodotus himself believed the Pelasgoi to have been a barbarous
nation. The peoples of whom he is speaking here were regarded by
him as 'Hellenized' Pelasgoi. Some modern writers think that he was
mistaken in this view, and that the Pelasgoi were a Greek people from
the beginning[439]. Some hold also that the term Πελασγοί in most of
these cases is due simply to the influence of genealogies[440]. It is
a serious objection to this latter view that the well-known genealogy
in which the descent of Ion, as well as Aiolos, is traced from Hellen,
goes back at least two or three centuries before the time of Herodotus.
But we are not primarily concerned here with Herodotus' opinions;
for it is clear from the expressions which he uses (e.g. VII 95: τὸ
πάλαι καλεόμενοι Πελασγοὶ, ὡς Ἑλλήνων λόγος) that the distinction
between Πελασγοί and Ἕλληνες was one which was generally recognised in
his time. Some of his contemporaries may have regarded the Pelasgoi
as Greeks, others as barbarians. What was generally agreed was that
the term Ἕλληνες was originally applied only to a portion of the
inhabitants of Greece. We may refer to Thucydides (I 3[441]): "The
different tribes, of which the Pelasgian was the most widely spread,
gave their own names to different districts. But when Hellen and his
sons became powerful in Phthiotis, their aid was invoked by other
cities, and those who were associated with them gradually began to be
called Hellenes, though a long time elapsed before the name prevailed
over the whole country. Of this Homer affords the best evidence;
for he, although he lived long after the Trojan War, nowhere uses
this name collectively, but confines it to the followers of Achilles
from Phthiotis, who were the original Hellenes." In a certain sense
therefore we may regard Πελασγοί as a term of negative value, i.e.
'non-Hellenic.'

Herodotus does not expressly describe any people as 'Hellenic,' in the
narrower sense, except the Dorians. But we are surely not justified
in concluding from this that he regarded the Dorians as the only true
Hellenes[442]. He is interested in pointing out that certain Greek
(Hellenic) peoples were believed to be of Pelasgian origin. Doubtless
he considered it unnecessary to say that those for whom no such origin
was claimed were really Hellenes, except in such a passage as I 56,
where a 'Hellenic' and a 'Pelasgian' people are specially contrasted
with each other. In general then the presumption is rather that a
people was believed to be truly Hellenic, unless we have a statement to
the contrary. In particular however it is incredible that the Achaeans
were regarded as Pelasgian, for it was in the Achaean Phthiotis--more
properly perhaps in 'Phthia'--that traditional belief located the
eponymous Hellen. Thucydides, as we have seen, observes that this
belief was confirmed by the evidence of the Homeric poems. The term
'Hellenic' belongs essentially to the followers of Achilles (οἵπερ καὶ
πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἦσαν).

It can hardly be contended either that the story of Hellen is derived
from the Homeric usage, or that the Homeric usage is derived from
the story of Hellen. Both alike are based on the common knowledge or
belief that the names Ἕλληνες and Ἑλλάς belonged originally to Phthia.
It is not difficult to see why names from such a district, obscure
and remote as it was, should come to be applied to the whole nation.
The valley of the Spercheios was regarded as the gate of Greece.
Certain peoples, such as the Boeotians and Eleans, may have come into
possession of their territories by maritime invasions. But there can
be little doubt that in prehistoric, as in historical times--we may
refer to the Persians and the Gauls--great invasions usually made
their way through the pass of Thermopylai. That is true probably not
only of the later invasions of the 'West Greek' peoples (the Achaeans,
Locrians, Dorians, etc.) but also of those much earlier movements by
which the first Greek populations--the ancestors of the Ionians and
Arcadians--were introduced into the peninsula. But if we are to trust
all the evidence at our disposal it was with the later movements that
the names Ἑλλάς[443] and Ἕλληνες[444] were originally connected.

The results of our discussion may now be summarised as follows: (i)
According to current hypotheses the language of the Achaeans of
Phthiotis was Aeolic, while that of the Peloponnesian Achaeans was
perhaps Arcadian; but in point of fact all the linguistic evidence
which we have from both districts (including the colonies of the
Peloponnesian Achaeans) is definitely West Greek. In all probability
the valley of the Spercheios was one of the first, if not actually the
very first, of the districts occupied by the West Greeks in the eastern
and southern parts of the peninsula. (ii) According to a belief current
in the fifth century certain Greek peoples were truly 'Hellenic,' while
others were of 'Pelasgian' origin. The former category coincided,
at least to a large extent, with the 'West Greek' linguistic
division, the latter with the 'East Greek' division, or--to speak
more accurately--with the northern, eastern and southern groups of
dialects. In certain cases, owing to the silence of our authorities, it
may be permissible to doubt whether a people was regarded as 'Hellenic'
or 'Pelasgian'; but no such doubt applies to the followers of Achilles,
'who were the original Hellenes.' It was in Phthia that much earlier
tradition located the eponymous Hellen; and from the same district
came Archandros and Architeles, the legendary progenitors of the
Peloponnesian Achaeans, several generations before the Trojan War. It
is clear then that the 'West Greek' language of the extant inscriptions
is in perfect agreement with the belief of the fifth century Greeks
that this community was essentially Hellenic. We may dismiss therefore
as totally without foundation the hypothesis that Achilles was an
Aeolic (or Pelasgian) hero[445].

Now let us drop hypotheses and consider briefly the evidence actually
furnished by the Iliad. The poem leaves us in no doubt as to who are
regarded as the principal persons in the Achaean army. In II 404 ff.
Agamemnon is represented as calling together "the elders, the chiefs of
the whole Achaean host" (γέροντας ἀριστῆας Παναχαιῶν). They are Nestor,
Idomeneus, Aias the son of Telamon and his Locrian namesake, Diomedes,
Odysseus and Menelaos. In another council (X 194 ff.) we find the same
party together with three additional persons, Thrasymedes, Meriones and
Meges. In the debates, which occur so frequently, the leading speakers
are almost always Agamemnon, Nestor, Diomedes, Odysseus and Menelaos.
In the battle scenes the aged Nestor naturally does not play an active
part. The other four heroes however, together with Idomeneus, Aias the
son of Telamon and (to a somewhat less extent) the Locrian Aias, are by
far the most conspicuous figures in the army. In response to Hector's
challenge, from which Menelaos has been forced to retire, all the other
six come forward, together with Meriones, Eurypylos and Thoas. There
can be no doubt then that the eight leading men are Agamemnon and his
brother, Nestor, Idomeneus, the two Aiantes, Diomedes and Odysseus. To
these we must certainly add Achilles, who is in retirement throughout
the greater part of the poem.

[Illustration: =MAP OF GREECE=

=illustrating the 'Catalogue of Ships'=

The numerals denote cities or territories belonging to the
chief leaders of the Achaeans.

1. possessions of Odysseus
2. " Nestor
3. " Menelaos
4. " Agamemnon
5. " Diomedes, etc.
6. " Aias son of Telamon
7. " Aias son of Oileus
8. " Achilles]

[Illustration: =MAP OF GREECE=

=showing the distribution of the dialects in historical times=

Aeolic (Thessalian and Boeotian) ▥
Ionic (with Attic) ▤
Arcadian ▨
West Greek dialects not shaded.]

Hypothesis after hypothesis has been tried in order to claim an Aeolic
or Ionic origin for most of these heroes. The plain fact is that all
except one[446] belong to communities which in the fifth century were
regarded as truly 'Hellenic'--or at all events to districts where
dialects of the West Greek type prevailed in historical times. The
leading Aeolic hero is Eurypylos; but he ranks only with Meriones, the
Cretan second-in-command, Thoas the Aetolian and Nestor's sons. The
other Aeolic and Ionic leaders are distinctly less prominent.

From the evidence at our disposal it seems to me that, if the poets
of the Iliad, or rather their predecessors, were interested in any
nationality at all, that nationality must have been West Greek or
'Hellenic.' Of the two chief leaders one belongs to Achaia Phthiotis,
the other to the Peloponnesian Achaeans; the Catalogue of Ships (Il.
II 569 ff.) assigns to him territories which in the main coincide
with the later Achaia, though they cover a somewhat larger area. We
have scarcely any evidence worth consideration that either Achaia
Phthiotis or the Peloponnesian Achaia was ever held by a different
nationality within the period embraced by history and tradition[447].
The territories of the other chief Peloponnesian leaders were occupied
in historical times by the Dorians. But it was the unanimous belief of
the ancient world that the Dorian period had been preceded by an age
of Achaean domination in the east, south and west of the peninsula.
Lastly, the Odyssey (XIX 175), in a passage which is commonly believed
to preserve a true ethnographical record, speaks of the presence
of Achaeans in Crete. Thus at least six[448] of the nine principal
leaders come from regions with an Achaean population. In view of this
fact is it any wonder that Ἀχαιοί is by far the commonest term applied
in the poems to the Greeks collectively[449]? This then must be the
nationality in which the poets were interested. But the Achaeans of
historical times, as we have seen, everywhere used a form of language
which is West Greek. Moreover, it is to the northern Achaeans that we
first find the name Ἕλληνες applied (Il. II 684). The facts noted seem
to indicate that the Achaeans were the dominant people of the West
Greeks--indeed, we may say, of the Greeks generally--during the Heroic
Age, a position in which they were eventually succeeded by the Dorians.

But the poems themselves are of Aeolic origin. It is this
fact--supported by speculations of writers of the Roman period, who
included under the term 'Aeolic' every dialect not obviously Doric,
Ionic or Attic[450]--which has led to the unfortunate equation
'Achaean' = 'Aeolic.' In reality the heroes and the poems belong to
two entirely different sections of the Greek nation. Shall we then set
up another hypothesis--that the original poems were Achaean? But then
we should only be repeating the old error of building hypothesis upon
hypothesis. For it is a hypothesis, and nothing more, that the original
poems were concerned with tribal or national interests; the poems which
have come down to us deal with the fortunes of individuals. Moreover
we should not thereby save the theory that the Iliad is a reflection
of the Greek settlement of the north-western coast of Asia Minor; for
that settlement was not Achaean but Aeolic. The truth is that the
initial hypothesis is entirely unjustified. We have no more reason for
supposing that the heroes must be Aeolic if the poems are Aeolic--or
that the poems must be Achaean if the heroes are Achaean--than we have
for assuming that the Anglo-Saxon poems were of Danish or Gothic origin
because Danes and Goths figure in them more prominently than persons
of English nationality. It is likely enough that poems once existed
dealing with Aeolic heroes, such as Iason, perhaps also Peirithoos and
others. But the reason for the prominence assigned to Achaean heroes,
at all events in the poems which have survived, is to be found not in
the national sympathies or interests of the poets, but in the fact that
during the Heroic Age the Achaeans were the dominant people in Greece.

FOOTNOTES:

[401] Achilles himself was worshipped as a deity in certain localities;
and the same is true of some other heroes. We may refer to the story of
St Ansgar, quoted above (p. 255 f.). With such cases as that of 'Zeus
Agamemnon' we shall have to deal later.

[402] According to Völsunga Saga, cap. 2, Sigmundr, the father of
Sigurðr, had a divine mother (cf. p. 114).

[403] Some resemblance to the case of Peleus and Thetis is shown
by a story in Hrólfs S. Kraka, cap. 15, where an elf-woman bears a
daughter to Helgi, the father of Hrólfr Kraki. Such incidents are not
uncommon in folk-tales. We may note especially those cases in which the
supernatural bride is a mermaid, perhaps representing the Swan-maiden
of earlier times. Thetis has a good deal in common with the latter
class of beings.

[404] Cf. Aeneas Sylvius, _Hist. de Eur._, cap. 26, and the first Daina
in Schleicher's _Handb. d. litau. Sprache_. Night and day or dawn are
also frequently personified--the last especially where, as in Greece,
the sun is regarded as a male. But none of these lend themselves so
readily as the sun and moon to the development of mythical stories.
The personification of light, darkness, etc. in the abstract seems to
belong to a much more advanced stage of thought.

[405] Eclipse-myths (usually of a simple character) are widespread and
fairly common. A probable example is to be found in Gylfaginning, cap.
12 (cf. also Tylor, _Primitive Culture_⁴, I p. 328 ff.). But a good
deal of scepticism is justifiable in regard to the interpretation of
stories which are supposed to have originated in myths of sunrise and
sunset. This remark applies even to those Polynesian and Red Indian
stories which are commonly regarded as among the best examples of their
class.

[406] The personification of the sun and the dawn in the Homeric
poems is very similar to what we find in the north of Europe, e.g. in
Gylfaginning, cap. 10 f., and the first four Dainos in Schleicher's
_Handbuch_. The most important difference is that the Dawn-goddess,
like other deities, has sexual relations with mortals (see the
Addenda). But her true character is not for a moment forgotten.

[407] There is probably an allusion to this story in Il. III 144,
although a different explanation is quoted by Plutarch (_Theseus_,
cap. 34) from Istros. But the verse in question was condemned by some
ancient, as well as modern, scholars. It is 'inorganic' (cf. Od. II
331) and due in all probability to the same process as Il. II 831 ff.
(cf p. 244, note).

[408] This list is by no means exhaustive. We may mention also the
story of Helen and Achilles in the 'White Isle' (cf. Pausanias III
19. 11) and that of Ariston's wife, related by Herodotus (VI 61). The
Rhodian story (cf. Paus. III 19. 10) is obviously due in part to the
influence of the Homeric poems; but it is at least questionable whether
this Ἑλένη Δενδρῖτις was originally identical with the other Helen.

[409] Attention should be paid not only to the case of the Leucippides
but also to the story of Phormion (Paus. III 16. 3).

[410] In Il. II 828 ff. (if the name Ἄδρηστος is taken from VI 37
ff. or XVI 694) we have apparently the case of an already existing
character being turned to account as an eponymous hero.

[411] Αἰολίδης occurs occasionally as a patronymic for individuals. The
'keeper of the winds' seems to have no connection with these characters.

[412] In the Homeric poems it is in the case of minor characters
among the Trojans and their allies that names of this type are most
common. In this case the use of such names may be accounted for with
considerable probability under the head of fiction (cf. p. 300, note).

[413] Murray, _Rise of the Greek Epic_, p. 197 (from Bethe, _N.
Jahrb._, VII 672).

[414] Cf. Crusius, _S.-B. d. k. bayer. Akad._, 1905, p. 774 f.

[415] Cf. Brückner, _Troja und Ilion_, p. 557 ff.

[416] Cf. Crusius, _op. cit._, p. 761 ff.

[417] As a matter of fact the name Melanippos is borne by three Trojans
and one Achaean in the Iliad. Nothing is stated regarding the home of
the Achaean. The name Orestes is borne by one Trojan and one Achaean,
besides the son of Agamemnon.

[418] I have dealt with only one of the groups of names treated by
Prof. Bethe; but it is the one which he has discussed most fully. A
second (Laconian) group is treated by him on p. 672 f. On this it
will be sufficient here to refer to Crusius, _op. cit._, p. 771 ff.,
where it is pointed out that the chief argument rests apparently on a
mistranslation.

[419] Cf. _Neue Jahrb._, VII 662-9; XIII 2 ff.

[420] _Grundfragen der Homerkritik_², p. 223 ff.

[421] Cf. Crusius, _S. B. der k. bayer. Akad._, 1905, p. 755 ff.

[422] It must be clearly understood that I am using the term 'Aeolic'
in the modern (linguistic) sense. I am under the impression that Prof.
Cauer uses the term in the same sense. The only difference, so far as
I can see, between his terminology and mine is that--in accordance,
I think, with general usage--I would include Boeotian as well as
Thessalian and Lesbian-Aeolic in this category. Some ancient writers of
course use the terms Αἰολεῖς and Αἰολίς in a totally different sense.
Thus Thucydides (III 102) applies the name Αἰολίς to the district
about Pleuron and Calydon, and again (IV 42) he speaks of the ancient
inhabitants of Corinth as Αἰολῆς. There may be some difference of
opinion as to whether the use of these names in such cases is due to
the influence of genealogies--in the former case through Aethlios and
Endymion, in the latter through Sisyphos--or whether the genealogies
themselves are due to a current use of the names Αἰολεῖς, Αἰολίς, etc.
The form Αἰολίδης in Il. VI 154, Od. XI 237 rather suggests that these
names may have belonged to a family (or possibly a clan) before they
came to be applied to a people; but into this question we need not
enter. The term 'Aeolic' (in its linguistic sense) belongs properly to
the Asiatic Aeolis, and this name itself is derived in all probability
from the Thessalian Aeolis (cf. Herod. VII 176), the fatherland of the
Asiatic Aeolians. There may possibly have been some connection between
the reigning families of the Thessalian Aeolis and those at Calydon,
Corinth and elsewhere which claimed descent from Aiolos; but there is
not the slightest evidence that an Aeolic dialect (in the modern sense)
was ever spoken at either Calydon or Corinth. It may be added that
nothing but confusion of thought can arise from introducing into this
discussion the terminology of writers of the Roman age (cf. especially
Strabo VIII 1. 2), who apply the name 'Aeolic' to every dialect which
is not Attic, Ionic or Doric.

[423]

νῦν αὖ τοὺς, ὅσσοι τὸ Πελασγικὸν Ἄργος ἔναιον,
οἵ τ' Ἄλον οἵ τ' Ἀλόπην οἵ τε Τρηχῖν' ἐνέμοντο,
οἵ τ' εἶχον Φθίην ἠδ' Ἑλλάδα καλλιγύναικα, κ.τ.λ.

In v. 681 Zenodotos read:

οἵ δ' Ἄργος τ' εἶχον τὸ Πελασγικὸν, οὖθαρ ἀρούρης.

[424] This passage seems to indicate that the poet included the basin
of the Spercheios in Phthia.

[425] So far as I can see, the identification of 'the Pelasgian Argos'
with the plain of Larissa rests merely on a conjecture, of the truth of
which even Strabo himself (IX 5. 5) was not confident. It may very well
have been suggested by the name (Pelasgiotis) borne by this district in
later times. The oracle quoted by Prof. Meyer (_Forsch._, p. 30, note
1) proves nothing, and there is no evidence that the name was used in
historical times. On the other hand the fact that the citadel of the
Peloponnesian Argos was called Λάρισα (cf. Pausanias II 24. 1) does
suggest a connection between this name and Ἄργος. But if so, it is more
natural to think of Larissa Cremaste, which according to Strabo (IX
5. 13, 19) was also called Pelasgia. This place is much nearer to the
Spercheios than the northern Larissa, and in spite of Strabo (IX 5. 14)
may quite possibly have been included within the same territory.

[426] Cauer, _Delectus_, No. 388.

[427] _ib._, No. 390.

[428] _Grundfragen der Homerkritik_², p. 214.

[429] By this of course I do not mean that the inscriptions give an
absolutely faithful reproduction of the local pronunciation, any
more than do those of the Aetolians. From the fourth century onwards
'phonetic spelling' appears to have been superseded in most parts of
Greece. No earlier inscriptions, representing the Achaean dialect
in its purity, have been found as yet. From Thetonion however, near
Cierion in Thessaliotis, about twenty miles north of the border, we
have an inscription of the fifth century (_C. I. G._, XII ii 257)
in a curious mixed dialect, which combines north-western Greek and
Thessalian (Aeolic) characteristics in the proportion of about 7:3 (or
4). The evidence of this inscription seems to me to dispose definitely
of the hypothesis that the introduction of north-western Greek into
this region was due to the influence of the Aetolian League. Even the
dialect of Pharsalos is not quite pure Thessalian.

[430] Cauer, _Delectus_², Nos. 239, 386. The former is included by
Prof. Cauer, no doubt rightly, among the Aetolian inscriptions.

[431] The extension of the Dat. pl. ending -οις to consonant-stems etc.
has often been quoted as a mark of Aetolian influence. But in reality
it is common to all the dialects of western Greece. The earliest
examples apparently occur in Elean and Locrian inscriptions.

[432] According to the generally accepted view, which there seems to
be no reason for doubting, the language of the Thessalian (Aeolic or
'North-Thessalian') inscriptions belonged originally to the indigenous
population. The name 'Thessalian' however, properly speaking, belonged
to the invaders, regarding whose language we have no information.

[433] Strabo (VIII 5. 5) likewise connects the Peloponnesian Achaeans
with Phthiotis; but he attributes their settlement in the Peloponnesos
to an invasion by Pelops. In this passage (as in many others) it is
greatly to be questioned whether Strabo (or the authority whom he
followed) was recording genuine tradition--whether he was not rather
endeavouring to provide an explanation of the traditions.

[434] The inscriptions are late; but their evidence as to the
general character of the dialect is confirmed by some short but
early inscriptions from the Achaean settlements in Italy. It is
assumed by many scholars that Arcadian was the original language of
the Peloponnesian Achaeans; but I am not aware that any evidence
worth consideration has been adduced in support of this view. No
ancient authorities, so far as I know, connect the Arcadians with the
Achaeans, nor do the Arcadians themselves appear to have claimed such a
connection.

[435] This theory is of course quite distinct from the theory which
traces the language of the Phthiotic inscriptions to the influence of
the Aetolian League. The two are scarcely reconcilable if it be held
that the Locrians and Phocians came from the north-west; for in that
case their route must have lain through the valley of the Spercheios,
a district which would not readily be neglected by peoples seeking new
territories.

[436] I.e. in times subsequent to the Heroic Age. I do not mean
of course to suggest that the north-west Greek dialects belonged
originally to these districts; but I see no reason for supposing
that the previous language was Aeolic. The Ainianes may have moved
southwards later. But the language of their inscriptions (at Hypate)
is indistinguishable from that of the surrounding peoples. It is to be
remembered also that, according to the common tradition, the Dorians
themselves had come from a district within this area.

[437] It may be added that the fertile plains of Boeotia are more
likely to have attracted invaders than the mountainous lands to the
north-west.

[438] Cf. Meister, _Sächs. Ges. d. Wiss. Abhandl._ 1906, Nr. 3,
summarised p. 96 ff., where it is pointed out that the characteristics
commonly described as Dorian belong in reality also to Achaean and
that in general they are rather to be ascribed to the latter. At the
same time it is to be noted that some of the characteristics here
claimed as specifically Dorian are shared also by Cypriot, a fact
which rather suggests that they may be indigenous to the south-east
of the Peloponnesos. If the Dorians came from the same quarter as the
Achaeans--and not very many generations later--it is intelligible
enough that the two groups of dialects should be difficult to
distinguish, even apart from the fact that an Achaean stratum--however
insignificant numerically--underlies the Dorian practically everywhere.

[439] Cf. especially Meyer, _Geschichte des Alterthums_, II p. 55 f.,
_Forsch. zur alten Geschichte_, I p. 112 ff.; Ridgeway, _Early Age of
Greece_, p. 659 ff., etc.; Kretschmer, _Glotta_, I 17 ff. Prof. Meyer
has subsequently abandoned this view (_Gesch. d. Alt._², I p. 687).

[440] Cf. Meyer, _Forsch._ I (_passim_). The genealogical explanation
seems to me to be pressed too far here. The case of the Arcadians is
the one in which it is most probable, since apart from genealogies
there is no real evidence that this people was connected with the
Pelasgoi in any way. Yet even here the cause assigned (_ib._, p.
53 ff.) is scarcely adequate. One might rather suspect a confusion
or identification of the names Λυκάων and Λυκαῖος; but I have no
inclination to propound a theory on the subject.

[441] Quoted from Jowett's translation.

[442] Cf. Meyer, _Forsch._, I p. 115; yet in another passage (_ib._,
p. 111 note) considerations are pointed out which can hardly have been
unfamiliar to Herodotus.

[443] It is to be remembered that the name ἡ μεγάλη Ἑλλάς appears to
have come from the Achaean colonies in Italy.

[444] It is worth noting that stems in _-ān-_, as names of peoples,
seem to have been specially characteristic of north-western Greek; e.g.
Αἰνιᾶνες, Ἀθαμᾶνες, Εὐρυτᾶνες, Κεφαλλᾶνες, Ἀκαρνᾶνες.

[445] It is scarcely necessary to notice the subsidiary arguments which
have been adduced in favour of the hypothesis--e.g. that Achilles had
been instructed by the Centaur Cheiron and that his spear had come
from Pelion. They are sufficiently accounted for by the fact that the
poems are of Aeolic origin. The suggestion that Peleus himself is the
eponymus of Pelion belongs to a class which has been sufficiently
discussed above (p. 267 ff.).

[446] The exceptional case is that of Aias the son of Telamon. But we
have no information relating to Salamis before its conquest by the
Athenians in the sixth century. It may have been under Achaean rule in
early times.

[447] In the case of the Peloponnesian Achaia it is conceivable that
a genuine tradition of a conquest of earlier (Ionic) inhabitants may
be preserved in Herod. I 145. But the story that this conquest was
connected with the Dorian invasion can hardly be due to anything but
'combination'; and traces of such a process can be distinguished
plainly enough in Herodotus' account. The important fact is that the
author of the Catalogue of Ships evidently knew nothing of the story.

[448] We may probably add Odysseus. In the Odyssey the hero's subjects
are regularly described as Ἀχαιοί. They are not called Ἀργεῖοι or
Δαναοί, although the three names are used interchangeably as collective
terms for the Greek army before Troy. Regarding the national affinities
of the inhabitants of the Ionian Isles in later times we have little
information; but the language was clearly of the 'north-west Greek'
type. Indeed Aias the son of Oileus is the only one of the nine heroes
in whose case Achaean nationality is distinctly improbable.

[449] The figures for the Iliad are: Ἀχαιοί 605, Ἀργεῖοι 176, Δαναοί
146; cf. Cauer, _Grundfragen_², p. 220.

[450] Cf. especially Strabo, VIII 1. 2.

CHAPTER XIV.

FICTION IN THE HOMERIC POEMS.

We have now to consider briefly how far the use of fiction, i.e. of
conscious, deliberate invention, was permitted in the composition of
Greek heroic poetry. This question gave us considerable difficulty
when we were discussing the Teutonic poems. It is assuredly not less
difficult here. The higher artistic level of the Greek poems cannot but
pre-dispose us in favour of the view that their use of fiction is of a
more advanced type. This expectation is fully realised in the elaborate
presentation of many of the scenes, whether the actors be human beings
who may or may not have taken part in the events described, or divine
beings whose mythical origin no one will dispute. In the σύστασις τῶν
πραγμάτων the art of poetic invention is developed to a high degree of
perfection.

The chief difference between our present problem and the one which
we had to consider in Chapter VIII lies in the fact that here we are
entirely without that contemporary historical evidence which enables
us to recognise some characters or events in nearly all the Teutonic
poems. The way lies open therefore for regarding the whole story of
the siege of Troy as a product of fiction; and this is a view which
many modern scholars have adopted. For an example we can scarcely do
better than quote the words of the late Sir R. C. Jebb (_Introduction
to Homer_, p. 147): "The tale of Troy, as we have it in Homer, is
essentially a poetic creation; and the poet is the sole witness."
The same scholar was prepared to grant that "some memorable capture
of a town in the Troad had probably been made by Greek warriors";
but, he adds, "beyond this we cannot safely go." This attitude is
doubtless perfectly correct from the historian's point of view. But
if we approach the problem from the ethnologist's side we cannot
rest satisfied with an attitude of scepticism owing to the absence
of historical evidence. Our duty includes the question how far we
are justified in admitting the use of fiction. The Iliad would still
be a great monument of human genius even if all the characters and
events in it could be proved to be historical. But if it is wholly, or
almost wholly, a work of fiction we shall have to conclude that the
Homeric poets had developed the inventive faculty to a degree which has
scarcely been equalled even in our own days. That is a conclusion which
we shall do well to adopt only after careful consideration, seeing
that we are dealing with the earliest monument of European literature.
Scepticism is required in this direction therefore just as much as in
the other.

At the outset we are confronted by two considerations which amply
justify this attitude. The first is the evidence of the Teutonic poems.
Here, as we have seen, myth and folk-tale both play their parts, the
latter often a very important part. But we have no proof that any one
of the stories is a product of conscious fiction. Wherever we can
put it to the test, the setting is found to be historical, at least
in the earlier forms of the stories. In medieval poetry we meet with
many fictitious stories of wars waged by imaginary kings of, let us
say, Byzantium or Britain. But in poetry which is entirely free from
scholastic influence, such as the old heroic poems or the poems of the
Viking Age, we shall look in vain for trustworthy examples. The same
remark is probably true of Slavonic and Cumbrian heroic poetry.

The other consideration is still more serious. It is the opinion of the
ancient Greeks themselves. Here again we may quote Sir R. C. Jebb's
work (p. 84): "They held that his events and his persons were, in the
main, real.... Thucydides differs from Herodotus in bringing down the
Homeric heroes more nearly to the level of common men. But the basis
of fact in Homer is fully as real to Thucydides as to Herodotus." The
current hypothesis assumes that both were deceived, and with them
the universal consensus of educated Greek opinion. But is not this a
strange assumption? Those who hold that the Homeric poems are wholly
the work of one author may cherish the belief that this person was so
gifted as to be able to perpetrate a hoax upon his countrymen which
in their most enlightened days they never succeeded in detecting.
But I do not see how any such idea can be reconciled with the theory
of evolution. The story was invented, we must presume, by the first
poet and elaborated by his successors. Were these latter persons
cognisant of the deception? If not, we must regard their contributions
as negligible; and consequently we are brought back virtually to the
theory of single authorship. And yet no one will suggest that the
poets of several generations were accomplices in such a deception. The
only alternative then, which remains, is that the poets invented and
elaborated a romance, which they did not intend to be taken seriously.
How greatly then has the history of Greek thought been misunderstood!
It appears now that the period between the ninth and the fifth
centuries was characterised not by intellectual emancipation but by the
growth of credulity.

In view of these considerations the burden of proof must be held to lie
with those who hold that the story is fictitious. Until such proof is
forthcoming it seems to me that the only reasonable course is to follow
the opinion of the ancients, except in so far as we have good reason
for believing that they were mistaken. The ancients not only accepted
the siege of Troy as a historical fact; they were prepared also to
point out the site of the city. The correctness of this identification
was indeed disputed by Demetrios of Scepsis, a native antiquary of
the second century, who fixed upon another site, some four miles
away; while modern scholars until recently believed that both were
wrong. This is why in the passage quoted above Sir R. C. Jebb used the
expression "a city in the Troad." But about five or six years after the
publication of his book the traditional site was fully vindicated by
the excavations of Dr Dörpfeld, which brought to light the remains of
a fortress dating, approximately at least, from the period indicated
by the story. It was made clear also that this fortress had been
destroyed, presumably by enemies. That the destroyers were Greeks
could not of course be proved by the excavations. But the evidence of
the poems in this respect is confirmed by the fact that the district
was inhabited by Greeks in later times[451].

It is held by many scholars that the story of the siege of Troy is a
reflection of the Aeolic colonisation of the Asiatic coast. We have
already discussed the principle underlying this theory and found no
evidence in its favour. But it does not follow from this that the two
events were unconnected. One of the most famous stories[452] recorded
by Scandinavian tradition is that of the expedition to England which
was undertaken by the sons of Lothbrok for the purpose of exacting
vengeance for their father's death. Now we have an account of this
invasion from a contemporary historical work (the Saxon Chronicle),
which gives the names of two of the princes (Inwaer and Healfdene),
as well as that of the Northumbrian king Aella against whom the
expedition was directed. We know also that Lothbrok's sons were by
no means contented with the overthrow of Aella; that on the contrary
they ravaged the greater part of England. Long after they were all
dead or departed the eastern half of the country remained Scandinavian
territory. According to the Iliad Achilles did not confine his energies
to Troy; he is said to have ravaged Lesbos and several places in the
country round the Gulf of Adramyttion. Is there any valid reason for
denying that the Greek occupation of these lands may have originated
in such events? We need not suppose of course that the conquered lands
were fully occupied at once. But the first settlers may well have
secured enough to serve as a refuge for those of their countrymen who
fled from the Thessalian invasion, probably no long time afterwards.
A good parallel is furnished by the Scandinavian settlements in the
British Isles, which served as a retreat for many Norwegians who
refused to bow to the encroachments of Harold the Fair-haired.

The Greek settlements in this region were Aeolic, a fact due probably,
as we have said, to the Thessalian invasion. But Achilles was an
Achaean, and the same is true of most of the other chief heroes. The
Iliad does not represent Troy as being attacked merely 'by Greeks,' but
by an army gathered together from nearly all parts of Greece. This is
one of the features in the story to which objection has been taken most
generally. We may grant freely that no parallel for such an undertaking
is to be found in historical times. Indeed, the objection itself
contains a weak point here; for from all that we know of the earliest
historical period it is scarcely credible that such an idea could have
suggested itself, even in a work of fiction. On the other hand in the
thirteenth and twelfth centuries the monuments of Rameses II, Merenptah
and Rameses III give us information of expeditions which were on at
least as large a scale and covered much greater distances. We have no
reason for doubting that such an undertaking was possible also in the
eleventh century.

But if the expedition itself is nothing incredible in such a period,
what shall we say with regard to its motive? The reason assigned by the
poem--that it was brought about by Paris' escapade--is one of those
features which have been put aside by modern scholars as unworthy of
consideration. This attitude is due partly to the application of modern
political theories to a state of society in which they are quite out
of place. With this question we shall have to deal in the following
chapter. But it is due still more to the absurd hallucination that a
story of abduction must have originated in the 'hypostasis' of natural
phenomena. According to Scandinavian tradition the expedition of
Lothbrok's sons was inspired by a purely personal motive--the desire to
exact vengeance for their father's death. But in the Heroic Age itself
we have from a strictly contemporary authority (cf. p. 97 f.) the story
of the great expedition of the Angli against the Warni, which was
caused by a breach of promise of marriage.

It appears then on examination that the central feature of the story,
namely the destruction of Troy, rests upon fact, while the other main
features gain in probability the more one takes into account the
conditions of the age and the analogies furnished by similar stories
elsewhere. These considerations tend to support the view that the
employment of fiction is to be seen rather in the presentation than in
the conception of the story. But the term 'presentation' here, just as
in Chapter VIII, must be interpreted in a very liberal sense.

What has been said above applies of course properly only to the Iliad.
With the Odyssey the case is quite otherwise. In the first place we
have to note that the ancients themselves took a different view with
regard to this poem--at all events that part of it which relates to
the hero's wanderings. The credibility of the various incidents was
frequently and warmly debated; but many of them were defended only by
an allegorical interpretation. Then again the conditions are similar
to those in which we find the most pronounced use of fiction in early
Teutonic poetry. Sigemund is expressly said to have been alone when
he attacked the dragon, and most of Beowulf's marvellous exploits are
performed when he is either alone or with a single companion. The motif
of the lonely wanderer in distant lands is not prominent in the remains
of our poetry, but from what is said of Sigemund in Beow. 876 ff. we
can scarcely doubt that it would have been utilised for the exercise of
the inventive faculty.

Now we have seen (p. 258 ff.) that the hero's narrative in Od. IX-XII
is evidently derived from an accumulation of folk-tales. Here the art
of fiction is shown chiefly in the poet's adaptation of this material
to his own purpose. But there are other parts of the poem--notably the
preceding three books (VI-VIII)--which obviously require a different
explanation. It is frequently assumed that the Phaeacians are wholly a
creation of the poet's fancy. Without going so far as this[453] we may
seriously doubt whether they were a Greek people and whether there was
any foundation in history or tradition for the account given here--with
a quite exceptional amount of detail--of their princes, their city and
institutions. If this part of the story is to be regarded as fiction
it is certainly a more elaborate type of fiction than anything which
we meet with in the early heroic poetry of the Teutonic peoples. But
the false stories told by Odysseus in the latter part of the poem at
all events go far towards showing that such fiction was not beyond the
power of Homeric poets.

According to our explanation the extensive use of fiction in the story
of Odysseus is due to the fact that in this case the poet or poets
had a free hand, whereas elsewhere, more particularly in the Iliad,
they were bound down by tradition. It is not to be overlooked however
that the Iliad itself contains many incidents which may similarly be
regarded as products of invention--additions to the story which did
not conflict with anything that had been 'handed down.' As a likely
instance of this kind we may cite the Doloneia. But since we can seldom
or never get beyond a hypothesis with such cases, it will be more
profitable, I think, now to turn our attention to another question,
namely whether the use of fiction also included the invention of
characters--and if so to what extent.

In our consideration of the Teutonic stories we came to the conclusion
that there was no really satisfactory evidence for such invention. In
the Homeric poems the evidence is much stronger. We will first take the
case of names which appear to have been coined with an obvious meaning.
A good example occurs in Od. VIII 111 ff., where the Phaeacian
athletes are enumerated:

ὦρτο μὲν Ἀκρόνεώς τε καὶ Ὠκύαλος καὶ Ἐλατρεὺς
Ναυτεύς τε Πρυμνεύς τε καὶ Ἀγχίαλος καὶ Ἐρετμεὺς
Ποντεύς τε Πρωρεύς τε, Θόων Ἀναβησίνεώς τε
Ἀμφίαλός θ' υἱὸς Πολυνήου Τεκτονίδαο·
ἂν δὲ καὶ Εὐρύαλος βροτολοιγῷ ἶσος Ἄρηι,
Ναυβολίδης θ', κ.τ.λ.

Other Phaeacians have names of the same type, e.g. Ναυσίθοος,
Ναυσικάα, Ἅλιος, Κλυτόνηος, Ἐχένηος, Ποντόνοος. In such a case as
this the poet can scarcely have intended to deceive his audience.
Indeed the principle is clearly admitted in another passage (XXIV
305), where Odysseus in a false story describes himself as υἱὸς
Ἀφείδαντος Πολυπημονίδαο ἄνακτος. We need not doubt then that other
names are constructed on the same plan, e.g. that of the minstrel,
Φήμιος Τερπιάδης, perhaps also those of the shipowner, Νοήμων son of
Φρόνιος, and Menelaos' pilot, Φρόντις Ὀνητορίδης. Similar cases may
be found also in the Iliad[454], e.g. (V 59 ff.) Φέρεκλον ... Τέκτονος
υἱὸν Ἁρμονίδεω, ὃς χερσὶν ἐπίστατο δαίδαλα πάντα τεύχειν, or the name
of a Trojan herald (XVII 323 f.) Περίφαντι Ἠπυτίδῃ, probably also the
spy Δόλων Εὐμήδεος υἱός (X 314). This list of course makes no claim to
be exhaustive. But on the whole it can hardly be said that the type
is really common in either poem, except the section dealing with the
Phaeacians.

It is far more difficult to form an opinion with regard to the origin
of characters whose names bear no such obvious mark. Few probably would
be inclined to doubt that the names of Helen's handmaidens (Od. IV
123 ff.) were coined by the poet. But what shall we say with regard
to the suitors of Penelope[455]? The argument may not be a sound one,
but it is not easy to see under what conditions historical names could
have been preserved in such a connection. And again, what about the
numerous names which figure in the ἀνδροκτασίαι? Even though many of
the names do recur again and again, their number is surprising[456]. It
is difficult to doubt that the poets gave free rein to their inventive
faculties in such scenes.

But what limits are we to set to this process? If we regard the chief
heroes themselves as products of fiction we shall be involved in much
the same difficulties as if we interpreted the story as a whole in this
way. In a sense indeed the difficulties will be increased; for it is
scarcely conceivable that a heroic story should come into existence
without heroes[457]. No one can reasonably doubt that the list of
Phaeacian athletes is the invention of one man[458]. In the case
of Penelope's suitors this is not so clear. Yet personally I cannot
understand the Odyssey if it is not, in its present form, largely the
work of an individual brain, however much it may have utilised and even
incorporated older matter. This 'redactor' or 'author' or whatever he
may be called may well have invented the names of most of the suitors;
they are not essential to the story. But how can any such explanation
be applied to the heroes of the siege of Troy? These were not obscure
chieftains in a distant group of islands without external connections.
Many of them are represented as rulers of what were once certainly
the chief states in Greece, and they were universally recognised as
historical persons from the earliest times of which we have any record.
In some cases they were even honoured with worship, and distinguished
families claimed to be descended from them. Mythical characters, such
as Scyld or Dardanos, may come to be regarded as historical. But these
are products of many minds rather than of one, and of reflection
rather than imagination. Their personification is a gradual process,
and even when it is accomplished they figure only in the background of
heroic stories, without any definite individual characterisation. The
hypothesis which we are now testing has no relation to such figures as
these--for Agamemnon, Achilles and their companions are not eponymous
heroes. If they are creations of one man's imagination we must ask how
this person, however gifted he may have been, succeeded in passing
off his romance as history. On the other hand if they were gradually
'evolved' by a succession of poets we must ask at what stage and by
what process so great a misunderstanding of their real character
originated.

It is a great assumption that every local record relating to the
heroes of the Trojan War owes its origin, directly or indirectly, to
the influence of Homeric poetry; and yet that is what is involved
by the hypothesis under discussion. There is no doubt that heroic
poetry can influence local tradition in an age given to antiquarian
speculation; but where shall we find any parallel for such a result as
this? Pausanias (II 16. 5) states that the tombs of Agamemnon and his
household were to be seen at Mycenae. It is likely enough that in this
case the local belief was derived ultimately from the poems, although
it seems to have contained some unorthodox features. But in Pindar,
Aeschylus and other early poets we find forms of the story which
differ much more widely from the Homeric account. These authorities
also give us a good deal of information regarding other members of
the family, Pelops, Atreus and Orestes--persons who seem not to have
figured prominently in any Homeric poems that we know of. Particularly
we should notice that according to Pausanias (III 19. 5) the Spartans
also possessed a tomb of Agamemnon (at Amyclai), and that in early
times they appear to have claimed him as one of their own kings. To
this we have already referred (p. 240). The problem as a whole is
surely one which requires considerably more investigation than it has
yet received. But I should be much surprised if such investigations,
carried out in an impartial spirit, did not bring to light many traces
of stories relating to the Heroic Age, which were independent of
anything that we may fairly call 'Homeric' poetry.

Perhaps it may be said that we can safely claim a fictitious origin for
some of the leading characters without committing ourselves to the view
that all of them were sprung from this source. The case of Agamemnon,
which we have mentioned above, is scarcely one of the most promising.
We will now take what is generally regarded as the most certain case,
namely that of Aias[459]. There are two heroes of this name, of whom
one is a Locrian, while the other belongs to Salamis. The theory now
most usually held is that one of the two--preferably the latter--is a
fictitious character, derived from the other. This theory rests on the
following arguments: (i) that the two heroes are often found together,
(ii) that Salamis is only mentioned in two passages, (iii) that, apart
from his brother Teucros, the connections of Aias of Salamis are
themselves obviously fictitious. The distinctive characteristic of
this Aias is his enormous shield; and this gave birth both to the name
of his father Τελαμών ('Strap'), and to that of his son, Εὐρυσάκης
('Broad-shield'). The appropriateness of the latter name is evident
enough; but it does not occur in the Homeric poems. The evidence seems
to indicate that this person is a genealogical creation of much later
times--possibly due to the misunderstanding of an epithet. On the other
hand the force of the name Τελαμών does not strike me as particularly
obvious. Aias' distinguishing characteristic was not his shield-strap,
but the shield itself. Several heroes, Agamemnon, Diomedes and others,
are said to have shield-straps; indeed from Il. II 388 f. we may infer
that they were commonly, if not generally, used. Moreover the word
τελαμών does not necessarily mean 'shield-strap'; we find it used
also, in several passages, for 'sword-strap.' Its original meaning
appears to have been 'supporter'; and we have no reason for supposing
that such a word was inadmissible as a proper name[460]. Again, the
argument that Salamis is only mentioned twice loses its force when
the general usage of the Iliad is taken into account. Except in three
cases--due largely to certain stereotyped formulae--it is not customary
to refer to the home or nationality of the Achaean leaders[461]. Even
if the genuineness of Il. VII 199 be doubted, there can scarcely be
any question that Aias was localised at Salamis by the time when the
Homeric poems first obtained general currency in Greece; for the
post-Homeric (or non-Homeric) genealogy of the Aiacidai and their
connection with Aegina go back probably beyond the seventh century.
There remains then only the fact that two friends and colleagues have
the same name. That is doubtless a curious coincidence; but not more
curious than many such cases which occur in real life. On the whole I
cannot help thinking that the readiness with which this theory has been
received is due to the prevalent enthusiasm for such hypotheses. When
soberly considered the evidence in its favour is of the slightest.

In conclusion we must take account of another hypothesis, which seems
to be particularly popular at present--namely that many characters have
been attracted into the Trojan cycle from different quarters, some from
other cycles of heroic poetry, and some from local tradition. Strictly
speaking we have here to do with two different hypotheses; but they
may conveniently be taken together. Both are credible enough under
certain conditions. In the first place we must assume the existence of
a nucleus of original matter sufficient to provide the 'attractive'
force. Secondly, the poets' audience must not have such knowledge
either of the original or the subsidiary stories as would check their
readiness to allow the amalgamation. Thus no audience of the fifth
century would have consented to see Heracles introduced into a drama
dealing with Orestes. But medieval German poems do bring Dietrich von
Bern into association both with Attila and Eormenric, although we know
that the three heroes belonged originally to quite distinct stories.
This parallel has frequently been urged in support of the contention
that Agamemnon or Nestor or Idomeneus may once have belonged to
separate stories before they were associated with Achilles or Aias the
Locrian or whoever it was who was first connected with the siege of
Troy.

In Chapter XI we discussed the supposed analogy between Homeric and
medieval German poetry and came to the conclusion that it had no
foundation. The roots of the latter doubtless go back to court-poetry.
But for centuries it was preserved only by popular minstrels; and
during this period it underwent not only a process of disintegration
in regard to subject-matter, but also a complete change both in
spirit and metrical form. Our discussion led us to conclude that
there was no ground for supposing the Homeric poems to have passed
through such a stage as this--that on the contrary they appear to
have been preserved by court poets until they attained their final
form. But heroic court-poetry is everywhere bound by convention. The
poet must be a master of traditional lore as well as of form; but he
must not be a revolutionary. He may borrow descriptions, incidents,
probably also minor characters, from other stories and even from
folk-tales--especially when he is dealing with the adventures of a
solitary wanderer in unknown lands[462]. But, since his audience
likewise consists of persons who are more or less trained in the same
kind of lore, he will find considerable difficulty in transferring a
well-known hero from one story to another--more difficulty indeed than
in inventing the hero outright. He would probably have just about as
much chance of success as a modern dramatist who wished to introduce
Cromwell into a serious play dealing with Napoleon Bonaparte. We must
have good evidence before we can believe that the court poets of
ancient Greece were able to indulge in such flights of imagination.

But no such evidence appears to be forthcoming[463]. One of the cases
most commonly cited is the fight of Tlepolemos and Sarpedon. This case
rests partly on the fact that the two combatants are represented as
coming from districts, both remote from Troy but not very distant from
one another, and partly on the groundless assumption that opponents
must be near neighbours. Unfortunately Sarpedon himself is killed by
Patroclos, a hero from Phthiotis. To meet this difficulty we find a
further hypothesis, which need not be discussed here. I do not say
that it is impossible that Tlepolemos and Sarpedon have been taken
from a different story. My view is that until it is supported by
evidence[464] such a conjecture does not deserve serious consideration.
The same remark applies to the case of Idomeneus which has likewise
been cited in this connection. Indeed it is surely a fatal objection to
this hypothesis as a whole that, with one exception[465], the heroes
of the Iliad are persons who are known practically only in connection
with the siege of Troy. The force of this objection may be appreciated
by the fact that both poems contain many incidental allusions to heroes
who are well known to us from other sources, as well as to persons of
whom we know little or nothing at all. If the personnel of the Iliad
has really grown up through a process of attraction how is it that
Heracles, Iason, Peirithoos, Theseus, Minos and Adrastos have not been
drawn into the net? Some of them certainly have sons or grandsons who
figure in the Iliad; but it deserves to be remarked that, with the
exception of Idomeneus, these are all persons of little importance.
On the other hand the fathers of the principal heroes are themselves
in no case--unless we count Tydeus--'heroes of the first rank.' Can
any one seriously argue that such a result as this would be produced
by an artificial scheme--a scheme, that is to say, in the framing of
which poets had a free command of their material? On the contrary the
only conclusion, I think, to which an unbiassed study of the evidence
can lead, is that the poets never enjoyed such freedom; that the later
poets were bound by the work of their predecessors, and these again by
something which bears a suspicious resemblance to facts of real life.

* * * * *

In the course of this and the preceding chapters we have reviewed
briefly a number of hypotheses which have been brought forward from
time to time with the object of explaining the origin of the characters
and events treated in the Homeric poems. These hypotheses may be
grouped summarily under four headings: (i) nature-myths, (ii) tribal
heroes, (iii) fiction, (iv) transference. In dealing with the first
group we have restricted ourselves to the consideration of two cases
which appear as yet not to have fallen into the same discredit as the
rest. Our conclusion however is that they rest on equally unsubstantial
foundations. The second group is more popular just now, and this we
have examined at length. We find that--apart from some genealogical
names--this group of hypotheses rests upon a number of assumptions,
some of which are incapable of proof, while others are demonstrably
incorrect. The third group has a much better case. We find that the
use of fiction appears to be shown not only in the presentation of
the stories (as in Teutonic poetry) but also in the invention of
minor characters. The extent to which it is used is a problem which
requires further investigation. The last remark applies also to the
fourth group. In principle it is only reasonable to expect that both
characters and incidents may have been transferred from one story to
another. But the instances which have been suggested are tainted with
the 'tribal hero' hypothesis and the evidence on which they rest is
altogether inconclusive. Lastly, we have noted that, if our view of
the history of Homeric poetry is correct, the use of both fiction
(invention) and 'transference' must have been confined within certain
limits[466].

It may perhaps be said that these conclusions show an inadequate
recognition of the results attained by modern investigations in the
history of Greek heroic tradition. But we may fairly ask how many
definite results have been attained in this field--results, I mean,
which command the unanimous approval, or anything like the unanimous
approval, of present-day scholars. It is a common opinion, at least in
this country, that the general effect has been rather to obscure than
to solve the real problems presented by the poems. If we put aside the
opinions of more conservative scholars we may indeed find a common
element--namely the belief that the attitude of the ancients themselves
to stories of the Heroic Age was mistaken. But this belief cannot be
regarded as a result established by the investigations; it is rather
their starting point.

By 'the ancients' I do not mean merely the poets and mythographers of
antiquity. It is admitted that "the basis of fact in Homer is fully
as real to Thucydides as to Herodotus." Now the work undertaken by
Thucydides was not a history of the Trojan War; but he had evidently
considered that story. Apparently it did not occur to him to doubt
that the war had taken place, or even that the expedition had been
commanded by Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. What he had reflected on was
the question whether the expedition was really on so large a scale as
is stated in the Iliad; and the result to which his reflections brought
him was that there was not a sufficient case for scepticism (οὔκουν
ἀπιστεῖν εἰκός). We are at liberty to form a different opinion. Yet
Thucydides was a man no whit inferior intellectually to the best of
modern scholars. Moreover he had the advantage of being a native; and
he was separated from the Heroic Age by some six centuries, whereas we
are separated from it by nearly thirty. There can be little doubt that
many sources of information were open to him--traditions, poems and
even monuments--which are entirely lost to us. It seems to me therefore
that before we disregard the opinions of such persons we shall do well
to consider carefully in what respects we are better qualified for
forming a judgment.

So far as I can see we have the advantage in two respects only.
Firstly, there is the evidence of the Egyptian monuments and of that
prehistoric Aegean civilisation which has been revealed to us by the
discoveries of Schliemann, Dörpfeld, Evans, Halbherr and many others.
It is at least improbable that Thucydides was as well acquainted with
either of these sources of information as we are. If he had seen
Dr Dörpfeld's excavations at Troy he might perhaps have modified
his opinion about the numbers of the Achaean army, although he had
noted the dimensions of Mycenae. But that after all is a trifle. Can
it be said that the general effect of the new evidence has been to
discredit the tradition? The records of Rameses II and his successors
have definitely disposed of the idea that Agamemnon's expedition was
anything impossible, while the discoveries in Crete have shown once for
all that 'early' does not mean the same thing as 'primitive.' It is a
significant fact therefore that in many investigations of the type we
are discussing little or no use has been made of this new evidence.
The evidence on which they rely is evidence which was at least as
accessible to Thucydides as it is to us.

Secondly, it is in our power, probably far more than it was in that of
Thucydides and his contemporaries, to compare the Homeric stories with
others of the same type. It is here that our great advantage lies. But
can it be said that this advantage has been turned to account by modern
writers? Many works contain no reference to any poetry other than Greek
and Latin--the latter of which, owing to its dependence upon Greek, is
of little value for our purpose. Many others, it is true, have used the
evidence of Teutonic heroic poetry. But only by taking a single poem
belonging to the latest stratum, without reference to its history or
its connections in the poetry of other Teutonic peoples, and by using
precarious hypotheses as to the origin of the story as a foundation
for similar hypotheses in relation to the Homeric stories. The earlier
strata of Teutonic heroic poetry have been ignored as much as the
heroic poetry of other European peoples.

I have no doubt that much which is obscure in Homeric poetry and
tradition may be illuminated by a historical study of heroic poetry
elsewhere--not merely Teutonic but also Celtic, Slavonic and even
non-European. For the story of the Iliad in particular I suspect that
a fairly close parallel--perhaps the closest of all--is to be found
in those Servian poems which deal with the battle of Kossovo[467].
My object however in this book is to bring to light the relations of
Greek and Teutonic heroic poetry--or rather to make a start in that
direction, for the object is by no means one which can be accomplished
in a single attempt. So much however may be said with confidence even
now: all that we know, apart from hypotheses, with regard to the
origin of the Teutonic heroic stories corresponds to the views held by
Thucydides and his contemporaries.

With the affinities between Homeric poetry and the old Teutonic
court-poetry we shall have to deal in the next chapter. I do not think
that any true analogy to the medieval German poems is to be found in
Greek literature; but I have ventured to suggest (p. 239 f.) that the
poems of the Edda have something in common with those of Stesichoros
and his followers. Apart from the poems however, Greek literature
preserves numerous records of the Heroic Age, frequently, though not
always, in the form of local traditions. Some of these are doubtless
due to the influence of Homeric or 'Stesichoric' poetry; but we have
no right to assume that this is universally true. There are a number
which appear to be of popular origin, whether they come from poems of
Stage III (cf. p. 94 ff.) or from poems which were 'popular' from the
beginning or from stories which never were clothed in poetic form.

As an example we will take the story of Minos. So far as I know, there
is no evidence that this hero figured prominently in any early poems
of which we have record, though incidental allusions to him occur both
in the Iliad and the Odyssey. Yet there is no doubt that the Greeks
regarded him as one of the very greatest figures of the far past. The
most striking tradition recorded of him is that he possessed a powerful
fleet, which enabled him to subdue the islands, to put down piracy and
thus to secure safety for navigation. This thalassocracy is mentioned
both by Herodotus (I 171, III 122) and Thucydides (I 4, 8); and the
former adds that no such attempt to command the sea was made again
until the time of Polycrates of Samos, in the latter part of the sixth
century. Later writers relate the famous story of the Minotaur; they
represent Minos also as the founder of cities, including Cnossos and
Phaistos, the great prehistoric palaces lately excavated, and as a
legislator or judge. In what is commonly regarded as one of the latest
additions to the Odyssey (XI 568 ff.) we find him giving judgments
among the dead.

It is obvious enough that the story of Minos contains many mythical
features. But do these features constitute the original kernel of
the story, or are they accretions, due to folk-tales or popular
belief? We need not enter here into the story of the Minotaur, upon
which Dr Evans' discoveries have thrown such a curious light. But
there are other features in the story which may be illustrated from
medieval beliefs regarding Dietrich von Bern. Sometimes we find
this hero represented as the leader of the 'Wild Hunt,' the army of
ghosts[468]--a position elsewhere occupied by Wodan or other mythical
beings. In medieval German homilies and other religious works he
is credited with having been the founder of several famous Roman
buildings, such as the Amphitheatre at Verona and the Castle of St
Angelo at Rome[469]. In such beliefs we have a close enough parallel
to the traditions of Minos. There is no reason for supposing that
the Greeks were better acquainted with the prehistoric Cretans than
the Germans were with the ancient Romans. In both cases doubtless it
seemed natural to attribute the foundation of venerable buildings
to a prominent hero of their own race[470]. But Dietrich von Bern
(Theodric, king of the Ostrogoths) was not originally a mythical being.

Nor need the tradition of Minos' thalassocracy be regarded as
altogether incredible. We have seen that in the reigns of Merenptah
and Rameses III Egypt and the neighbouring lands were invaded by large
forces from the Aegean or even more remote regions. After the time
of Rameses III we hear little of these peoples, though it is clear
that they had formed settlements on the coast of Palestine. From
the following centuries we have apparently only one detailed piece
of information relating to the Mediterranean, namely the story of a
certain Unuamen (or Wenamon), an official belonging to the temple of
Amen at Thebes, who had been sent to the Lebanon to buy timber[471].
From this story we may infer with some probability that the eastern end
of the Mediterranean was policed or controlled by the fleets of some
Aegean nation[472]. The time to which the story refers is either the
reign of Herhor or that of his predecessor Rameses XII[473]--about the
beginning of the eleventh century. That seems to be approximately the
time indicated for Minos by Greek tradition; for according to Il. XIII
451 f. and Od. XIX 178 ff. he was the grandfather of Idomeneus. It is
scarcely impossible that an ambitious Greek prince of this age may have
been animated by the desire of regaining the supremacy of the ancient
Cretans, just as Theodric was inspired by the idea of restoring under
Gothic rule the power formerly held by the Roman emperors.

FOOTNOTES:

[451] It has been held that the Aeolic settlements in the Troad
itself date only from the seventh century (cf. Meyer, _Geschichte des
Alterthums_, II pp. 203, 463 f.), and there is some evidence that
movements of this kind were in operation about that time. But the
excavations at Troy brought to light the fact that the district had
been occupied, in times long subsequent to the destruction of the
fortress, by a semi-barbarous people, apparently from the region of
the Danube. The evidence at our disposal seems to indicate that there
were Greek settlements in existence before this time, but that they
were temporarily overthrown by the barbarians (cf. Brückner, _Troja und
Ilion_, p. 567 ff.). At all events it is clear that the Homeric poets
were familiar with the district.

[452] For a full account of this story see Mawer, _Ragnar Lothbrók and
his sons_ (published in the Saga-Book of the Viking Club, Jan. 1909).

[453] Cf. Βαιάκη. πόλις τῆς Χαονίας. Ἑκαταῖος. κ.τ.λ. (Steph. Byz.,
s.v.) From this notice we gather that at the beginning of the fifth
century (or earlier) the Greeks knew of a city or state called Baiace
in Chaonia, i.e. opposite the island of Corfu, which was usually
identified with Scheria in ancient times. It has been remarked by
several scholars that the name Βαιάκη is obviously independent of
Homeric poetry. We may infer also (i) that it was derived from a
non-Greek source and (ii) that if Βαιακ- and Φαιηκ- are identical the
latter name must have become known to the Greeks in very early times.
It is not impossible that in the Heroic Age the Greeks may have been
familiar with more than the name of this people; but there is no
evidence, so far as I am aware, for the existence of a prehistoric
civilisation on the Albanian coast--such as we find depicted in Od.
VI-VIII. Until such evidence is forthcoming probability is in favour
of the view that the picture drawn of the Phaeacian community in the
Odyssey is derived from a different region--most likely from the Aegean.

[454] Possibly Θερσίτης is another example of this type. It seems to
me more probable however that it is a nickname, similar to Ἶρος (Od.
XVIII 6 f.). It has been well connected with Θηρίτας, a Laconian name
for Ares or Enyalios (cf. Usener, _S.-B. d. Akad. zu Wien_, CXXXVII,
p. 53). But I cannot see any justification for the hypothesis (_ib._,
p. 57) that the practices described by Pausanias (III 14. 8 f.; XIX 7
f.; XX 2. 8) represent a contest between Enyalios and Achilles, or for
connecting them in any way with the story of the killing of Thersites
by Achilles in the Aithiopis. Achilles was worshipped elsewhere in
connection with athletic practices (cf. Pausanias, VI 23. 3; also the
Δρόμος Ἀχιλλέως mentioned by Arrian, _Peripl._ 21. 1), probably for the
same reason that worship was paid to famous athletes of the past (cf.
Pindar, _Isth._ VII 37, 59 ff.).

[455] Curiously enough the most suspicious names are those of the
two chief characters, Εὐρύμαχος son of Πόλυβος, and Ἀντίνοος son of
Εὐπείθης.

[456] Under the head of fiction I think we may probably include many
national names and names derived from cities, rivers, etc. It has been
remarked above (p. 268, note) that these names occur chiefly among the
Trojans and their allies, e.g. Τρώς (son of Alastor), Δάρδανος (son
of Bias), Μύγδων, Ἀσκάνιος, Δρύοψ, Δόλοψ, Τεύθρας, Πήδαιος, Ἴμβριος,
Ἰδαῖος, Σκαμάνδριος, Θηβαῖος, Θυμβραῖος. I do not mean of course to
suggest that all such names are necessarily fictitious. The type
doubtless was ancient, but it possessed obvious facilities for the
formation of names for fictitious characters of foreign nationality.

[457] This point seems to me to be of fundamental importance; but it
is apparently not always recognised. Prof. Meyer (_Geschichte des
Alterthums_, II p. 207) holds, rightly as I think, that there is no
valid reason for doubting that Troy actually was destroyed by a king of
Mycenae. Yet elsewhere (_ib._, p. 186 f., etc.) he regards Agamemnon
himself as a Spartan deity and most of the other chief Achaean heroes
as mythical or fictitious or at least unconnected originally with the
story of Troy. According to my view the interest in heroic poetry,
Greek as well as Teutonic, Welsh or Servian, was from the beginning
essentially bound up with individual characters, e.g. not with a
(nameless) king of Mycenae--which is comparatively seldom mentioned
(cf. p. 274)--but with King Agamemnon. It is true that under certain
conditions one name occasionally does displace another in heroic
stories; but we have seen no reason for believing that the conditions
favourable to such changes ever prevailed in the history of Greek
heroic poetry. Neither the name Ἀγαμέμνων nor the later inferences to
Ζεύς Ἀγαμέμνων seem to me to afford any valid ground for doubting that
Agamemnon was the king of Mycenae originally concerned in the story.

[458] Note should be taken also of the fact that the peculiar type
of nomenclature which we find among the Phaeacians (cf. p. 299) is
not confined to the list of athletes but spread over the whole of
this section of the poem. It is quite possible of course that the few
exceptional names, such as Ἀλκίνοος, may be derived from tradition or
from an earlier poet.

[459] Cf. Robert, _Studien zur Ilias_, p. 406 ff.; Bethe, _N. Jahrb._,
XIII p. 1 ff.; Cauer, _Grundfragen_² p. 197 ff.

[460] It is to be remembered that as a patronymic Τελαμώνιος is an
Aeolic formation. The rareness of forms of this type renders it highly
improbable that a nickname thus formed should have been misinterpreted
as a patronymic. As a nickname too should we not rather have expected
Τελαμωνεύς?

[461] Two passages mention Λοκροί in connection with the other Aias;
three mention Ἰθάκη or Κεφαλλῆνες in connection with Odysseus. Σπάρτη
and Λακεδαίμων are mentioned in connection with Menelaos only in the
Catalogue. References to Eurybates and Helen are of course not included
here. The only leading Achaean heroes whose home or nationality is
frequently mentioned are Achilles, Nestor and Idomeneus.

[462] For folk-tales cf. p. 258 ff. The same conditions are probably
favourable both to transference and invention. The latter faculty is
perhaps first displayed in lists of supernatural beings, such as those
of the Nereids in Il. XVIII 39 ff. and Theog. 242 ff. (which differ a
good deal). We may compare the list of dwarfs given in Völuspá.

[463] We need not discuss the identification of the Adrestos and
Amphios of Il. II 830 with the famous Adrastos and Amphiaraos of the
Theban story (cf. Usener, _S.-B. der Akad. zu Wien_, 1898, p. 37 ff.).
The strangest feature in this 'discovery' is the fascination which,
in spite of its obvious untenability, it seems to have exercised on
subsequent writers.

[464] The evidence of the grave-mound in Lycia, cited by Prof.
Murray (_Rise of the Greek Epic_, p. 191, note), can hardly be taken
seriously. Indeed Prof. Murray himself seems to consider Sarpedon's
Lycian connections at least as illusory as his connection with Troy.

[465] Diomedes no doubt figured in the story of the second attack
upon Thebes. It has been suggested that this hero was also originally
identical with the Bistonian Diomedes, who fed his mares with human
flesh and was killed by Heracles. The value of this identification
depends largely upon the question whether the Doloneia formed an
original part of the story of the Iliad. That is a view which would
probably gain the assent of few scholars--even of those who believe
that the Doloneia is not much later than the rest of the Iliad in its
final form. The other arguments are of little consequence. Diomedes
displays a propensity for capturing chariots--a feature which perhaps
gave rise to the adventure with Rhesos; but the same remark is true of
Antilochos. He fights also with the 'Thracian' god Ares, as well as
with Aphrodite. But it is clear that the feud with these deities really
belongs to Athene, Diomedes' hereditary guardian. In later stories,
relating to the east of Italy, there may have been a confusion between
the two heroes; and it is scarcely impossible that here and there
Diomedes of Argos took over a cult belonging to his namesake. If so we
shall have to suppose that the Bistonian Diomedes was originally an
Illyrian rather than a Thracian hero.

[466] The most highly developed use of fiction occurs probably when the
poets are dealing with unknown regions or peoples, as in the story of
Odysseus (cf. p. 297 f.). But I am not aware that there is any evidence
for the existence of poems on wholly fictitious subjects.

[467] On this subject see Note VII.

[468] Cf. J. Grimm, _Teutonic Mythology_⁴ (Engl. Transl.), p. 936 f.

[469] Cf. W. Grimm, _Deutsche Heldensage_, p. 40 (and passim); J.
Grimm, _op. cit._, p. 1183.

[470] Prof. Meyer (_Gesch. d. Alt._², I p. 680 ff.) has pointed out
that, while Thucydides seems to have regarded Minos as a Greek,
Herodotus apparently held a different view. Such is certainly the
natural inference to be drawn from the language of the two historians,
though the evidence is perhaps not quite conclusive in either case. But
Herodotus, at all events in VII 171, clearly derived his information
from the people of Praisos--a community which cannot have been wholly
Greek even in his time. Their account seems to have been due to an
attempt to reconcile Greek and native traditions, Homeric influence
being shown by the sentence τρίτῃ δὲ γενεῇ μετὰ Μίνωα τελευτήσαντα
γενέσθαι τὰ Τρωϊκά, κ.τ.λ. We may compare the Egyptian story of Helen
(cf. p. 266). In the Homeric poems themselves Idomeneus is descended
from Minos, and no hint is given that either of them was regarded
as non-Greek. The same remark appears to be true of Greek tradition
elsewhere.

[471] Cf. Petrie, _History of Egypt_, III 197 ff.; Breasted, _Ancient
Records (Egypt)_, IV 274 ff. Prof. Breasted believes that this document
is Wenamon's authentic report of his expedition.

[472] In the course of an adventurous journey the envoy was intercepted
by some ships of the Zakar (Tchakaray), a people mentioned among the
Aegean confederates who fought against Rameses III (cf. p. 188 ff.).
These Zakar brought him before the prince of Byblos and demanded that
he should be arrested. Prof. Petrie speaks of them as Cretan 'pirates,'
but neither their own behaviour nor that of the prince seems to me
to be reconcilable with such a view. According to Prof. Breasted's
reconstruction of the story--where the papyrus is defective--the envoy
had himself been guilty of lawless conduct previously. Incidentally it
appears from the story that a considerable amount of traffic was being
carried on at this time both in Egyptian and Syrian ships.

[473] Herhor is mentioned in the story, but not as king.

NOTE VII. THE BATTLE OF KOSSOVO IN SERVIAN POETRY.

It has been mentioned above (p. 310) that for the story of the Iliad
a fairly close parallel is to be found in those Servian poems which
deal with the battle of Kossovo[474]. This parallelism has long
been noticed, but unfortunately it has given rise to an unnecessary
controversy. Servian writers, inspired by patriotic zeal, have sought
to make an 'Iliad' by stringing their national poems together, while
scholars of other nations have denied that the Servians possess
anything which deserves to be called epic poetry. We need not concern
ourselves here with a discussion about terms. It is clear enough
that Servian heroic poetry bears little resemblance to the Homeric
poems as we have them. But we may strongly suspect that at an earlier
stage in the history of Homeric poetry the resemblance would be much
closer, although the art of heroic poetry in Greece had doubtless been
elaborated for centuries to a far higher degree than was ever attained
by Servian poets.

It is to the treatment of the story however, and not to the qualities
of the poetry, that I wish to call attention. Beowulf, Finn, Waldhere
and the Hildebrandslied all deal with fighting of various kinds, but
we do not know how early Teutonic poetry treated a story of actual
war. The Servian poems resemble the Iliad chiefly in the comparatively
large number of prominent characters which they introduce and in the
fact that they deal with a series of more or less distinct episodes,
in which various heroes from time to time play the leading part.
Lazar's council or court furnishes an interesting parallel to that of
Agamemnon--the more instructive because we can here check the evidence
of the poems by historical records, some of which are practically
contemporary, while many date from within a century of the battle.

King Lazar himself and his opponent, Sultan Murad I, are of course
well-known historical persons. There is no doubt also with regard
to Vuk Branković, the chief of Lazar's followers or allies. In the
poems he is represented as the husband of Mara (Maria), the king's
daughter; but in this case there may be some confusion. According to
Ducas (p. 17[475]) Lazar had a daughter of this name who was married
to Bajazet, the son and successor of Murad, after the conclusion of
the war. Vuk Branković was however a son-in-law of Lazar according to
Laonicos Chalcocondylas (p. 53). Again, Jug Bogdan, represented in
the poems as Lazar's father-in-law[476], is believed to be identical
with a certain prince named Μπόγδανος (Πόγδανος), who, according to
Laonicos (p. 28), was granted by Dušan the territories between Pherrai
and the Axios (Vardar), and who about 1372 submitted to Murad together
with the other Servian princes in this region. To these we may add the
vojvoda Vladeta; for there can be little doubt that this person is to
be identified with that Vlathico Vlagenichio who, according to the
anonymous translation of Ducas' history (p. 352), was sent by his uncle
Iuathco (Tvrtko), king of Bosnia, to support Lazar with 20,000 men.

On the other hand some doubt has been expressed with regard to Miloš
Obilić (or Kobilović) the chief Servian hero of the story. He is not
mentioned apparently by any strictly contemporary authority. Yet
the traditional account of Murad's death is known to the two Greek
historians Ducas and Laonicos, both of whom are believed to have
written within about three quarters of a century after the battle. The
latter (p. 54) states that according to the Greek version of the story
a Servian nobleman named Μήλοις rode fully armed into the Turkish camp,
representing himself to be a deserter. Murad gave orders that he was to
be allowed to come near and say what he wished. But when he reached the
door of the Sultan's tent he threw his spear and slew Murad, meeting
with his own death immediately afterwards. Laonicos however also says
that the Turks gave quite a different account of the affair--namely
that as Murad was pursuing the enemy a Servian (ἄνδρα Τριβαλλόν), who
was on foot, turned and transfixed him with a javelin. Ducas' version
of the story (p. 15) resembles that given by the poems in the fact that
the assassin uses a dagger. His name is not given, but he is said to
have been a young and distinguished Servian and to have asked to see
Murad as a deserter with important information.

Closer affinity with the poems is shown by the anonymous translation
of Ducas' history (p. 352 ff.), which contains much additional
matter. Indeed it is scarcely possible to doubt that the additions
are partly derived from poems, though these may not have been exactly
identical with any which are now extant. When Miloš ('Milos Cobilichio,
capetanio de Lazaro') reaches the Sultan's tent we are told, as in the
poems[477], that he is bidden to kiss Murad's foot 'according to the
usage of his kingdom[478].' Far more striking however is the account
of the banquet on the preceding day, which in places appears to be
little more than a free translation of a fragmentary poem published in
Karadžić's collection[479]: "El zorno precedente a quello che seguì
la iniqua et infelice bataglia, Lazaro convocati tutti i signori et
principali del suo imperio[480], comandò che se aparechiasse una
sdraviza secondo la usanza dela sua corte; in laquale, come gratioso
et benigno signore, a tutti porse la sdraviza con sua mano. Quando la
volta toccò a Milos, se fè dar una grande taza d'oro piena de pretioso
vino[481]; la qual porzendoli disse a Milos: 'Excellentissimo cavalier,
prendi questa sdraviza, che con la taza te dono ... sdravize per amor
mio. Ma molto mi doglio che ho inteso una mala novella, che al tuo
dispoto sei facto ribello'[482]. Al qual Milos, reverentemente presa
la taza con chiara faza, disse: 'Signor dispoto, molto te ringratio
della sdraviza et taza d'oro che m' ai donata. Ma molto mi doglio
dela mia dubitata fede[483]. Doman de matina, se dio darà effecto al'
alto pensier mio, se cognoscerà se io son fidele o ribello dela tua
Signoria."

This translation is believed to be of Dalmatian origin[484] and,
according to Prof. Bury[485], itself dates from the fifteenth
century. We are bound to conclude therefore that Miloš' exploit was
treated in poems--from which some of the extant pieces are ultimately
descended--within a century of the battle. The earliest direct
reference to poems dealing with _Khobilouitz_ (i.e. Miloš Kobilović)
goes back to the first half of the sixteenth century, at which time
they are said to have been numerous[486]. It may be however that the
accounts given by Ducas himself and by Laonicos are also derived
ultimately from poems[487]. But if so the poetic treatment of the
subject must have begun within living memory of the battle; for it is
clear from the evidence of these authors that by the middle of the
fifteenth century the story had come to the Greeks in more than one
form and that it had even attained great celebrity among them[488].

The Kossovo poems certainly give us some evidence for the phenomenon
which we have above (p. 307) called 'transference.' In one poem
(Karadžić, II 46, v. 59 ff.) we find it stated that King Vukašin
entered into the battle and met with his death. In reality he was
killed at (or shortly after) the battle of the Marica in 1371. The same
poem also, immediately afterwards (v. 71 ff.), introduces Erceg Stepan,
who lived nearly a century later. But this poem[489] is of a very
peculiar type--distinctly non-heroic--and it is not legitimate to draw
conclusions from it as to the poems in general. It would be of far more
importance for our purpose if we knew that Jug Bogdan was attracted
into the story. He must certainly have been an old man in 1389, since
he had his territories granted to him by Dušan, who died in 1356. But
he is regularly described as 'the old' (_stari_) in the poems. The fact
also that he had been a vassal of Murad from 1372 onwards is hardly
conclusive; for it is clear that a great effort was made in 1389 to
unite the various Servian princes. On the whole the evidence, so far
as it is known to me, does not seem to indicate that attraction or
transference has played an important part in the story.

For the invention of characters there is, so far as I know, no
absolutely decisive evidence. But probably few would be inclined to
regard such a person as Vaistina, the servant or squire (_sluga_) of
Musić Stefan[490] (Karadžić, II 47), otherwise than as a product of
fiction; and the same remark applies to the squire Milutin who brings
the news of Lazar's death to the queen (_ib._ 45. 146 ff.). It is a
more difficult matter to form an opinion as to whether any of the
more important characters are fictitious. Several of them appear to
be unknown from contemporary historical works. Among these we may
mention Musić Stefan himself and more especially Banović Strahinja, the
hero of the longest poem in the cycle (_ib._ 44). So far as I know,
the earliest reference to the latter is in the Chronicle of Tronoša,
which mentions incidentally the destruction of his palace[491]. Again,
according to the poems Miloš was accompanied on his errand to Murad by
two of his friends, Milan Toplica and Ivan Kosančić. Both these persons
are mentioned in the same connection by the Chronicle of Tronoša,
which adds that at the banquet on the preceding night they, as well as
Miloš, had been charged with disloyalty by the king. This chronicle is
believed to be derived from a MS. of the sixteenth century; but there
is practically no doubt that it has drawn largely from poetic sources.
Our earliest authorities, Laonicos and Ducas, together with the
translation of the latter, seem to imply distinctly that Miloš carried
out his exploit alone. That however does not prove that the characters
themselves are fictitious. On the whole, considering the limited amount
of information which early records furnish, it would probably be wise
to hesitate before adopting the view that any of the more important
characters are invented--at all events those which can be traced back
to within two centuries of the battle.

There seems to be no evidence for the introduction of what can properly
be called mythical beings in poems of the Kossovo cycle[492]. But
sometimes we certainly find supernatural incidents. In Karadžić, II
45. 119 ff. two crows from the field of Kossovo bring to the queen the
first news of the battle and of Lazar's death. A more extravagant case
occurs in the opening verses of (_ibid._) II 46--a poem to which we
have already referred. Lazar is here made to receive a letter dropped
by a swallow (which is carried by a falcon) offering him the choice
between the heavenly and earthly kingdoms. In another (Croatian) poem
(Karadžić, II 48[493]) the mother of the Jugovići prays that she may
receive the eyes of a falcon and the wings of a swan. Her prayer is
answered, and she flies to the field of Kossovo and sees the dead
bodies of her sons and husband. This poem is largely taken up with the
marvellous throughout and has little in common with heroic poetry.

But it is from the point of view of their presentation of the story
that the Kossovo poems chiefly merit our attention. This presentation
contains many features which may be included under the head of fiction.
Yet in certain cases it is a question whether we have not rather what
may be called a growth of myth. By this I mean the introduction and
development of motives which, though incorrect historically, can hardly
be regarded, at least in their entirety, as conscious inventions of an
individual. They would seem rather to have originated in rumour and
popular misconceptions. As examples we may take what are perhaps the
two most salient features in the story--the exploit of Miloš and his
confederates and the treachery of Vuk Branković.

We have already dealt with the first of these incidents. The poems
make Miloš and his companions perform prodigies of valour before they
are overcome. But our earliest authorities state that Miloš was killed
almost immediately; and they imply that he was alone. Indeed we know
that the Turks gave quite a different account of Murad's death. It is
not at all clear that between the two the Servian account possesses the
greater probability. But it may very well have been believed among the
Servians from the very beginning, whether its origin is to be traced
to genuine information derived from the Turkish camp or merely to idle
rumour.

Again, the treachery of Vuk Branković is proclaimed again and again in
the poems. But there is no evidence earlier than the sixteenth century
to substantiate the charge[494]. The first reference to treachery in
Lazar's army occurs in the translation of Ducas' history (p. 354); but
here the traitor is called 'Dragossavo Probiscio, capitaneo del campo
del dispoto.' It has been suggested that Vuk's unenviable celebrity in
the poems is due to the unpopularity of his son, George Branković, who
ruled over Servia from 1427 to 1457[495].

* * * * *

The above brief sketch will probably be sufficient to show that these
poems are capable of throwing a good deal of light upon the origin
and development of a heroic story. The period is one for which,
comparatively speaking, a fair amount of information is available; and
quite possibly more might be obtained by a careful investigation of
the documents of that age. It is to be remembered of course that after
the middle of the fifteenth century nothing like court poetry can have
existed in Servia. We should expect then that from this time onwards
the poems would become more and more permeated by those characteristics
which we have assigned to Stage III of our scheme. As a matter of fact
some of the poems show these characteristics only to a comparatively
slight degree. This is especially the case with the poem on the
banquet (Karadžić, II 50 iii); but part of this poem, as we have seen,
can be traced back to the fifteenth century. On the other hand the
characteristics of Stage III are very strongly marked in Karadžić II 46
and 48. I should expect that these poems are late compositions.

So far as I have been able to deal with the subject the result of
the discussion has been that there is little or no definite evidence
for the invention of characters. That is a result which can scarcely
be regarded as surprising, in view of the history of Servian poetry.
On the other hand the conditions were such as we should expect to
be exceptionally favourable to the development of transference or
attraction. Yet there is but little satisfactory evidence in this
direction. I am inclined therefore to think that the force of this
principle has been considerably overestimated by recent writers. What
the Kossovo poems do seem to suggest is--not that the characters of the
Iliad were invented or attracted from other quarters, but that their
exploits and their relations with one another may in reality have been
very different from what we find depicted in the poem.

FOOTNOTES:

[474] My object in this note is to call attention to a subject which
appears to have been strangely neglected by English Homeric students.
I cannot claim to possess the requisite qualifications, linguistic
and historical, for an independent investigation of the subject.
English translations of many of the poems are to be found, together
with a historical introduction, in Mme Mijatovich's _Kossovo_ (London,
1881). For a more critical study the reader may be referred to the
introduction to Pasić's _Narodne Pjesme o boju na Kosovu godine 1389_
(Agram, 1877), to which I am much indebted.

[475] The references to Laonicos' and Ducas' histories, as well as to
the translation of the latter, are to the pages in Niebuhr's edition.
It may be that Ducas was mistaken with regard to the name of Bajazet's
wife; cf. Engel, _Geschichte von Serwien_, p. 332.

[476] I do not know whether this is historically correct. There seem
to be a number of historical references to Milica, Lazar's queen; cf.
Engel, _op. cit._, pp. 311, 331, 346 f.

[477] Cf. Pasić, _op. cit._, VI v. 13 ff. (p. 92). This passage is
taken from a Croatian poem (Nr. 6, v. 166 ff.) published by Miklosich,
_Denkschriften d. k. Akademie d. Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), XIX p.
73 ff., from a MS. collection at Ragusa dating from about 1728. Mme
Mijatovich's poem on the same subject (p. 120 ff.) differs a good deal
from this and bears a closer resemblance to the Italian in one or two
points.

[478] 'Secondo la usanza del suo imperio' (cf. Miklosich, 6. 167:
'Ovaki su zakoni, Milošu, u zemlji mojoj,' etc.).

[479] Vuk Stef. Karadžić, _Srpske Narodne Pjesme_, Vol. II (Vienna,
1875), 50 III (p. 310 ff.). This is translated, with a few slight
changes, in Mme Mijatovich's piece 'The Banquet before Battle' (p. 116
ff.). A somewhat different account of the same incident--and showing
less resemblance to the Italian--occurs in Miklosich, 6. 116 ff., a
passage which is not used by Pasić or Mijatovich.

[480] Cf. Karadžić, II 50 iii, v. 3 f.:

Svu gospodu za sofru sjedao (_scil._ Lazare),
svu gospodu i gospodičiće.

[481] _Ibid._, v. 13:

Car uzima zlatan pehar vina, etc.

[482] _Ibid._, v. 31 ff.:

Zdrav Milošu, vjero i nevjero!
prva vjero, potonja nevjero!
Sjutra ceš me izdat' na Kosovu,
i odbjeći Turskom car-Muratu;
zdrav mi budi! i zdravicu popij:
vino popij, a na čast ti pehar.

[483] _Ibid._, v. 39 ff.:

Vala tebe, slavni knez-Lazare!
Vala tebe na tvojoj zdravici,
na zdravici i na daru tvome;
al' ne vala na takoj besjedi; etc.

[484] Cf. Pasić, _op. cit._, p. 26.

[485] Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, VII p. 327.

[486] Cf. Murko, _Geschichte der älteren südslaw. Litteraturen_, p. 205.

[487] This is perhaps rather suggested by one or two of Laonicos'
sentences, e.g. (Μήλοιν φασίν) ὡπλισμένον ἐλαύνειν σὺν τῷ ἵππῳ ἐπί τὸ
Ἀμουράτεω στρατόπεδον, ὡς ἂν αὐτομολοῦντα ἀπὸ τῶν ἐναντίων (p. 54);
and more especially by the speech which Ducas (p. 15) attributes to
Miloš: "Βούλομαι τοῦτον ἰδεῖν καὶ λόγους τινὰς ὑποψιθυρίσαι ὡς ἐγκρατὴς
γενέσθαι τουτουῒ τοῦ πολέμου· ἕνεκα γὰρ τούτου αὐτόμολος ἐλήλυθα." With
the last sentence we may compare Miklosich, 6. 164:

Ja sam ti se odvrg'o od vojske Lazara kneza.

[488] Cf. Laonicos, l.c.: Ἕλληνες ... λέγουσιν ἄνδρα γενναιότατον
ἐθελῆσαι ἑκόντα ὑποστῆναι ἀγῶνα κάλλιστον δὴ τῶν πώποτε γενομένων, and
again, below: ὁρμὴν πασῶν δὴ καλλίστην ὧν ἡμεῖς ἴσμεν.

[489] The first part of this poem (vv. 1-44) corresponds to Mijatovich,
p. 104 ff.; the second part (v. 47 ff.) to Mijatovich, p. 126 ff. In
such cases as this it is much to be regretted that Mme Mijatovich
did not adhere to Karadžić's text. If the explanation be that her
version is derived from a different source--and not due to arbitrary
transposition--this should have been made clear.

[490] In Miklosich, 6. 1-58, which deals with the same story the squire
is called Oliver, while his master's name appears as Bušic Stjepane.

[491] Quoted by Pasić, _op. cit._, p. 30.

[492] Other poems, both Christian and Mohammedan, frequently introduce
Vile, i.e. nymphs or elf-women.

[493] Not included in the collections of Pasić and Mijatovich. A
slightly variant form (apparently of Montenegrin origin) is published,
together with a translation, in Krauss' _Slavische Volkforschungen_, p.
289 f.

[494] Prof. Murko (_op. cit._, p. 202) states that Vuk "in der Schlacht
in hervorragender Weise seine Pflicht erfüllt und sich dann mit den
Türken gar nicht ausgesöhnt hat wie Lazar's Sohn Stefan." I do not
know the authority for the first part of this statement; but according
to the Turkish account (cf. Engel, _Geschichte von Serwien_, p. 346)
the (right) wing of the Servian army which was commanded by Vuk was
successful.

[495] Cf. Pasić, _op. cit._, p. 42.

CHAPTER XV.

THE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF TEUTONIC AND GREEK HEROIC POETRY.

Our review of the Homeric poems has led us to conclude that their
origin and early history was in many respects analogous to that of the
English heroic poems; and further, that there is no valid reason for
regarding the stories with which they deal as mythical or fictitious,
although we cannot, as in the case of the English poems, actually prove
that they rest upon a historical basis. We must now endeavour to see
what common elements the two series of poems contain in regard to style
and spirit. This will enable us to determine whether the term 'Heroic
Age,' as applied to the two cases in common, can be held to mean
anything more than an age of 'heroes,' whose deeds were celebrated in
poetry.

The most cursory glance at the two groups of poems will be sufficient
to show that they contain many common features in regard to style. In
both we find the constant repetition of the same formulae, e.g. in
the introduction of speeches. Thus in the first part of Beowulf eight
speeches out of thirteen by the hero himself are introduced by the
formula: _Beowulf maþelode bearn Ecgþeowes_, while three of Hrothgar's
seven speeches follow the words: _Hroðgar maþelode helm Scyldinga_.
In the Iliad we may compare the constant repetition of such formulae
as: τὸν δ' ἀπαμειβόμενος προσέφη κρείων Ἀγαμέμνων or: τὸν δ' ἠμείβετ'
ἔπειτα Γερήνιος ἱππότα Νέστωρ. The explanation of such formulae is
probably to be found in the fact that both sets of poems were designed
for preservation by oral tradition. In literary poems such as the
Aeneid they seem to be avoided. Indeed the words introducing a speech
are here seldom allowed to occupy a whole verse.

Another feature common to the two groups of poems is the love of
describing somewhat minutely the details of a transaction which in
itself is nothing unusual. Often in such cases they use very similar
language. Thus in Od. IV 778 ff. Antinoos' preparations are described
as follows: "With these words he picked out twenty men who were the
best, and they went on their way to the swift ship and the sea-shore.
First of all they pushed out the ship into deep water; and they placed
the mast and the sails in the black ship and made ready the oars in
the leathern rowlocks, each in its proper place, and spread out the
white sails. And high-hearted squires carried their arms. The ship
they moored afloat in the roadstead; but they themselves disembarked.
There they took their supper and waited for the approach of evening."
With this passage we may compare Beow. 205 ff.: "The hero had with him
picked champions of the men of the Geatas, the bravest he could find;
so with fourteen companions he made his way to the vessel. A skilful
pilot was the man who pointed out the features of the coast. When due
time had elapsed the ship was afloat beneath the lee of the cliff, and
the warriors all prepared ascended the prow, where the waves of the sea
were playing upon the sand. Into the bosom of the craft men bore their
bright treasures, even their resplendent armour. The company pushed off
their timbered craft and started on the adventure of their choice."

Again the movements of royal personages in their palaces are sometimes
rather carefully noted. In Od. I 328 ff. we are told that "Icarios'
daughter, thoughtful Penelope, became conscious of the glorious song
in her upper chamber; and she descended the lofty staircase of her
dwelling, but not alone, for two attendant maidens accompanied her. Now
when the noble lady drew near the suitors she stood beside the pillar
of the well built house, holding her shining veil before her face; and
one of her trusty attendants stood by her on either side." With this we
may compare Beow. 921 ff.: "As for the king himself, the guardian of
the ring-hoards, famed for his sterling qualities--he likewise strode
majestically from his bedchamber with a great following; and with him
his queen traversed the ascent to the mead-hall, accompanied by a band
of maidens. When Hrothgar arrived at the hall he stood by the pillar
(?), gazing on the lofty roof, adorned with gold, and on Grendel's arm."

Both poems also elaborate the various stages in the arrival and
reception of visitors. As an example we may take the account of
Telemachos' arrival at Menelaos' palace in Od. IV 20 ff.: "At this
time the hero Telemachos and Nestor's distinguished son had drawn
up with their horses in the vestibule of the palace. Now the lord
Eteoneus, renowned Menelaos' active squire, came forward and saw them.
And he went on his way through the building to give the news to the
shepherd of the people; and standing beside him addressed him with
winged words." Menelaos replies that the strangers are to be brought
in at once. The arrival of Beowulf at the Danish king's palace is
described at much greater length. First, he is greeted by Wulfgar, the
king's herald and henchman. Then he replies, and Wulfgar promises to
take his message. "Quickly then he sped to where Hrothgar was sitting,
aged and grey-haired, among his retinue of nobles. Exulting in his
prowess he passed on until he took his stand at the side of the prince
of the Danes; for he knew the usage of chivalry." After this we have
still three more speeches--first by Wulfgar to the king, then the
latter's reply and finally Wulfgar's answer to Beowulf--before the
visitors enter.

We may compare also the formulae used in greetings to strangers. Thus
in Od. I 169 ff. Telemachos addresses the disguised Athene as follows:
"Now come, tell me this and declare it plainly: Who of men art thou,
and whence? Where are thy city and thy parents? And (tell me) upon
what sort of a ship thou hast come"--with several other questions.
Another case occurs in III 71 ff., where Nestor is greeting Telemachos:
"Sirs, who are ye, and whence do ye sail the watery paths? Is it upon
some enterprise, or do ye wander over the sea at random, like pirates
who rove, risking their lives and bringing evil to men of other
lands?" Beowulf receives a somewhat similar greeting from the Danish
coast-guard, when he lands (v. 237 ff.): "What warriors are ye that
thus have come clad in coats of mail, bringing hither your lofty ship
over the waters along the high road of the sea?" And again, shortly
afterwards (v. 251 ff): "Now must I know your origin, before ye start
hence and proceed further as spies into the land of the Danes. Ye
dwellers afar, ye who traverse the sea, hear now my fixed resolve. Best
is it with speed to make known whence ye are come."

Again, both poems like to dwell upon the emotions felt in greeting or
bidding farewell to friends. Thus in Od. XVI 14 ff. it is stated that
Eumaios "came up to his lord and kissed his head and both his fair eyes
and both his hands, and the hot tears fell from him. As an affectionate
father greets his son when he returns from a distant land after nine
years absence--an only son and well loved (?), for whose sake he has
endured many hardships--even so then did the noble swineherd kiss
godlike Telemachos all over and embrace him as one escaped from death."
With this we may compare the account of Hrothgar's farewell to Beowulf
(v. 1870 ff.): "Then did the king of noble lineage, the prince of the
Scyldingas, kiss that best of squires and clasp him round the neck.
Tears fell from him, as he stood there with his grey hair. Aged and
venerable as he was, he felt uncertain, indeed he thought it unlikely,
that they would ever meet again in spirited converse. So dear was this
man to him that he could not restrain his heart's emotion; but in his
breast, fast bound within his heart, a secret longing for the beloved
man burnt in his blood."

The frequent use of similes, as in the last passage from the Odyssey,
is one of the chief features in which Greek heroic poetry differs from
Teutonic. Sometimes however the same kind of picture is brought before
us in a different way. Thus among the commonest Homeric similes are
those derived from hunting scenes. A typical example occurs in Il. XV
271 ff.: "As when hounds and men of the country chase a horned stag or
a wild goat, and it is saved by a precipitous rock or dense wood, and
they cannot succeed in finding it," etc. With this may be compared a
passage in Beowulf describing the pool in which the demons had made
their lair (v. 1369 ff.): "Though the heath-ranger, the stag of mighty
horns, may make his way to the forest when beset by hounds after a long
chase, he will yield up his spirit and his life on the brink before he
will be willing to shelter his head therein."

Occasionally we meet with similes of a more ambitious, not to say
extravagant, character, as in Il. II 455 ff., where the gleam arising
from the bronze armour of the Achaean army is compared to the blaze
produced by a forest fire. For this also we find parallels in Teutonic
poetry, e.g. Finn 35 f.: "A gleam arose from the swords, as though
Finn's fortress were all on fire."

In the use of epithets and poetical expressions many remarkable
parallels are to be found. Some of these are merely of a descriptive
character, e.g. ἄκριας ἠνεμοέσσας (Od. XVI 365) beside _windige
naessas_ (Beow. 1359), and some are little more than circumlocutions,
e.g. υἷες Ἀχαιῶν, _Geata bearn_, for Ἀχαιοί, _Geatas_. In other cases
however a distinct metaphor is involved, as when ships are called ἁλὸς
ἵπποι (Od. IV 708), corresponding to the Anglo-Saxon _brimhengest_,
which is probably an epic word, though it does not occur in the extant
fragments. In particular note should be taken of the metaphorical terms
applied to kings, e.g. ποιμὴν λαῶν which may be compared with _folces
hyrde_, ἕρκος Ἀχαιῶν with _eodur Scyldinga_, and perhaps also οὖρος
Ἀχαιῶν with the very common expression _eorla hleo_.

* * * * *

The characteristics which we have been discussing up till now affect
only the language and style of the two groups of poems. But it is to be
observed that they possess also certain common features which appear
to be of deeper significance. Thus such expressions as ὄλβον ἐπέκλωσαν
or _wigspeda gewiofu_ ('the webs of success in war') are probably to
be traced to a primitive religious conception, which may be seen more
clearly in Od. VII 196 ff.: "There he shall experience afterwards
whatever Fate and the stern Κλῶθες ('spinning women') spun for him
when he was born[496]." For the prevalence of similar ideas among the
Teutonic peoples we may refer to Helgakviða Hundingsbana, I 3 f.,
Gylfaginning, cap. 15, Niáls Saga, cap. 157, and above all to the Saga
af Nornagesti (cap. 11), which presents such a remarkable parallel to
the story of Althaia and Meleagros.

Somewhat clearer evidence of a common religious conception is furnished
by Beow. 2124 ff., a passage which we have already quoted (p. 54). The
rite of 'paying the due of fire' (λελάχωσι πυρός) to a dead man is
often mentioned in the Iliad (e.g. VII 79 f., XXII 342 f., XXIII 76;
cf. XXIV 37 f.) and undoubtedly had a religious significance. This may
be seen especially from the speech of Elpenor in Od. XI 71 ff.: "There
I exhort thee then, my lord, to be mindful of me and not to leave me
behind unlamented and unburied, abandoning me when thou goest away,
lest I bring down wrath from the gods upon thee. But burn me up with my
arms, all that I possess, and construct for me a barrow upon the shore
of the grey sea, the memorial of an unfortunate man, so that I may be
known even to those who shall be hereafter."

It will be observed that this passage, apart from its religious
bearing, expresses a desire on the part of the speaker that his memory
may not be forgotten. Here we are brought to one of the most striking
characteristics of heroic poetry, both Greek and Teutonic, namely
the constantly expressed thirst for fame, both during one's own life
and in after times. As a typical example we may take a passage from
Hector's speech before his combat with Aias (Il. VII 85 ff.): "I will
give up his body to the longhaired Achaeans, so that they may take him
to the well-decked ships for burial and construct for him a memorial
barrow by the broad Hellespont. So shall it be said in time to come by
some one who lives in after days, when he sails his many-oared ship
over the dark sea: 'This is the memorial of a man who died long ago,
who once upon a time was slain in his prowess by glorious Hector.' So
shall it be said in time to come; and my fame shall never perish." In
Od. XXIV 80 ff. Agamemnon's spirit describes how such honours had been
paid to the remains of Achilles: "Then over them our sacred host of
warriors from Argos constructed a great and splendid grave-mound, upon
a projecting headland above the broad Hellespont--so that it might
be conspicuous to men upon the sea, both those who are now alive and
those who shall be hereafter." With both these passages we may compare
the dying words of Beowulf (v. 2802 ff.): "After the pyre is consumed
command my famous warriors to construct a splendid grave-chamber where
the headland juts into the sea. It shall tower aloft on Hrones Naes as
a memorial for my people--so that in after days the name of 'Beowulf's
Barrow' shall be familiar to mariners who ply their tall ships from
afar over the dark waters."

The summit of a hero's ambition is to have his glory celebrated
everywhere and for all time. Odysseus himself says (Od. IX 20) that his
glory reaches to heaven. His wife bewails her troubles in the following
words (_ib._ IV 724): "Before this I lost my brave lion-hearted husband
who was preeminent among the Danaoi for every kind of excellence. Far
and wide was that brave man's glory spread, throughout Hellas and mid
Argos." The extent of Beowulf's fame is proclaimed in more extravagant
terms. One passage (v. 1221 ff.) has already been quoted (p. 88). We
may compare also v. 856 ff.: "There was Beowulf's fame celebrated.
Frequently and by many was it declared that whether to the south or
north, between the two seas, on earth's broad expanse and beneath the
canopy of heaven, there existed no nobler warrior nor one more worthy
to govern."

This love of glory is held up as an incitement to bravery in critical
situations, as in Wald. I 8 ff., where Hildegyth encourages the hero as
follows: "O son of Aelfhere, a day is come which without doubt has in
store for thee one or other of two issues--either to lose thy life or
to possess lasting glory among mortals." For the alternative form of
expression, though used from a different point of view, we may compare
Socos' speech in Il. XI 430 ff.: "O far-famed Odysseus, today thou
shalt either be able to boast over two sons of Hippasos--that thou hast
slain such men as we are and robbed us of our arms--or smitten beneath
my spear thou shalt lose thy life."

The last passage introduces us to another prominent characteristic of
heroic poetry, namely the boasting of warriors over their own personal
prowess and the deeds they have performed or are going to perform.
Sometimes this is represented as taking place in the banqueting hall,
as in Il. XX 83 ff., where the disguised Apollo thus taunts Aineias:
"Aineias, thou counseller of the Trojans, where now is thy boasting,
in which thou didst vow to the princes of the Trojans, when quaffing
thy wine, that thou wouldst try thy strength in open battle against
Achilles son of Peleus!" We may compare Beow. 480 ff.: "Often enough
have scions of combat vowed over the ale-cup, when drunken with beer,
that they would abide Grendel's onset in the hall with their terrible
swords." Beowulf himself indulges in a similar boast (v. 636 ff.): "I
am resolved to perform a deed of knightly prowess or to meet with my
life's end in this mead-hall."

Again, it is by boasting of much the same kind that warriors make
themselves known to one another when they meet in battle. A typical
example occurs in Finn 24 ff.: "Sigeferth is my name. I am a prince of
the Secgan and a rover known far and wide. Many hardships and stern
encounters have I endured. Here too thou shalt have for certain (i.e.
I shall not draw back from) whichever course (i.e. war or peace) thou
dost prefer to take with me." We may compare Il. XIII 448 ff., where
Idomeneus makes himself known to Deiphobos: "Now stand forth thyself
to face me, that thou mayest see what sort of a scion of Zeus is come
here. First Zeus begat Minos to be ruler of Crete, and Minos again
begat the blameless Deucalion; and Deucalion begat me to be lord
over many men in broad Crete. But now have ships brought me hither
with consequences evil to thee and to thy father and the rest of the
Trojans."

It will be seen that in this passage Idomeneus prides himself as much
on his ancestry[497] as on his own prowess. The idea of inherited
valour finds expression again in Il. V 252 ff., where Diomedes says
to Sthenelos: "Exhort me not to flight, for I am sure thou wilt not
persuade me. Nowise inbred in me is it to fight a runaway battle,
neither to cower in fear. My courage is steadfast still." Practically
the same idea appears in Beow. 2694 ff.: "Then, as I have been told,
in the national king's dire need the knight stood upright and showed
forth his prowess--strength and valour such as was inbred in him."

The feeling of pride in a noble family becomes clearly noticeable also
on occasions when the family is threatened with extinction. Beowulf's
farewell words to Wiglaf are (v. 2814 ff.): "Thou art the last remnant
of our house, even of Waegmund's line. All my kinsmen in their knightly
prowess has Fate swept off to their doom. I myself must follow them."
We may compare Od. XIV 180 f., though here the speaker, Eumaios, is
only a dependent of the house: "On his return home the illustrious
suitors are lying in wait for him, in order that the seed of godlike
Arceisios may vanish nameless from Ithaca."

Lastly, the heroic spirit shows itself in the exhortations of
princes to their followers. As an instance we may quote a verse
which occurs several times, in speeches of Hector and Patroclos:
"Be men, my friends, and set your minds upon impetuous valour." The
same exhortation, though in a more elaborate form, occurs in Finn 10
ff.: "But awake now, my warriors, have your hands ready (or 'take
your mail-coats'), be mindful of your prowess, leap forth in the
forefront (?), be stout of heart."

It is true that these last two passages would in themselves be
appropriate in any martial poetry. But we must take the context into
account. Patroclos immediately (XVI 271 f.) adds the words "in order
that we may do honour to the son of Peleus, who is by far the best
of the men of Argos." So in Finn 40 f. we are told that "never was a
nobler recompense paid for sweet mead than was (then) rendered to Hnaef
by his bachelors." The same thought occurs elsewhere in the English
poems, e.g. in Beow. 2634 ff., where Wiglaf is exhorting his comrades:
"I remember the time when we were receiving mead, when in the beer-hall
we pledged ourselves to our lord who gave us these bracelets, that
if need like this befell him we would repay the battle-harness, the
helmets and sharp swords." And again, shortly afterwards (v. 2646 ff.):
"Now is the day come that our liege-lord needs the strength of brave
warriors. Let us draw near to help our war-chief, so long as the heat
of the fierce and terrible flames shall last."

The underlying idea is clearly that which is described by Tacitus
(_Germ._ 14) in his account of the comitatus of the ancient Germans:
"The _principes_ fight for victory, but the _comites_ fight for their
_princeps_[498]." And this description is probably true of the Homeric
Greeks just as much as of the Teutonic heroes. The terms used in the
two sets of poems (θεράπων--_þegn_, i.e. _comes_; ἄναξ--_dryhten_, i.e.
_princeps_), seem to correspond to one another almost exactly, though
it is not easy to find a satisfactory rendering for them in modern
English. For kings too, especially such as are of preeminent position,
we find in each case a very similar expression (ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν--_eorla
dryhten_), which properly denotes the relationship of liege-lord.

In both cases alike the leading idea of the Heroic Age may be fittingly
summed up in the phrase κλέα ἀνδρῶν. This is practically equivalent
to the Anglo-Saxon _dom_, with which we have dealt above (p. 87 f.).
It is essential to notice that the object so much prized is personal
glory. In Hector's speech before his combat with Aias (cf. p. 325) the
glory which would result from the combat to the hero or his opponent is
the only subject touched upon. No consideration is taken of any effect
which might be produced thereby upon the fortunes of the war.

The same characteristic appears throughout the passages which we have
quoted and countless others. Occasionally we hear also of pride of
family, but scarcely ever of any truly national feeling. Patroclos
exhorts his men to bravery (Il. XVI 270 ff.) in order that they may
win glory not for the Achaean nation but for their own personal lord;
and he adds further that by so doing they will bring shame upon the
national leader. Achilles himself retires from the conflict owing to a
personal wrong, and only returns to it in order to avenge his friend.
The same phenomena appear in the English poems. That Wiglaf whose
bravery is said to be 'inbred' (cf. p. 328) was the son of a certain
Weohstan, whose great achievement was the slaying of the Swedish prince
Eanmund. Yet Eanmund was at this time apparently under the protection
of Heardred, king of the Geatas, who also lost his life in the same
war. Weohstan however, though he belonged to the Geatas, was in the
service of Onela, their enemy. It would seem then that he was fighting
against his own nation. Such cases appear to have been by no means
uncommon in the Teutonic Heroic Age. For it was customary at that time
for young noblemen to take service under foreign princes; and the
obligations which personal service imposed were held to be superior to
all others.

Love of home and zeal in its defence are of course frequently mentioned
in both groups of poems. We may refer to the common phrase φίλην ἐς
πατρίδα γαῖαν. Most frequently however, as we might expect, these
features appear in connection with the Trojans. In Il. XII 243, when
Pulydamas has urged retreat in consequence of an omen, Hector replies:
"The best of all omens is to fight in defence of our country." Priam
uses the same expression (_ib._, XXIV 499 f.) when he comes to plead
with Achilles for his son's body: "He preserved my city and its
inhabitants, even Hector whom thou hast now slain as he fought in
defence of his country." These feelings may be regarded as forms of
patriotism; but it is patriotism of a distinctly practical kind, as may
be seen from Il. XV 494 ff., where Hector is addressing his followers:
"Now fight in close formation at the ships. Whosoever of you through
shot or blow meets with death and fate, let him die. Not unseemly is it
for him to die fighting in defence of this country. He will leave his
wife and children in safety, his house also and his estate unharmed,
if the Achaeans depart with their ships to their own dear fatherland."
Much the same feelings are expressed in the English poems. As an
example we may take Beow. 520 ff., where Unferth is describing the
return of Breca after his swimming contest: "Welcome to his subjects
was he when he made his way to his own dear home, the land of the
Brondingas and his beautiful sacred city[499] where people, city and
treasures belonged to him." We may refer also to Widsith, v. 119 ff.:
"I have visited Wulfhere and Wyrmhere. Often enough did they wage war
unceasing, when around the forest of the Vistula the Gothic army
with their sharp swords had to defend their ancient domain[500] from
Attila's subjects." And again (_ib._, v. 127 ff.): "Often enough did
the spear fly whistling and shrieking, from that troop into a hostile
army, when Wudga and Hama guarded their golden treasures and (the lives
of) their men and women."

Such passages as these afford abundant evidence for patriotism of the
practical kind. But this is not the same thing as national pride. We
shall best be able to appreciate the special characteristics of heroic
poetry in this respect by comparing it with other martial poems, dating
from later times. An excellent example of national pride is furnished
by the well-known epitaph on Leonidas and the Spartans who perished
at Thermopylai. We may also quote the 'Laconian Embaterion' commonly
included among the fragments of Tyrtaios: "O ye youths, whose fathers
have been citizens of Sparta, the home of heroes, come, hold forth the
shield in your left hand and cast the spear with good courage. Regard
not your life, for so to do is not Sparta's ancestral custom." Other
good examples may be found in the works of the early elegiac poets.

What perhaps deserves notice above all in poetry of this type is the
use of the first person plural with reference to exploits performed
by the poet's nation in bygone times--a form of speech which seems
to be quite foreign to heroic poetry. An example occurs in Tyrtaios'
Eunomia (fragm. 2): "This city has been given to the Heracleidai by
Zeus himself, the son of Cronos and husband of fair-crowned Hera.
Together with them we forsook breezy Erineos and made our way to
Pelops' broad island." Here the reference is to the first arrival of
the Dorians in the Peloponnesos. Another case may be found in the poem
on the Messenian war (fragm. 5): "... our king Theopompos dear to the
gods, by whose help we captured spacious Messene.... Round about it
(or 'for its sake') war was waged for nineteen years, ever without
ceasing, by the fathers of our fathers, warriors who possessed the
spirit of endurance." A similar usage appears in Mimnermos, fragm. 9:
"On quitting steep Pylos, the town of Neleus, we came in ships to the
pleasant land of Asia, and at fair Colophon with overmastering strength
we took up our abode, beginning the arduous assault. Thence in turn,
starting from the river Aleis, by the will of the gods we took Aeolian
Smyrna[501]." Both the foundation of Colophon and the capture of Smyrna
took place long before the poet's time.

The same patriotic sentiment is to be found in the martial poetry of
later times in England. Thus in the poem on the battle of Brunanburh
(v. 20 ff.) we are told that "throughout the whole day the West Saxons
with troops of horse pressed on in pursuit of the enemy's forces.
Fiercely they cut down the fugitives from behind with swords sharpened
on the grindstone. Nor did the Mercians refuse stern hand-to-hand
combat to any of the warriors who in the ship's bosom had followed
Anlaf over the rolling waters to our land, to meet their doom in
battle. On the field of action lay five young kings stretched lifeless
by the sword; and with them seven of Anlaf's earls, and a countless
host both of the seamen and the Scots." And again (v. 65 ff.):
"Never in this island before now, so far as the books of our ancient
historians can tell us, has greater slaughter been made of an army by
the edge of the sword--since the time when the Angles and Saxons made
their way hither from the east over the wide seas, invading Britain,
when warriors eager for glory, proud forgers of war, overcame the Welsh
and won for themselves a country."

We need not hesitate to interpret the last part of this quotation as
an expression of national consciousness, just as much as in the poem
of Mimnermos given above, although it does not use the first person
with reference to the achievements of the Saxon invaders. But the poem
as a whole differs essentially from the heroic type owing to the fact
that--though the princes are mentioned incidentally--it is permeated
throughout by the sense of national rather than individual glory.

Thus far we have been dealing with individual passages in the poems.
Now we must consider briefly the motives of the stories and the
characteristics for which the heroes are celebrated. The story of
Beowulf consists of a series of adventures in which the hero seeks to
display his prowess in encounters with monsters. The story of Finn, if
we may form an opinion from the fragmentary evidence at our disposal,
dealt with a fatal quarrel between two brothers-in-law, followed by
revenge. The theme of Waldhere's story is the elopement, or rather
escape, of lovers and the bravery shown by the hero in defence of his
bride. The term elopement may more properly be applied to the story
of Heðinn and Högni, whatever was the original form of its ending. A
counterpart to this is furnished by the story of Hagbarðr and Signý,
which ended tragically in the death of the lovers. The story of Sigurðr
deals with a woman's revenge, brought about by disappointed love. The
theme of the story of Hamðir and Sörli is the revenge undertaken by
them for the death of their sister. Revenge is likewise the theme of
Ingeld's story--in this case for the death of a father. The story of
Offa is an instance of heroism in single combat. In the various stories
connected with Dietrich von Bern attention is centred chiefly on the
bravery, loyalty and resourcefulness of the hero and his knights.

It will be seen that throughout the heroic poetry of the Teutonic
peoples, in episodes as well as in the main stories, the chief motif
is almost invariably love or revenge or personal bravery. The same
remark applies obviously enough to Greek heroic poetry--to the Iliad
and Odyssey, as well as to the stories of Heracles, Iason and the
rest. The characteristics too for which the heroes are distinguished
are on the whole very much the same in both cases--strength, courage,
resourcefulness, generosity, hospitality. The characters of Beowulf and
Hrothgar may appeal to us more than those of Achilles and Nestor, but
the main outlines are very similar. If there is any difference worth
noting in this respect between the two sets of poems it is that the
Greek attach more importance to personal beauty--a feature which only
becomes prominent in the later forms of the Teutonic stories.

Now let us turn for a moment to the heroes of 'post-heroic' times.
During the centuries which immediately followed the Heroic Age we
hear of many princes and other persons who rose to fame both in
England and on the Continent. Sometimes this fame was acquired through
successful warfare; but it is as generals rather than as warriors
that such persons are celebrated. More frequently they are known to
us as legislators, founders of institutions, promoters of religion
and protectors of the public peace. In this country we may think of
such persons as the Kentish king Aethelberht, the Northumbrian kings
Edwin and Oswald, the Mercian king Offa, and, above all, of Alfred
the Great--not to mention numerous prominent ecclesiastics. In Greece
the number of names known to us during the corresponding period is
extremely small. Yet the most prominent names which we meet with at
the dawn of the historical period are those of legislators and public
benefactors, such as Zaleucos and Solon. In earlier times by far the
best known name is that of the Spartan legislator Lycurgos, whether he
was really a historical person or a character of mythical origin. We
may perhaps compare him with that Wiger Spa, 'a heathen in the heathen
age,' whose authority is referred to in King Byrger's preamble to the
Law of the Uppland Swedes.

A similar character is borne by the traditional heroes of nations which
have no Heroic Age. We may instance Bruteno and Widowuto the legendary
founders and legislators of the state of the ancient Prussians. The
same is true of the early kings of Rome, Romulus, Numa, Servius
Tullius and the founders of the Republic. The essential feature which
distinguishes these characters from those of the Heroic Age is the fact
that they are known chiefly, not for what they performed or experienced
during their lives, but for the effects of their doings upon later
generations.

The explanation of this difference is no doubt to be sought largely
in the nature of the records. For a modern analogy to the stories of
Sigurðr or Achilles we should turn naturally to a romance or novel;
for those of Offa or Lycurgos analogy would be sought rather in the
biography of a statesman[502]. But it must be clearly recognised that
the difference here does not lie between historical and unhistorical.
Attila was a man of flesh and blood, no less certainly than Offa,
while the historical existence of Lycurgos is as much debated as
that of Achilles. And what shall we say with regard to such a
character as Romulus? The difference lies rather between political
and non-political, or--to speak more accurately--between national
and non-national. Offa's fame is inseparably bound up with the
aggrandisement and reorganisation of the Mercian kingdom. Lycurgos and
Romulus are scarcely conceivable without Sparta or Rome. But Sigurðr
and Achilles might belong to any Teutonic or Greek community; in the
former case indeed the hero's nationality is not known for certain.
We have seen that the heroic poetry of the Teutonic peoples had what
may be called an international circulation from the beginning; and we
have no reason for doubting that in the Heroic Age itself the same was
the case in Greece. On the other hand the memory of the later heroes
and their achievements was preserved only, or almost only, in the
records and traditions of individual states. The interest to which
stories of this latter group appeal is in general limited to the hero's
own state; we have no evidence that such stories were international
property[503]. It is the fact that the interest of the heroic stories
was both individual and universal--i.e. that it lay in individuals not
essentially bound up with a given community--which fitted them for
international circulation.

But this difference of interest is itself a matter which calls for
explanation. If we are to trust the evidence of the records it is
due to differences in the ideas which animated heroic and non-heroic
society[504]. Among these we may note especially an essential
difference in the conception of the state. With this question we shall
have to deal more fully in a later chapter. It may be indicated here
however that in the Heroic Age the state appears to have been regarded
as little more than the property of an individual--or rather perhaps
of a family, which itself was intimately connected with a number of
other families in similar positions. The decline and disappearance
of kingship in Greece during the eighth century presupposes of course
that such a conception had long ceased to retain its vitality. And even
among the Teutonic peoples, which usually preserved the institution of
kingship, we find abundant evidence for a similar change of view. Among
the Franks kingship had long been a mere shadow when the non-royal
Pippin took the throne in 752. In England we do not meet with non-royal
kings until more than a century later; but even by Bede's time it is
clear that the kingdom had come to be looked upon as something more
than the property of the royal family.

* * * * *

When once the characteristics of the spirit of the Heroic Age have
been fully recognised they will be found to explain several features
in the stories which have often been regarded as incredible. One of
these is the fact that wars are generally represented as arising out
of the personal quarrels or jealousies of princes, or out of wrongs
perpetrated by one prince upon another. Thus it has been assumed by
many scholars that the story of the abduction of Helen is of mythical
origin, not on account of any intrinsic improbability contained in
it, but because it is founded on a motif which is extremely common in
folk-tales. But it has been pointed out above (p. 265) that the reason
why the abduction motif is common in folk-tales lies in the fact that
under unsettled social conditions such occurrences were common in real
life. The conditions of the Heroic Age, whether Greek or Teutonic, were
doubtless not normally so unsettled that the abduction of a queen or
princess could fail to attract attention. In the case of the wife of a
distinguished king it can scarcely be doubted that such an event would
produce a profound sensation; and it is to this, we may presume, that
the story in the first place owed its celebrity. But the part played
by women in international quarrels during the Teutonic Heroic Age must
not be overlooked. In addition to the stories of which love adventures
form the main theme (cf. p. 333) we may allude to such cases as Beow.
2930 ff., where Haethcyn is said to have carried off the Swedish queen
with consequences disastrous to himself. Above all however it is well
to bear in mind the story of the war between the Angli and the Warni
(cf. p. 97 f.), a war which owed its origin to Radiger's repudiation
of his marriage contract with the English king's sister. We have seen
that this story comes not from a poem, but from the work of a strictly
contemporary Roman historian.

Nor can it be said that this case stands alone. According to Gregory
of Tours (III 6) the overthrow of the Burgundian kingdom was due to
the instigation of Hrothhild, who implored her sons to exact vengeance
for the murder of her parents--a case not unlike the Norse version
of the story of Hamðir and Sörli. Hildeberht's invasion of Spain was
undertaken in answer to messages from his sister Hlothhild, who had
been illtreated by her husband, the Visigothic king Amalaric (_ib._,
III 10). The dissensions which eventually brought about the downfall
of the Thuringian kingdom had their origin in the proud and jealous
character of Amalaberga, the wife of Irminfrith (_ib._, III 4). Unless
we are prepared to shut our eyes to the plain evidence of history
we are bound to recognise that the personal feelings of queens and
princesses were among the very strongest of the factors by which the
politics of the Heroic Age were governed.

There has undoubtedly been a tendency among modern historians
to neglect the personal element in early Teutonic history and
to concentrate attention upon the movements of peoples and upon
'constitutional' changes. The feature with which we have just been
dealing is only one of several which owing to this neglect have been
regarded as essentially 'poetic' motives, the origin of which must
be sought in myth or fiction. Decisive evidence to the contrary is
furnished by writers of the sixth century. Certainly the picture of
Teutonic court life which they give produces a different impression
from that which we gain from the poems. The atmosphere suggested
by the latter is one of adventure and romance, whereas the former
convey an idea of reckless brutality. Yet it is only necessary to
place the two sets of records side by side in order to see that the
one is complementary to the other--that the difference lies not in
the subjects treated but in the point of view from which they are
regarded. Gregory (II 28) records without comment or explanation that
the Burgundian king Gundobad slew his brother Hilperic (Hrothhild's
father) with the sword and drowned his wife with a stone tied to her
neck. If this incident had been treated in heroic poetry we should
doubtless gain a very different impression. Different too would be
the impression conveyed by the story of Sigurðr, if we had it from a
Roman historian. But when the two stories are compared it cannot be
said that the picture which the poems present of the Burgundian kingdom
under Guthhere is incompatible with the picture which history gives
us of the Burgundian kingdom under Gundobad, some fifty years later.
No true impression of the Heroic Age can be obtained by crediting the
youthful kings of unlearned communities with a knowledge of political
principles which we have acquired from long study of the history of
many nations; and it is equally futile to seek for grounds of policy in
actions which very frequently were dictated solely by passion. Ambition
was no doubt a factor, as in all stages of society. But the form which
it seems to have taken as a rule was purely personal and directed
towards the acquisition of wealth or glory rather than with any view of
establishing the kingdom upon a permanent basis[505].

Another feature to which exception has been taken is the fact that
in battle scenes the fighting is generally represented as a series
of single combats between the various leading men. Here again the
objection seems to be based on a misunderstanding of the conditions
of heroic warfare. In the first place we have no reason for doubting
that in both the periods with which we are dealing the leaders were
far better armed than the rank and file of the forces. In hand to hand
fighting the possession of defensive armour, helmet and mail-coat,
constitutes an overwhelming advantage. Secondly, the passion for
personal glory, which is so prominent in the poems, must have prompted
the ambitious man to pick out the most distinguished opponents. If
he was a 'squire' success would bring rich rewards[506]. But even
the leaders themselves, as among the Germans of Tacitus' time[507],
were doubtless expected to distinguish themselves by preeminence in
bravery, rather than by skilful generalship. Thirdly, and this is the
most important point, the general object aimed at in a battle was not
to gain a strategic advantage but to kill the leaders. Very often this
meant the destruction of the enemy's organisation. At times indeed it
appears that the death or capture of a king led forthwith to the end of
hostilities. Thus in the battle of Strassburg in 357, when the Romans
captured the Alamannic king Chonodomarius, his personal retinue, to
the number of two hundred, gave themselves up voluntarily to share
his captivity[508]. And in Beowulf we see from more than one passage
that when the king was slain the heart of the resistance was broken.
Under such conditions we may well believe that the direction to 'fight
neither with small nor great, save only with the king,' was a piece of
perfectly sound policy.

We have to take account moreover of another element, somewhat strange
to modern ideas, namely the intense eagerness to get possession of a
fallen enemy's arms. In the battle scenes of the Iliad this feature is
constantly to the fore; indeed the most severe conflicts usually take
place over the bodies of warriors. In the English poems it is much
the same. We may quote Beow. 2985 ff.: "Thereupon the warrior (Eofor)
despoiled his opponent. He took from Ongentheo his iron mail-coat and
his sharp and hilted sword, together with his helmet, and brought the
old man's accoutrements to Hygelac." And again v. 2613 ff.: "To him
(Eanmund) Weohstan brought death in combat by the sword's edge; and
to his kinsmen he presented the burnished helmet, the ring-formed
mail-coat and the ancient sword of giant workmanship--though the latter
was returned to him by Onela." It will be seen that the Teutonic
warriors, who in both these cases are 'squires,' render up the spoils
to their lords, whereas the Greek princes keep them for themselves; but
we need not doubt that they expected an equivalent reward.

The article chiefly coveted seems to have been the coat of mail. In
Wald. II 16 ff. the hero says to Guthhere: "Take from me the grey
mail-coat, if thou dare; for thou seest how I am worn out with battle.
Upon my shoulders here stands an heirloom from Aelfhere; good it is
and ..., adorned with gold, a superb garment for a prince to possess,
when his hand is defending life's treasure from his foes." Such
articles were doubtless very costly, and often, as in this case, they
were handed on from generation to generation. Beowulf's coat of mail
had belonged to his grandfather, and was believed to be the workmanship
of Weland. Before his encounter with Grendel he charges the king of the
Danes to send it back to Hygelac in the event of his death. A coat of
mail which was found intact at Vi in Fyn contains about twenty thousand
rings, and it has been calculated that such an article would take a
single workman nearly a whole year to make[509].

It is to be remembered further that wealthy princes, prompted no doubt
by love of display, were in the habit of carrying about their persons
a considerable amount of gold. Glaucos indeed is said to have gone to
battle in golden armour worth a hundred oxen (Il. VI 235 f.). Hygelac,
when he was slain, was wearing the magnificent necklet which Wealhtheo
had given to Beowulf (v. 1195 ff.). Historical records give evidence to
the same effect[510]; and there can be little doubt that the spoils of
such kings often amounted to a considerable fortune. If, in addition
to spoils of this kind, account is taken of the chances of booty and
ransoms, not only after a general victory but also in incidental and
more or less private forays[511], it will be seen that warfare of
the heroic type offered very substantial inducements, apart from the
acquisition of glory.

It is not to be supposed that such warfare was really of an effective
character. Even in the Iliad itself (VI 67 ff.) a warning is raised
against it by the old Nestor, who is represented (_ib._ II 555) as an
exceptionally skilful general, but his advice seems to be unheeded.
Between two armies of the heroic type the issue had to be decided, if
at all, by a pitched battle. Sheltered behind fortifications, even
an inferior army had not much to fear. In that case the people most
exposed to danger were what we should call non-combatants--not only
the women and children and unwarlike dependents of the combatants
themselves[512], but also any neighbouring communities who might be
caught unawares by bands of hungry warriors.

On the other hand against organised forces, like those of the later
Spartans or the Romans, at all events if commanded by generals who
followed a definite plan of campaign, the Homeric Achaeans would have
had no chance after the first encounter. This may be seen especially
from the history of the campaigns against the Italian Gauls, who appear
to have employed a very similar method of warfare. The Saxons and
other northern peoples owed their successes largely to the rapidity
of their movements, combined with the fact that they had command of
the sea. But, so far as we know, they seldom or never had to deal with
any considerable Roman army. In Britain their procedure was probably
similar to that followed by the Scandinavian invaders in the Viking
Age; but the latter were unable to cope with prolonged and organised
resistance, such as was offered by Alfred the Great. The armies of the
Goths at the height of their power were doubtless more formidable; but
they had probably learnt much from long experience of the Romans, both
as foes and allies. It is not to be forgotten however that supremacy
came ultimately to the Franks, who of all the Teutonic peoples seem to
have been least affected by the spirit of the Heroic Age.

FOOTNOTES:

[496] We may compare such expressions as _me þaet wyrd gewaef_ in the
Anglo-Saxon Rhyming Poem (Cod. Exon.), v. 70.

[497] We may compare a passage from the poem on the battle of Maldon,
which largely follows heroic poetry (cf. pp. 3, 97). In v. 216 ff.
Aelfwine, one of Byrhtnoth's knights, boasts as follows: "I will make
my lineage known to all, that I come of a great Mercian house. My
grandfather, Ealhhelm by name, was a wise earl and blessed with worldly
prosperity. Not against me shall knights bring public reproach, that I
am willing to leave this army and make my way home, now that my prince
lies slain in battle." Ealhhelm held office in the reign of Edmund I.

[498] _iam uero infame in omnem uitam ac probrosum superstitem principi
suo ex acie recessisse. illum defendere, tueri, sua quoque fortia
facta gloriae eius assignare praecipuum sacramentum est. principes pro
uictoria pugnant, comites pro principe._

[499] _freoðoburh_, lit. 'city of peace.' The expression probably
springs from the sacred peace attaching to the king's dwelling, to
which we find frequent allusions in the laws (Ine, § 6, Alfred, § 7,
etc.).

[500] _ealdne eþelstol._ If this expression is to be interpreted in a
local sense ('seat of authority') it is possible to read the idea of
patriotism as a sentiment into it; but my impression is that the poet
means no more than defence of home. A different interpretation of the
passage is given by Prof. Heusler (_S.-B. d. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin_,
1909, p. 926), according to whom it means "Verteidigung des _eald
eþelstol_, des alten Erbthrones (nicht Stammsitzes)."

[501] For the translation of this fragment I am indebted to the
kindness of Mr A. B. Cook.

[502] This analogy applies perhaps also to the objects aimed at in
the two sets of records. Within certain limitations it may be said
that the object of the heroic stories is to entertain and that of
unheroic records to instruct. The latter remark holds good not only for
historical works but also for tribal traditions and tribal law. It is
likely that opportunity was taken to impart instruction of this type at
festal gatherings. We may quote a passage from Praetorius' _Deliciae
Prussicae_ (ed. Pierson, p. 24) relating to a festal gathering of
young people at a time when the Prussian Lithuanians had not yet been
entirely converted. "Darauf haben sie sich um die Eiche und Stein
niedergesetzt, der Weydulut aber uf den Stein das Fell gelegt, sich
darauf gesetzet, einen Sermon gehalten von ihrem Herkommen und alten
Gebräuchen, Glauben p. p., den Zemyna, den Perkuns und andere mehr
genennet." There is abundant evidence for the existence of similar
traditions among the Teutonic peoples from the earliest times--for
which the reader may be referred to Dr Schütte's interesting book
_Oldsagn om Godtjod_ (especially pp. 118-197). But in heroic poetry,
whether Teutonic or Greek, references to the early traditions of a
nation are extremely rare and practically limited to the ancestors
of the royal family, while 'law' is the will of the ruler. For Greek
parallels we must turn to works of the Hesiodic school and the elegiac
poets.

With regard to historical works we have to remember that all records
dating from the Heroic Age are of foreign origin. But it is certainly
to be noted that the interest of the stories given by Gregory of Tours
and other writers of the sixth century--in so far as they relate to
persons of Teutonic blood--is essentially personal, and similar to that
which characterises the poems. This is the more noteworthy since these
stories are related from a totally different point of view (cf. p. 338
f.).

[503] Except in so far as (in the case of Teutonic stories) they are
connected with the Church.

[504] I would call attention here to an interesting paper by Prof.
Heusler (_S.-B. d. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin_, 1909, p. 920 ff.),
in which he seeks to show that the historical element in Teutonic
heroic poetry has been exaggerated. The evidence adduced in favour
of this view consists in the first place of unhistorical situations,
chronological dislocations, etc. Most of the examples are taken from
the later forms of the stories (Stage IV of our scheme). We have
already discussed these phenomena (p. 152 ff.), and here I would only
add that the observation quoted from Prof. Murko's paper on p. 936,
note, may be applied, _mutatis mutandis_, to chronological as well
as geographical relations. What interests us here however is the
second piece of evidence brought forward by Prof. Heusler (p. 924
f.). He fully recognises and admirably expresses the individualistic,
non-national spirit of Teutonic heroic poetry--as contrasted with that
of the Old French epics: "Es herrschen in unsrer Sage die persönlichen
Ideen".... "Die germanische Sage kennt keinen Nationalfeind," etc.
Yet apparently he regards this phenomenon ('die persönliche Fabel')
as a characteristic of the poetry only, and not of the society which
produced it. Now in order to prove that this is an 'unhistorical'
element evidence must be brought to show that the attitude of the
poems--the early poems (Stage II)--does not faithfully reflect the
spirit of the age. I know of no evidence to justify so startling a
conclusion; on the contrary we shall see in the following chapters that
contemporary historical works frequently testify to the prevalence
of the same ideas which we find expressed in the poems. Even the
statement that Teutonic heroic poetry is 'unpolitical' seems to me to
require some reservation. Certainly it knows nothing of modern ideas of
politics. But have we any ground for disputing that it represents the
politics current in the courts in which it grew up? Lastly, objection
must be taken to the contrast drawn on p. 933 between Teutonic and
Greek heroic poetry. So far as the Homeric evidence is concerned the
observations made here apply not to the poems as we have them but to
certain hypotheses regarding their 'pre-history,' with which we have
dealt above (p. 267 ff.).

[505] As a typical case we may cite the story of the Frankish prince
Hlothric (Greg. Tur., II 40), who at Clovis' suggestion caused his own
father to be murdered. He offered Clovis a share of the treasures, but
was himself killed by the envoys of the latter while he was bending
over his father's treasure-chest.

[506] In Beow. 2991 ff. we are told that Eofor, who slew the Swedish
king Ongentheo, was rewarded by Hygelac with the hand of his only
daughter and an enormous grant of land and treasure.

[507] Cf. _Germ._ 14: _cum uentum in aciem turpe principi uirtute
uinci, turpe comitatui uirtutem principis non adaequare_. It is not
to be doubted that princes of the Heroic Age did seek to display
their prowess in single combats. The story of Theodric's combat with
an Avar champion named Xerxer (Fredegar, _Chron._ II 57) appears
to be based on an exploit for which we have contemporary evidence
in Ennodius' Panegyric (p. 266 in Hartel's edition; cf. Jiriczek,
_Deutsche Heldensagen_, I p. 140 f.), where the defeated warrior is
called _Bulgarum ductor_. It is well known also that the princes of the
ancient Gauls were in the habit of engaging their enemies in single
combat. There is satisfactory historical evidence for two cases in
which distinguished Romans proved victorious in such encounters (cf.
D'Arbois de Jubainville, _La Civilisation des Celtes_, p. 17 ff.).
The period to which these notices refer may be described as a Gaulish
Heroic Age (cf. p. 427 ff.).

[508] Cf. Ammianus Marcellinus, XVI 12. 60.

[509] Cf. S. Müller, _Nordische Altertumskunde_, II p. 128.

[510] Cf. especially Procopius' description of Totila at his last
battle (_Goth._ IV 31): τήν τε γὰρ τῶν ὅπλων σκευὴν κατακόρως τῷ χρυσῷ
κατειλημμένην ἠμπίσχετο καὶ τῶν οἱ φαλάρων κόσμος ἔκ τε τοῦ πίλου καὶ
τοῦ δόρατος ἁλουργός τε καὶ ἄλλως βασιλεῖ πρέπων ἐκρέματο θαυμαστὸς
ὅσος.

[511] Even in time of peace merchants might turn into freebooters (cf.
Od. XIV 262 ff.). Piracy indeed was scarcely regarded as disreputable
(_ib._ III 72 ff.; cf. p. 322). The same conditions prevailed during
the Viking Age and doubtless also during the Teutonic Heroic Age.

[512] As illustrations of the barbarities associated with warfare of
this type we may refer to the speech of Theodric, king of the Franks,
given by Gregory, III 7, and to the behaviour of Theodberht's army
in Italy, recorded by Procopius (_Goth._ II 25). At such a time the
atrocities which Greek tradition relates in connection with the fall of
Troy would have caused little comment. Yet the early heroic poems give
less evidence even than the Homeric poems for cruelty of this kind.

CHAPTER XVI.

SOCIETY IN THE HEROIC AGE.

The evidence of the German poems for the social and political
conditions of the Heroic Age cannot be regarded as trustworthy owing to
the lateness of the period in which they were composed. In principle
the same is true also of the Norse poems. These reflect the conditions
of the Viking Age rather than those of the Heroic Age, though, as
we have already noted, the difference here is less marked. On the
other hand, in addition to the Anglo-Saxon poems and the works of
contemporary Roman historians, such as Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes
and Procopius, we have valuable evidence from the early Teutonic codes
of law. Some of these, such as the Lex Salica and the Lex Burgundionum,
date from the first half of the sixth century or earlier, i.e. from
the Heroic Age itself, while a number of others--in particular we may
note the earliest English laws--belong to the following two centuries
and show probably little deviation from the custom of the Heroic Age.
All the codes of course contain certain Roman or Christian elements;
but this influence in some cases goes back to the fifth century or even
further.

The chief forces which governed the social system of that age were
the bonds of kinship and allegiance. The influence of the former
extended not merely, as with us, to rights of succession and duties
of guardianship over children and women. It was also the power by
which the security of the property and person of each member of the
community was guaranteed. If a man received injury or insult, his
kindred were bound to assist him to obtain redress. If he were slain
they had to exact vengeance or compensation from the slayer. On the
other hand not only the slayer himself but every member of his kindred
became liable to vengeance, and each had to pay his quota towards the
compensation (wergeld), just as it was divided among the kindred of the
slain--the proportion varying in both cases according to the degree of
relationship. In case of bloodshed a certain sum had also to be paid
to the king, even in the earliest times of which we have record; but
this sum seldom exceeded half the wergeld, and as a rule amounted to
considerably less.

The character and size of the kindred appear to have varied in
different nations. Some laws speak of claims to succession as remote
as the seventh degree, while the rights and duties connected with the
payment and receipt of wergelds seem generally to have extended as far
as third cousins, i.e. the descendants of great-great-grandparents.
Again, we hear sometimes of royal or noble families which bore a
common name derived from some ancestor, real or mythical, from whom
their power or prerogatives were believed to be inherited. Such were
the Oescingas, the Wuffingas and the Icelingas, the royal families
of Kent, East Anglia and Mercia respectively; so also the Scyldungas
(Skiöldungar) among the Danes, the Merovingi among the Franks,
and the Agilolfinga and other noble families among the Bavarians.
Persons belonging to these families had probably--in some cases
certainly--special wergelds; and the throne or principality seems to
have been regarded as in some sense family property. Some writers
believe that kindreds in general were permanent organisations of this
kind, and that originally they held land, and possibly other property
also, in common. But this view goes a good deal beyond what the facts
warrant, at all events for the period with which we are dealing.
It is clear that at this time kinship on both sides was recognised
everywhere; maternal relatives shared in the payment and receipt of
wergelds with those on the father's side, though not always in the
same proportion. Moreover the idea that the inclusion of the maternal
relatives was due to an innovation cannot be maintained. Thus, in
spite of the fact that the Frankish kings claimed the throne by direct
descent in the male line from Merovechus, there are clear indications
that Frankish law in its earliest form gave priority to the mother's
side. No doubt on the whole the agnatic system of relationship had
become predominant almost everywhere in the Heroic Age; but sufficient
traces of the opposite system remain to render it probable that a
change had taken place not so very far back[513].

Any such change of course involves--or rather perhaps implies--a
weakening in the force of the bonds of kinship; and of this we have
very clear evidence in the Heroic Age. Now it has often been pointed
out that early Teutonic custom seems to have made no provision for the
case of homicide within the kindred. In such a case the persons on whom
vengeance devolved would be identical, in part at least, with those
against whom it would be directed--and so also with the compensation.
It is generally held that homicide of this kind was extremely rare and
that, when it did occur, the slayer was outlawed. That would no doubt
be in accordance with primitive custom. Indeed in a state of society
based on blood-relationship the life of a kinsman must be sacred above
all else. Further, it is clear enough that the shedding of kindred
blood was regarded with abhorrence in the Heroic Age. Thus Procopius
(_Goth._ II 14), describing the euthanasia practised by the Heruli,
states that when the dying man has been laid upon the top of the pyre,
one of his countrymen goes up with a dagger and stabs him; but he adds
explicitly that this man must not be related to his victim[514]. Again,
to take another point of view, perhaps the saddest passage in Beowulf
is that which relates how Herebald was accidentally killed by his
brother Haethcyn. But the aspect of the case which first strikes the
poet is not one which would appeal to a man of modern times. "That was
a slaughter without compensation," he says (v. 2441 ff.), "the prince
had to lose his life unavenged."

Yet, in spite of all this, instances of the slaying of kinsmen seem
to have been by no means uncommon in the Heroic Age. In Beowulf the
spokesman of the Danish kings, Unferth, is said to have killed his
brothers, and though the fact was a reproach to him, it apparently did
not prevent him from holding an important office at court. In the same
poem we hear of dissensions within the Swedish royal family, which
ended in death for both Onela and Eanmund. According to the legends
preserved in Ynglingatal this family had had a very bad record for such
quarrels in the past. Among the Goths we have the case of Eormenric,
who put his nephews Embrica and Fritla to death. And it is by no means
only in poetry or tradition that we meet with such cases; historians
also furnish numerous examples. Thus according to Gregory of Tours (II
28) the Burgundian king Hilperic was killed by his brother Gundobad,
while Sigismund, son of the latter, had his own son, Sigiric, put
to death (III 5). The Thuringian king Irminfrith slew his brother
Berhthari (III 4); the Frankish king Sigiberht was murdered by the
orders of his son Hlothric (II 40). Clovis is said to have put to death
a number of his relatives, while his sons and grandsons were repeatedly
involved in deadly strife[515].

In view of such evidence we must conclude that the primitive sanctity
of the family was giving way in the Heroic Age. For the change of
feeling which was taking place one passage in Beowulf is particularly
instructive. In the struggle between Onela and Eanmund the latter was
slain by one of the king's knights named Weohstan. He stripped the dead
man of his arms and brought them to Onela who presented them to him and
"said nothing about that deed of guilt although it was his brother's
son whom he (Weohstan) had laid low[516]." To the modern reader the
poet's reflection seems strange; for Onela had been relieved of a
dangerous foe, who was trying to deprive him of the kingdom. Yet there
can be no doubt that according to primitive tribal custom he ought to
have taken vengeance upon his knight.

It is clear then that primitive custom was breaking down even in
countries far removed from contact with Christianity and Roman
civilisation. We cannot tell indeed how far the change was general,
since our knowledge is practically limited to the princely families.
It is by no means unlikely that the lower strata of society were more
conservative in many respects.

The principle which had now become dominant, at least in the higher
ranks, was that of personal allegiance. This principle was of course
by no means new. Even in Tacitus' works we hear of the _comites_ who
lived and fought in their lord's service and thought it a disgrace to
survive his death. In the Heroic Age however it is probable that among
the more northern peoples every man, except the king himself, had a
lord. In the Anglo-Saxon laws the lord shares with the kindred the
duty of protecting his men, and when one of them is slain he receives
a special payment (the _manbot_) when the wergeld was paid to the
relatives. Also, when any of his men die, at all events a man of the
higher classes, he is entitled to the heriot, i.e. the arms of the dead
man, which in theory at least the latter had originally received from
him[517].

But in the poems, as is natural, we hear most frequently of the knights
who formed the courts and retinues of kings and princes. As a summary
of the services rendered by such persons to their lord, Tacitus' brief
description (_Germ._ 13) still holds good: their presence gave him
dignity in time of peace and protection in war. They dwelt and served
him at his court and joined him in hunting and other amusements,
while he rewarded their services with gifts of treasure and arms. In
the descriptions of kings which we meet with in the poems there is
no characteristic--not even personal bravery--which receives more
commendation than that of generosity to their followers. In return
the knight was expected to give up to his lord whatever he gained by
his own exploits--just as Beowulf renders up to Hygelac and his queen
the valuable gifts which he had received from the king of the Danes.
As an instance of personal devotion in time of war we may cite the
surrender of Chonodomarius' retinue at the battle of Strassburg--an
incident to which we have already referred (p. 340). So also in the
various accounts of the fall of Hrólfr Kraki given by Scandinavian
authorities the king's knights are said to have perished to a man. The
same spirit survived in England in later times, as we see from the
story of Cynewulf's death, when in each of the two encounters only one
member of the defeated party was left alive. It was also thoroughly in
the spirit of the Heroic Age that Edwin's knight, Lilla, acted when he
threw himself between the king and the assassin and received a mortal
wound in so doing.

It was customary for the sons of noblemen to enter the king's service
at an early age. Beowulf went to Hrethel's court when he was only
seven years old; but this case may have been exceptional, as he was
the king's grandson. When they reached manhood[518] the king was
expected to provide them with estates or jurisdiction over land, which
would enable them to marry and support a household of their own. Thus
Beowulf, after proving his prowess at the Danish court, is presented
by Hygelac on his return with seven thousand hides--a considerable
province--together with a residence and a prince's authority. The
grant is accompanied by the gift of a sword, signifying that the bond
of personal allegiance was still preserved. Beowulf in turn presents
his young relative Wiglaf with the dwelling-place of their family and
the public rights appertaining thereto. The court minstrels Widsith
and Deor receive grants of land from their lords. In two of these
cases (those of Wiglaf and Widsith) we are told that the estate had
previously been in the possession of the recipient's father; and we may
probably assume that such cases were not uncommon. Yet it is plain that
such practices must very largely have destroyed the tribal custom of
succession--at least in the higher ranks of society.

Those who had received grants of land or jurisdiction did not
thereupon cease to attend the court. In the English courts of the
seventh century Bede distinguishes between the _comites_, who already
held office, and the _ministri_ or _milites_, who seem in general
to have been young knights without such official positions. The
Anglo-Saxon version of the Ecclesiastical History translates _comes_
by _gesið_ and _minister_ or _miles_ by _þegn_. In poetry both these
words are of frequent occurrence, though they appear to be used more or
less indiscriminately. It should be observed that the word _þegn_ means
properly no more than 'servant[519]' though (like _knight_ in later
times) it came to be specialised, while _gesið_ is almost an exact
equivalent of _comes_[520]. In Beowulf however we meet with the same
classes under the collective terms _geogoð_ and _duguð_, i.e. youths
and men of tried valour respectively. To the latter may be assigned
such persons as Aeschere, Hrothgar's "confidant and counsellor," who
had stood by his side on the battlefield; but the former class were
probably as a rule in the majority.

Another characteristic of these retinues, which deserves notice, is the
fact that they were not always composed of born subjects of the king.
Bede (_H. E._ III 14) says that Oswine, the popular king of Deira,
attracted young noblemen to his service from all sides; and in the
Heroic Age such cases appear to have been frequent. Perhaps the most
striking case in the poems is that of Weohstan, who took service under
the Swedish king Onela and consequently became involved in hostilities
against his own nation. It is probably due to the same custom that we
find so many Teutonic chieftains serving under the Romans during the
Heroic Age. Among them we may mention Arbogastes, Stilicho, Ricimer
and Odoacer. Most frequently perhaps the men who sought service abroad
were those who had either lost their lords or had had to leave their
homes through vendetta. Such cases occur frequently in the Anglo-Saxon
poems; we may refer especially to the Wanderer and the Husband's
Message. Further, it appears from the story of Waldhere and Hagena
that even hostages were expected to fight for the prince to whom they
had been given. In later times we may compare the case of the British
hostage who was wounded in the fight following Cynewulf's murder. But
there are a number of other stories which seem to indicate that it was
at one time a regular custom for young princes to set out from their
homes, on reaching manhood, and to seek the court of some foreign king
with a view to marrying his daughter and thereby acquiring a share in
the sovereignty. Such incidents are of the commonest occurrence in
folk-tales; and we find them also in works, such as Hervarar Saga and
Ynglinga Saga, which claim to be based on genuine tradition. It is in
this light too that all northern authorities represent the position of
Sigurðr at the home of Guðrún.

What has been said above applies primarily of course to the more
northern peoples. The Goths were early exposed to Christian and Roman
influence, and the same is true also of the Burgundians, especially
after their settlement in Gaul. The Franks were no doubt less affected
at first; but their customs seem from the beginning to have differed
a good deal from those which we have been considering. They too had
retinues of warriors (_antrustiones_ or _homines in truste regis_)
attached to the kings by personal service; but the prevalence of
lordship in the lower ranks of society is by no means so clear. The
possession of land also seems to have been governed at first by tribal
principles and later by that of succession in the male line--without
reference to the will of a superior. These differences are doubtless
connected with certain features which distinguished the social
organisation of the Franks from that of the other Teutonic peoples.

Every one of the early Teutonic nations possessed a more or less
elaborate social system, with various class gradations. These
gradations may be seen most clearly in the sums of money fixed for
wergelds, for the compensations fixed for various injuries and
insults and for fines; in some cases also they show themselves in the
relative value attached to oaths. Apart from slaves, who do not come
into consideration in these matters, the classes usually met with
are those of nobles, freemen and freedmen. Sometimes however a class
is subdivided; sometimes again one class is wanting altogether. Thus
in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, except Kent, there were two grades of
nobility, apparently landowning and landless, while freedmen did not
form a distinct class. Among the Franks on the other hand we find no
noble class. In general the freeman's wergeld is about double that of
the freedman, while that of the noble is twice or thrice as great as
the former; and the other payments usually follow more or less the same
proportion. The actual sums fixed in the various laws differ greatly in
each case, owing to the employment of different systems of currency.
But it may be regarded as extremely probable that the normal wergeld
of the freeman was originally a hundred head of cattle. Some nations,
further, had special wergelds for certain high officials. Among the
Franks persons _in truste regis_ had threefold wergelds, and the same
applied to the ordinary freeman when engaged in military service.
In England the existence of special official wergelds is uncertain,
at least before the great Danish invasion, though such persons were
entitled to higher compensations in other respects. But in this country
members of the royal families had wergelds six times as great as those
of the higher class of nobles.

All the above classes (excluding officials of course) seem to have
been as a rule hereditary. In some nations indeed the descendants
of freedmen did become freemen. But it is scarcely probable that
this class everywhere consisted only of manumitted slaves or their
offspring. Sometimes we find the terms _litus_, _latus_, _lazzus_
(_laet_ in the Kentish laws) in place of _libertus_; and there is good
reason for believing that this class was largely derived from subject
populations. Its numbers seem to have been very large. As to the
numbers of the nobility there was apparently great difference between
one nation and another. Among the Bavarians it consisted only of six
families, including that of the duke, whereas in England it appears to
have formed a considerable element in the population. The term applied
to it here was _gesiðcund_, i.e. of _gesið_ origin (cf. p. 350), which
indicates clearly a hereditary official or rather military class.
Indeed the evidence seems to show that the population consisted of
two clearly defined classes, which we may describe as military and
agricultural, and that all serious fighting was left to the former.
This is another feature in which Anglo-Saxon custom differed from
that of the Franks, whose armies in the sixth century appear to have
been of a more truly national or even tribal character. With regard
to the other nations we have less information; but it is probable
that the military organisation of the Danes and other Baltic peoples
approximated more nearly to the English type.

* * * * *

In Homeric society we find the same forces operative as in that of the
Teutonic Heroic Age. The duty of protecting or avenging one's relatives
is frequently mentioned. Thus in Od. XVI 97 f. the disguised Odysseus
says to Telemachos: "Hast thou fault to find with thy brethren, for
it is in them that a man trusts to do battle, even if a great quarrel
takes place?" Telemachos replies (v. 115 ff.): "Nor have I fault to
find with my brethren, in whom a man trusts to do battle, even if a
great quarrel takes place. For our family has been reduced to one man
by the son of Cronos, as I will tell thee. Arceisios begat one only son
Laertes, and Odysseus again was the only son begotten by his father;
but Odysseus begat me only and left me in his palace without profit to
himself. Hence there are now innumerable enemies in our house."

The duty of vengeance is clearly recognised by Nestor in Od. III 196
ff.: "How good a thing it is for even a dead man's child to survive!
For he (Orestes) also took vengeance on his father's slayer, the crafty
Aigisthos, who killed his famous father." It was in order to escape
such a fate that Theoclymenos besought Telemachos to take him on his
ship (_ib._ XV 272 ff.): "I also have left my country, having killed
a man of my own tribe (or 'people'). And in Argos, the pastureland of
horses, he had many brethren and kinsmen who hold great authority among
the Achaeans. I have taken to flight and so evaded death and black fate
at their hands; for it is still my lot to wander among men. Now take
me on thy ship, since I have come to thee as a fugitive and suppliant,
lest they kill me outright; for I am sure they are in pursuit." We
are reminded here of the story of Ecgtheo, the father of Beowulf, who
fled for protection to the Danish king Hrothgar owing to a similar
cause (Beow. 459 ff.). Another case of such exile occurs in Il. XIII
695 ff. (XV 334 ff.): "He (Medon) dwelt in Phylace, away from his own
fatherland; for he had slain a man, the kinsman of his stepmother
Eriopis, whom Oileus had to wife." We may compare also Il. XV 430 ff.
where Hector slays "Lycophron, the son of Mastor, the Cytherian squire
of Aias, who dwelt with him; for he had slain a man in divine Cythera."

Among the Homeric Greeks, as in northern Europe, compensation for
manslaughter could be made to the dead man's relatives. Thus in Il. IX
632 ff. Aias says to Achilles: "And yet one accepts compensation from
a man who has slain one's brother or for the death of a son. Hence it
comes to pass that the one, when he has paid a large compensation,
remains in his own land, while the other, after he has accepted the
compensation, restrains his feelings and his proud spirit." Again, in
the description of Achilles' shield we find a scene (_ib._ XVIII 497
ff.) representing a dispute over the payment of a wergeld. "The folk
were gathered in the assembly place; for there a strife was arisen,
two men striving about the blood-price of a man slain; the one claimed
to pay full atonement, expounding to the people, but the other denied
him and would take naught; and both were fain to receive arbitrament
at the hand of a daysman[521]." In this case the transaction takes
place before certain elders, one of whom is to receive a payment of two
talents, apparently as a reward for bringing about an agreement. There
is no mention of any payment to the king[522].

From the passage relating to Theoclymenos quoted above (v. 273: πολλοὶ
κασίγνητοί τε ἔται τε) we may probably infer that the duty of vengeance
extended beyond the brothers of the slain man; and evidence to the same
effect is given by the story of Tlepolemos (Il. II 661 ff.). But it is
not at all clear how many degrees of relationship were either involved
in this duty or entitled to compensation. Indeed the poems give us very
little information regarding the character of the kindred. Patronymic
forms such as Ἀτρείδης[523] are very common and correspond in use
to Anglo-Saxon forms such as _Hreðling_, _Wonreding_. But they are
almost always used of individuals or of a pair of brothers (Ἀτρείδα,
δοιοὶ Ἱππασίδαι). Collective names for families, such as Ἡρακλείδαι,
Πελοπίδαι, seem not to occur in the Homeric poems[524]. Indeed the
patronymic is nearly always derived from the name of the father. Cases
where they are taken from the grandfather's name, e.g. Αἰακίδης for
Achilles, appear to be quite exceptional. This is a feature in which
Homeric usage differs not only from Teutonic but also, still more,
from that of later times in Greece, where we frequently find families
or kindreds bearing patronymic names derived from a remote ancestor.
As examples we may mention the Aigeidai at Sparta and the Philaidai at
Athens.

But the difference between Homeric and later usage in this respect does
not seem to be one of nomenclature only. At Athens we find later an
elaborate system of 'tribes' (φυλαί), phratries or 'clans' (φράτραι)
and 'kindreds' (γένη), of which the last at all events were supposed
to rest on a basis of blood-relationship, involving common religious
rites. Divisions of a more or less similar type seem to have existed in
the other Greek states. In the Homeric poems however we find extremely
little evidence for anything of this kind. The clearest case is in Il.
II 362 f., where Nestor instructs Agamemnon as follows: "Divide thy men
according to tribes and clans, Agamemnon, that clan may render succour
to clan and tribe to tribe[525]." In the battle scenes we hear little
of any such organisation, though this may be due to the fact that
attention is entirely concentrated upon the leaders. But it is worth
noting that the word φρήτρη occurs only in this passage[526]. Again,
φυλή does not occur at all, except possibly in the form καταφυλαδόν
(Il. II 668), while φῦλον is a word of very vague significance, ranging
from φῦλα ἀνθρώπων etc. to the φῦλον Ἀρκεισίου, i.e. the descendants of
a man whose son is still alive[527]. The same is true also of γένος.
Lastly, there is no evidence for any religious rites peculiar to
certain families or clans.

It would be rash of course to conclude from this that the clan and
family system of later times was unknown in the age of the poems; for
in itself it bears every mark of antiquity. But there must be some
reason for the neglect with which it is treated in the poems. If we
examine individual cases we find that scarcely any heroes claim an
ancestry of more than three generations. The Achaean families with the
longest history are those of Agamemnon and Odysseus; but, if we are
to believe post-Homeric tradition, the former changed its territories
after the time of Pelops.

This brings us to the question of succession. In Ithaca the throne
seems to pass in the regular paternal line; and, though there is really
no king after the retirement of Laertes, it is generally expected that
the young Telemachos will eventually take his place (Od. I 386 f., II
14). Similarly Nestor has succeeded his father Neleus, while Idomeneus
apparently occupies the throne formerly held by his father's father,
Minos. On the other hand, according to the story told by Glaucos (Il.
VI 192 f.), Bellerophon, a stranger, received half the kingly rights in
Lycia with the hand of the king's daughter. Moreover all post-Homeric
authorities agree that Menelaos received the throne of Sparta by
marriage, from his father-in-law Tyndareos. Similar stories are told
of Tydeus, Telamon, Peleus, Teucros and many others[528]. It is to
be observed that, though these stories do not occur in the Iliad and
Odyssey, they do not conflict with any evidence to be found there. Many
of them can be traced back to the seventh century, indeed probably to
the eighth.

If we are to trust post-Homeric authorities it would seem that the
wife remained in her parents' home quite as often as she went to that
of her husband. This state of things however points to the prevalence
of a cognatic organisation of society. In the case of Bellerophon
indeed there can scarcely be any doubt; for the Lycians reckoned
descent through the mother down to the time of Herodotus. The historian
himself (I 173) remarks on the custom as strange and without parallel
elsewhere--from which we may probably infer that it had disappeared
altogether from Greece before his time. Yet in one Greek community we
have evidence almost as explicit. According to Polybius, XII 5, the
Epizephyrian Locrians stated that with them all ancestral honours were
derived from women and not from men, and that even then (i.e. in the
second century) their nobility traced their descent from certain women
of 'the hundred families' who had taken part in the foundation of the
colony. 'The hundred families' were those which before this time had
been selected by the Locrians (i.e. the Hypocnemidian Locrians) as the
families from which they were to choose the virgins who were to be sent
to Ilion. This story seems to imply that cognatic organisation survived
in Locris down to the beginning of the seventh century[529]. In other
states[530], so far as I am aware, we find only traces of the former
existence of such an institution. Some of these however suggest that
the change may not have been of any very great antiquity[531].

The Homeric poems themselves contain some further evidence, which
points in the same direction. We may note that a number of heroes are
said to be sons of gods. But it can hardly be without significance that
the Lycian prince Sarpedon (daughter's son of Bellerophon) is the only
son of Zeus, who belongs to the story of the Trojan war, whereas in the
earlier generations examples are comparatively common. In post-Homeric
genealogies the succession of son to father seems to become less
frequent the farther one goes back.

In regard to marriage customs the poems show a remarkable absence of
uniformity. The story of Bellerophon is by no means the only case
in which the wife remains at home, even if we leave out of account
such marriages as those of Menelaos and Tydeus, upon which the poems
themselves are silent. Alcinoos proposes a union of this kind to
Odysseus (Od. VII 311 ff.)[532], and the wife of Iphidamas the son of
Antenor appears to remain with her father (Il. XI 225 f.). On the whole
however the other type seems to be decidedly more common. Then we have
to take into account the use of the word ἔεδνα. It is commonly held
that this originally denoted the 'bride-price' paid by the bridegroom
to the relatives of the bride; and there is no doubt that the word
is so used in several passages. In others however it may at least
equally well denote presents made to the bride herself; occasionally
indeed it appears to mean presents (i.e. a dowry) given by the bride's
parents. By far the most prominent case of course is that of Penelope;
and here the question is complicated apparently by a doubt as to the
proper person entitled to bestow the bride--who is presumed to be a
widow. Sometimes the decision seems to rest with her son, Telemachos,
sometimes with her father--never with Laertes; but in the end she takes
the matter into her own hands, after exacting presents for herself from
all the suitors. It has been well suggested[533] that the ambiguity in
the situation is due to a real change of custom. But I am by no means
convinced that the ancient custom, now being superseded, was one of
real purchase. It is made fairly clear (Od. I 396 ff., XV 518 ff., XXII
49 ff., etc.) that at least some of the suitors have ulterior objects
in view. That the throne should be conveyed through Penelope seems to
us no doubt illogical; for Odysseus himself had not acquired it by his
marriage. But, if we are right in believing that the type of marriage
represented in the story of Bellerophon is earlier than the other, the
situation depicted in the Odyssey is one for which ancient custom could
not have made provision; indeed in such a situation traditional feeling
might very well incline towards regarding the queen, even though a
stranger, as the proper channel for conveying the succession. Add to
this the practical consideration that Penelope is apparently the person
actually in command of the treasury; and we have no reason, so far as I
am aware, for doubting that treasury and kingdom were as closely bound
up together in Heroic Greece as they were in the Heroic Age of the
northern peoples[534]. It has often been remarked that the position of
women in the Homeric poems appears to be one of greater influence and
responsibility than anything we find in later times. But nowhere is
this responsibility made so clear as in the absence of all evidence for
the constitution of a regency when the king is away from home.

If the view put forward above is correct we must conclude that a change
had been taking place in the organisation of society, and indeed
that it was as yet by no means complete[535]. We have noticed that
the conditions seem to have been somewhat similar in the Heroic Age
of the Teutonic peoples. But we saw also that there the change was
apparently accompanied by a relaxation in the bonds of kinship, which
shows itself especially in fatal strife between relatives. The same
phenomenon appears in the Homeric poems. Thus according to Il. II 662
f. Tlepolemos slew his father's mother's brother, Licymnios, and had
to leave his country in consequence. Among Achilles' followers (_ib._
XVI 570 ff.) was a certain Epeigeus who had taken refuge with Peleus
because he had killed a cousin or kinsman (ἀνεψιός) in his own city.
Again in Il. IX 566 f. it is at least implied that Meleagros slew his
mother's brothers (in accordance with the story found later). In the
same speech (V 458 ff.) Phoinix confesses that he had been on the point
of killing his own father. Then there is the tragic history of the
house of Pelops. The facts stated in the Odyssey are that Aigisthos
slew Agamemnon, his father's brother's son, and that Orestes, the son
of Agamemnon, eventually slew Aigisthos. The most important feature in
this story is that here we have not only homicide but also vengeance
within the kindred. It is not actually stated that Orestes slew his
mother; but from Od. III 310 we may infer at least that she perished at
the same time as Aigisthos. This is one of the cases in which I suspect
that disagreeable incidents connected with royal families have been
suppressed (cf. p. 238). Later authorities add many more instances of
homicide within the kindred. Some of these, such as the 'banquet of
Thyestes,' bear a close resemblance to Teutonic stories which we know
to be unhistorical. Others again may have been invented to account
for the presence of heroes in districts far from their native place.
Yet from the fact that this motive is so frequently employed we may
conclude that the murder of relatives was nothing very rare.

In this respect then the Greek evidence agrees entirely with the
Teutonic. In both cases alike the bonds of kinship seem to have lost
their force to a great extent[536]. But it is to be remembered that
among the Teutonic peoples we have in general no evidence except for
the families of kings and royal officials; in other ranks of society
the kindred may have retained much more vitality--as indeed the
laws seem to imply. Such may also have been the case in Greece; for
the Homeric poems are concerned almost exclusively with persons of
princely rank. Certainly the strength and sanctity possessed by the
kindred in early historical times is most easily to be explained on the
supposition that the tendency which we have been discussing affected
only a limited element in society[537].

The second of the two principles which we find dominant in early
Teutonic society, namely that of personal allegiance, seems at first
sight to play by no means so important a part in the life of heroic
Greece. But for the lack of prominence assigned to it there are special
reasons--a different reason in the case of each poem. In the Iliad,
which deals with campaign life, the stage is so crowded with kings that
there is little room left for persons of humbler station. The only
force indeed of which we have any account at all is that of Achilles.
This was divided into five troops, each under a leader of its own, in
addition to Patroclos and Automedon. We saw in the last chapter that
the speech in which Patroclos exhorts his men to battle is entirely in
the spirit of the Teutonic _comitatus_. The appeal which he makes to
them is not to any feeling of patriotism, but entirely to the effect
that they should show their devotion to their own lord. We may note
that several of the chief men, at all events Patroclos, Automedon and
Phoinix, seem to share Achilles' hut. The passionate friendship of
Achilles and Patroclos appears to be a stronger bond than any other
relationship that we meet with in the Homeric poems. But even if we
set this on one side as something exceptional, the devotion shown to
Achilles by Phoinix is quite in accordance with the best traditions of
Teutonic thegnship.

The Odyssey presents us with the picture of a king's house in time of
peace. But, though Penelope has not less than fifty women in the house,
the only men apparently, besides the suitors and their followers, are
Telemachos himself, the herald Medon and the minstrel Phemios, together
with the swineherd, neatherd and goatherd who come with provisions
each day from a distance. But the conditions here are abnormal; the
king himself has been away from home for many years, and his son is
only just reaching manhood. It is scarcely credible that a Teutonic
_comitatus_ could have existed under such conditions. Menelaos appears
to have something of a retinue at his court. In IV 22 f. we hear of a
θεράπων named Eteoneus, who seems to be a person of some rank, as he is
called κρείων. In v. 216 f. another θεράπων, Asphalion, is mentioned,
while v. 37 f. speak of several of such persons, though their number
is not stated. All that is said of them seems to indicate that their
position was much the same as that of the thegns in early Teutonic
courts. The picture of the Phaeacian court also bears a general
resemblance to that of the Danish court as described in Beowulf.

The use of the word θεράπων appears to correspond almost exactly to
that of _þegn_[538]. In both cases the general meaning is 'servant';
but, just as we find Beowulf described as _Hygelaces þegn_, so in the
Iliad the term θεράπων is applied to such distinguished persons as
Meriones and Patroclos. The converse term ἄναξ also seems to correspond
almost as closely to the English _dryhten_. Like the latter it is used
for the master of a slave (e.g. Od. XV 557), while on the other hand
it is applied, again like _dryhten_, to the most important kings--and
even deities--in relation to all who recognise their authority. We
have already noticed (p. 329) that the phrase ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν seems to
correspond very closely to the English phrase _eorla dryhten_.

There is little or no evidence to show whether it was customary for the
sons of leading men to be brought up at the king's court. Patroclos was
declared to be the θεράπων of Achilles at an early age (Il. XXIII 89
f.); but the circumstances were exceptional. Certainly the θεράποντες
often came from beyond the king's dominions. Thus Patroclos had come
from Opus (_ib._ XXIII 85 ff.) and Lycophron, Aias' squire, from
Cythera (_ib._ XV 430 f.). It is true that both these persons had had
to leave their homes owing to homicides which they had committed; and
no doubt many such cases were due to circumstances which rendered a
change of abode advisable. Thus Phoinix had sought the protection of
Peleus owing to a deadly quarrel with his father. Yet apart from such
emergencies the protection and friendship of a wealthy and powerful
king probably offered considerable attractions. We may refer to a
somewhat remarkable passage in the Odyssey (IV 174 ff.), where Menelaos
says that it had been his wish to bring Odysseus to his own country,
with his son and his followers and possessions, adding that in order to
make a home for him he would have ejected the inhabitants from one of
the neighbouring cities which were under his lordship.

Menelaos' intention seems to have been to put Odysseus in the position
of a dependent prince. We have seen that Teutonic kings were in the
habit of rewarding their knights with grants of jurisdiction; and the
same appears to have been the case with the kings of Homeric times.
Thus in Il. IX 483 f. Phoinix says that Peleus had made him rich and
granted him many followers, and that he had made his dwelling in a
frontier district as lord over the Dolopes. This passage seems to
furnish almost an exact parallel to the treatment of Beowulf by Hygelac
(cf. p. 349). A similar case perhaps was that of Medon, the son of
Oileus, who according to Il. II 727 commanded the forces from Methone
and the adjacent districts, in the absence of Philoctetes, and who,
like Phoinix, was a fugitive from his native land (cf. XIII 695 ff.).
Here too we may mention the case of Phyleus, who had left his own
country and gone to Dulichion owing to a quarrel with his father (_ib._
II 629), and whose son Meges commanded the forces from that island.
In many such cases of course there may have been a marriage with a
princess of the native royal family; but it is hardly necessary to
assume that this was universal. In the case of Phoinix indeed such an
assumption is improbable.

There seems to be no actual record of a Homeric hero who left his
home except under stress of circumstances; and hence, after making
all deductions, we are bound, I think, to conclude that the system
of the _comitatus_ was not so highly developed as in the north of
Europe. This is in full conformity with the fact that kingly families
were apparently much more numerous. Among the suitors of Penelope
twelve princes belong to Ithaca alone, an island of no great size and
probably never thickly populated[539].

For a class of nobility distinct from the princely families we have no
clear evidence[540]. Persons like Eteoneus, the squire of Menelaos, may
belong to such a class; but it is quite possible that they are princes.
We may refer also to the false story told by Odysseus in Od. XIII 256
ff., from which it appears that chiefs with small followings might be
expected to place themselves in the position of θεράποντες to more
powerful chiefs. But Odysseus does not here make clear what rank he
claims to have possessed in Crete. Quite possibly the practice referred
to might be somewhat analogous to what we find in the Saga of Harold
the Fair-haired, where a number of petty kings submit to Harold and
take the rank of earls.

The same want of definiteness occurs in regard to the humbler ranks of
society. Even the slave's status is not made particularly clear, while
there is no reference to the existence of freedmen or to the practice
of manumission[541]. Slaves are apparently able to buy other slaves
on their own account (cf. Od. XIV 449 ff.). In other respects however
their position seems to be very similar to that of slaves in early
Teutonic society[542]. Still less do we hear of differences of rank
or status within the free population[543]. But it should be observed
that the Anglo-Saxon poems give us no more information on such matters.
Were it not for the early laws and foreign authorities we should know
nothing of the distinction between land-holding and landless peasants,
nor even of the great classes of noble, freeman, slave, etc. The true
explanation seems to be that both sets of poems alike are interested
only in persons of royal rank.

No light is thrown on the social system by the passages which mention
the payment of wergelds; for we are not informed whether these were
fixed by custom or whether they formed the subject of bargaining in
each individual case. In Il. XXI 79 f. Lycaon says that Achilles had
sold him into Lemnos for a hundred oxen and that he had been ransomed
from thence for three hundred. Even the smaller of these sums is of
course much too great for an ordinary slave's price. In the light of
Teutonic custom it is possible that both represent standard wergelds,
regarded as man-values in general; but one can hardly say that it is
more than a possibility. The silence of the poems upon this subject is
nothing surprising, for the Teutonic poems yield us no more information.

* * * * *

We may now briefly summarise the results of this discussion. The
salient characteristic of the Heroic Age, both in Greece and in
northern Europe, appears to be the disintegration of the bonds of
kinship, a process which shows itself chiefly in the prevalence of
strife between relatives, and which in both cases is probably connected
with a change in the organisation of the kindred--agnatic relationship
having come gradually to take the place of cognatic. How far this
process affected society as a whole we cannot tell, since our evidence
is generally limited to the royal families. The binding force formerly
possessed by kinship was now largely transferred to the relationship
between 'lord' and 'man' (_dryhten_--_þegn_, ἄναξ--θεράπων), between
whom no bond of blood-relationship was necessary. The _comitatus_
was probably not developed in Greece to the same extent as it was in
northern Europe; indeed in regard to social development generally
the conditions in Greece seem to have been more primitive. Yet in
individual cases the bond between lord and man was apparently the
strongest force of which we know.

FOOTNOTES:

[513] Cf. _The Origin of the English Nation_, p. 327 ff.

[514] ξυγγενῆ γὰρ αὐτῷ τὸν φονέα εἶναι οὐ θέμις. Cf. Greg. Tur., II
40, where Clovis says: _nec enim possum sanguinem parentum meorum
effundere, quod fieri nefas est_. But this is represented as mere
hypocrisy; cf. II 41, _ad fin._

[515] In some cases the deed was certainly done by the relative's own
hand. Such was the case with Lothair and the sons of Chlodomer (Greg.
Tur., III 18).

[516] Beow. 2618 f.:

_no ymb ða faehðe spraec,
þeah ðe he his broðor bearn abredwade._

Many scholars here understand _ða faehðe_ to mean not the encounter
between Eanmund and Weohstan, but the hostility (vendetta) which
devolved upon Onela as Eanmund's kinsman; but I think the idea is
rather that of 'bloodguiltiness' (towards Onela) incurred by Weohstan.
Eanmund was the son of Ohthere, Onela's brother.

[517] It may be observed that in Beow. 452 ff. the hero requests the
Danish king to send his mail-coat to Hygelac, if he should be killed
by Grendel. This mail-coat (described as Weland's handiwork) is said
to have belonged formerly to Hrethel, Hygelac's father (Beowulf's
grandfather).

[518] In the seventh century it appears to have been customary to make
these grants when the recipient was about twenty-four or twenty-five
years old; cf. Bede, _Hist. Abb._, §§ 1, 8; _Ep. ad Ecgb._, § 11.

[519] We may compare the use of the word _sluga_ in Servian heroic
poetry (cf. p. 316); its ordinary meaning is 'servant.'

[520] The same word is used in a similar sense in the Langobardic laws;
_gasindus_ (or _gasindius_), 'Gefolgsmann,' and so also _gasindium_,
'Gefolgschaft'; cf. Brückner, _Quellen und Forschungen_, LXXV p. 205.

[521] Quoted from the translation by Lang, Leaf and Myers.

[522] The interpretation of Hesiod, _W. and D._ 38 f., need not be
discussed here.

[523] The other types (e.g. Πηλείων, Τελαμώνιος) are less frequent.

[524] Καδμεῖοι, Καδμείωνες are at best very dubious examples, for
Cadmos is probably to be regarded as an eponymous national hero, like
Dardanos.

[525]

κρῖν' ἄνδρας κατὰ φῦλα, κατὰ φρήτρας, Ἀγάμεμνον,
ὡς φρήτρη φρήτρηφιν ἀρήγῃ, φῦλα δὲ φύλοις.

Cf. Tacitus, _Germ._ 7: _quodque praecipuum fortitudinis incitamentum
est, non casus nec fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit sed
familiae et propinquitates_. But the context shows that the conditions
here are of a totally different character from those in the Iliad.

[526] But cf. Il. IX 63, where the word ἀφρήτωρ occurs, apparently with
reference to the same institution.

[527] The meaning of the word ἔμφυλον in Od. XV 273 seems to be quite
ambiguous.

[528] Cf. Frazer, _Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship_,
p. 238 ff. The story of Peleus and Eurytion bears rather a close
resemblance to that of Bellerophon.

[529] It is to be borne in mind that the Epizephyrian Locrians were one
of the first, if not the very first, of all Greek communities to obtain
a codification of their laws--probably indeed within half a century of
the establishment of the colony. This fact may perhaps account for the
survival of primitive institutions among them.

[530] Except perhaps in Cos; but the evidence here is ambiguous.

[531] Cf. Ridgeway, _The Origin of Tragedy_, p. 190 ff.

[532] The nature of Agamemnon's proposal to Achilles in Il. IX 144 ff.
(286 ff.) is not quite clear. Achilles is to choose one of Agamemnon's
daughters and take her to Peleus' home. But with her Agamemnon is to
give seven cities, situated apparently in Messenia, which in future
are to be subject to Achilles. Possibly v. 149 is to be understood as
introducing a new (alternative) proposal.

[533] Cf. Cauer, _Grundfragen d. Homerkritik_², p. 292 ff.

[534] We may compare Beow. 2369 ff., where--in a situation somewhat
analogous to that of the Odyssey--Hygelac's widowed queen offers both
treasury and kingdom to the chief surviving prince, distrusting the
ability of her young son to hold his own.

[535] That the type of organisation which prevailed during the growth
of Homeric poetry was agnatic may be inferred from the regular use of
the word πάτρη and the (probably older) expression πατρὶς γαῖα, which
perhaps originally denoted 'land of one's father' (the _faeder eðel_
of Widsith, v. 96). But according to Plato (_Republic_, 575 D) the
Cretans used μητρίς for πατρίς. Evidence for the prevalence of cognatic
organisation in early times is furnished by certain words denoting
relationship, especially ἀδελφός (originally 'uterine brother'), and a
relic of the feeling that this form of relationship was closer seems to
be preserved in Il. XXI 95. We may also take into account the formation
of patronymics in -ιδᾱ, which appear to be extended from the feminine
suffix -ιδ- by another suffix (-ᾱ-) also properly feminine. In the
north-western dialects these names were declined as feminines (e.g. N.
sg. Εχσοιδα, G. sg. Προκλειδας). One can hardly help suspecting that
these names belonged originally to genealogies of the Lycian type.

[536] It is possibly due to the same cause that we meet with some
curious marriages. Thus Alcinoos is married to his brother's daughter,
and Iphidamas to his mother's sister. The former case offends against
the principle of agnatic organisation, the latter against the cognatic.
Some other heroes (e.g. Diomedes) seem to be in somewhat similar
positions.

[537] The Locrian case quoted above (p. 357) suggests that the kindreds
may, sometimes at least, have been organised on a cognatic basis.

[538] There is a certain amount of parallelism also between ἑταῖρος and
_gesið_ (cf. p. 350). But the former has scarcely the same technical
significance as the latter.

[539] Assuming the Homeric Ithaca to be identical with the Ithaca of
later times. If 'Same' is the later Ithaca, the number of suitors
furnished by this island is twenty-four.

[540] Cf. Fanta, _Der Staat in der Ilias und Odyssee_, p. 26 f., where
a distinction is drawn between higher and lower nobility--the βασιλῆες
being only a portion of the ἀριστῆες; but the evidence seems to me
inconclusive.

[541] Yet the promise made by Odysseus to the herdsmen in Od. XXI 213
ff. may perhaps be analogous to the change of status involved when a
Teutonic slave was made a freedman.

[542] In both cases the household slaves seem to have been almost
entirely women, who were occupied for the most part in grinding corn.

[543] From Od. IV 644 and VI 489 f. it seems probable on the whole
that there existed a class of landless freemen corresponding to the
Ang.-Sax. _geburas_. But no information apparently is given with regard
to the κλῆρος--whether it corresponded at all to the hide of the
_gafolgelda_ (roughly comparable with the Athenian ζευγίτης) or whether
it represented normally a much larger estate.

CHAPTER XVII.

GOVERNMENT IN THE HEROIC AGE.

During the Heroic Age of the Teutonic peoples kingship appears to have
been practically universal. The Old Saxons may have formed a solitary
exception to the general rule; but our knowledge of this people really
begins only towards the close of the seventh century.

Much has been written about the various powers possessed by the kings,
but it is still by no means clear what they could not do, so long as
they had a powerful and contented body of personal followers. If they
forfeited the allegiance of their retinues by violence or outrage their
power of course was gone at once. In the course of the eighth century
several English kings were killed or expelled by their retinues; and
in Beowulf (v. 902 ff.; cf. v. 1709 ff.) we hear that a former king
of the Danes named Heremod had met with a similar fate. But in early
times such cases do not seem to have been common. Again, the numbers
of the retinue might decrease through want of generosity or excessive
love of peace on the king's part, and he would then be exposed to
the attack of any aggressive neighbour or of some member of his own
family whom he had offended. The only definite statement however
which we possess regarding a limitation of the king's authority is a
passage in Ammianus Marcellinus' history (XXVIII 5. 14) referring to
the Burgundians--before their conversion--according to which kings
were regularly deposed as a consequence of unsuccessful war or famine.
The context, though not plainly expressed, seems to suggest that this
deposition was carried out by the decision or through the agency of a
high-priest whose authority was permanent.

The statement that the kings of the Burgundians were deposed on account
of famine points to the survival of a primitive idea of kingship,
which credited the ruler with superhuman powers. The kings of the
Swedes also, according to Ynglinga Saga, cap. 47, were believed to
have control over the seasons[544], like the god Frey from whom they
claimed descent; and it is said that two of them were sacrificed in
times of famine. In the same saga, cap. 20, it is stated that the
members of this dynasty individually were called Yngvi, a name of the
ancestral god[545]--which seems to indicate that they were regarded
as his representatives. How far such ideas were general during the
Heroic Age it is impossible to say, owing to the fact that we have
few records dating in their present form from heathen times. Note
may be taken however of the peculiar position occupied by the later
Merovingian kings[546]. During the last century of their existence as
a dynasty their power was entirely taken from them and transferred
to a viceroy (commonly known as _maior domus_)--whose office became
practically hereditary in one family. The only duties which were
retained by the kings were certain ceremonial functions, which point to
a more or less sacral character, so far as was possible in a Christian
community. We may note further that in the North there is no evidence
for a specifically priestly class; temporal and spiritual power were
apparently united in the same person. Among the Angli on the other hand
there was such a class, though, in contrast with the Burgundians, the
high-priest seems to have been subordinate to the king[547].

In Sweden there was a form of election for kings, which may have had
a religious significance. The electors (the lawman and twelve others
from each province) stood on huge stones (Morastenar), fixed in the
earth, which may still be seen at Hammarby near Upsala. Saxo (p. 10
f.) records the former existence of a similar custom in Denmark. On
the other hand the Frankish custom of hoisting a new king on a shield
probably meant no more than a proclamation of lordship, as may be
seen from the first recorded instance[548]. Whatever the formalities
employed, it appears that in practice the reigning king was usually
able to secure the succession for his son; but failing such the nearest
male relative acceptable to the court would normally be chosen[549]. It
was not an unknown thing even for minors to succeed[550]. Frequently we
find the kingdom shared by two or more brothers, just like any other
property; and on the death of one of them his son was sometimes allowed
to take his place, as in the well-known case of Hrothgar and Hrothwulf.
On the other hand the survivor might, and apparently often did, refuse
any such concession; and consequently struggles between relatives for
the possession of the throne were of not infrequent occurrence.

National or tribal assemblies figure prominently in Tacitus' account
of the ancient Germans, and among several of the Continental Teutonic
peoples they survived down to the seventh or eighth century. At this
time they were generally held in the early spring--whence the name
_Campus Martius_ applied to the assembly of the Franks. After the
adoption of Christianity however they had come to be little more than
military reviews for the most part, though at the same time a meeting
of dignitaries, lay and ecclesiastical, was held for the transaction
of business. In much later times we meet with national assemblies in
the North also, especially in Sweden, and there can be little doubt
that these had long been in existence. They were used by the kings for
the purpose of publishing proclamations, and at the same time they
presented an opportunity for coercing or overthrowing a king who had
aroused popular resentment in any way. But they appear to have been
primarily religious gatherings, for the great annual sacrifices at the
chief national sanctuary. It is more than probable however that such
was the case also with the assemblies of the ancient Germans[551].
At all events there is nothing to show that, apart from special
emergencies, they met more than once, or possibly twice, in the year.
In England evidence seems to be altogether wanting for any assemblies
which could properly be called national; nor do we find any reference
to such an institution in the poems.

It is true that we hear not unfrequently of discussions and
deliberations in works dating from the Heroic Age. But although precise
information as to the size and constitution of these meetings is seldom
given, they appear to be those of comparatively small bodies, similar
to the royal councils of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The latter however
were nothing more than meetings of the court from the earliest times
to which our records go back. When important questions were discussed
care may have been taken to summon all the leading men; and no doubt
age and high rank ensured priority of hearing, as in the assemblies
of Tacitus' day. But still they remained essentially meetings of the
king's personal dependents. So far as I am aware, there is no reason
for supposing that gatherings like that described by Procopius (_Vand._
I 22), when Genseric received the embassy from his compatriots in
Europe, differed in any way from the meeting called by Edwin in 625 to
discuss the adoption of Christianity. Often indeed the persons present
are described as οἱ λόγιμοι or λογιμώτατοι. Again, in Beowulf we hear
more than once of Danish councillors (_witan Scyldinga_), but there is
nothing to show that these were a different body from the members of
the court who entertained Beowulf; and it is clear from vv. 778 ff.,
936 ff. that their meetings were held in the same building. The old
and distinguished councillor who persuaded Genseric to reject the
petition of the envoys would seem to have been just such another person
as Aeschere, Hrothgar's trusted adviser (cf. p. 350). In the story of
Hermegisklos and Radiger also (cf. p. 97 f.) it is clear that the same
'distinguished men of the nation' (οἱ λόγιμοι, λογιμώτατοι) act both as
companions of the old king and advisers of his young successor.

In spite of what has been said above there is some evidence for the
existence of councils consisting of a fixed number of men, namely
twelve, whose position may have differed somewhat from that of the
ordinary members of the court[552]. The Old Saxons had a council of
twelve which met annually at a place called Marklo, on the Weser; but
this case stands by itself, as the Old Saxons had no king. In Sweden
however we meet with such councils both in tradition and in historical
times, and what we know of them indicates that they were composed
of the chief men. Moreover councils of twelve for judicial purposes
occur both in provinces and small districts in various parts of the
Scandinavian peninsula, as well as in the Scandinavian settlements in
the British Isles. The gods too were credited with possessing a council
of twelve which had both judicial and sacrificial duties[553]--a fact
which is interesting as it points to a connection between the councils
of which we have been speaking and bodies of twelve with sacrificial
duties, of which we hear in stories relating to heathen times. If we
take into account the legend of the twelve Frisian judges (_asegen_)
and the fact that councils of twelve are known to have existed among
the Celts and other European peoples, we can scarcely doubt that
this type is of great antiquity. Yet there is nothing to show that
such councils were at all general during the Heroic Age; in England
they seem to be entirely unknown before the period of Scandinavian
influence. It is probable therefore that in this, as in other respects,
the Swedes had preserved an institution which other kingdoms had
discarded.

From the stories quoted above we see that it was customary for the king
to consult his council or court when any question involving difficulty
or danger arose; and there can be little doubt that he would feel his
position strengthened by so doing. But we have no reason for supposing
that the opinion of the council possessed anything more than moral
force; and consequently it would depend upon the king's strength of
character or the security of his position whether he felt himself bound
to follow their advice or not. Procopius (_Goth._ I 2) states that
Amalaswintha was coerced by the leading men of the Goths with regard
to her son's education; but she was only a regent at this time. Again,
in another passage (_ib._ IV 27) he relates how Hildigisl, a claimant
to the Langobardic throne, fled for refuge to Thorisin (Turisindus),
king of the Gepidae. Audoin, king of the Langobardi, demanded that
he should be given up; and his request was supported by Justinian.
Thorisin consulted his distinguished men (οἱ λόγιμοι), but they replied
that it would be better for the whole nation of the Gepidae to perish
than to commit such an act of sacrilege. The king now, says Procopius,
felt himself to be in a great difficulty. For he could not carry out
what was demanded against the will of his subjects, and at the same
time he was afraid to go to war against the Romans and Langobardi. So
he contrived to get the fugitive murdered secretly, obtaining a _quid
pro quo_ in the murder of one of his own rivals. It must be observed
that Thorisin himself had obtained the throne by violence. So the young
Radiger, when he was captured and brought before the English princess,
pleaded that he had been forced to renounce his promise to her by
his father's commands and the insistence of the leading men (τὴν τῶν
ἀρχόντων σπουδήν). Genseric on the other hand dismissed the envoys in
accordance with the old councillor's advice; but we are told that both
of them were ridiculed by the rest of the Vandals for so doing. Plainly
then there was no question of having to follow the opinion of the
majority.

It might naturally be expected that the authority of the council would
make itself felt most on the occasion of the king's death; and the
story of Radiger seems to bear this out. Yet it is worth noticing what
is recorded in Beowulf on an occasion of great emergency. Hygelac,
king of the Geatas, lost his life in the disastrous expedition against
the Frisians and left an only son, Heardred, who seems to have been
scarcely more than a child. Beowulf escaped from the slaughter, and
on his return (v. 2369 ff.) "Hygd offered him the treasury and the
government, the rings and the throne. She trusted not that her child
would be able to hold his patrimony against foreign nations, now that
Hygelac was dead." There is no reference to any action on the part
of the council or court; but the queen offers the throne to the late
king's nephew. The whole passage seems to indicate that the throne
with all its rights was regarded very much like any ordinary family
property. Its disposition is arranged by the family itself, without
any notion of responsibility to others; and the members of the court
are not taken into account any more than the servants in a private
household.

It may perhaps be argued that court poets would be apt to exaggerate
the power of the royal family and consequently that the picture of
its authority given here is misleading. Yet Amalaswintha, who was a
contemporary of Hygelac, appears to have acted on her own authority
when she associated Theodahath, the nephew of Theodric, in the
sovereignty with herself after her son's death. There is other evidence
also which goes to show that this passage truly reflects the spirit
of the times. In the story of Radiger we see how a young princess
was able to gather together a huge army and bring about a sanguinary
struggle between two nations on account of an insult offered to her
by a neighbouring king. Again, Paulus Diaconus (_Hist. Lang._ I 20)
states that the war between the Heruli and the Langobardi was due to
the murder of the Herulian king's brother by a Langobardic princess.
Even if this story is untrue, it is significant enough that it should
obtain credit. To the prominent part played by women in determining the
destinies of nations we have already alluded (p. 337 f.). In particular
we may call attention to the position of Fredegond and Brunhild, who
after the deaths of their husbands practically ruled the kingdom of
the Franks. In the seventh century Hygd's action in disposing of the
kingdom is easily outdone by Sexburg, the widow of the West Saxon king
Coenwalh, who is said to have kept the throne for herself.

There is no doubt of course that the ease with which kings and princes
were able to draw their nations into war was due largely to the
restless spirit which animated their retinues. Sometimes indeed they
appear to have been drawn into war against their own inclination.
Procopius (_Goth._ II 14) differs from Paulus Diaconus in the cause
which he assigns for the outbreak of the war between the Heruli and
Langobardi. According to him it was due entirely to the fact that the
Heruli could not endure a peace of more than three years duration,
and consequently forced their king into hostilities. The Frankish
king Lothair I is said by Gregory (IV 14) to have been driven into a
disastrous campaign against the Saxons from the same cause. In this
direction then we may certainly recognise the influence of the court;
but the pressure probably came not from the old councillors, but from
the younger men who hoped to gain riches and glory thereby.

This brings us to the question of international relations. What is
said in the opening verses of Beowulf regarding Scyld Scefing, the
eponymous ancestor of the Danish royal family, may probably be taken as
a standard description of a typical successful king of the Heroic Age:
"He deprived many dynasties of their banqueting halls ... and gained
glory after glory, until every one of his neighbours across the whale's
road had to obey him and pay him tribute." With increasing wealth
however the love of peace frequently reasserted itself, especially
perhaps towards the end of the period, by which time the kingdoms had
materially decreased in number and consequently increased in size.
We now see alliances more and more taking the place of conquest.
Theodric organised an alliance not only with the Visigoths but also
with the kings of the Thuringians, Heruli and Warni, which extended his
influence from the Mediterranean to the North Sea; and his name seems
to have carried weight as far as the eastern part of the Baltic. In
Beowulf too we see the nations of the Baltic dealing with one another
for the most part on friendly terms.

That such alliances were primarily of a personal rather than a national
character is shown in two ways. In the first place they were often
cemented by marriage. Thus two of Theodric's daughters were married to
Alaric, king of the Visigoths, and Sigismund, king of the Burgundians,
respectively, his sister to Thrasamund, king of the Vandals, and his
niece to Irminfrith, king of the Thuringians, while Theodric himself
married a sister of Clovis. We have seen (p. 98) that similar marriages
were contracted by the kings of the Warni, while the Frankish royal
family was intermarried with those of practically all the surrounding
nations. In the North the same custom seems to have prevailed, for
in Beowulf one of the Swedish kings, probably Onela, is married to a
sister of the Danish king Hrothgar. The term _friðuwebbe_ (usually
interpreted as 'weaver of peace'), which we find applied to ladies of
royal rank in Anglo-Saxon poetry, probably owes its origin to this bond
of union between kingly families. Such marriages seem to have sometimes
taken place after a war, as in the case of Ingeld and Freawaru in
Beowulf.

Secondly, we hear of kings entering into a relationship called
'fatherhood' and 'sonship' with other kings. For an example we may
cite one of Cassiodorus' letters (_Var._ IV 2), addressed to a king
of the Heruli and informing him that Theodric creates him his 'son in
arms' (_filius per arma_), which is a great honour[554]. The letter is
accompanied by a valuable present of arms and horses. Parallels are to
be found in much later times. We may refer to the Saxon Chronicle, ann.
924, where the Scottish king (Constantine II) and several other princes
in northern Britain accept Edward the Elder as 'father and lord.' It
is scarcely to be doubted that in such cases the 'son' is expected
to render assistance to the 'father' when required. The king of the
Heruli appears to have been in alliance with Theodric[555], while
Malcolm I, the successor of Constantine II, was under an engagement
with Edmund to be his "cooperator both by sea and by land[556]." The
_imperium_ which Bede (_H. E._ II 5) ascribes to several English kings
in all probability involved somewhat similar obligations; and it rested
without doubt upon an acceptance of lordship, if not of fatherhood.

After the establishment of overlordship the next stage is that in
which the smaller kingdoms are annexed and incorporated by the larger
ones--generally in consequence of a revolt. The place of the native
king or kings is often taken at first by a member of the victorious
dynasty; but such arrangements were seldom lasting, and before long the
national organisation was abolished. The completion of this process
on the Continent belongs of course to times subsequent to the Heroic
Age, while in this country it took place still later. But we can see
such changes going on within the Heroic Age itself. At the end of the
period the number of Teutonic kingdoms on the Continent was quite
small. Several however, such as those of the Alamanni, the Burgundians
and the Thuringians, had disappeared within the last half century; in
the fourth century they were probably far more numerous. Many of them
may have been quite insignificant, like the petty kingdoms which are
said to have existed in Norway--eight apparently in the district of
Trondhjem alone--down to the time of Harold the Fair-haired. Several
of the nations which figure prominently in Tacitus' works had perhaps
disappeared still earlier. At all events they are never mentioned
either in historical works or traditions referring to the Heroic Age.

The reverse process cannot be traced so clearly. The division of a
kingdom between brothers or other relatives does not seem as a rule to
have led to a permanent partition. Very often indeed it was apparently
no more than a temporary distribution of estates and spheres of
jurisdiction, not necessarily in solid blocks[557]. In such cases the
kingdom was still regarded as one property, of which the kings were
joint possessors. But there can be no question that many kingdoms
established on alien soil, e.g. in Britain, were offshoots from other
kingdoms.

This consideration brings us to the much debated question of the
relationship between kingdom and nation. It has been assumed by
many scholars that among the Teutonic peoples the kingdom was a
comparatively late outgrowth from the nation or tribe. In reality
this problem seems to me to have much in common with that of the hen
and the egg. With the earliest kingdoms of all we are not concerned
here; it will be enough to mention that our earliest historical
notices testify to the prevalence of kingship, though not always to
monarchy in the strict sense of the term. In the Heroic Age however we
certainly find kingdoms springing up where no nation or tribe, properly
speaking, can be said to have existed previously. We may cite the
case of Odoacer, who in 476 made himself king in Italy with the help
of his troops. In principle we may regard him as the _princeps_ of a
_comitatus_. Then we have to consider the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
The Mercian royal family traced their descent from Offa, the ancient
king of Angel, while the West Saxon dynasty claimed to be sprung from
that Wig, the son of Freawine, who was earl of Slesvig under Offa's
father, according to the story preserved by Saxo. But to the origin of
the rest the genealogies give us no clue. If they were all of royal
origin--and apparently they did claim divine descent--the Angli must
have possessed a numerous royal class; and we are scarcely justified
in denying that this may have been the case[558]. On the other hand it
is by no means impossible that some of them were sprung from foreign
peoples, such as the Danes, Swedes or Warni. But what we may regard as
practically certain is that the individual kingdoms did not rest upon
a national or tribal foundation. There is not the slightest ground
for supposing that (e.g.) the East Anglians as a people belonged to
a different nation or tribe from the Northumbrians. It is scarcely
credible that the first kings were anything else than _principes_ in
command of _comitatus_, whether they set out from the homeland in this
position or established themselves at a later date by severing their
allegiance from other kings in Britain itself.

Nor is there any reason for supposing that this phenomenon was peculiar
to Britain. The story of Waldhere tells of the presence of small
Teutonic communities in eastern Gaul, each under a royal family
of its own. And not only heroic stories but also historical works
relating to the earlier part of the Heroic Age frequently refer to
comparatively small bands of warriors--such as that led by the Goth
Sarus in Stilicho's time--in various parts of the Roman empire, and
even beyond its borders[559]. Such bands may very well have produced
communities like the one ruled by Waldhere's father[560]; but it would
be absurd to speak of them as nations or tribes. They have clearly far
more in common with the military kingship established by Odoacer. The
peculiarity of his position indeed lies only in the magnitude of the
power to which he attained.

In brief we have to distinguish between two classes of kingdoms in the
Heroic Age. In the new kingdoms, settled on foreign soil, we find an
essentially military kingship, an _imperium_ vested in a particular
family. These kings either established themselves in Roman cities,
such as Ravenna, Langres or York, or moved about from one royal estate
to another. Of national assemblies we have frequently no trace at
all, while the council is identical with the _comitatus_ and consists
of relatives and nominees of the king. Such kingdoms often rest on
no national or tribal foundations; the king and his _comitatus_ form
the nucleus of the organism. On the other hand the older kingdoms,
especially in the North, retained many features of a more primitive
constitution. The king's position had a religious significance, and
his capital, e.g. at Leire or Gamla Upsala, was the chief national
sanctuary, at which assemblies, primarily religious but possessing
considerable political influence, took place from time to time. It is
likely too that the councils here were originally permanent bodies with
more or less fixed prerogatives--essentially religious, but yet by no
means without political power. Between these two types of kingdoms we
find others of an intermediate character, especially in nations which
had migrated _en masse_; and there can be little doubt that during
the Heroic Age even the most conservative of the older kingdoms were
influenced by the newer type. It is the newer type of course which we
must regard as truly characteristic of the Heroic Age.

In post-heroic times again we find a reversion to the national idea
of a kingdom, though on a much larger scale. In English history this
tendency can be traced from the seventh century onwards. In Bede's
works it is clear that such an expression as _Merciorum gens_ (_Myrcna
maegþ_) had come to mean something more than the royal family of the
Mercians with their property and dependents. By the ninth and tenth
centuries however this feeling is much more clearly perceptible. We
may cite King Alfred's will, where it is clearly recognised that the
kingdom should not be divided up as a family property. But it is not
until the time of Aethelred II that the full sense of the king's
responsibility to the nation finds expression in definite terms.

* * * * *

The form of government which we find depicted in the Homeric poems
seems to be not unlike that which we have discussed above. Here
too kingship is universal--apparently also without any recognised
constitutional limitations to the royal authority. The murder or
expulsion of a prince is not unknown; but such cases are due to strife
within the royal family. Any differences which we can detect between
the authority of Homeric kings and that wielded by early Teutonic
rulers may be ascribed partly to the much smaller size of the kingdoms
and partly to a social feature noted in the last chapter (p. 363 f.),
namely that in many Greek communities kingly or princely rank seems to
have been claimed by a number of different families.

The last consideration is especially prominent in the Odyssey[561]. The
throne of Ithaca has been in the possession of one family for three
generations. Yet in I 394 ff. Telemachos says that there are many kings
of the Achaeans, both young and old, in the island, and he expects that
one of them will take the sovreignty, now that Odysseus is dead. In
Scheria also we hear of twelve sceptre-bearing kings under Alcinoos;
but to this case we shall have to return shortly. That a king was not
necessarily a person of great magnificence may be inferred also from
one of the scenes depicted on Achilles' shield (Il. XVIII 556 ff.),
where we find a king in the harvest-field watching the work of the
reapers and feasting on the spot. We are reminded here of the story of
the Norwegian king Sigurðr Sýr who was summoned from the harvest-field
to greet his stepson, St Olaf, and whose state-robes had to be sent to
him there in order to enable him to make a suitable appearance[562].

In this connection it is perhaps worth noting that according to the
Catalogue of Ships the contingents supplied by several communities were
under a number of different princes. Thus the Epeioi have four leaders
and the Boeotians five, without counting those from Orchomenos and
Aspledon. The troops from Argolis (exclusive of Agamemnon's dominions)
are led by three princes, all of whom according to later authorities
were related--two of them, Diomedes and Sthenelos, being sons of
Adrastos' daughters, while the third, Euryalos, was his brother's
son[563]. Diomedes is said to be the commander-in-chief, but as
Sthenelos is his charioteer the relations between them are evidently of
an intimate character. It is not stated whether all these princes were
actually reigning kings, or merely leaders selected for the expedition;
but Diomedes and Sthenelos at least have no fathers living.

There is no evidence, so far as I am aware, for any form of election
for kings. In the case of Bellerophon we are told that "the Lycians
apportioned him a demesne" (τέμενος τάμον); but it was the king who
granted him half the royal rights. And similarly in all other cases the
kingly power seems to have been obtained from some relative by blood
or marriage. This renders it more easily intelligible that the plural
kingship--if such it was--of which we have spoken above, may be due
ultimately to family arrangements. It is scarcely necessary to suppose
that in such cases the kingdom was always divided into geographical
halves and quarters. As to the relationship between the various kings
under such an arrangement--e.g. whether the phrase συμπάντων ἡγεῖτο
applied to Diomedes in Il. II 567 means a formal recognition of
lordship on the part of his colleagues--we have apparently no precise
information.

The religious aspect of kingship is not very prominent in the Homeric
poems. When the armies are gathered together to perform a sacrifice
Agamemnon acts as priest (Il. III 271 ff.) with the cooperation of
Priam, and Nestor seems to take the chief part in sacrifices at Pylos
(Od. III 444 ff.). There is no reason for supposing that such cases
are exceptional; as in the North (cf. p. 367) the king or chief
person seems likewise to have acted as priest. We do occasionally
hear of priests of sanctuaries, such as Chryseus at the opening of
the Iliad; but no mention is made of state-priests or tribal priests.
In historical times the case was otherwise. Thus Athens possessed
a state-priest known as βασιλεύς. The name of the office itself
shows that it was a relic of the kingship which had been gradually
stripped of all except its religious duties. Political power here was
transferred at first to an official called ὁ ἄρχων, whose origin may
have been similar to that of the Frankish _maior domus_. We may note
also that at Sparta, where the institution of kingship was preserved
in a modified form, priestly functions were among the chief duties
preserved by the kings.

The poems themselves do not make it clear that the religious aspect
of kingship amounts to more than priestly position, for such phrases
as θεὸς ὣς τίετο δήμῳ are scarcely free from ambiguity. But later
authorities give us much more information in this respect. In the first
place we may notice certain legends, such as that of the impious king
Salmoneus, who aspired to the functions of Zeus--a story which is now
thought by many scholars to have arisen from a misunderstanding. More
than one of the early Attic kings also seem to have been regarded
as at least partly divine[564]. But above all we have to take into
account the statement of Clement of Alexandria (_Protr._ II 38) that
the Spartans worshipped a certain Ζεὺς Ἀγαμέμνων, which has led
some writers to assume that Agamemnon was originally a god. In all
probability the true explanation is furnished by Tzetzes[565], who
says that in early times kings regularly bore the name Ζεύς. We have
an interesting parallel here to the usage of the ancient Swedes[566],
whose kings are said to have been called Yngvi (cf. p. 367). In both
cases we may probably infer that the king was regarded in some sense
as the god's representative; possibly he personated him on certain
occasions. Yet it must be remembered that this aspect of kingship is
not brought forward in the poems[567]. If our sketch of the history of
Homeric poetry is correct in its main outlines, we must conclude that
the divinity of kings was not a doctrine to which supreme importance
was attached in the courts themselves.

National or tribal assemblies are not often mentioned. In Od. VIII
26 ff. Alcinoos addresses the Phaeacians in their assembly (ἀγορή)
and declares to them his resolve to assist Odysseus. Again, in II 6
ff. Telemachos calls an assembly in Ithaca. But on this occasion the
first speaker, Aigyptios, says that the assembly has not met since
the departure of Odysseus, some twenty years before, and further that
he wonders who it is who has called them together now. The former
statement seems to indicate that such meetings were not held regularly,
while the latter at first sight suggests that it was open to anyone
to call them, and consequently that they were of a quite informal
character--in spite of certain rules of procedure which seem to have
been usually followed. But the conditions here are abnormal. The king
has disappeared and no one has yet taken his place; Aigyptios is
perhaps scarcely prepared to expect that the young Telemachos would
summon the assembly. It is true that in Il. I 54 ff. the Achaeans
are called together by Achilles, not Agamemnon; but here we have to
deal with a confederate army in the field[568], and with a prince who
shortly afterwards sets Agamemnon's authority at open defiance. There
is scarcely sufficient ground for supposing that a similar course would
have been possible at home, when the king was on the spot. Further, it
is to be noted that on all the above occasions the notice served is
so short that only those in the immediate neighbourhood could attend.
On the whole then we are probably justified in doubting whether any
definite rules existed as to when the assembly should be called, and
indeed whether this body had much in common with the constitutionally
regulated assemblies of historical times[569]. It seems rather to be
a more or less fortuitous gathering called together on the spot by
criers when the king wishes to bring something before the notice of the
public[570].

In Od. III 5 ff. we certainly do hear of a great public
gathering--indeed we may probably say a national gathering--of a kind
which can only have taken place at definitely fixed times. But it
is clear that this was essentially a religious festival[571]. Such
gatherings may of course have been used for political purposes, as in
the North; but we have no information on this subject.

The Achaean 'council of elders' (βουλὴ γερόντων) in the Iliad seems to
be a body of quite as informal character as the assembly. On several
occasions Agamemnon calls together a small number of princes, namely
Nestor, Idomeneus, the two Aiantes, Diomedes and Odysseus, together
with his brother Menelaos. This number of course forms only a small
proportion of the leading men in the army. Occasionally however we find
others summoned, such as Meges and even Thrasymedes and Meriones, who
are not the chiefs of contingents. The council of an expeditionary army
however is an exceptional case. On the Trojan side we hear of a number
of δημογέροντες with Priam (Il. III 146 ff.), seven of whom are named.
Three of them are brothers of the king, while others are fathers of
the most distinguished Trojan warriors. They are described as eloquent
orators, but no account is given of their deliberations. In the Odyssey
references to councils are very rare. No mention is made of such a body
in Ithaca. In Scheria however Alcinoos has twelve kings under him (VII
390 f.), who clearly form his council and are to be identified with the
'leaders and rulers of the Phaeacians' Φαιήκων ἡγήτορες ἠδὲ μέδοντες
who feasted in his hall (VII 98 f., 186; VIII 26, 41, 46 f.), though on
Odysseus' arrival they were apparently not all present (VII 189). It
may be observed that in the account of the Phaeacian assembly Alcinoos
uses the same formula as when he is addressing the princes in his hall:
"Hearken, ye leaders and rulers of the Phaeacians." His speech then
is directed primarily to the princes--a fact which seems to indicate
that council and assembly were not very clearly distinguished. In this
connection we may note that in the assemblies of the Iliad, as in those
of the ancient Germans, the speaking is almost invariably left to the
princes.

So far as the councils of the Iliad are concerned little can be said
against the view that Agamemnon calls together from time to time those
of the leaders in whom he has most confidence. The same may be true of
Alcinoos' council[572]. But on the whole it seems more probable that
this is a permanent institution, with definitely fixed numbers and
privileges. The 'sceptre-bearing' under-kings are twelve in number,
like the councils of so many European peoples in ancient times. The
agora where they meet, with its polished stones, is clearly a place
specially constructed for such functions and similar apparently to
the one described in the trial scene depicted on Achilles' shield (Il.
XVIII 497 ff.), where the elders are seated on polished stones 'in a
sacred circle.' We are reminded here of the Northern council of the
gods--especially as described in Gautreks Saga, cap. 7[573]--and of the
'circle of judgement' (_domhringr_), which we find at 'chief-places'
(i.e. centres of jurisdiction) in Iceland. Possibly too we should refer
to the stones used in the election of Scandinavian kings (cf. p. 368).
If we take the evidence as a whole it can hardly be denied that the
Phaeacian council does seem to show the characteristics of a primitive
communal organisation[574]. But it would be unwise to assume that
councils of this type were universal in the Heroic Age.

The actual power possessed by the council, whatever its constitution,
does not seem to amount to much. Agamemnon is often ready to take
advice from some of his colleagues, especially Nestor; and in Od.
VII 167 ff. Alcinoos acts on the suggestion of the old Echeneos.
Both these cases may be compared with the story of Genseric (cf. p.
369 f.[575]). But it is clearly as individuals that the councillors
have influence. In the Iliad Achilles acts on his own initiative and
withdraws from the war in open defiance of Agamemnon. But even in the
case of home councils--I mean councils of the kingdoms--we never hear
of organised action. In Ithaca, where the king is away, no council
seems to exist. Nor is any mention made of a council in the story
of Agamemnon's death and Orestes' vengeance. This fact deserves to
be remarked all the more because we find apparently just the same
phenomenon in Anglo-Saxon poetry, e.g. in Beowulf where the proceedings
after Hygelac's death are related. The natural inference to be drawn
from the evidence is that the councillors were essentially advisers to
the king and that after his death or disappearance their standing was
gone. But here again caution is necessary. It is difficult to believe
that such a description can be true of a council like that of the
Phaeacians, however ready they may seem to follow the king in ordinary
circumstances.

The cases of emergency arising out of the misfortunes of Odysseus
and Agamemnon bring to our attention another curious feature, again
possibly analogous to the conditions described in Beowulf, namely
that the king does not seem to appoint a regent in his absence[576].
Odysseus has entrusted his household to Mentor (Od. II 226 f.), and
Agamemnon has put his wife in charge of a minstrel (_ib._ III 267 f.);
but nothing is said of the kingdom in either case. Are we to suppose
that the queen is the person in authority? Presumably, like Hygd, she
has command over the treasury; for (as also perhaps in the North) the
treasury seems to be connected with the queen's chamber. If it be
objected that the absence of any national control apart from the king's
(or queen's) personal authority must have been productive of strife, we
have only to refer to the stories to see that dissensions, especially
between members of the same family, were by no means of rare occurrence.

With regard to international relations warfare between different
kingdoms does not seem to be particularly common. Apart from the siege
of Troy we hear incidentally of a number of struggles, such as the
two expeditions against Thebes, the war of the Aetolians against the
Curetes, and those of the Arcadians and the Epeioi against Pylos, while
references to buccaneering exploits are frequent. But on the whole the
normal state of relations between the various kingdoms is one of peace.

As in the Teutonic Heroic Age, we hear frequently of marriages between
different royal families. Agamemnon's offer of one of his daughters to
Achilles is part of his attempt at reconciliation and may be compared
with the marriage of Ingeld and Freawaru. Menelaos marries his daughter
to Achilles' son. Both these cases show that such marriages were not
limited to neighbouring families. So also Penelope the daughter of
Icarios (whose home is not stated in the poems) has married the king of
Ithaca, while her sister is the wife of Eumelos at Pherai in Thessaly
(Od. IV 795 ff.). Such marriages would doubtless do much towards
promoting friendly relations between the various royal families.
Indeed visits paid by one prince to another seem to be nothing very
unusual[577]. Autolycos visits his son-in-law Laertes in Ithaca,
and Odysseus later goes to stay with Autolycos in the neighbourhood
of Parnassos. Helen recognises several of the Achaean princes from
the walls of Troy and remarks (Il. III 232 f.) that Idomeneus had
frequently been entertained by Menelaos in her old home.

Again, it can scarcely be doubted that the expedition against Troy
involves the existence of relations of some kind between Agamemnon and
the other kings. But the character of Agamemnon's position in Greece
itself is never clearly defined in the poems. According to Od. XXIV 115
ff. he has considerable difficulty in persuading Odysseus to take part
in the expedition. On the other hand in Il. XIII 669 we hear of a fine
(θωή) for those who refused to serve[578]. This passage however refers
to a native of Corinth, who was doubtless a much nearer neighbour.
Indeed the Catalogue of Ships (Il. II 569 ff.) represents the
Corinthian contingent as under Agamemnon's immediate command. According
to this section of the poem Agamemnon's own territories consist of
the north-western part of Argolis, together with at least the eastern
half of Achaia, while the rest of Argolis belongs to Diomedes and his
colleagues. But in IX 149 ff. (291 ff.) it is clear that Agamemnon
possesses part of Messenia, bordering apparently on Pylos (the
territory of Nestor). Further, we have to take into account that, apart
from the Catalogue, neither poem gives evidence for the existence of
anything which can fairly be called a kingdom in the Peloponnesos,
except Pylos, Elis and the territories of the two brothers[579]. Taking
the positive and negative evidence together it seems probable that
Agamemnon and his brother were regarded as ruling over the greater
part of the peninsula, though certain cities and districts remained in
possession of native princes, perhaps in a dependent position. Again,
I am not aware that there is any evidence apart from the Catalogue
for supposing that the territories of the two brothers were regarded
as definitely marked off from one another. From Il. IX 149 ff., taken
together with the references to Sparta and Mycenae, we may infer the
contrary. On the whole it seems more probable that we have here to do
with a case of divided kingship, as so frequently among the Teutonic
peoples, rather than with two separate kingdoms. In that case too we
shall obtain a satisfactory explanation of the later tradition (cf. p.
240) which claimed Agamemnon for Sparta or Amyclai.

Beyond his own territories Agamemnon's authority does not seem
to be represented as anything more than a somewhat indefinite
hegemony--comparable probably with the relationship of Theodric the
Ostrogoth to his northern allies (cf. p. 373 f.). The army which he
leads against Troy is furnished partly by his own subjects and partly
by a number of princes whose positions may have varied from complete
dependence to something which may best be described as alliance. A
good parallel is to be found in the army led by the Mercian king Penda
against Oswio, which according to Bede (_H. E._ III 24) consisted of
thirty _legiones_ under _regii duces_. Among these were the king of
East Anglia and several Welsh kings.

How Agamemnon acquired his imperial position we are not told; for
scarcely anything is recorded of his doings before the Trojan war.
From Il. II 104 ff. we may perhaps infer that his family had held a
preeminent position before him[580], although Pelops was located by
later tradition in a different part of the peninsula[581]. Nor again
is it made clear whether the hegemony remained with the family after
Agamemnon's death. All that can be said is that the Odyssey represents
Menelaos as a very wealthy king and that neither the poems nor later
tradition give any hint of the rise of a new power in the Peloponnesos
before the 'Return of the Heracleidai.' What may be regarded as certain
is that no individual Greek prince attained to such a supremacy again,
for many centuries after the close of the Heroic Age.

In conclusion we must consider briefly the question how far the Homeric
kingdoms rested upon a national or tribal basis (cf. p. 375 ff.). Upon
this question the nomenclature of the poems seems to throw some light.
In the north of Greece, except the plain of Thessaly, the inhabitants
of the various kingdoms bear what are apparently national or tribal
names, e.g. Βοιωτοί, Λοκροί, Δόλοπες, Ἐνιῆνες, Μάγνητες, Αἰτωλοί,
Ἄβαντες--probably also Φωκῆες and Μυρμιδόνες (Ἕλληνες). The same is
true of kingdoms outside Greece, e.g. Φαίηκες, Τρῶες and the various
Trojan allies. But in the Peloponnesos the only names of this type are
Ἐπειοί, Ἀρκάδες and Καύκωνες; for Πύλιοι and Ἀργεῖοι are not primary
national names but derivatives of Πύλος and Ἄργος, while Ἀχαιοί is
a name, like _Engle_, applied to the inhabitants of many kingdoms.
This evidence, so far as it goes, tends to indicate that the southern
kingdoms rested on a political or military rather than a tribal
basis--which is natural enough if we are right in believing that the
Peloponnesian Achaeans were an offshoot from the Achaeans of northern
Greece. It would seem then that these kingdoms are to be compared with
the newer kingdoms of the Teutonic Heroic Age, the nucleus of which
consisted of the kings with their military followings; and I am not
aware of the existence of any evidence inconsistent with this view. I
do not mean of course that these kingdoms were necessarily areas carved
out by the sword, like the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. What I mean is that
we have no reason for supposing that Agamemnon's subjects believed
themselves to be of a different nationality from Nestor's subjects or
the rest of the Achaeans and that each of these kingdoms had a separate
tribal organisation and tradition of its own.

If our observation is correct it is important to notice that several
of the chief Achaean leaders belong to kingdoms which apparently
rest on a non-national basis. Among them we have to include not only
Agamemnon, Menelaos and Nestor, but also probably Idomeneus; for the
name Κρῆτες in the Homeric poems can scarcely mean anything else than
inhabitants of Crete. The followers of Diomedes and of Aias, the son
of Telamon, likewise appear to bear no national names. The case of
Odysseus is doubtful, since his subjects are described both as Ἀχαιοί
and Κεφαλλῆνες. The question is whether he is king of the Cephallenes
in general or only king of Ithaca, with a temporary lordship over the
rest of the nation. The only 'heroes of the first rank' who clearly
represent national kingdoms are Achilles and Aias the son of Oileus.

* * * * *

In the course of this chapter we have noticed many remarkable
resemblances between the Homeric and the early Teutonic systems of
government. Not all of these however can be regarded as characteristic
of the Heroic Age; some have been inherited in all probability
from an earlier stage of development. Such are the religious type
of kingship, the council of twelve and the national gathering for
religious (sacrificial) purposes[582]. The form of government
truly characteristic of the Heroic Age in both areas alike is an
irresponsible type of kingship, resting not upon tribal or national
law--which is of little account--but upon military prestige. Such
kingdoms are often of recent origin and without roots in any national
organisation. The assembly here, so far as it exists at all, is a
gathering summoned at the king's pleasure, while the council consists
of an indefinite number of his trusted followers, whose advice he may
wish to have from time to time. Lastly, we may observe in both cases
a very strong tendency to develop intercourse between one kingdom and
another--partly by royal marriages and partly by the cultivation of
personal relations between the kings, which generally take the form of
a recognition of overlordship, though in varying degree. The general
effect of this intercourse must have been to produce something in the
nature of an international royal caste, and to break down tribal and
local prejudices, at least in the highest ranks of society.

With the end of the Heroic Age the lines followed by Teutonic and
Greek political history part company. In both cases, it is true, we
find a revival of national feeling. Among the Teutonic peoples however
the kingdoms constantly tend to decrease in number and increase in
size--partly by the process sketched above (p. 375) and partly by
pressure from without. In Greece on the other hand this tendency was
brought to an abrupt end[583] by the Thessalian and Dorian conquests,
by which the richest parts of the country were brought into the power
of populations in a lower stage of civilisation and governed largely
by tribal principles and prejudices. The general effect of these
movements was to isolate the various communities--not only in the
conquered provinces but also in those districts, such as Attica, which
remained entirely or comparatively untouched. This isolation in turn
was probably favourable to the growth of internal dissensions. In the
end at all events no king succeeded in maintaining a personal lordship
over the rest of his class[584], even within the smallest communities.
The title came to denote an official with constantly diminishing
powers, often indeed of an exclusively religious character, while the
allegiance formerly owed to an individual was now transferred to the
state and its constitution[585]. At a later date, it is true, most of
the Greek states again came for a time into the power of individual
rulers. But it is not until the days of Philip II, king of the
Macedonians, that we find any single man holding an authority over the
Greek world such as the poems attribute to Agamemnon.

FOOTNOTES:

[544] For analogies to this belief cf. Frazer, _Lectures on the Early
History of the Kingship_, p. 112 ff. Especially interesting parallels
are to be found in the region of the Congo; cf. Pinkerton, _Voyages and
Travels_, Vol. XVI. pp. 330, 577.

[545] Frequently used in poetry. The god's full name seems to have been
Yngvifreyr or Ingunarfreyr, both of which occur occasionally (cf. _The
Origin of the English Nation_, p. 231).

[546] We may compare Ibn Fadhlan's account of the king of the
(Scandinavian) Russians, who never put his foot to the ground. His
duties also were discharged by a viceroy. Cf. Frähn, _Ibn Foszlan's und
anderer Araber Berichte über die Russen älterer Zeit_, pp. 21, 23.

[547] The priesthood figures very prominently in Tacitus' _Germania_.
But it is not safe to assume that the conditions described there are
necessarily more primitive than those which we find in much later times
in the North.

[548] Tacitus, _Hist._, IV 15.

[549] Among the Ostrogoths during their war with the Romans (from
535 onwards) we meet with several kings of non-royal birth; but the
conditions were altogether abnormal. One king (Eraric) was a Rugian and
appointed apparently by his own followers.

[550] E.g. Athalaric the grandson of Theodric and Walthari the son of
Waccho, king of the Langobardi. Aethelberht, king of Kent, must have
succeeded as a child. Heardred, the son of Hygelac, is represented as
very young.

[551] Cf. especially Tacitus, _Germ._ 39; _Ann._ I 51.

[552] For references see _Folk-Lore_, XI, pp. 280, 282 f., 300.

[553] Cf. especially Gylf. 14, Yngl. S. 2, Gautreks S. 7.

[554] In Beow. 946 ff. (cf. 1175 f.) Hrothgar pays a similar compliment
to the hero, who is not a king at this time. Probably the intention is
to do Beowulf a quite exceptional honour.

[555] Cf. Cassiodorus, _Var._ III 3.

[556] Cf. Chron., ann. 945. For the form of agreement entered into upon
such occasions reference may be made to ann. 874, 921 (ad fin.) etc.
The terms probably varied from case to case.

[557] For the case of the Frankish kingdom see Waitz, _Deutsche
Verfassungsgeschichte_³, II, p. 145 ff.; Brunner, _Deutsche
Rechtsgeschichte_, II, p. 25 f.

[558] In the account of Wulfstan's voyage given in King Alfred's
translation of Orosius (p. 20 in Sweet's edition) it is stated that
the land of the Este (in East Prussia) contains very many fortified
places (_burh_, i.e. probably stockaded villages) and that in each of
these there is a king. But it is scarcely probable that such primitive
conditions survived among the Angli even four or five centuries before
Alfred's time (cf. p. 380, note).

[559] It is only in this way that we can account for the more or less
simultaneous appearance of Heruli in Gaul and on the Black Sea in the
latter part of the third century. In the fifth century this nation had
a powerful kingdom in Central Europe. We may refer also to the traces
of various peoples (Angli, Warni, etc.) which we find in the basin of
the Saale, as well as to the kingdom of the Suabi in Spain, the Goths
in the Crimea, etc. Abundant parallels are to be found in the history
of the Viking Age.

[560] It is quite possible that many of the leading characters in the
heroic stories may belong to such communities, e.g. Hnaef, Sigmundr and
Sigurðr, Heðinn, Hamðir and Sörli, Haki and Hagbarðr.

[561] In explanation of this phenomenon the view has been put forward
(cf. Finsler, _N. Jahrb._ XIII 319 ff., 396 ff.; summarised 410 ff.)
that the form of government depicted in the Odyssey is really an
aristocracy, whereas the evidence of the Iliad is inconsistent owing
to traditional reminiscences of a time of real kingship. Thus in the
latter poem βασιλεύς (in the singular) is generally used only of
Agamemnon, though there are exceptions, e.g. I 331, where it is applied
to "Achilleus, dem der Titel, streng genommen, nicht zukommt, da Peleus
noch lebt" (p. 404 f.). I do not think that this explanation is likely
to carry conviction to anyone who has studied early Teutonic history.
It is clear that in early times throughout the Teutonic area--in
England down to the end of the seventh century and in the North much
later--the title of king was applied to sons and other relatives of
kings, as well as to dependent princes. The only qualifications for
the title were (i) royal birth, (ii) the possession of some kind of
authority or 'lordship' (τιμή). How small this authority might be can
be seen from St Olaf's Saga (Heimskr.), cap. 4, where we are told that
Olaf had the title of king given to him by his followers; "for it was
customary that _herkonungar_ (i.e. Viking chiefs) who were engaged in
piracy should take the title of king at once, if they were of royal
birth, although they governed no territories." The qualification of
royal birth however was essential. The title was not taken even by so
great a man as Earl Haakon of Lade, who had kings practically dependent
on him. I see no reason for regarding the conditions depicted in either
of the Homeric poems as different from what we find in the North,
although, owing presumably to the smallness of the kingdoms, all the
important characters appear to be persons of royal birth.

[562] St Olaf's Saga (Heimskr.), cap. 30 ff.

[563] This passage offers at least a partial explanation of the
phenomenon which we have been discussing. If royal rank is traced
both on the male and female sides the kingly class will inevitably be
numerous. Such may have been the case among the Angli also at one time.
But it is not unlikely that at least in the remoter parts of Greece
each 'city' or small district may have retained a royal family of its
own, like the communities visited by Wulfstan (cf. p. 376, note). We
may refer to such a passage as Il. IX 395 f., if ἀριστήων here means
dependent princes.

[564] Cf. especially Cook, _Folk-Lore_, XV 385 f.

[565] _Chil._ I 474 (τοὺς βασιλεῖς δ' ἀνέκαθε Δίας ἐκάλουν πάντας) and
elsewhere. On this subject see Cook, _Class. Rev._ XVII 409, and
_Folk-Lore_, XV 303 f. (cf. 301), where full references are given.

[566] The parallel must not be pressed too far of course. According to
Tzetzes all kings were called Ζεύς. But apparently not all kings were
descended from Zeus; Nestor, for example, was sprung from Poseidon
according to Od. XI 254 ff. We may refer however to Hesiod, _Theog._
96, where kings are said to derive their authority from Zeus, and
to the Homeric epithet διοτρεφής (possibly also διογενής) which is
commonly applied to kings. Frey on the other hand was an ancestral god
but not the chief of the gods, though he is sometimes in poetry called
_folkvaldi goða_, which Saxo translates by _satrapa deorum_.

[567] A trace of the belief that kings had power over the seasons (cf.
p. 367) may perhaps be found in Od. XIX 109 ff.

[568] I cannot help thinking that evidence derived from the Achaean
gatherings in the Iliad is somewhat precarious ground on which to build
up a theory regarding the constitutional rights possessed by the ἀγορή
at home. The same remark applies to such a passage as Od. XII 297,
where an important constitutional change (cf. Fanta, _op. cit._, p. 91)
has been inferred from the mutinous behaviour of a ship's crew.

[569] It cannot fairly be argued from Od. II 192 f. that the assembly
(apart from the king) has a right to impose fines, for the suitors here
are relying not upon any 'constitutional' rights but on force majeure.
It is to be remembered too that Eurymachos appears to have designs upon
the throne (cf. p. 358 f.).

[570] It has been suggested that the true name for such a gathering was
θόωκος (θῶκος) and that this was something different from the ἀγορή
(cf. Fanta, _op. cit._, p. 77); but the evidence for such a distinction
is very far from convincing. We may refer to such passages as Od. XII
318 and, more especially, to V 3 (θῶκόνδε), which is clearly parallel
to Il. XX 4 (ἀγορήνδε). Cf. Finsler, _N. Jahrb._, XIII 327.

[571] In the Hymn to the Delian Apollo, v. 146 ff., mention is made of
a festal gathering of Ionians at Delos, apparently on a considerable
scale. Similar gatherings may have been in existence quite as early,
or even earlier, in other parts of Greece. For the festival at Pylos
however much better parallels are to be found in the great religious
gatherings which took place every nine years at Leire and Upsala, the
old Danish and Swedish capitals. Cf. Thietmar of Merseburg, _Chron._
I 9: _est unus in his partibus locus ... Lederun nomine ... ubi post
nouem annos, mense Ianuario ... omnes conuenerunt et ibi diis suismet_
XCIX _homines et totidem equos cum canibus et gallis pro accipitribus
oblatis immolant_. And Adam of Bremen, IV 27: _solet quoque post nouem
annos communis omnium Sueoniae prouintiarum sollempnitas in Ubsola
celebrari. ad quam uidelicet sollempnitatem nulli praestatur immunitas.
reges et populi omnes et singuli sua dona transmittunt ad Ubsolam_.
It does not appear however that on these occasions--in contrast with
the festival at Pylos--any of the victims were eaten. In this respect
they are probably to be compared rather with the great quadrennial
sacrifices of the Gauls; cf. Diodoros, v. 32.

[572] It is scarcely capable of proof that the picture of the Phaeacian
community in the Odyssey is derived from a Greek model (cf. p. 297 f.
and note); but I believe I am following the generally accepted view in
assuming this to be the case. The features noted here are such as we
might expect to find in a Greek community if we take into account the
evidence of later times.

[573] We may refer also to the rökstólar (judgement-seats) on which the
gods sit when they gather in session (Völuspá, str. 9, 23, 25).

[574] For a true analogy we must of course turn to councils which were
attached to the king's court. Such appears to have been the case with
the twelve chiefs of the Uppland Swedes who, according to St Olaf's
Saga (Heimskr.), cap. 96, constantly attended the Swedish king, sitting
in judgement with him and giving him advice in matters of difficulty.
If the meaning of Od. XIII 130 is that the Phaeacians in general are
descended from Poseidon, we have a further analogy with the same
community, who appear to have claimed descent from the god Frey. Cf.
Saxo, p. 260 (in the catalogue of Ringo's warriors at Bravalla): _At
Sueonum fortissimi hi fuere.... qui quidem Frø dei necessarii erant
et fidissimi numinum arbitri.... iidem quoque ad Frø deum generis sui
principium referebant_.

[575] For Genseric's disregard of the general opinion of those present
a parallel is presented by Agamemnon's conduct in Il. I 22 ff.

[576] Cf. Seymour, _Life in the Homeric Age_, p. 81.

[577] It may be observed here that we often hear also of journeys
for trade and other purposes, as in Od. III 366 ff., where Athene,
disguised as Mentor, says she is going to the land of the Caucones
to collect a debt. Voyages even to countries as distant as Egypt and
Phoenicia are not unknown.

[578] Cf. XXIII 296 ff., where a certain Echepolos (presumably a
fictitious character) is said to have given Agamemnon a mare in order
that he might be excused from the expedition. This person belongs to
Sicyon, another adjacent city and likewise included in Agamemnon's
domain in the Catalogue of Ships.

[579] The evidence of the Catalogue as to the dimensions of Diomedes'
dominions is not corroborated elsewhere in the Iliad. The author may
of course have derived his information from other sources, e.g. from
poems dealing with the story of Adrastos and the expedition against
Thebes. But it is at least equally possible that he was influenced by
the desire of providing each king with dominions comprised in a compact
geographical area.

[580] The passage suggests that the σκῆπτρον is regarded as a symbol
of authority. Thyestes here appears between Atreus and Agamemnon.
In Od. IV 517 f. Aigisthos is said to have dwelt where Thyestes had
formerly dwelt, though unfortunately the locality is not stated.
The two passages however are not necessarily inconsistent, for it
does not follow that Agamemnon, when he took the _imperium_, would
deprive his relative of the estate on which he lived. For the method
of succession--which was of course extremely liable to produce
strife--many Teutonic parallels might be cited. We may refer to the
events which took place on the death of Alfred the Great.

[581] Thucydides (I 9) relates how Atreus acquired the sovereignty
at Mycenae; but his account seems to be largely in the nature of a
conjecture.

[582] Among the Teutonic peoples we have records of such gatherings
from the first century (cf. p. 369, note) to the eleventh (at Upsala;
cf. p. 383. note). There is evidence also for similar festivals among
the Lithuanians and Prussians; cf. Matthias a Michov, De Sarm. Europ.,
Lib. II (in Grynaeus' _Novus Orbis Terrarum_, etc., Basel 1537, p.
519): _insuper prima Octobris die maxima per Samagittas in syluis
praefatis celebritas agebatur, et ex omni regione uniuersus utriusque
sexus conueniens illuc populus cibos et potus quilibet iuxta suae
conditionis qualificationem deferebat; quibus aliquot diebus epulati
diis suis falsis, praecipue deo lingua eorum appellato Perkuno, id est
tonitru, ad focos quisque suos offerebat libamina_.

[583] It is important to notice that the tendency appears to have been
by no means so far developed as in the Teutonic Heroic Age. We cannot
tell, it is true, how far the various dependent cities and districts
remained in the hands of native royal families and how far they were
governed by officials. In the latter category we may include such a
person as Phoinix (Il. IX 483 f.). But it is clear that the royal
families form a much larger proportion of the population than was the
case among the Teutonic peoples of the fifth century.

[584] Teutonic analogies occur, though they are not common. We may
instance Bede's account (_H. E._ IV 12) of what took place after the
death of Coenwalh, king of Wessex (about 673): _acceperunt subreguli
regnum gentis et diuisum inter se tenuerunt annis circiter_ X, after
which _deuictis atque amotis subregulis Caedualla suscepit imperium_.
The Saxon Chronicle certainly gives a different impression; and
from Eddius, _Vita Wilfridi_, cap. 40, it appears that Centwine's
authority was recognised at least to some extent. Reference may
also be made to Procopius' statement (_Goth._ II 14) that--early in
Justinian's reign--the Heruli slew their king, ἄλλο οὐδὲν ἐπενεγκότες
ἢ ὅτι ἀβασίλευτοι τὸ λοιπὸν βούλονται εἶναι; but the interregnum was
of short duration. Earlier cases may be found among the Cherusci and
other peoples of western Germany during the first century--where it is
to be noted that Tacitus' _principes_ and _regnum_ correspond to Bede's
_subreguli_ and _imperium_ respectively. I cannot help thinking that
much confusion has been introduced into early Greek history through
failure to distinguish between kingship and lordship.

[585] This is true even of Sparta. We may quote Herodotus' account
(VII 104) of Demaratos' speech to Xerxes: ἐλεύθεροι γὰρ ἐόντες (sc.
οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι) οὐ πάντα ἐλεύθεροί εἰσι· ἔπεστι γάρ σφι δεσπότης
νόμος, τὸν ὑποδειμαίνουσι πολλῷ ἔτι μᾶλλον ἢ οἱ σοὶ σέ. It is the
recognition of this impersonal force--not of course any sense of
universal right, but the 'law' of the community--which perhaps most
clearly distinguishes post-heroic and pre-heroic society from that
of the Heroic Age. The existence of such a force--operating, under
religious sanction (cf. p. 366), as a restraint upon the king's freedom
of action--is implied by Tacitus, _Germ._ 7, 11. But it is a strange
misunderstanding which has led several scholars to compare the former
of these passages with Beow. 73, where the limitations stated are those
of Hrothgar's generosity, not of his power.

CHAPTER XVIII.

RELIGION IN THE HEROIC AGE.

In the course of the Heroic Age many of the Teutonic peoples were
converted to Christianity. The change of faith began among the Goths
soon after the middle of the fourth century and must have spread
very quickly to the Vandals. The Gepidae and Langobardi seem to
have followed the example of these peoples in the course of the
following century. At the time of Justinian's accession the Heruli
were probably the only Teutonic people in eastern central Europe who
remained heathen. In the west the Burgundians accepted Christianity
apparently about the beginning of the fifth century, and the Franks
before its close. The conversion of England took place in the seventh
century; that of the Frisians and Old Saxons for the most part in the
eighth. The Northern Kingdoms in general were little affected by the
change until towards the close of the tenth century, though the first
missionary efforts in Denmark and Sweden began before the middle of the
ninth. In parts of Sweden the heathen religion lingered on until late
in the eleventh century.

In the Nibelungenlied it is clearly recognised, perhaps through
scholastic influence, that the multitude assembled at Attila's court
included both Christians and heathens; but no such distinction is
drawn in the English and Norse poems. In the former all the characters
are made to speak as Christians, though they observe heathen rites;
in the latter no indication is given that any of the characters were
Christians. In point of fact there can be little doubt that most of
the persons who figure in the heroic stories were heathens. In all
probability such was the case with the earlier Goths, Eormenric
and his contemporaries, as well as with all the characters of the
Danish cycles. On the other hand the later Goths, Theodric and his
contemporaries, were certainly Christians, and so also were the
Burgundians, Guthhere and his brothers, as well as Alboin, king of the
Langobardi.

With the Christian religion we are not concerned here; for, greatly
as it influenced the Teutonic peoples, it was in no sense native. It
is to the religion which Christianity displaced that we must give our
attention. Unfortunately however the records which have come down to us
from the Heroic Age itself are entirely of foreign authorship, and on
the whole they give us extremely little information on this subject. We
are bound therefore to base our account of Teutonic religion upon the
comparatively abundant evidence preserved in Scandinavian literature,
though we must not assume that the religion of the Heroic Age possessed
the characteristics which we find in the North some five centuries
later. When we have given a brief summary of the chief features of
this later religion we shall have to discuss in somewhat more detail
the small amount of information available for the earlier period. This
is rendered all the more necessary by the fact that in works dealing
with the subject the religion of the Heroic Age has not generally been
distinguished from that of the Germans of Tacitus' time.

Now the feature which will probably strike any one most forcibly from
a careful study of Northern religion is an extraordinary discrepancy
between the mythical stories contained in the Edda and elsewhere on
the one hand and references to actual religious observances on the
other. In the former we find the gods grouped together in an organised
community, of which Othin is the recognised head. Frigg is his wife,
Thor and many of the other gods his sons. Most of the mythical stories
deal with Othin's exploits and adventures, and serve to illustrate his
power and wisdom. On the other hand the references to religious rites
point in quite a different direction. In Iceland, for which our records
are most full, there is practically no evidence for the worship of
Othin. Thor is by far the most prominent figure, and after him Frey;
occasionally also we hear of Niörðr[586]. References to the worship
of other supernatural beings, elves and landvættir (_genii locorum_),
are not unfrequent. In notices referring to Norway the evidence is
not very different. We do indeed sometimes hear of worship paid to
Othin, especially in legendary stories, relating to early times; but in
references to what may be called the historical period--the tenth and
eleventh centuries--Thor and Frey are distinctly more prominent.

Two explanations have been given of this curious phenomenon. One is
that the cult of Othin was introduced into the North at a comparatively
late period and that it had not yet obtained a real hold at the time
when Iceland was settled. This explanation has no foundation in
tradition. Indeed the evidence of the stories points to an entirely
opposite conclusion. Moreover it is worth noting that according to
Procopius (_Goth._ II 15) the inhabitants of 'Thule' (i.e. Scandinavia)
worshipped 'Ares' more than any other god. Since Othin is essentially a
god of war it is natural to suppose that he is the deity meant, rather
than the somewhat obscure Týr.

The other explanation is that the cults of Othin and Thor belonged
to two different classes of the community, the former to princely
families and their retinues, the latter to the country people, more
especially the (non-official) landowners. This explanation seems to be
in complete accordance with the facts. There is no evidence for the
worship of Othin either in early or late times except by princes or
persons attached to their courts, while there are very few instances
of the worship of Thor by such persons. Further we may note that while
names compounded with _Thór-_ (e.g. _Thórkell_, _Thórolfr_) are about
the commonest type of all among the ordinary free population, both in
Norway and Iceland--and such names are significant since they denote
that the persons who bore them were dedicated to the god--they are
practically unknown in royal families. It will be convenient now to
give a short sketch of the two deities and their cults.

Thor is represented as a middle-aged man of immense bodily strength.
He is well disposed towards the human race and looked upon as their
protector against harmful demons, to whom he is an implacable foe. In
the poems Thrymskviða and Hýmiskviða and in a number of prose stories
we have descriptions of Thor's adventures with giants, in which he is
generally represented as breaking their skulls with his hammer. He uses
no weapon except the hammer, and when he travels he either walks or
drives in a car drawn by goats. When he comes to the assembly of the
gods he is said to wade through certain rivers on the way. His escort
never consists of more than three persons; very often he goes alone.
The picture which the stories give us is clearly that of an idealised
Norwegian countryman of primitive times. There are scarcely any traces
of his original connection with the thunder, though in Sweden it was
clearly remembered.

The portraiture of Othin offers the greatest possible contrast to that
of Thor. He is represented as an old man, generally with one eye, and
he gains his ends not by bravery or physical strength but by wisdom and
cunning. Sometimes we find him coming, usually in disguise, to giants
or witches, in order to gain from them some magical power or knowledge
of the future; sometimes he imparts his knowledge, again generally
magical, to men. He presents his favourites with weapons and instructs
them in the art of war. Above all he is the god who gives victory in
battle.

Othin's chief dwelling is called Valhöll (the 'hall of the slain'),
and all persons who fall in battle were believed to go to him there.
Hence we find such expressions as 'to go to lodge with Othin' or 'to
go to Valhalla' used as euphemisms for 'to be killed.' Before joining
battle it is said to have been customary to throw a javelin over the
enemy with the words 'Othin has you all.' After a battle prisoners
were commonly sacrificed to Othin, and on such occasions, and indeed
at all human sacrifices, the formula regularly used was: 'I give thee
to Othin.' The usual method of sacrifice was by hanging or stabbing
or a combination of both. With this practice we may probably connect
a somewhat obscure myth recorded in Hávamál, str. 138, according to
which Othin was sacrificed to himself, by hanging and stabbing, on the
world-tree. Certainly it is to be noted that the sacrifices to Othin
seem to have been invariably human. They were clearly rites of quite a
different character from the sacrificial feasts frequently mentioned
in the sagas, where the victims consisted of horses, oxen and other
edible animals, part of which was offered to the gods, while the rest
was consumed by the worshippers. We do sometimes hear of horses being
sacrificed with men, but on such occasions dogs and hawks are also
mentioned, and there is no evidence that any of the victims were eaten.
There are very few records of human sacrifices to any god except Othin.

The picture of Valhalla presented to us in the poems is a glorified
copy of a military king's court[587]. The vast number of slain warriors
assembled there in Othin's service spend their days in single combats
and their evenings in feasting. Beside them we find the Valkyriur
('choosers of the slain'), Othin's adopted daughters, who distribute
ale to the feasters. These also are sent out by Othin to decide the
issue of battles and to select warriors for Valhalla. It is noteworthy
that the term _Valkyriur_ seems to be applied both to supernatural
beings--what may perhaps be called minor divinities--and also to living
women endowed with supernatural powers, such as that of flying. Thus
both Brynhildr and Sigrún, the wife of Helgi Hundingsbani, are called
Valkyries; and it was for deciding a fight contrary to Othin's command
that the former was punished with perpetual sleep.

In Ynglinga Saga, cap. 8, Othin is said to have ordained "that all dead
men should be burnt and brought on to the pyre with their property.
He said that every dead man should come to Valhöll with such property
as he had on the pyre.... But the ashes were to be cast out into the
sea or buried down in the earth." Valhalla seems to be represented
as a spirit world somewhat far away and not connected at all with
the burial place. This observation brings us to another remarkable
discrepancy between the traditions and the customs which we find
actually prevailing in the North. We know both from descriptions in
the sagas and from discoveries made in modern times that in the last
few centuries before the adoption of Christianity it was customary
to bury the dead in their ships or in elaborately constructed wooden
chambers--the whole being covered with a barrow of considerable size.
In the Prologue to Snorri's Heimskringla this custom is said to be
of later date than the one attributed to Othin; first was the age of
burning, then the age of barrows. Now there is evidence both from
the discoveries and from the sagas themselves that the barrows were
regarded as sacred and that the spirits of the dead were believed
to dwell either within them or in the immediate neighbourhood. Not
unfrequently we hear of persons coming to a barrow to consult the
spirit. Sometimes the ghost, embodied in the corpse, even defends
his property against grave-robbers. The activities of the dead are
often represented as injurious; but this is by no means always the
case. On one occasion we hear of a dispute between several different
districts for the possession of the body of a king whose reign had been
distinguished by great prosperity.

On the whole then it is clear that the cult of the dead was practised
in the North very much as in most other parts of the world. Yet modern
discoveries have brought to light abundant evidence for cremation in
the early iron age--sometimes in spots which are marked by no external
monument--so that the statements of Ynglinga Saga may be regarded
as based on good tradition. We are driven to conclude therefore
that in their conception of immortality, as in their theology, the
inhabitants of the North held two wholly inconsistent views--or,
perhaps it would be more correct to say, two entirely opposite views
as to the desirability of retaining the souls of the dead. In Iceland
the practice of cremation seems to have been extremely rare, but when
it was resorted to the object is said to have been to get rid of a
troublesome ghost. The one view of immortality was by no means so
closely bound up with the cult of Thor as the other was with that of
Othin. But it certainly prevailed among Thor's worshippers.

The next most important deity after Othin and Thor was Frey. His cult
was widely spread in Norway and Iceland; yet according to tradition
its true home was Sweden[588]. The Swedish royal family and nobility
traced their descent from Frey, and Upsala, their capital and the chief
sanctuary of the North, was believed to have been founded by him. In
Ynglinga Saga, cap. 12 f., we have an account of him which is worth
quoting as an illustration of Northern manes-worship. Frey is here
represented as a prince whose reign was characterised by unparalleled
prosperity. His death was concealed for three years. But when it became
known, the Swedes would not burn him; for they believed that prosperity
and peace would last as long as Frey was in Sweden. They made a great
barrow for him therefore and poured into it the tribute which they had
been wont to pay him; and they worshipped him for prosperity and peace
ever afterwards. A very similar account is given of the Danish king
Fróði the Peaceful--from which we may infer that in Frey we have to
deal not with a deified man but with a mythical character--a 'king of
the golden age.' His name originally seems to have meant 'prince' or
'lord' (Ang.-Sax. _frea_, cf. ἄναξ); very probably it was at one time a
title of the Swedish kings[589].

Frey appears to be regarded as a youthful god. The blessings for which
he was worshipped were peace and fertility, both of the crops and
livestock, as well as of the human race. His power of controlling the
weather may be accounted for by his association with the Swedish kings
(cf. p. 367); but it is clear that his character contains elements
drawn from more than one source. His father Niörðr, who is sometimes
associated with him, possesses much the same characteristics, though
he appears to be more particularly connected with the sea. There can
be little doubt however that both he and his son have inherited the
attributes of an ancient earth-goddess. Although there has been a
change of sex, Niörðr's name is identical with that of Nerthus (_id
est Terra Mater_), a deity who according to Tacitus, _Germ._ 40, was
worshipped on 'an island in the ocean'--in all probability Sjælland.
Niörðr also has a daughter called Freyia (i.e. ἄνασσα, Δέσποινα), who
is represented as a female counterpart of Frey. It is worth noting
that she is sometimes associated with the next world. According to
Grímnismál, str. 14, she shares the slain equally with Othin.

The deities with which we have just been dealing were collectively
known as Vanir. They were held to be of a quite different stock from
the Aesir, to whom Othin and Thor belonged, and according to the
mythology had been given to the latter as hostages. Of the other
deities those who figure most prominently in mythical stories are Frigg
(Othin's wife), Ullr, Hoenir, Týr, Heimdallr, Iðun, Gefion and Balder;
but we seldom hear of worship paid to any of these.

In the Edda all the gods together form a regularly organised community.
Their home is called Ásgarðr, and they hold their meetings beside the
'world-tree,' Yggdrasill's Ash. It is to be observed that Ásgarðr is a
totally different conception from Valhalla[590]; it is not an abode of
the slain. Indeed in this connection Othin himself does not appear to
be represented as a god of the dead. But apart from Ásgarðr each god
has a special abode of his own--Thor at Thrúðheimr, Ullr at Ýdalir,
Niörðr at Noatún, Balder at Breiðablik, etc. All these localities
are mythical--or at all events incapable of identification. It is a
striking characteristic of Northern mythology that the gods are not
associated with any known localities. Practically the only exceptions
are Frey and Gefion, who are connected by tradition with Upsala and
Sjælland respectively; and neither of these connections is preserved
in the poems of the Edda. In order to understand this feature we must
of course bear in mind the fact that our mythological records are
almost entirely derived from Iceland, which lies far away from the old
national sanctuaries.

It is probably due to the same cause that we hear but little of
special cults. In Iceland the only noteworthy exception is that,
beside the more usually prevailing cult of Thor, we find a number of
persons who are devoted to the service of Frey. Certain chiefs bear
the title _Freysgoði_ ('priest of Frey'); in one case a whole family
bore the surname _Freysgyðlingar_. Temples apparently sometimes
contained the figures of a number of gods, though Thor's or Frey's is
usually the only one mentioned by name. In Norway however the case is
somewhat different. We hear frequently of temples and statues of Thor,
occasionally also of those of Frey. But in addition to these there are
notices of sanctuaries belonging to other deities--though not to Othin.
In Friðþiófs Saga, cap. 1 (and passim), mention is made of a temple and
image of Balder in the district of Sogn. It is the fashion to treat
this incident as a product of antiquarian speculation; but there is
little in the story itself to justify such a view, and the fact that
the worship of Balder is not found elsewhere proves nothing. More
important however is the fact that in a number of records we hear of
statues and temples of Thórgerðr Hölgabrúðr, with whom her sister Irpa
is sometimes associated. There can be no doubt that under the rule of
Earl Haakon of Lade the cult of Thórgerðr was more prominent than that
of any other deity, at least in the district of Trondhjem. This fact is
the more remarkable because Thórgerðr and Irpa are never associated in
any way with the rest of the gods; in the poems of the Edda and even in
Gylfaginning their existence is ignored.

A very interesting illustration of the practice of special cults occurs
in Niáls Saga, cap. 88, which describes a temple owned in common by
Earl Haakon and Guðbrandr, a powerful _hersir_ (hereditary local chief)
in the highlands. This temple contained figures of Thórgerðr and Irpa
and also of Thor in his car[591]. We know from other sources that the
cult of Thor was hereditary in the family of Guðbrandr. Indeed it
appears to be generally true that families adhered to the same cult
from generation to generation[592], though in one case we do hear of
an Icelander bearing the title Freysgoði, who belonged to a family
distinguished for its service to Thor.

The relations between the worshipper and his deity were of a personal
and intimate character; he regarded the latter as friend, counsellor
and protector. Where the two are of different sexes the relationship
is apt to take a conjugal form. Thus in the Flateyiarbók, I p. 107
f., Olafr Tryggvason, after robbing one of Earl Haakon's temples, and
carrying off the image, calls out in derision: "Who wants to buy a
wife? I think Thórkell and I are now responsible for this woman, since
she has had the misfortune to lose her husband who was exceedingly dear
to her." One of the bystanders then addresses the image: "How is it,
Thórgerðr, that thou art now so humiliated and stripped in unseemly
wise of the splendid apparel wherewith Earl Haakon had thee clothed
when he loved thee?" So in the poem Hyndlulióð Freyia speaks of her
devoted worshipper, Óttarr the son of Innsteinn, as her husband. We
may compare with this the fact that in the Flateyiarbók, I 337 f., the
priestess in charge of Frey's temple in Sweden is said to have been
called his wife. I see no reason therefore for supposing that Snorri
was giving rein to his imagination when he stated (Yngl. Saga, cap. 5)
that Gefion was the wife of Skiöldr who, though a mythical character
(cf. p. 131 f.), was not a god.

Sometimes again we meet with a definitely hostile attitude towards
a deity--generally Othin--and it must not be supposed that such
ideas first arose after the introduction of Christianity. In Saxo's
translation of the lost Biarkamál the hero suspects that Othin is
among the enemy and expresses his eagerness to attack him. If once
he can catch sight of him, he says, the god will not escape from
Leire unharmed[593]. Such ideas can only be explained by a vivid
anthropomorphic conception of the deities.

The same attitude appears elsewhere. In Gautreks Saga, cap. 7--a story
which contains many archaic features--we find the destiny of a man
being determined by Othin and Thor, the former of whom is friendly
to him, the latter hostile. In the introduction to Grímnismál as the
result of a disagreement with Othin Frigg plays a trick upon him which
leads him into serious trouble. Nor is the married life of Niörðr and
Skaði as happy as might be wished. But the chief cause of discord among
the gods is the malicious Loki. In the poem Lokasenna he charges most
of the chief goddesses with unfaithfulness or unchastity, while at the
same time he reproaches the gods with unseemly conduct or with being
involved in humiliating positions. The picture of the divine community
which the poem presents to us is anything but pleasant. No doubt Loki
is representing every circumstance in the most unfavourable light
possible; but there appears to be a definite mythical foundation for
most of his charges.

Loki serves as a connecting link between the gods and the iötnar
('giants'), a class of beings who are represented as generally hostile
to both gods and men. Yet there are exceptions to this rule; and some
of the gods, e.g. Niörðr and Frey, have wives from the iötnar. Next
to them we must mention the dwarfs, who are distinguished for their
cunning and skill in metallurgy. Neither of these classes however
can properly be regarded as objects of worship. Elves were certainly
worshipped, but only collectively, as far as we know. In early records
they are scarcely ever spoken of as individuals. Most probably their
origin is to be sought in animistic conceptions, connected with the
cult of the dead. On this last subject enough has been said above;
we need only add that the formal deification of dead men was not
unknown[594]. Sacred trees and groves also figure as prominently as in
other parts of Europe.

* * * * *

Thus far we have been dealing with the religion of the Viking Age,
primarily as we know of it in Iceland and Norway. But we have seen
that the actual records of religion in Iceland agree in no way with
the theology of the Edda. Nor can it truly be said that the evidence
for Norway shows a better case. Here too we find the worship of Thor
and Frey. But for the worship of Othin, Niörðr, Freyia and Balder the
evidence is slight and generally doubtful. For that of the rest of the
gods there is no evidence at all. On the other hand we find that the
deity who after Thor figures most prominently of all in these records
is one who is entirely unknown to the theology of the Edda. The only
conclusion which it seems to me legitimate to draw from these facts is
that the mythology of the Edda is not a true reflection of Norwegian
religion, at all events as it existed in the Viking Age.

Now let us consider the various deities individually. It will be
convenient to begin with those whom we know to have been worshipped in
Norway or Iceland. There is no question that Thor was known not only
in Sweden and Denmark but also in Germany and England, under the forms
_Donar_ and _Thunor_ respectively. Apart from local nomenclature and
the use of his name (as a translation of _dies Iouis_) in the fifth day
of the week, there are a few direct references to worship of him--e.g.
in the inscription on a brooch found at Nordendorf in Bavaria and in a
Low German renunciation formula for the use of converts. His cult goes
back without doubt to the Heroic Age and probably much earlier, though
he is apparently not mentioned by Tacitus.

The cult of Frey was believed to have come from Sweden, as we have
seen. How old it was there we do not know; but there is some reason
for believing that it was not originally confined to that country. The
Slavonic inhabitants of eastern Holstein worshipped a deity of the same
name[595]; and the presumption is that they found the cult in existence
when they occupied that district--not later than the seventh century.
But the name _Yngvi_ has a much longer history and can be traced in
various records back to the time of Tacitus. From what is said of Ing
in the Anglo-Saxon Runic Poem it is clear that he was a perfectly
definite, though doubtless mythical, personality[596].

We have already noticed that Niörðr can be traced back to a goddess
Nerthus, who was worshipped in the first century by the Angli and other
peoples in the south-western part of the Baltic. When the change of sex
took place we do not know. The feminine form of the deity is probably
preserved in Freyia, who under the name _Skialf_ seems to have her
roots in early Swedish tradition.

With Othin we shall have to deal presently. There is abundant evidence
that he was known not only in Sweden and Denmark but also in England
and at least the greater part of Germany. In the two latter countries
he bore the names _Woden_ and _Wodan_ respectively. Even in Tacitus'
time he appears (under the name _Mercurius_) as the chief god.

Balder's history is not so clear. From Saxo's account (p. 70 ff.)
there can be little doubt that he was known in Denmark. The question
whether he was recognised in Germany[597] depends practically upon the
interpretation of the (second) Merseburg charm, to which we shall have
to refer again shortly.

Now let us take the deities who are known to us only from the
mythology. Both Frigg and Týr were certainly known in England and
Germany. Their names are preserved in the sixth and third days of
the week. Frigg (_Frea_) also figures, as the wife of Wodan, in the
Langobardic story quoted above (p. 115), while Týr (_Mars_) is
mentioned more than once by Tacitus.

Of Ullr traces are preserved in local nomenclature both in Denmark
and Sweden. From Saxo (p. 81 f.) it appears that he was remembered in
Danish tradition. Gefion's association with Sjælland (cf. p. 400) is
recorded by Bragi Boddason, the earliest Scandinavian poet of whom
anything has been preserved. Both her name and that of Iðun can be
traced in local nomenclature in the same island[598].

There remain of course a large number of less important deities who
cannot be traced outside the mythology of the Edda. Many scholars hold
that these were invented by Norwegian or Icelandic poets during the
Viking Age; but it is at least equally possible that our inability
to trace them elsewhere is due in part to the extreme poverty of our
information. One piece of evidence which tells in favour of the latter
view is that the Merseburg charm preserves the name of one of the least
prominent of these deities--Fulla, the handmaid of Frigg. The fact
too that these poets made no attempt to incorporate Thórgerðr in the
pantheon seems to show that in their time[599] the theological system
of the Edda was more or less crystallised. At all events it is clear
that, with the exception of Thórgerðr and Irpa, all the deities whose
worship is attested were known beyond Norway, and that most of them can
be traced back to the Heroic Age or still earlier times.

There is a further reason for doubting whether the theology of the
Edda was a product of late Norwegian poetry. Perhaps the most striking
conception in this theology is that of the 'world-tree,' Yggdrasill's
Ash. I have pointed out elsewhere[600] that this conception is largely
derived from a tree-sanctuary and that a fairly close parallel to it
is furnished by the description of the Upsala sanctuary given in
Adam of Bremen's history (IV 26 f.) and the annexed scholia. Similar
sanctuaries may have existed in Norway; but we have no record of
one which possessed the same characteristics, and it is extremely
improbable that any of them ever attained an importance comparable with
that possessed by the Swedish capital. Again, there are features in the
picture of the 'world-tree'--I would allude especially to the presence
of snakes--for which no parallels can be found in any Scandinavian
sanctuary of which we have record. Yet such features do occur in the
tree-sanctuaries of more primitive peoples, especially among the
Prussians and Lithuanians. From this it appears to me highly probable
that the conception of the world-tree dates from a comparatively
early period. The idea of universality which it embodied cannot be
held to prove the contrary; for this idea was possessed also by the
Irminsul[601], the sacred pillar of the Old Saxons. We have no reason
for doubting that a philosophical conception such as this was possible
before the Viking Age.

I am inclined therefore to think that the theological system of the
Edda in its main features dates from times anterior to the Viking Age.
From earlier sources--the works of Tacitus and various German and
English authorities--we know altogether the names of about a score of
deities, half of whom belong to either sex. It is probable however
that a much larger number have been lost. At all events there can be
no doubt that the religion of the Heroic Age was a highly developed
polytheism. Procopius (_Goth._ II 15), speaking of the inhabitants of
'Thule' (Scandinavia), says that they worship many gods and demons
(δαίμονας), both in the heavens and in the atmosphere, in the earth and
in the sea, besides certain other spirits (δαιμόνια) which are said to
be in the waters of springs and rivers. Again, in the preceding chapter
he states that the Heruli of central Europe worshipped a great crowd of
gods (πολύν τινα νομίζοντες θεῶν ὅμιλον), whom they thought it right to
appease even with human sacrifices. Procopius' evidence is important
not only because it is almost contemporary but also because he clearly
distinguishes between the religion of the Teutonic peoples and that of
the Slavs. Of the latter he says (_ib._ III 14) that "they consider
one god, the creator of the lightning, to have sole control over all
things, and they sacrifice to him oxen and offerings of all kinds....
Yet they also reverence rivers and nymphs and some other spirits
(δαιμόνια), and sacrifice to them all, using divination in these
sacrifices." It will be seen that this type of religion is not very far
removed from what we find among the Thor-worshippers of Iceland.

In an earlier chapter (p. 255) we quoted from the Life of St Ansgar
the story of a man who claimed to have been present at an assembly of
the gods. From this story it is clear that in Sweden not very long
after the beginning of the Viking Age the gods were believed to form
an organised community. For earlier times no such explicit information
is to be found; but we can scarcely doubt that some similar belief
prevailed during the Heroic Age. In the Langobardic story quoted above
(p. 115) Fria (Frigg) is the wife of Wodan, as in the Edda. In the
(second) Merseburg charm we find a number of deities taking part in
an incantation. Of the goddesses Sunna is said to be the sister of
Sinthgunt, and Volla the sister of Fria. Evidence to the same effect is
furnished by a letter of Bishop Daniel of Winchester to St Boniface,
in which the writer speaks of a genealogy of the gods and advises
his correspondent to put awkward questions to the heathen regarding
the origin, numbers and relationships of their deities[602]. It may
be noted that the earlier Anglo-Saxon genealogies, which go back
probably to the seventh century, trace Woden's ancestry back for five
generations.

Of course it is not to be denied that some of the deities of whom
we hear may have been recognised only locally or by certain nations
or confederacies. Such an explanation is very likely in the case of
more than one deity mentioned by Tacitus, whom we cannot identify
with any probability. In later times the same may be true of the
god Fosite[603], to whom an island in the North Sea--identified with
Heligoland by Adam of Bremen--was wholly dedicated. It is quite
possible too that the god Seaxneat (_Saxnote_), who is mentioned in the
Renunciation Formula and from whom the kings of Essex claimed descent,
was worshipped only by the Saxons.

But even if such evidence was a good deal stronger than it actually is
we should not be justified in inferring from it that the religion of
the Heroic Age was of an essentially national rather than universal
character. It is not only in Northern records of the Viking Age or the
Christian period that we hear of families which were supposed to be
descended from Othin (Woden). Out of the eight royal genealogies of the
English kingdoms which have come down to us seven are traced back to
the same deity; and it is highly probable that most of these date from
before the conversion[604]--i.e. from within a century of the Heroic
Age. But Woden was not a national but a universal deity.

Moreover what little we do know of this god from English and German
sources is in full conformity with the character which he bears
in Northern records. In the Anglo-Saxon poem on the Nine Herbs
he is skilled in magic; in the Merseburg poem he is an expert in
incantations. In the Langobardic story we find him represented as the
giver of victory. In Tacitus' time he was already worshipped above the
other gods; and human victims were offered to him. The same author
(_Ann._ XIII 57) records the custom of dedicating a hostile army to
Mars and Mercurius--a vow which entailed the total destruction of
everything belonging to the enemy. The great deposits of antiquities
which have been found at Thorsbjærg, Nydam, Vi and elsewhere are
commonly believed to be relics of such dedicatory spoils. Finally,
later popular belief often placed Woden at the head of the Wild Hunt
or ghostly army. For the existence of a conception corresponding to
Valhalla we have no explicit evidence[605]. But such a doctrine would
clearly be in full accord with all that we know of the cult.

In funeral rites both inhumation and cremation were practised. The
latter custom however seems to have died out almost everywhere before
the introduction of Christianity--in England about the middle of
the sixth century, among the Franks and Alamanni much earlier. Only
among the Old Saxons it lingered apparently until towards the close
of the eighth century, when it was rigorously put down after their
subjugation[606]. How far the two practices were associated with
different conceptions of immortality, as in the North, it is impossible
to tell. In Beowulf (cf. p. 54) cremation is regarded as a pious duty
owed to the dead; but all heathen references to the destiny of the soul
hereafter have been removed from the poem. On the other hand there is
evidence from later times for offerings at the grave, necromancy and
all other practices usually associated with the cult of the dead[607].

The most important piece of evidence however on this subject is
furnished by Procopius' account of the Heruli (_Goth._ II 14). He
states that with them it was not lawful for a man to die of old age
or disease. When he felt himself to be dying he had to request his
relatives to make away with him as soon as possible. They had then to
construct a huge pyre and set the dying man in the highest part of
it. A compatriot, though not a relative (cf. p. 346), is then sent up
to stab the man, and on his return the wood is immediately kindled.
When the fire is burnt out the remains are collected and buried
forthwith, and the widow is required to strangle herself at the tomb.
Such rites as this are commonly ascribed to the desire to set the soul
free while in possession of its faculties. But in view of the fact
that in Northern tradition cremation is bound up with the doctrine of
Valhalla[608]--a doctrine which is in no way inconsistent with this
explanation--it is certainly significant that the two rites should be
associated here, more especially since the Heruli were an essentially
military people. On the whole the evidence of this passage is
distinctly favourable to the view that a belief closely approximating
to the doctrine of Valhalla was prevalent during the Heroic Age.

Valkyries (_walcyrgan_) are not unfrequently mentioned in Anglo-Saxon
literature[609], and it is clear that similar beings were known in
Germany, though this word does not occur in extant records. In England,
as in the North, both human and supernatural beings were included
under this term, though they are not always clearly distinguished from
witches. But, more than this, the poetic description of valkyries
which we find in the Edda[610] can likewise be traced in Anglo-Saxon
poetry. In a charm against sudden pains we hear of mighty women who
rode over the hill, mustered their host and cast their spears. The
idea that sudden pains were due to the agency of such beings[611]
comes doubtless from popular belief; but the description cannot be
accounted for in this way. Again, in the (first) Merseburg charm we
find supernatural women (_idisi_) taking part in a battle; and it is to
be remembered that the word _walcyrge_ can hardly mean anything else
than 'chooser of the slain.' Certainly we have no evidence to prove--or
disprove--that the valkyries were associated with Woden in early times.
But the features noted here again point clearly to the existence of a
conception akin to Valhalla and, what is more, to the poetic treatment
of such a conception.

In the course of this discussion[612] I have endeavoured to point out
that the theological system of the Edda cannot properly be regarded as
an invention of (Norwegian-Icelandic) poets of the Viking Age--that, on
the contrary, it is derived in great measure from much earlier times.
I do not mean to deny that the growth of the system has been very
largely influenced by poetry. But the evidence seems to me to show that
the poetic treatment of the subject had begun--and probably more than
begun--in the Heroic Age and among many of the Teutonic peoples. It
is perfectly true that the notices of Teutonic religion contained in
Tacitus' works convey the impression that religion was regarded as a
very serious matter and that the general attitude towards the gods was
highly reverential. The same impression is conveyed by Alcuin's account
of Fositesland; and probably no one will deny that the euthanasia of
the Heruli was based upon a very real conception of immortality. But
to compare such records with the poetry of the Edda would manifestly
be absurd. For analogies to them we must turn to notices relating to
actual religion, and here we shall find evidence that the people of the
Viking Age were no less religious than those of earlier times. We may
instance the reverence shown by Thórolfr of Mostr to his holy hill and
Earl Haakon's devotion to Thórgerðr Hölgabrúðr.

On the other hand the attitude towards the gods shown in the Edda finds
an exact analogy in the only record of 'theological' poetry which has
survived from the Heroic Age. In the Langobardic story (cf. p. 115) the
anthropomorphisation of the deities is already complete; and the chief
god[613] is duped by his wife. We could scarcely wish for a better
parallel to the account given in the introduction to Grímnismál. In
view of this story it is scarcely possible to doubt that familiarity,
not to say levity, in the treatment of the gods characterised the
poetry of the Heroic Age, just as much as that of the Viking Age.

It would be well to hesitate however before assuming that the gods of
Tacitus' time were treated in the same way. His account shows that
Teutonic theology had then passed beyond the purely tribal stage,
and that certain deities were worshipped by a number of peoples, if
not universally. But it does not suggest the existence of a highly
anthropomorphic conception of the gods. Further we have to bear in mind
that Tacitus is separated only by a century and a half from Caesar.
The account of German religion given by the latter (_B. Gall._ VI 21)
is difficult to account for by any explanation. But unless we are to
believe that Caesar was thoroughly imposed upon we must conclude that
nothing in the nature of a developed polytheism can have existed in his
day. To the theology of the Heroic Age his account of the Gaulish gods
(_ib._ VI 17) would be far more applicable than what he says regarding
the worship of the Germans.

The question we have been discussing appears to throw some light
upon the rapidity with which most of the Teutonic peoples accepted
Christianity. The facts which we know with regard to the conversion are
as follows: (1) that it almost invariably began in the king's court;
(2) that violent opposition was offered only in kingless communities,
as among the Old Saxons, or in defiance of the king's authority, as in
Norway; (3) that after the conversion the gods (in general) disappear
at once and for good; (4) that magical practices and the belief in
spirits and even in certain female agricultural deities ('Erce,' Holda,
Berhta, etc.) lasted among the country people for many centuries. From
(4) we may probably infer that the religion of the country people
was chiefly animistic--similar no doubt to what we find in Iceland,
with the exception that we have little evidence for the cult of the
thunder-god. Again, the explanation of (3) hangs together with (1);
for the statements of ecclesiastical writers render it clear that the
religion of the courts was essentially theistic. But it is plain from
the discussion in the Northumbrian council recorded by Bede (_H. E._
II 13)--the only discussion of this kind of which we have any detailed
account--that here at least this religion retained little vital
force[614]. This fact is fully explained if, as I have endeavoured to
point out, theology had largely passed from the realm of dogma into
that of poetry.

The conclusion then to which we are brought is that Teutonic religion,
at all events in the courts, underwent a profound change in the course
of the Heroic Age. It is to be observed that in the earlier part of
that age--as in the earlier part of the Viking Age--we find, especially
among the more northern peoples, a fanatical devotion to warfare
for its own sake, accompanied by lust for destruction and apparently
also by a vivid conception of a life hereafter. In the latter part
of the Heroic Age these phenomena disappear, except among the Heruli
who, according to Procopius, differed from all the rest of mankind.
The ideal which the princes of the later period set before themselves
may be gathered both from Beowulf and from Roman authorities; it was
to enjoy wealth and splendour in this life and to have their fame
celebrated by future generations. For their attitude towards a future
life the speech of the Northumbrian councillor recorded by Bede
(_l.c._) may probably be regarded as typical[615].

* * * * *

In a work such as this it is scarcely necessary to give even a brief
summary of the characteristics of Greek religion, since the main
outlines of the subject are probably much more familiar than those
of even the later religion of the North. At the same time the amount
of information which has been preserved is so great and the unsolved
problems presented by the subject so numerous that it is clearly
better left in the hands of experts. I shall attempt no more therefore
than to call attention to the salient points in which the religion of
the Homeric poems differs from that of later times and to the chief
characteristics in which the former resembles or differs from the
religion of the Teutonic Heroic Age and the Viking Age.

The various objects of worship recognised in Greece belong in general
to much the same categories as those which we have noticed above. They
may be classified roughly as gods, genii locorum and manes. In the last
class we may perhaps include the 'heroes,' though the position occupied
by them is somewhat peculiar. They were for the most part characters
of the Heroic Age, and sometimes we find the cult of the same hero
recognised in a number of different states. In general the worship of
the gods took a different form from that paid to the manes and heroes,
though occasionally the cult of a deity seems to have been associated
with, or superimposed upon, that of a hero.

In the Homeric poems the gods figure much more prominently than the
other classes. The most frequently mentioned of them are Zeus, Hera,
Poseidon, Athene, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaistos, Aphrodite, Ares and
Hermes. Zeus, as head of the divine community, corresponds to Othin
(Woden); but in other respects there is little resemblance between the
two. As god of the thunder his affinities are rather with Thor. Hera,
as wife of the chief god, may be compared with Frigg, while Poseidon,
as god of the sea, has an element in common with Niörðr; but he is also
an earthquake god, which the latter is not. His characterisation also
is much more clearly marked. Apollo and Artemis, as a pair of young
deities, brother and sister, with certain characteristics in common,
bear some resemblance to Frey and Freyia; but the sexual element, so
prominent in the Northern deities, is wanting in the Homeric poems.
On the whole the translator of the Icelandic New Testament seems
to have been happily inspired in rendering _Diana_ (Artemis) by
_Gefion_[616], while Freyia's true counterpart is rather to be found
in Aphrodite[617]. Hephaistos, the smith of the divine community, has
no Northern god corresponding to him; as the maker of heroes' armour
and other metal objects he plays the same part as Weland. Ares, as god
of war, has an element in common with Týr. The Homeric Hermes bears no
resemblance to Othin; his duties are to a certain extent discharged
by the valkyries in Northern mythology. Athene is a character totally
foreign to Northern theology.

All the above deities, together with a number of others less important,
form a regularly organised community, like the Aesir. Their home
is located on Mount Olympos in the north of Thessaly--a conception
probably more primitive than Ásgarðr, which is never represented as a
place known to the human race. But, though Olympos is the home of the
gods collectively, most of them (like the Northern deities) have also
one or more dwelling-places of their own, often in distant localities.
Thus Poseidon's home is at Aigai and Apollo's at Delphoi, though he
is also connected with several localities on the eastern side of the
Aegean--Chryse, Cille, Tenedos, etc. Athene has a home at Athens, while
Hephaistos is connected with Lemnos, Ares with Thrace and Aphrodite
with Paphos in Cyprus. Zeus himself, apart from Olympos, has abodes at
Dodona and Ida.

The belief that the gods had homes of their own in various localities
is clearly to be taken in connection with the fact that they are said
to have sanctuaries in the same places. Thus Aigai is mentioned,
together with Helice, as a place where sacrifices were offered to
Poseidon (Il. VIII 203 f.). Zeus' home at Dodona is his sanctuary
(_ib._, XVI 233 ff.), and it is to her sanctuary at Paphos that
Aphrodite goes (Od. VIII 362 f.). We need not doubt therefore that,
as in later times, the cults of the various deities were largely of
a local character. It is a different question of course whether the
cults--or rather the deities themselves--were of local or tribal
origin; but in certain cases such an explanation appears to be by no
means improbable. Many scholars believe that Ares was originally a
Thracian deity; and the fact that he is represented as the father of
Boeotian heroes can scarcely be regarded as conclusive evidence to the
contrary. In Il. IV 51 f. Hera states that three cities, Argos, Mycenae
and Sparta, are specially dear to her; and there is little evidence
that her cult was ever prominent in any other part of the Greek
mainland. If the same explanation is true of such deities as Apollo
and Aphrodite we must suppose either that their cults have spread
from one locality to another or that deities belonging to different
localities have been identified. The local origin of river gods, such
as Spercheios and Scamandros, is of course clear enough; but these are
little more than genii locorum.

But the really important feature in Homeric theology is that the
various deities, whether of local origin or not, are all brought
together as members of one community, or rather family, and that as
such they are represented as meeting with universal recognition.
Indeed, they are not regarded even as peculiar to the Greek race; the
Trojans recognise the same divinities, and Poseidon goes to receive
sacrifices even from the Ethiopians. A similar, though less important,
community is that of the marine deities, one of whom, Thetis, figures
prominently in the Iliad.

The spirit in which the gods are treated is in general very similar to
what we find in the Edda, and in no way more reverential. Sometimes the
treatment is humorous, as in Thrymskviða; sometimes again the deities
are represented in a very unfavourable light. For the trick played
upon Wodan by Fria in the Langobardic story (cf. p. 115) we have an
interesting parallel in Il. XIV 292-353, where Hera distracts Zeus'
attention from the war and coaxes him to sleep. But this is only one
of a number of incidents which give a generally unpleasant picture of
the domestic life of this pair, much more so than is the case with
Othin and Frigg in the Edda. Again, the story of Ares and Aphrodite,
which forms the subject of Demodocos' lay (Od. VIII 266-366), is very
much what we should expect to find in a poem dealing at length with the
scandalous charges brought against the goddesses in Lokasenna. Ares'
speech in v. 292 ff.--as also Hermes' remarks in v. 339 ff.--may be
compared with those of Frey in Skírnismál. In the Iliad the same two
deities are more than once treated contemptuously.

The same spirit is shown in the treatment of the relations of gods with
men. It is frequently recognised that deities ought to show gratitude
to their worshippers for the sacrifices offered to them, as Freyia does
in Hyndlulióð, though at the same time they are at liberty to refuse a
petition, as in Il. VI 311--a case which may be compared with Frey's
conduct in Víga-Glúms Saga (cf. p. 253). In the Iliad we find several
deities taking an active interest in the fortunes of the war--Poseidon,
Hera and Athene on the side of the Achaeans, and Apollo, Ares and
Aphrodite on that of the Trojans. Poseidon more than once comes to
rouse the Achaeans, when he thinks they are becoming slack. Apollo and
Athene interfere in the struggle in a manner which strikes the reader
as unfair; indeed the latter is frequently guilty of flagrantly mean
and dishonourable conduct towards her opponents. The attitude of the
heroes themselves to the gods is quite in keeping with the way in which
the latter treat them. Achilles openly abuses Apollo for deceiving
him (Il. XXII 15 ff.); and Diomedes attacks and wounds both Ares and
Aphrodite, but only after assurances or assistance from Athene. In
this respect the Homeric princes are not quite so bold as the hero of
Biarkamál (cf. p. 402 f.).

But it is by no means only towards communities that the deities
display their favour or hatred. Indeed their attitude towards the
contending forces at Troy seems to be largely determined by their
relations with certain individuals, especially Helen and Paris. In
the Odyssey Poseidon is represented as persecuting Odysseus, one of
the Achaean leaders, for many years on account of the injury done
by him to Polyphemos. On the other hand both this hero and Diomedes
enjoy the special favour of Athene. It is worth noting that Diomedes
appears to have inherited this favour from his father (cf. Il. V 800
ff.), and the same may be true in the case of Odysseus (cf. Od. XXIV
367 ff., 517 ff.); at all events it is continued towards his son.
In neither of these cases is any hint given of conjugal relations,
such as we find in the North; indeed the sexual element seems to be
practically absent from Athene. Elsewhere however such relations are
clearly involved, e.g. in the cases of Aineias and Achilles, who are
the sons of Aphrodite and Thetis respectively. In the Odyssey (V 119
ff.) the principle is stated plainly; and the hero himself has conjugal
relations with Circe and Calypso, both of whom are described as
goddesses.

Of other mythical beings the genii locorum are perhaps the most
prominent. The distinction between them and the class with which we
have been dealing is by no means so clearly drawn as in the north of
Europe (cf. p. 407 f.). Many of them are even described as gods (θεοί).
River gods, such as Spercheios and Axios, are represented as the
fathers or ancestors of several heroes. Among other, less important,
beings of the same type we may mention the nymphs[618] to whom certain
caves and springs were sacred (e.g. Od. XIII 347 ff., XVII 205 ff., 240
ff.).

References to chthonic deities are not very frequent. The Erinyes
are mentioned several times, especially in curses; but they are
not individualised, though the singular is occasionally used. The
most important person in the under-world appears to be the queen,
Persephoneia; but she is never actually brought upon the scene. Hades
himself is seldom more than a name.

The sacrifices to the gods mentioned in the Homeric poems are as a rule
similar to the sacrificial feasts of which we hear in the North.[619]
A portion of the victims, usually bulls or rams, was offered to the
deity, while the rest was consumed by the worshippers. On the other
hand we hear occasionally of victims which were given wholly to the
gods. Such appears to have been the case with the victims sacrificed
on the occasion of a solemn oath; thus in Il. XIX 267 f. the boar is
thrown into the sea[620]. It is perhaps worth noting that both here and
in III 276 ff. the oath refers to chthonic deities[621], as well as to
Zeus, the Sun and Earth. Victims sacrificed to the dead likewise seem
to be offered entire (e.g. Od. XI 44 ff.; Il. XXIII 166 ff.). Moreover
it is only in connection with funeral rites that we hear of human
sacrifices, namely when Achilles puts to death twelve Trojan youths
at the pyre of Patroclos (_ib._, 175 f.). Horses and dogs are also
sacrificed on this occasion, as well as oxen and sheep, and the whole
scene is in accordance with Northern custom. No mention is made in the
poems of sacrifices such as that of Polyxene, which form so favourite a
theme with the dramatists; but in view of the Northern evidence[622] we
are entitled to doubt whether they are altogether inventions of later
times.

The theology of the Homeric poems received formal recognition in
Greece down to the acceptance of Christianity; but there is no evidence
that the system as a whole possessed any vital force even in the
earliest times of which we have record. From the sixth century onwards
poets and philosophers began to regard Zeus as much more than the chief
of the gods; but even in popular religion it appears that each state
honoured certain deities, while the rest were largely or altogether
neglected. Thus at Athens more prominence seems to have been given to
Athene, and perhaps also to Poseidon, than to Zeus, while Hera was
predominant at Argos and Samos, and Apollo at Delphoi, etc. This is
a feature for which the Homeric poems themselves give evidence, as
we have seen, and there is no reason whatever for supposing it to be
of later growth. Sometimes too we find prominence given to deities,
such as Demeter and Dionysos, who seem to be of little consequence in
the Homeric poems, while other cults, such as that of Serapis, were
introduced from abroad in comparatively late times.

Chthonic deities are more prominent in later literature than in the
Homeric poems; and many authors describe the worship paid to them down
to a comparatively late period. Yet the rites seem to have been of
a primitive character. But perhaps the most striking element in the
religion of classical Greece was the worship of 'heroes.' Every city
possessed shrines (ἡρῷα), at which sacrifices were offered to heroes
with rites similar in general to those used in the worship of chthonic
deities. Originally these heroes seem to have been local persons and
the shrines their tombs; but characters prominent in heroic poetry
sometimes received worship in many different states.

In the Homeric poems there is no evidence for this hero-worship. Indeed
these poems contain few traces of a cult of the manes at all, except
in funeral ceremonies and in connection with the necromantic sacrifice
of Odysseus. This fact has been connected with the Homeric doctrine
of immortality[623], and in view of the Northern evidence (cf. p. 397
ff.) there can be little doubt that the true explanation is to be found
herein. The method used in the disposal of the dead is cremation,
and, as in the North, it was believed that this sent the spirit away
from the body to a place of the dead--not a separate place for each
particular family or community but a common home for the souls of the
whole Greek race. In Il. XXIII 65 ff. the spirit of Patroclos comes and
exhorts Achilles to pay him the last rites: "Never again shall I return
from Hades, when ye have allotted me the due of fire" (V. 75 f.). So
also when Odysseus visits the home of Hades the first spirit he meets
is that of his follower Elpenor, who reproaches him with not attending
to his obsequies and begs him, when he returns to Circe's island, to
"burn him up with his arms, all that he possesses." The idea is clearly
the same as in Ynglinga Saga, cap. 8. The honourable way therefore to
treat a fallen foe is not to strip him but to burn him with his armour,
as in Il. VI 417 ff.[624] Even at the beginning of the historical
period this belief seems not to have entirely died out. According to
the story told by Herodotus (v. 92), when Periandros sent to consult
the spirit of his wife Melissa, she complained that the clothes which
he had given her at her funeral were of no use because they had not
been burnt.

It has already been mentioned (p. 261) that this story seems to show
that at one time the home of the dead was located in a definite, though
probably not very well known, region; and the vague indications given
as to the hero's wanderings in the Odyssey can hardly be regarded as
evidence to the contrary. If this is correct the home of Hades is in
one respect probably a more primitive conception than Valhalla, just as
Olympos is more primitive than Ásgarðr. A reasonable explanation would
be offered if we had evidence that part of the population of Greece
was believed to have come from that region[625]. An idea of this kind
was certainly in Snorri's mind when he wrote the Ynglinga Saga; but
unfortunately the account which he has given is obviously, at least to
a large extent, of scholastic origin.

In other respects however the Homeric conception of immortality
appears to be less simple than the doctrine of Valhalla, as we find
it in certain Northern records. The use of the verbs θάπτειν and
ταρχύσουσι is probably capable of a different explanation; but there
are certain other words and expressions, e.g. κατῆλθεν, ἔνεροι, Ζεὺς
καταχθόνιος (Hades; cf. also Il. XX 61 ff.), which seem to point to
a belief that the world of the dead was beneath the earth. That is
the conception implied in certain local beliefs which we meet with in
later times, at Hermione and elsewhere, where a deep cavern or lake was
supposed to lead thither. More important however is the fact that the
home of Hades is totally devoid of the attractiveness of Valhalla; the
gloomy picture which is drawn of it accords rather with the Northern
home of Hel. The burning of the body, together with armour and funeral
sacrifices, appears to procure little real advantage to the soul; it
is regarded, as in Beowulf, rather in the nature of an honour due to
the deceased. Yet in view of the parallels which we possess, both from
the North and elsewhere[626], we can scarcely doubt that the custom had
its origin in a much stronger motive, the force of which was scarcely
appreciated in later times. For a change of feeling, if not of actual
faith, positive evidence is supplied by the reprobation expressed in
Il. XXIII 176--a passage as significant in its way as the homiletic
verses which follow the reference to heathen sacrifices in Beow. 175
ff. (cf. p. 53).

* * * * *

In the course of this chapter we have noticed a considerable number
of features common to Greek and Teutonic religion. Many of them are
to be found in other religions also, and these we need not discuss
further. Here we are concerned only to determine what may be regarded
as characteristic of the Heroic Age. In this category we may probably
include the following features.

1. The religion was predominantly a worship of gods, rather than of
spirits. Herein lies the chief contrast with the religion of later
times in both regions[627]. In Classical Greece chthonic worship and
hero worship seem on the whole to be more prominent than that of the
gods. The same is true of Scandinavian countries in the latest heathen
period, though Thor is still prominent and hero worship is scarcely
distinguished from manes worship. In Germany and England, where
Christianity was adopted during the Heroic Age or soon afterwards, the
gods disappear at once, while forms of chthonic worship survive for
centuries.

2. The same gods were, to a large extent at least, recognised
everywhere. Whether by borrowing or by identification of cults they had
ceased to be merely tribal deities. How far back this feature goes in
Greece we cannot tell. Among the Teutonic peoples we can trace it in
part back to Tacitus' time; but it was probably intensified during the
Heroic Age.

3. The conception of the gods was definitely anthropomorphic. For
the Teutonic Heroic Age this is made clear by the Langobardic story.
There is no absolutely conclusive proof that the gods in general were
regarded as forming a regularly organised community, as in the Edda and
the Homeric poems; but all the evidence which we have (cf. p. 407 f.)
points in this direction.

4. The relations between gods and human beings are of a somewhat
peculiar character both in Teutonic poetry and in the Homeric poems;
but they are almost identical in the two cases. The gods are not
treated with any very great reverence. The conduct attributed to them
is not unfrequently reprehensible, their purposes can often be thwarted
by the help of other gods, and the bravest warriors are sometimes even
ready to attack them openly. Yet the human and the divine are not
confused; a man is not a god, though many heroes, both Teutonic and
Greek, are sprung from gods. It should be observed that the deity from
whom most English princes claimed descent is Woden, a universal and not
a tribal god. This belief must be regarded as an anti-tribal force.

5. Both in Northern tradition and in the Homeric poems the practice of
cremation was associated with the belief in a common home for the souls
of the dead. This practice does not appear to have been common even
in the earlier part of the Viking Age; and consequently the tradition
probably comes down from the Heroic Age, at which time we know that
cremation was widely prevalent. The cheerless home of Hades[628]
differs considerably from Valhalla, though there is some ground for
suspecting that the Greeks of the Heroic Age had once cherished a
belief endowed with greater vitality. But both conceptions possess
certain essential features in common, namely the removal of the soul to
a distant place--a belief really incompatible with the local worship of
heroes or manes--and the fact that this distant place of souls was a
universal home and not reserved for the souls of one tribe. This belief
again was doubtless an anti-tribal force of considerable importance.

Briefly then we may define as the predominant characteristic of
heroic religion, both Greek and Teutonic, the subordination of
chthonic and tribal cults, which as a rule go together, to the worship
of a number of universally recognised and highly anthropomorphic
deities--coupled with the belief in a common and distant land of souls.
These characteristics, at all events among the Teutonic peoples,
seem properly to have belonged only to the religion of the royal and
military classes. Hence, when the royal families are converted to a new
faith, as in England, or when kingless states grow up, as in Iceland,
we find in all cases more or less of a reversion to the more primitive
forms of religion. It is on the same principle that I would account for
the differences in religion between heroic and historical Greece.

FOOTNOTES:

[586] These are the three gods mentioned in the solemn oath which,
according to Landnámabók, IV 7 (Hauksbók), had to be sworn on the
sacred bracelet at all legal proceedings: _hialpi mér svá Freyr ok
Niörðr ok hinn almáttki Áss_, etc. In the later Melabók (a compilation
of the seventeenth century) it is suggested that _Áss_ here means
Othin; but I do not think this explanation is generally accepted. It is
scarcely credible that Thor should be ignored on such an occasion.

[587] The description in Grímnismál, str. 23, curiously recalls what
is said of Egyptian Thebes in Il. IX 383 f. The nearest approach to
Valhalla to be found among Northern kingdoms is Ibn Fadhlan's account
of the Russian court; cf. Frähn, _l.c._ (p. 367, note).

[588] Frey's connection with Sweden appears in Saxo's History
(frequently) as well as in sagas, but not in the Edda.

[589] The full form, _Yngvifreyr_ or _Ingunarfreyr_, is clearly
connected with _Ingwina frea_, a title borne by the king of the Danes
in Beowulf; cf. p. 367 and note.

[590] The two conceptions are sometimes confused, e.g. in Völuspá, str.
34. But the eschatological conception involved by the story of Balder
is that of the 'house of Hel'; and there can be no doubt that this
conception itself is ancient, although the description of Hel in Gylf.
34 is probably quite late.

[591] The text does not say (as is stated in several works on Northern
mythology) that Thor occupied the central position, but merely that he
was robbed after Thórgerðr and before Irpa. This is the only mention,
so far as I am aware, of a cult figure of Thor in his car--a feature
which occurs in Hýmiskviða and Gylfaginning and may possibly have some
ethnological significance. It is somewhat remarkable that in the tract
Frá Fornióti (in Hrafn's _Fornaldar Sögur_, II p. 6 f.) the ancestry of
Guðbrandr is traced to the giant Thrymr, Thor's antagonist.

[592] Cults peculiar to certain families appear to have been common
among the Lithuanians and kindred peoples; cf. Lasicius, _De diis
Samogitarum_ (Respublica ... Poloniae, etc.; Leyden, 1642, p. 280):
_sunt etiam quaedam ueteres nobilium familiae, quae peculiares colunt
deos, ut Mikutiana Simonaitem, Micheloviciana Sidzium, Schemietiana et
Kiesgaliana Ventis Rekicziovum, aliae alios_.

[593] p. 66:

_Et nunc ille ubi sit qui uulgo dicitur Othin
armipotens, uno semper contentus ocello,
dic mihi, Ruta, precor, usquam si conspicis illum.
* * * * *
si potero horrendum Frigge spectare maritum,
quantumcunque albo clypeo sit tectus et altum
flectat equum, Lethra nequaquam sospes abibit.
fas est belligerum bello prosternere diuum._

[594] Cf. Adam of Bremen, IV 26: _colunt et deos ex hominibus
factos_, etc. (with reference to the passage from the Vita Anscharii
quoted on p. 255 f.). It is not clear whether Grímr Kambann, the
great-great-grandfather of Thórsteinn Sölmundarson who settled in
Iceland (cf. Landnámabók, I 14), was deified; but the worship paid to
him is evidently regarded as something exceptional. Some scholars hold
that Bragi, the god of poetry, is no other than the poet Bragi Boddason.

[595] _Proue(n)_; cf. Helmoldus, _Chron. Slavorum_, I 53, 70, 84.

[596] I have discussed this subject (also Niörðr and Freyia) in detail
in _The Origin of the English Nation_, chapters IX-XI.

[597] I do not think that Aethelweard's substitution of _Balder_
for _Baeldaeg_ (the first part of which is certainly _bǣl-_) in the
genealogy of King Aethelwulf (III 3) can be held to prove the existence
of the cult of Balder in England. The theory that the word _baldor_,
'prince,' arose out of the god's name is open to still more serious
question.

[598] Cf. Olrik, _Gefion_ (_Danske Studier_, 1910), p. 21 ff.

[599] There is no reason for supposing that the cult of Thórgerðr was
first introduced by Earl Haakon. In the Flateyiarbók, p. 408, it is
stated that she had been worshipped by successive rulers of the land.
Her cult too was not unknown in Iceland; according to Harðar Saga,
cap. 19, Grímkell, the son of a settler from Orkadal (to the south of
Trondhjem), had a temple dedicated to her.

[600] _The Cult of Othin_, p. 75 ff. Cf. R. M. Meyer, _Altgermanische
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 474 ff.

[601] _Irminsul ... quod Latine dicitur uniuersalis columna, quasi
sustinens omnia_, Mon. Germ., II 676.

[602] Jaffé, _Bibliotheca Rerum Germanicarum_, III 71 ff.: _neque
enim contraria eis de ipsorum, quamuis falsorum, deorum genealogia
astruere debes.... utrum autem adhuc generare deos deasque alios aliasque
suspicantur? uel, si iam non generant, quando uel cur cessauerunt a
concubitu et partu; si autem adhuc generant, infinitus iam deorum
effectus numerus est, et quis tam inter tot tantosque potentior sit,
incertum mortalibus est; et ualde cauendum, ne in potentiorem quis
offendat._

[603] This explanation would not hold of course if Fosite is to be
identified with Forseti the son of Balder. But the identification seems
to me extremely problematical.

[604] Cf. Bede, _H. E._, I 15: _Voden, de cuius stirpe multarum
prouinciarum regium genus originem duxit_. From these genealogies and
Bp Daniel's letter (quoted above) it would seem that such compositions
(including theogonies) were much in vogue among the heathen Teutonic
peoples in the period immediately following the Heroic Age. It is to
the same period that I would ascribe the development of the theology
of the Edda, though I do not mean to suggest that the poems which have
come down to us were composed then.

[605] There is an unfortunate ambiguity about the history of the word
_Áss_. In Old Norse it is applied both to Thor and Othin, as well
as other gods, while _Aesir_ (pl.) denotes the gods collectively
and _Ásgarðr_ their home (quite distinct from Valhalla). In Gothic
however the same word (pl. _ansis_) seems to have meant a dead hero
(cf. p. 172, note). If this was its original meaning--a view somewhat
favoured by Skr. _asu_, Av. _anhu_, 'spirit,'--we must conclude that
the terms _Ásgarðr_ and _Aesir_ (also _Áss_, as applied to Thor) have
undergone a complete change of meaning in Old Norse. Such a change
could be explained satisfactorily by the (poetic) inclusion of θεοὶ
οὐράνιοι and θεοὶ νέρτεροι in one pantheon; but in that case the
doctrine of Valhalla, or something very much like it, must be of great
antiquity. This explanation is perhaps favoured by the popular use of
_Aasgaardsreia_ for the Wild Hunt in Norway.

[606] Cap. quae de partibus Saxoniae constituta sunt, No. VII (Mon.
Germ., Leg. I 49). Whether the practice was common I do not know.
References to the cult of manes occur in the same Capitula, as well as
in the Indiculus Superstitionum, etc.

[607] Cremation is sometimes accompanied by a cult of the dead, e.g.
among the heathen Prussians; cf. Matthias a Michov (Grynaeus, _Novus
Orbis_, etc., Basel 1537, p. 520): _Habebant praeterea in syluis
praefatis focos, in familias et domos distinctos, in quibus omnibus
charorum et familiarium cadauera cum equis, sellis et uestimentis
potioribus incendebant. locabant etiam ad focos huiusmodi ex subere
facta sedilia, in quibus escas ex pasta in casei modum praeparatas
deponebant, medonemque focis infundebant, ea credulitate illusi quod
mortuorum suorum animae quorum illic combusta fuerant corpora nocte
uenirent escaque se exsatiarent._ Inhumation however was also practised
by the same nation; cf. Erasmus Stella (Grynaeus, _op. cit._, p.
582): _Statuit_ (sc. _Viduutus_) _et dies natalitios et funera pari
modo celebranda, mutuis scilicet commessationibus et compotationibus,
tum lusu et cantu, absque moerore cum summa hilaritate et gaudio,
utque alterius uitae spem prae se ferrent. illo saltem ostenderunt
quod exutos spiritu armatos uestitosque ac magna supellectilis parte
circumposita humarunt. quo more usque nunc sepeliuntur_, etc. Both
these notices of course refer to a late period--the fifteenth century.

[608] Cf. p. 397 f. We may refer also to the funeral of Sigurðr Hringr,
as described in Arngrim's epitome of the lost Skiöldunga Saga, cap.
26 (Aarbøger f. nord. Oldkynd., 1894, p. 132): _Hinc post acerrimam
pugnam ... Siguardus etiam male uulneratus est. qui, Alfsola funere
allato, magnam nauim mortuorum cadaueribus oneratam solus uiuorum
conscendit, seque et mortuam Alfsolam in puppi collocans nauim pice,
bitumine et sulphure incendi iubet: atque sublatis uelis in altum,
ualidis a continente impellentibus uentis, proram dirigit, simulque
manus sibi uiolentas intulit; sese tot facinorum patratorem, tantorum
regnorum possessorem, more maiorum suorum, regali pompa Odinum regem_
_(id est inferos) inuisere malle quam inertis senectutis infirmitatem
perpeti, alacri animo ad socios in littore antea relictos praefatus_,
etc.

[609] In the glossaries the word is used to translate _Eurynis_,
_Herinis_ (i.e. Erinys), _Tisifone_, _Allecto_, _Bellona_. The first
three cases occur in the Corpus glossary; hence the suggestion that the
word _walcyrge_ is borrowed from Norse is inadmissible.

[610] From the inscription of Rök it appears probable that the
conception of Valkyries found in the Edda was familiar in the
south-east of Sweden before the end of the ninth century. This is by no
means the only point in which the same inscription bears witness to a
highly developed interest in antiquarian lore.

[611] An interesting analogy is furnished by the Servian belief that
sunstroke is due to arrows shot by Vile (cf. p. 317, note; and Krauss,
_Slav. Volkforschungen_, p. 372 ff.).

[612] I have not attempted to give a complete list of the mythical
beings mentioned in the records. In general we find the same classes of
such beings as in the North--elves, dwarfs, giants (Ang.-Sax. _eoten_,
_þyrs_), etc.

[613] It will be observed that here (as commonly in the Edda) Wodan's
character as god of the dead (slain) is entirely lost sight of.

[614] We may note especially the two speeches of Coifi, the chief
priest: _Nihil omnino uirtutis habet, nihil utilitatis religio illa
quam hucusque tenuimus.... Iam olim intellexeram nihil esse quod
colebamus; quia uidelicet quanto studiosius in eo cultu quaerebam,
tanto minus inueniebam._

[615] _Ita haec uita hominum ad modicum apparet; quid autem sequatur,
quidue praecesserit, prorsus ignoramus._

[616] Artemis in the Homeric poems seems to be chiefly a women's deity
(cf. Od. XX 59 ff.). The same may have been the case with Gefion;
cf. Gylfaginning, cap. 35: "She is a maiden, and those who die in
maidenhood serve her."

[617] In origin however Freyia, the daughter of Niörðr (Nerthus),
corresponds probably rather to Persephone, the daughter of Demeter; cf.
p. 400.

[618] Even beings such as these are sometimes affiliated to Zeus; cf.
Il. VI 420.

[619] So also with the ceremonial drinkings, which in both sets of
records form so prominent a feature in the life of human and divine
communities alike. Among the Greeks the libation corresponds to the
Northern 'toast' (_full_) in honour of the gods. A good example may be
found in Saga Hákonar Góða, cap. 16.

[620] Reference may be made to the boar which was sacrificed to Frey
(or Freyia) in Hervarar Saga, cap. 10, and on which oaths were sworn.
It is not made clear however what was done with the body of the boar.

[621] With the punishment of perjurers by the Erinyes in Il. XIX 259
f. we may compare what is said regarding the fate of such persons in
Völuspá, str. 39.

[622] Reference may be made to Procopius' account of the Heruli (cf.
p. 411) and more especially to the stories of Ibn Dustah and Ibn
Fadhlan, quoted by Thomsen, _The Relations between Ancient Russia
and Scandinavia_, etc., pp. 30 f., 34. Native records preserve only
somewhat vague traditions relating to such a custom; cf. _The Cult of
Othin_, p. 41 f.

[623] Cf. especially Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, p. 512 ff.

[624] Reference may be made to the story of Haraldr Hilditönn and
Sigurðr Hringr; cf. _The Cult of Othin_, p. 22 f.

[625] The existence of a tradition to this effect is perhaps implied by
Aristotle, _Meteorolog._, I 14, 21 f.; cf. p. 437, note.

[626] In addition to the examples cited by Prof. Ridgeway we may refer
to the account of the Livonians given by Bartholomaeus Anglicus, _De
Proprietatibus Rerum_, XV 88: _mortuorum cadauera tumulo non tradebant,
sed populus facto rogo maximo usque ad cineres comburebat. post mortem
autem suos amicos nouis uestibus uestiebant et eis pro uiatico oues et
boues et alia animantia exhibebant. seruos etiam et ancillas cum rebus
aliis ipsis assignantes una cum mortuo et rebus aliis incendebant,
credentes sic incensos ad quandam uiuorum regionem feliciter pertingere
et ibidem cum pecorum et seruorum sic ob gratiam domini combustorum
multitudine felicitatis et uitae temporalis patriam inuenire_. This
record dates from the thirteenth century (probably about 1260); so that
Northern influence is not impossible.

[627] This contrast is all the more noteworthy in view of the fact
that the two chief 'heroic' deities, Woden (Othin) and Zeus, are of
essentially different origin. The affinities of the former lie rather
with Hades--not as a chthonic being, properly speaking, but as lord of
the spirit world.

[628] The characterisation of the home of Hades resembles rather
that of the Northern abode of Hel (cf. p. 400, note). There can be
little doubt that the latter conception is founded upon a belief
of considerable antiquity, though, except in the North, all our
information relating to it comes from sources affected by Christian
influence. From references in early poetry, as well as from popular
belief in later times, it seems probable that the early Teutonic
conception of Hell (Goth. _halja_, etc.) involved something more than
a survival of the soul in or about the place of sepulture, though
there is nothing to show that it was identical with Valhalla. For the
personification of Hell definite evidence is wanting; yet note should
be taken of the fact that such beings as Holda and Berhta (like Freyia
and Gefion) were connected with the spirit world.

NOTE VIII. THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
CELTIC AND SLAVONIC HEROIC AGES.

In the last three chapters we have confined our attention almost
exclusively to the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages. It is not to be
overlooked however that similar phenomena occur elsewhere. The closest
and most interesting parallels, at least in Europe, are probably to be
found in the history of the ancient Gauls.

It has been mentioned above that Gaulish literature has entirely
perished. We are dependent therefore for our information upon a few
scattered references in the works of Greek and Roman writers. These
however are sufficient to show that the Gauls possessed a well-known
and influential class of professional minstrels (βάρδοι), whose chief
occupation seems to have been the composition of heroic poetry[629].
Like the minstrels of the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages these persons
were attached to the courts of kings, and their poems dealt with the
praises of living princes as well as with the deeds of heroes of the
past[630]. With the disappearance of kingship, early in the first
century (B.C.), their standing seems to have been impaired. At all
events they are never mentioned by Caesar, who has so much to say about
the Druids.

It is probable therefore that by this time what may be termed the
Gaulish Heroic Age was already at an end. How long it had lasted we
cannot tell, since all the stories have perished. We may certainly note
however that the accounts of Gaulish life which have come down to us
from the time before the nation became Romanised show a most striking
resemblance to the conditions described in Teutonic and Greek heroic
poetry. The longest of these accounts is the one given by Diodoros
(V 26 ff.), where their customs are described with a considerable
amount of detail. The picture which he draws of their methods of
fighting, their love of boasting[631], their habits in entertaining
strangers[632] and many other particulars furnishes a parallel to
Homeric life closer perhaps than may be found even in Anglo-Saxon
poetry.

The principle of personal allegiance seems to have been developed among
the Gauls to a very high degree, although our information dates chiefly
from times when kingship had almost entirely disappeared. We have
scarcely sufficient evidence for determining whether the development
of this principle had been accompanied by a relaxation of the bonds
of kindred. But Caesar's statement (_Gall._, VI 11) regarding the
universal prevalence of party spirit points in this direction[633]; and
it is perhaps worth noting that attempts were made upon the lives of
more than one of the princes who had submitted to him. There is reason
for suspecting that among the Celtic peoples, as among the Teutonic,
the organisation of the kindred had undergone a change, probably at
no very remote period. The Picts adhered to succession in the female
line, at all events in the royal family, down to the eighth century;
and there are said to be traces of the same type of succession in
Ireland. It is commonly assumed that the Pictish succession was a
pre-Celtic institution; but no evidence worth consideration has been
adduced in favour of this view. We need not doubt the existence of
pre-Celtic inhabitants in Scotland. But the same remark applies to the
rest of the British Isles and at least a considerable part of Gaul,
and I see no reason why in Scotland alone (or Scotland and Ireland) so
important a change should have been taken over from the aborigines. In
Gaul succession certainly passed in the male line in the first century
(B.C.). But in the earliest Gaulish tradition of which we have record
the title to sovereignty seems to go, as among the Picts, to the sons
of the king's sister[634].

The political organisation of the Gauls appears to have been similar
to that of the Teutonic peoples, though kingship was dying out in
the first century. We find a considerable number of comparatively
small nations (_ciuitates_), each of which apparently possessed a
royal family of its own. From time to time one of these acquired a
position of supremacy over all or many of the others. Sometimes too
sections of the same nation appear in widely different regions. Thus
we find Senones and Lingones both in Gaul and Italy, Boii in Bavaria
(Bohemia) and Italy, Volcae Tectosages in Germany and the south of
Gaul--Tectosages also in Galatia. There is little doubt that in such
cases one of these sections is an offshoot from the other and owes its
origin to some military expedition.

In regard to religion Caesar (_ib._, VI 21) draws a striking contrast
between the Gauls and the Germans, though his account of the latter in
this respect will not hold good for the Heroic Age. Gaulish religion
was polytheistic and highly anthropomorphic; it would seem also that
the gods were regarded as forming an organised community. The method
employed in the disposal of the dead was cremation; and here too this
practice was associated with a vivid conception of immortality. In
all these respects Gaulish religion seems to have differed little
from the types which we find in the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages,
although apparently the belief in immortality largely took the form of
metempsychosis. Only in one particular can we detect a really important
difference between Gaulish religion and the others, namely in the
influence of the priesthood. This feature however seems to have been
peculiar to Gaul itself and Britain; at all events we hear nothing of
Druids elsewhere. Indeed according to Caesar (VI 13) the institution
was believed to have originated in Britain; and it is by no means
impossible that some of its characteristic features may have developed
in this country. More than this we cannot safely say, since there is
an obvious--and probably by no means superficial--resemblance between
Druidism and the priesthood of the Prussians and Lithuanians.

* * * * *

In previous Notes (p. 101 ff.) we spoke of two other Heroic Ages--those
of the Bosnian Mohammedans, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
and of the Cumbrian Welsh, about a thousand years earlier. In Note VII
we discussed briefly one of the leading incidents in the (Christian)
Servian Heroic Age, of the fourteenth century. In all these cases the
question of religion is better left out of account; for though the form
taken by Christianity or Mohammedanism was doubtless influenced to some
extent by national characteristics, the two religions were essentially
of foreign origin.

Among the Bosnians however the influence of Mohammedanism affected also
the organisation of society, while the government was in the hands of
pashas sent from Constantinople. On the whole the conditions appear to
have little in common with those of the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages.
Even the principle of personal allegiance is not much in evidence.

On the other hand this principle is very prominent in the Christian
Servian poems, at all events in those which deal with the battle of
Kossovo. It is exemplified both in the relations of squires (such
as Vaistina) with their lords and in those of the latter with the
king. In the poem on the banquet (Karadžić, II 50 iii), which we have
discussed above (p. 315), it is to this principle alone that Lazar
appeals, when he reproaches Miloš for his suspected disloyalty; and
though the latter in his reply does mention that he intends to die for
the Christian faith, he too evidently regards loyalty to his king as
his primary duty. My knowledge of this subject is unfortunately not
sufficient to enable me to form an opinion as to whether the growth
of the bond of allegiance was accompanied by a relaxation of the
bonds of kinship. In the lower ranks of society however the kindred
has preserved down to the present time perhaps greater vitality
among the Servians than in any other European nation. The type of
government which we find prevailing in the fourteenth century is far
removed from that democratic system which Procopius (_Goth._, III 14)
ascribes to the Slavs some six centuries previously. The governors whom
Dušan appointed in various parts of his dominions became practically
independent princes after his death, although their principalities
rested apparently on no national basis. Both in Servia proper and
elsewhere the control of affairs seems to have been very largely in the
hands of the royal family.

For the Cumbrian Heroic Age our information is sadly deficient. The
evidence of the poems leaves no doubt as to the potency of the force of
personal allegiance. With regard to the kindred I know of no evidence,
unless we take account of the Welsh laws, which belong to a different
region and to a period several centuries later. The kingdoms seem to
have been fairly numerous, and there is nothing to show that their
organisation differed much from that of Teutonic kingdoms of the Heroic
Age. Whether they rested on any national basis we cannot tell; but it
is to be noted that practically all their territories had once been
included within the Roman frontiers[635].

Both these cases then appear to show a number of the features which
characterise the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages, though scarcely to
the same degree as is the case with the civilisation of the ancient
Gauls. Analogies may also be found in the French and Russian Heroic
Ages; but I am not aware that either of these presents any remarkable
characteristics which do not occur in one or other of those with which
we have dealt. On the other hand I have no doubt that many interesting
features are to be found in the Irish Heroic Age (or rather perhaps
Heroic Ages[636]). This subject however is beset with such extreme
difficulties of every kind that I dare not touch it.

FOOTNOTES:

[629] Cf. Ammianus Marcellinus, XV 9. 8 (probably from Timagenes):
_et Bardi quidem fortia uirorum illustrium facta heroicis composita
uersibus cum dulcibus lyrae modulis cantitarunt_. Cf. also Diodoros, V
31; Strabo, IV 4. 4; Lucan, Phars. I 447 ff.

[630] Cf. Athenaios, VI 49 (quoting Poseidonios): Κελτοὶ περιάγονται
μεθ' αὑτῶν καὶ πολεμοῦντες συμβιωτὰς οὓς καλοῦσι παρασίτους. οὗτοι δὲ
ἐγκώμια αὐτῶν καὶ πρὸς ἀθρόους λέγουσιν ἀνθρώπους συνεστῶτας καὶ πρὸς
ἕκαστον τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἐκείνων ἀκροωμένων. τὰ δὲ ἀκούσματα αὐτῶν εἰσιν
οἱ καλούμενοι Βάρδοι· ποιηταὶ δὲ οὗτοι τυγχάνουσι μετ' ᾠδῆς ἐπαίνους
λέγοντες. Reference may also be made to the story of Luernios, king
of the Allobroges, and the minstrel who arrived too late (_ib._, IV
37). Cf. also Appian, _Celtice_, § 12 (describing the arrival of an
envoy sent by Bitoitos, the father of Luernios): μουσικός τε ἀνὴρ
εἵπετο, βαρβάρῳ μουσικῇ τὸν βασιλέα Βιτοῖτον, εἶτ' Ἀλλόβριγας, εἶτα τὸν
πρεσβευτὴν αὐτὸν ἔς τε γένος καὶ ἀνδρείαν καὶ περιουσίαν ὑμνῶν· οὗ δὴ
καὶ μάλιστα ἕνεκα αὐτοὺς οἱ τῶν πρεσβευτῶν ἐπιφανεῖς ἐπάγονται.

[631] κατὰ δὲ τὰς παρατάξεις εἰώθασι προάγειν τῆς παρατάξεως καὶ
προκαλεῖσθαι τῶν ἀντιτεταγμένων τοὺς ἀρίστους εἰς μονομαχίαν,
προανασείοντες τὰ ὅπλα καὶ καταπληττόμενοι τοὺς ἐναντίους. ὅταν δέ τις
ὑπακούσῃ πρὸς τὴν μάχην τάς τε τῶν προγόνων ἀνδραγαθίας ἐξυμνοῦσι καὶ
τὰς ἑαυτῶν ἀρετὰς προφέρονται καὶ τὸν ἀντιταττόμενον ἐξονειδίζουσι
καὶ ταπεινοῦσι καὶ τὸ σύνολον τὸ θάρσος τῆς ψυχῆς τοῖς λόγοις
προαφαιροῦνται (V 29).

[632] πλησίον δ' αὐτῶν ἐσχάραι κεῖνται γέμουσαι πυρὸς καὶ λέβητας
ἔχουσαι καὶ ὀβελοὺς πλήρεις κρεῶν ὁλομερῶν. τοὺς δ' ἀγαθοὺς ἄνδρας ταῖς
καλλίσταις τῶν κρεῶν μοίραις γεραίρουσι.... καλοῦσι δὲ καὶ τοὺς ξένους
ἐπὶ τὰς εὐωχίας καὶ μετὰ τὸ δεῖπνον ἐπερωτῶσι τίνες εἰσὶ καὶ τίνων
χρείαν ἔχουσιν (_ib._ 28).

[633] We may compare also what is said (_ib._ I 20) of the relations of
Diuiciacus and Dumnorix. The latter had a large comitatus of his own:
_magnum numerum equitatus suo sumptu semper alere et circum se habere_
(I 18).

[634] Cf. Livy, V 34.

[635] The rise of the Cumbrian kingdoms presents a difficulty which
historians do not seem to me to have sufficiently realised. During the
fourth and fifth centuries the northern parts of the province were
repeatedly menaced and ravaged by Pictish invaders. Yet after the fifth
century we hear practically nothing more of Picts in the south of
Scotland (except in Galloway). On the other hand it was in this region
that the Britons offered the most determined resistance to the English.
In the latter part of the sixth century Urien is said (_Hist. Br._, §
63) to have besieged them on one occasion in Lindisfarne (_Metcaud_);
and in Strathclyde the Britons maintained their independence, except
for one or two brief intervals, until long after the disappearance
of the Northumbrian kingdom. It is often assumed, though on somewhat
slender grounds, that the Britons held only the south-west of Scotland
and that the south-east (Lothian, etc.) was Pictish before the English
conquest. But this hypothesis does not get rid of the difficulties; for
it is from _Manau Guotodin_, a district always regarded as Pictish,
that Cunedda is said to have come (_ib._, § 62). I suspect that the
distinction between Picts and Britons was not so rigid as is commonly
supposed. Unfortunately Celtic scholars have not yet been able to come
to any agreement as to the character of the Pictish language. Some hold
that it was British (Brythonic), others Gaelic (Goidelic), others again
non-Celtic. Possibly all these views may contain a certain amount of
truth. At all events it seems to me quite incredible that Gaelic was
not introduced into Scotland before the sixth century. All indications
appear to me to favour the view that this language belonged to a wave
of Celtic invasion earlier than the British. Yet I see no objection to
supposing that in pre-Roman times the true (Gaelic) Picts--who probably
included a non-Celtic substratum--may have been overlaid in part by a
British element. If so, it is far from improbable that the south of
Scotland in its turn received a 'Pictish' element, when that district
was abandoned by the Romans. A mixed population of this kind would
readily enough coalesce with the native (British) inhabitants.

[636] So also in the Heroic Ages of non-European peoples. Important
parallels are certainly furnished by Sanskrit epic poetry.

CHAPTER XIX

THE CAUSES AND ANTECEDENT CONDITIONS OF THE HEROIC AGE

In the course of the last three chapters we have observed many
remarkable resemblances between the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages--in
social organisation, in the forms of government and in religious
conceptions. Further we have seen that in the former case the testimony
of the poems is fully substantiated by contemporary historical
authorities. In the latter case we possess no evidence which affords us
ground for doubting that the poems give an equally faithful reflection
of conditions and ideas which prevailed in real life. Our next and
final object is to enquire into the nature of the causes to which the
common characteristics of the two Heroic Ages are due.

I do not think that any one will seriously suggest the possibility
of a historical connection between the two Heroic Ages, separated as
they are from one another by an interval of some fourteen or fifteen
centuries. It is perhaps conceivable that one or other of the common
elements which we have noted may have originated in Greece and worked
its way round until it appears after so long a lapse of time in the
north of Europe[637]. But for the phenomena as a whole any such
explanation is incredible.

Another explanation is suggested by the fact that the Greek and
Teutonic peoples are ultimately related, at least linguistically--both
being members of the Indo-European family. It is only reasonable
therefore to expect that they may have inherited common
characteristics. But this explanation does not in itself account for
the fact that the Heroic Age begins in one case some fourteen or
fifteen centuries after the other. Moreover the Heroic Age of the
Southern Slavs begins about a thousand years later than that of the
Teutonic peoples, while we have no evidence that the Lithuanians ever
had a Heroic Age. Yet both of these equally belong to the Indo-European
linguistic family.

Again it may be suggested that the causes responsible for the Heroic
Age are to be found not so much in ethnical affinity as in the
possession of a similar stage of culture. The term 'Early Iron Age' is
customarily applied to both the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages. But
this common application of the term is misleading. In the Greek Heroic
Age the use of iron, at all events for weapons, seems to have been only
beginning, whereas the Teutonic peoples had been using iron weapons for
at least seven or eight centuries before their Heroic Age. Moreover
both the Lithuanians and the Southern Slavs have passed through similar
stages of culture--in the latter case many centuries before the first
Servian Heroic Age.

The suggestions put forward above may doubtless help to account for
certain features in both the Teutonic and the Greek Heroic Ages;
but it cannot be contended that they are capable, whether singly or
collectively, of explaining the phenomena as a whole. If we are to
obtain a more satisfactory explanation we shall do well in the first
place to give our attention to the outstanding characteristics of that
period of history which coincides with the Teutonic Heroic Age.

This period was a momentous time in Teutonic history. In the first
place it saw the conversion of most of the Continental peoples to
Christianity. But probably no one will suggest that the Heroic Age was
an outcome of this change. On the other hand the same period witnessed
the fall of the Western Empire and the occupation of almost all its
territories by Teutonic peoples. The effect of these movements must
have been enormous, and in them we may reasonably expect to find at
least one of the chief causes of the phenomena which we are discussing.
At the same time it is to be remembered that the Vandals and Visigoths,
who penetrated farthest into the empire, do not figure in stories of
the Heroic Age, while even the Franks are less conspicuous than the
Danes, who took no part in these movements.

In the case of the Greek Heroic Age we have unfortunately to depend
upon inferences, since no historical evidence is obtainable. Not many
years ago Prof. Ridgeway[638] advanced a very interesting theory, which
has greatly influenced subsequent opinion, at least in this country.
This theory, stated briefly, is to the effect that the Achaeans were a
people from Central Europe who had made their way into Greece by way
of Epeiros, not very long before the Heroic Age, and conquered the
indigenous inhabitants, whom he calls Pelasgians. In support of this
view he has brought forward a large number of arguments relating to
physical characteristics, habits, dress, armour, social organisation,
religion, funeral customs, etc., in which he shows that the affinities
of the Homeric Achaeans lie with the Celtic peoples rather than with
the earlier inhabitants of Greece.

It is impossible here to enter into a detailed discussion of Prof.
Ridgeway's theory. The first objection which may be raised against it
lies in the absence of traditional evidence for the great movement
of population which it involves--evidence such as we possess for the
Dorian conquest and the Ionic migration. The force of this objection
depends of course a good deal upon what may be called details, e.g. the
date of the invasion, the numerical strength of the invaders and the
method by which the conquest was effected. A more serious objection
is perhaps to be found in the conditions postulated by Prof. Ridgeway
for Central Europe. Probably few who have given much attention to the
subject will be inclined to dispute that the affinities of Homeric
civilisation lie in many respects with that of the Celtic peoples,
rather than with the earlier civilisation of the Aegean. But all
the evidence at our disposal seems to indicate that among the Celtic
peoples this type of civilisation belongs to a much later period. There
is nothing to show that even at Hallstatt and elsewhere in the Eastern
Alps the earliest use of iron[639] goes back to the beginning of the
first millennium, and it is extremely doubtful whether these deposits
are of Celtic origin[640]. In order to prove that Homeric civilisation
came from Central Europe evidence must be adduced showing that the
chronology usually accepted by archaeologists is mistaken and that a
civilisation of the same type prevailed in that region far back in the
second millennium. Until such evidence is forthcoming it appears more
probable that both the civilisation of Central and Western Europe and
the non-Mycenean elements in Homeric civilisation have radiated from a
common centre, the true home of which has not yet been discovered.

These considerations however must not be allowed to obscure the fact
that Prof. Ridgeway's observations have thrown light on a number of
serious difficulties in early Greek history. In the first place he has
rightly insisted upon a recognition of the great differences noticeable
between Homeric and Mycenean civilisation--differences which can hardly
be accounted for except by some such explanation as that which he has
brought forward. It is now admitted by the majority of scholars that
the Aegean civilisation cannot have originated with the Achaeans; but
there is still great difference of opinion as to the nature of its
relations with this people. Some hold that the prehistoric civilisation
of Crete was non-Achaean--and indeed non-Greek--until its fall, and yet
believe that Mycenae and the other cities of the mainland were always
Achaean. Others again hold that the later remains both on the mainland
and in Crete are Achaean, while the earlier ones, at all events in
Crete, were non-Achaean. But neither of these theories accounts for
the differences between Mycenean and Homeric civilisation[641]. Both
alike involve the assumption that the latter is a reflection of the
conditions of a later age--an assumption which, as we have seen, can
scarcely be reconciled with the evidence of the poems on the use of the
metals and other matters discussed above.

Secondly, Prof. Ridgeway has pointed out the groundlessness of the
prevalent hypothesis that the Achaeans were the first Greek-speaking
inhabitants of Greece. He has rightly insisted on the antiquity of the
Arcadians and Athenians, together with certain other peoples, Ionians
and Cypriotes, who had emigrated from Greece, and at the same time
called attention to the fact--which is commonly overlooked--that none
of these peoples claimed to be of Achaean origin[642]. The Achaean
communities of historical times used dialects of the West Greek type,
as distinct from Ionic or Arcadian as they are from Aeolic, and we
have no evidence that they ever spoke a different type of language.
On this subject however enough has been said above (p. 281 ff.). The
name 'Pelasgian,' which Prof. Ridgeway applies to the earlier Greek
inhabitants, seems to me to be open to objection; yet the evidence of
Herodotus can be adduced in its favour.

Thirdly, when Prof. Ridgeway holds that the route by which the
Achaeans made their way southwards was through Epeiros he has in
his favour an argument of considerable weight in the antiquity and
importance of the sanctuary at Dodona, which in historical times lay
on the extreme edge of the Greek world. But, apart from this, the
linguistic geography of Greece is unintelligible to me unless dialects
of the Arcadian and Ionic types were once spoken over a much larger
area in Greece proper than that in which we find them in historical
times. All indications seem to point to the region west of Pindos
as the home of that West Greek group to which the Achaean dialects
belong[643].

Lastly it must be regarded as improbable that Epeiros was solely
responsible for those elements in Homeric or Achaean civilisation
which differentiate it from that of the Mycenean age and at the same
time connect it with the civilisations of Central and Western Europe.
In historical times this country had passed almost entirely into the
possession of barbarian peoples owing to pressure from the north,
and we have no reason for supposing that this process was new. It is
commonly held that in the period preceding the Heroic Age[644] there
had been great movements of population from the Balkan peninsula into
the north-west of Asia Minor--a process which likewise was repeated
in later times. What little evidence we have for the civilisation of
these peoples does not suggest any great difference between their
civilisation and that of the Homeric Greeks. The Homeric poems in
particular seem to draw little or no distinction in this respect
between the Achaeans on the one hand and the Trojans and their allies
on the other. Hence, whatever may be our attitude to the arguments
based on physical characteristics, etc., on which Prof. Ridgeway lays
so much weight, we cannot, I think, reasonably regard it as improbable
that Epeiros had long been affected by movements from the same quarter.
Indeed the existence of considerable 'Illyrian' or semi-Illyrian
populations in Italy, which certainly date from prehistoric times,
shows that these movements took a south-westerly, as well as a
south-easterly, course. A common centre of disturbance may be found in
the highlands of Albania and Upper Macedonia, though I do not mean to
deny that this area itself may have been affected by movements from
more northern regions.

It may be that in the volumes of his work which have still to appear
Prof. Ridgeway will be able to bring forward some stronger evidence
in favour of the northern origin of the Achaeans. But even with
the reservations expressed above it will be seen that this theory
provides a parallel on a small scale to those historical movements
which characterised the Heroic Age of the Teutonic peoples. And some
such explanation is certainly required, even apart from the Homeric
poems, in order to account for the archaeological phenomena and the
ethnic and linguistic geography of Greece in the historical period.
It is Prof. Ridgeway's great service to have pointed out that the
'Homeric question' is only a part of a much greater problem. Towards
the solution of this problem little progress can be made by hypotheses
like those which we have discussed in Chapters XIII and XIV--according
to which one hero is derived from a god or 'tribal personification,'
while another is a fictitious character which a credulous public has
come to regard as historical. Even in the best of cases it is only the
surface of the problem which can be touched by such investigations.
Prof. Ridgeway has shown that the real problem which lies behind the
Homeric poems is not, as has been said, the development of Greek heroic
tradition ('die Entwickelung der griechischen Heldensage') but the
character and origin of the Greek Heroic Age. This in its turn must
be regarded as only one of a series of phenomena which we meet with
among various peoples and at various periods of the world's history.
In short the real problem presented by the Homeric poems is one not of
literature but of anthropology.

* * * * *

We have seen that the Teutonic Heroic Age was a time of great national
movements and that something of the same kind appears to have taken
place in or shortly before the Greek Heroic Age. But it is obvious
enough that such movements in themselves will not account for the
common characteristics of the two Heroic Ages which we have discussed
in the last three chapters. In order to obtain an explanation of these
phenomena we shall have to take the evidence of other Heroic Ages into
consideration.

In the course of our discussion we have had occasion to refer to four
other Heroic Ages, namely those of the Mohammedan and the Christian
Servians, the Cumbrian Welsh and the ancient Gauls. Taking account of
these and all other similar cases of which I have any knowledge I am
not clear that the essential conditions requisite for a Heroic Age
need involve more than may conveniently be summed up in the phrase
'Mars and the Muses.' It is to poetry that we owe the preservation
of the stories--and indeed much more than this; for wherever we have
any evidence as to its character heroic poetry seems to have aimed at
something more than a mere record of facts. Indeed there can be little
doubt that it exercised a considerable influence upon the spirit of the
times.

The part played by 'Mars' is perhaps not so obvious; for it is
clear from Beowulf and the Odyssey that a state of actual war is
not a necessary condition either for heroic society or even for the
formation of a heroic story. Yet I cannot call to mind a single story
in which the hero, i.e. the leading sympathetic character, is not
distinguished for personal bravery; and usually the main action of the
story turns upon a situation in which opportunity is given for the
display of this quality. It appears to me incredible that the types of
character most prominent in all these forms of heroic poetry could have
flourished in times of profound international peace and settled social
conditions[645]. Indeed I cannot but think that under such conditions
most of our heroes would sooner or later have found themselves in
prison.

On the whole warfare is the state of affairs most commonly involved in
heroic stories. It is a fact worth noting however that this warfare
almost invariably takes the form of hand-to-hand fighting and very
frequently that of a series of single combats. The national aspect
of war is seldom brought into much prominence. With the Teutonic and
Greek evidence on this subject we have already dealt (pp. 329 f., 339
ff.); and we may perhaps remark that all the other Heroic Ages ended in
periods of failure or even disaster. In the Welsh and Servian Heroic
Ages the warfare certainly has a religious side; but this aspect is not
always so prominent in the poems as one might have expected. We know
too from historical sources that Welsh princes often fought in alliance
with the heathen English during the first part of the seventh century.
Similar events were by no means unknown in Servian history. The chief
hero of the Southern Slavs, Kraljević Marko, was in alliance with the
Turks, if he did not actually fight on their side at the battle of
Kossovo.

The triumphs for which the heroes of heroic poetry hope and for
which they are celebrated in the poems are primarily of a personal
character and gained by personal prowess, even in times of national
war; and all the stories alike are permeated by the spirit of personal
adventure. Sometimes we find this spirit indulged with a reckless
disregard of consequences, as when Odysseus seeks out the Cyclops in
his cave[646], or when the Beg Ljubović visits the white city of Zara.
Not unfrequently of course the object with which such adventures are
undertaken is the acquisition of wealth. But wealth itself is desired
not so much in order to ensure a life of comfort or even a position
of influence, but rather for the sake of display--that the hero may
be able to outshine all his rivals in splendour. Desire of personal
glory--often coupled with love of adventure for its own sake--appears
to be the leading motive in all the various types of heroic poetry
which we have considered.

Now it has often been remarked that the savage is in many respects like
a child. We are certainly not justified in describing the people of any
of the Heroic Ages treated above as savages; but it would be an equally
great error to regard their civilisation, even in the best case,
as mature. And in this respect I cannot help thinking that modern
historians have tended to fall into a mistake similar to that which has
sometimes been made by European governors of savage or semi-civilised
communities. It is a mistake for which our historical authorities
themselves are doubtless partly responsible; for we need not suppose
that Greeks or Romans of the past, whether scholars or statesmen,
were better able to understand the motives of heroic societies than
are similar persons in our own days. The qualities exhibited by these
societies, virtues and defects alike, are clearly those of adolescence.
Further, we may note in this connection that the evidence of history
gives us no ground for supposing that the 'heroic' spirit is an innate
and permanent characteristic of certain peoples. It may be possible to
point to communities in which the Heroic Age has persisted for many
centuries, just as numerous peoples in different parts of the world
have remained in a state of 'infancy' or savagery down to the present
time. In Europe however the Heroic Age has been a transient phase.
The sequel has sometimes been disastrous, sometimes comparatively
prosperous; but in every case the ideas which animated the Heroic Age
have ceased to retain their hold.

Thus far we have been seeking to find characteristics common to
various Heroic Ages. It will be convenient here to refer briefly to
the conclusions at which we arrived in the last three chapters. We saw
(p. 365) that in regard to social organisation the outstanding feature
both of the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages was the weakening of the
ties of kindred and the growth of the bond of allegiance. In political
organisation (p. 390 f.) the chief feature of both periods was the
development of an irresponsible type of kingship resting upon military
prestige, the formation of kingdoms with no national basis and the
growth of relations between one kingdom and another. In religion (p.
425) the predominant characteristic in both cases was the subordination
of chthonic and tribal cults to the worship of a number of universally
recognised and highly anthropomorphic deities, together with the belief
in a common and distant land of souls. Lastly, we observed (in Note
VIII) that the Gaulish Heroic Age appears to have possessed almost all
the same characteristics, while in regard to social and political
organisation analogies are also to be found in the Heroic Ages of the
Cumbrian Welsh and the Christian Servians, though hardly--or only to a
very slight extent--in that of the Mohammedan Servians.

Now it deserves to be remarked that these characteristics are in no
sense primitive. In social organisation the distinguishing feature
of the Heroic Age is in the nature of a revolt or emancipation from
those tribal obligations and ideas by which the society of primitive
peoples is everywhere governed. The same remark applies in principle to
political organisation; the princes of the Heroic Age appear to have
freed themselves to a large extent from any public control on the part
of the tribe or community. The changes which we have noted in religion
have a similar tendency. Tribal ideas give way to universalism both
in the cult of higher powers and in the conception of immortality;
and in both the Teutonic and Greek Heroic Ages these changes seem
to be associated with a weakening in the force of religion. Briefly
expressed, the characteristic feature of both periods is emancipation,
social, political and religious, from the bonds of tribal law.

It will be seen that the emancipation of which we are speaking is
partly of an intellectual character. This applies both to religion and
to those ideas which govern social relations. On the other hand it is
also partly in the nature of a freedom from outside control, both in
social relations and in government. The force formerly exercised by
the kindred is now largely transferred to the comitatus, a body of
chosen adherents pledged to personal loyalty to their chief. So also in
government the council of the tribe or community has come to be nothing
more than a comitatus or court. The result of the change is that the
man who possesses a comitatus becomes largely free from the control
of his kindred, while the chief similarly becomes free from control
within his community. In both cases the only opposition that he now has
to fear is from rivals who desire to take his place or from persons
outside the kindred or community and in a similar position to himself.
Certainly this freedom applies only to the case of kings or princes
with followings of their own. But there is no reason for supposing that
intellectual emancipation made much headway except among such persons
and their entourages.

We have seen above that the characteristics of Heroic Ages in
general are those neither of infancy nor of maturity--that the
typical man of the Heroic Age is to be compared rather with a youth.
The characteristics which we are now discussing are by no means
inconsistent with such a view, though clearly they will not hold good
for adolescence in general. For a true analogy we must turn to the
case of a youth who has outgrown both the ideas and the control of his
parents--such a case as may be found among the sons of unsophisticated
parents, who through outside influence, at school or elsewhere, have
acquired knowledge which places them in a position of superiority to
their surroundings.

If we examine the history of the Teutonic Heroic Age we shall see that
this analogy holds good both for individual princes and for the class
as a whole. From the first century to the fifth--we may take the cases
of Italicus the son of Flavus and of Theodric the Ostrogoth--it was
customary for the Romans to demand the youthful sons of Teutonic kings
as hostages. That the accession of such persons to power in later life
would open up a channel for the introduction of foreign ideas needs
probably no demonstration. But this was doubtless only one of a number
of such channels. There is scarcely a single considerable deposit of
antiquities dating from the first four centuries, not only in the south
and west of Germany but even in Denmark and other Baltic lands, which
does not contain a large proportion of Roman[647] articles. Among such
articles we may mention coins, works of art (glass vases, statuettes,
etc.) and, perhaps above all, armour and weapons. We may refer in
particular to the Roman helmets and the large number of Roman swords
and shield-bosses found in deposits on the east side of the province
of Slesvig--a district remote from the Roman frontiers. The linguistic
evidence too is in full agreement with that of the antiquities. Of
the immense number of Latin loan-words which found their way into the
Teutonic languages it is probable that quite a considerable proportion
were borrowed in or before the Heroic Age.

Among the various channels through which Roman goods and Roman
influence found entry into the Teutonic world we may mention trade,
presents and subsidies, and booty gained by wars and piratical raids.
But the most potent influence of all perhaps was the Roman practice
of employing Teutonic mercenary soldiers--of which we hear both from
inscriptions and literary works. This practice had begun as early as
the first century, and it is noteworthy that those German princes who
gave the Romans most trouble, such as Arminius and Civilis, were men
who had previously served with their own armies. In the early part
of the Heroic Age it appears that a very considerable proportion not
only of the troops but also of the generals in the imperial service
were of Teutonic nationality. Such forces were contributed largely by
communities which had settled within the boundaries of the empire,
such as the Goths and Vandals in the basin of the Danube and those
smaller communities that we hear of incidentally in the east of Gaul.
But it was by no means only from these dependent or semi-dependent
principalities that the auxiliary troops were drawn. In the reigns
of Constantius and Valentinian I the Roman army in Britain contained
troops of Heruli--a nation which probably occupied the basin of the
Elbe and had never been under Roman sovereignty, although a portion of
it submitted to Justinian long afterwards. We have reason for believing
that in the sixth century persons from the farthest parts of the
Teutonic world were fighting in Italy. Otherwise it is difficult to
account for the knowledge of Norway and Sweden shown by both Jordanes
and Procopius.

It would be a mistake no doubt to suppose that the comitatus owes its
origin to this mercenary service. The evidence for its existence goes
back so far that a Gaulish derivation would be more probable, if it is
not of native origin. But there can scarcely be any question that this
form of service tended to promote its development. Here too we find a
satisfactory explanation of other phenomena noticeable in the Heroic
Age, in particular of that military type of kingship which rests on no
national basis. Further, it needs no demonstration that such service
would contribute very largely to sweep away tribal prejudices and
national patriotism.

On the whole then the conclusion to which we are brought is that the
characteristics of the Heroic Age owe their origin not so much to
the national movements which brought about the destruction of the
Western Empire as to the long-standing relations between the two
peoples, and perhaps more especially to the influence exercised by
mercenary service. Now we obtain a more satisfactory explanation of
the effects produced on the more northern peoples. It is by no means
improbable that warriors even from Denmark fought in the Roman armies,
while others again may have entered the service of Eormenric, Attila
or Theodric. At all events we can hardly doubt that, directly or
indirectly, the northern peoples were affected to no small degree by
the influence of Roman civilisation and the Roman army.

I do not suppose that anyone will be inclined to question the influence
of the same civilisation upon the Welsh Heroic Age. The greater part
of Britain had been under the Romans for more than three centuries,
though some considerable time elapsed between their retirement and
the beginning of the Heroic Age. But it is to be noted that the
characters who figure in heroic poetry belong partly to the west but
chiefly to the north, i.e. to those parts of the country which had
been less Romanised than the rest. Moreover Welsh tradition traced
the ancestry of the most important western families to a certain
Cunedda who, according to a statement in the Historia Brittonum which
most historians seem disposed to accept, had come from a region in
the north beyond the Wall about--or very shortly before--the time
when the Romans evacuated Britain. The chief northern families also
belonged, at least mainly, to districts which appear to have been
abandoned by the Romans early in the third century, and which had
probably never been effectively occupied. Dumbarton, their principal
stronghold, lay far from the frontier of the later province--indeed
on the extreme edge of the earlier frontier. All the evidence at our
disposal therefore indicates that the Heroic Age was not a product of
the Romanised part of Britain but of those communities which remained
more or less independent, more especially in the region beyond the
northern frontier. At the same time it cannot be denied that even these
districts must have been greatly affected by Roman influence--probably
in much the same way and to at least the same degree as the Teutonic
peoples adjacent to the Roman frontiers on the Continent. There is
little doubt too that the inhabitants of these districts served as
mercenary soldiers[648]. The conditions then appear to have been very
similar to those of the Teutonic Heroic Age. First we find Roman
influence, doubtless both civil and military, affecting the communities
beyond the frontier. Then, on the fall of the Roman power, these
communities, or rather their princes, step in and take possession of
part of the province. The chief difference between the two cases is
that here the new rulers were of the same nationality and spoke the
same language as the previous inhabitants.

The origin of the earlier Servian Heroic Age presents in some
respects rather an interesting parallel to the case we have just
been considering. Like the northern Britons the Servians occupied
territories which had formerly been within the frontiers of the Roman
Empire. Their possession of these territories was recognised by the
emperor Heraclius (610-640) not long after their settlement; and from
this time onwards they were governed by a number of petty princes of
their own in a state of semi-dependence, often merely nominal, on the
Greek Empire for about six centuries. During the whole of this period,
except perhaps for a few short intervals, when they were subject to the
Bulgarians, they were constantly exposed to the influence of Greek
civilisation. It is probable too that they were frequently employed in
war by the Greek emperors, first against the Avars and later against
the Magyars. On the death of Manuel I (1180), when the Empire rapidly
went to ruin, Stefan Nemanja united the various principalities and
formed a powerful Servian state. His work was continued and extended
by several of his successors, especially by Uroš I (1242-1276) and
Dušan (1331-1356), the latter of whom brought nearly the whole of
the Balkan peninsula under his rule. Here again therefore, as in the
Teutonic and Cumbrian Heroic Ages, we have the case of a semi-civilised
and 'juvenile' nation exposed for a long period to the influence of a
civilised but decaying empire. Again too, when the older power gives
way, the younger nation asserts itself and takes possession of its
neighbour's territories. In this respect however the affinities of the
Servian state are rather with the kingdoms of the Ostrogoths in Italy
or the Franks in Gaul than with the Cumbrian Welsh; for the latter
apparently never succeeded in establishing a united state--at least not
until their territories had been greatly diminished.

The history of the later Servian (Bosnian) Heroic Age was of a very
different kind. After the Turkish conquest (1459 in Servia proper,
somewhat later in the west) a large proportion of the inhabitants
embraced Islam. From this time onwards their condition was somewhat
comparable with that of their ancestors under the Greeks, though they
were in much closer subjection to the suzerain power than the latter
had ever been. Moreover, though they enjoyed a certain amount of
prosperity during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when the
Turkish empire was at the height of its power, they never again formed
an independent state. There can be no question that during the whole of
this period the Mohammedan Servians were exposed to foreign influence,
probably to a greater extent than any of the cases with which we have
dealt above. But this influence was of a very different character from
the others and little calculated to produce emancipation, whether
intellectual or otherwise. In estimating the value of the resemblances
which their heroic poetry shows to the types discussed above account
must be taken of the consideration that much has doubtless been
inherited--not merely in metre and phraseology--from that of the
earlier period.

In dealing with the Gauls we are placed at a disadvantage through not
knowing when the Heroic Age began. But all that we do know of their
early history bears a most striking resemblance to the Heroic Age of
the Teutonic peoples. Our first trustworthy references to the Gauls
(Κελτοί) go back to the fifth century, at which time they appear to
have occupied France and some parts at least of western Germany. It is
commonly held also that they had already penetrated into Spain; and
there can be no doubt that by this time a considerable part of the
British Isles was in the possession of Celtic peoples. By the beginning
of the fourth century, if not earlier, they had effected settlements
in the plain of northern Italy, from whence military expeditions
frequently made their way far into the peninsula. In the latter part of
the same century we hear of Gauls in the Eastern Alps, probably in the
basin of the Danube. Early in the following century Gaulish armies were
making expeditions throughout the greater part of the Balkan peninsula
and even into Greece, while one force effected a settlement in Asia
Minor.

There is no evidence that any civilised power had acquired even a
nominal authority over the Gauls before their subjugation by the
Romans. But it is quite clear that for many centuries they had felt
the influence of the Etruscan and Greek civilisations, more especially
the former. Linguistic evidence is not available here, since we know
nothing of the Etruscan language and little of the Gaulish. But the
fact is placed beyond doubt by the large variety of articles of
Etruscan origin or Etruscan types, which have been found throughout
the territories of the Gauls and even in more northern regions. The
evidence seems to indicate that the influence of this civilisation was
comparable with that exercised in later times by Roman civilisation
on the Teutonic peoples. Unfortunately however we have no historical
record of those movements which first brought the Gauls into southern
Europe. All that can be said with certainty is that in the earliest
times for which we have trustworthy evidence they appear usually as
auxiliaries or mercenaries in the service of the Etruscans. Sometimes
also they were employed by the Greeks, Carthaginians and Samnites.
And it was not only the Gauls settled in Italy who were used in this
way. Occasionally we hear also of Transalpine Gauls or 'Gaisatoi,'
who came to their assistance. Polybius (II 22) states that the latter
name means 'mercenaries' (διὰ τὸ μισθοῦ στρατεύειν); and even if
his interpretation is incorrect, it is significant enough of the
opinion generally entertained as to the character of these warriors.
Evidence to the same effect is afforded by the consideration that in
the fourth and third centuries at least half of Europe (exclusive of
Russia) appears to have been under Celtic rule, while some five or six
centuries later Celtic nationality had vanished almost everywhere. Such
phenomena are scarcely explicable unless the Celtic conquests were
largely in the nature of military occupations, like those of the Goths,
Visigoths and Vandals in later times.

We have left the Greek Heroic Age until the end because in this case
historical information is wanting. Here also it is clear that a high
civilisation had existed in a portion of the area then occupied by
the Achaeans; and there can be no doubt that the latter were deeply
affected thereby. The difficulty lies in determining the relationship
of the Achaeans to this civilisation. Prof. Ridgeway's theory on the
question has already been discussed. At the same time however it was
mentioned that there are other scholars who hold that the Achaeans
themselves were partly responsible for this civilisation. Some believe
that the prehistoric civilisation of Crete was non-Achaean until
its fall, and yet claim an Achaean origin for the fortresses on the
mainland (Mycenae, Tiryns, etc.)[649], while others attribute to the
Achaeans not only the buildings on the mainland but also the later
palaces in Crete[650]. It is recognised by the advocates of this latter
view that a different type of civilisation appears in other--more
western--districts which have at least as good a claim to be regarded
as Achaean lands. The explanation given is that the more primitive
pottery and less elaborate buildings of these districts are true
products of Achaean art and handicraft, while the remains found at
Mycenae and elsewhere are due to native, or rather Cretan, craftsmen
and builders, who worked for Achaean lords.

Both these explanations are open, as we have seen, to the serious
objection that they fail to account for the differences between Homeric
and Mycenean (Late Minoan) civilisation. It has been observed that in
regard to armature the affinities of the former lie apparently rather
with the Warrior Vase (cf. p. 185), which belongs to a later period
than the true Mycenean age. All indications favour the view that this
type of armature is derived from that of the Shardina rather than
from earlier Mycenean or Cretan types. Again, I do not see that the
presence of vases of 'Late Minoan II' style in the tombs found at
Kakovatos--which is identified with the Homeric Pylos--can fairly be
held to prove that these tombs date from that period[651]; for, when
the manufacture of such vases had ceased they may very well have been
preserved as precious heirlooms for a considerable time. Nor can it be
said with certainty that these tombs date from the Achaean period[652],
or at all events from the last days of it[653]. The evidence of the
pottery[654] found in the ruins of the citadel seems rather to suggest
that this site was inhabited at a later date than the tombs[655].

In the Homeric poems we certainly find the Achaeans in possession of
the chief centres of the prehistoric civilisation both in Crete and on
the mainland. Mycenae itself is represented as the principal seat of
the most important of the Achaean dynasties. But the poems themselves
do not tell us by whom these places had been founded--though the origin
of Troy does seem to be known. If we are right in believing that only
the stratum represented by the Warrior Vase and the Stele corresponds
truly to the conditions depicted in the poems, it is a probable
inference that the Achaeans came into possession of Mycenae at a very
late period in its history. In that case the presence of Agamemnon in
this city would be a phenomenon somewhat parallel to that of Theodric
(Dietrich von Bern) in Ravenna. In later times, it is true, we meet
with stories according to which Tiryns and Mycenae were founded by
Proitos and Perseus, though it is not made clear whether these persons
were regarded as Achaeans. But have we any reason for believing that
such stories are more trustworthy than the medieval traditions which
attribute the foundation of famous Roman buildings to Dietrich von
Bern? In view of the parallel cases, both Teutonic and other, which we
have discussed in earlier chapters, it seems to me a highly improbable
hypothesis that the men of the Greek Heroic Age had long been in
possession of an advanced civilisation--still more that they had
themselves initiated the construction of great palace-fortresses such
as those of Tiryns and Mycenae.

The problem which we are considering has been complicated by the
prevalent assumption that the Achaeans were the first Greek-speaking
inhabitants of the land--an assumption which seems to me to be
incompatible with the evidence of linguistic geography. The objections
noted above to the Achaean origin of Mycenean civilisation would not
apply with the same force to the hypothesis that this civilisation had
been taken over from an earlier branch of the Greek race, represented
perhaps in later times by the Arcadians and Ionians. For such an
explanation a certain parallel might be found in the occupation of the
(Roman) cities in Britain by British chiefs from the north and west
(cf. p. 446 f.). But in this case, if we wish to press the analogy,
we must bear in mind that the civilisation of the British cities was
not of native origin but superimposed on the country by invaders from
overseas. It is by no means impossible that such may have been the
case also in Greece. Yet on the whole the complete break between the
prehistoric civilisation and that of historical times must be regarded
as an argument--not conclusive of course but weighty--against any
form of the theory that the possessors of the former were of Greek
nationality.

It may be convenient now to recapitulate briefly the various points
at issue. In the first place account must be taken of the undoubted
existence of the prehistoric civilisation, regarding the character of
which evidence is still gradually accumulating. Further, it is scarcely
open to question that the Achaeans were brought into contact with
that civilisation in some form or other, though almost all scholars
are agreed that it did not originate with them. The chief questions
which remain to be settled are (i) whether the civilisation was
native or introduced from abroad (Crete or elsewhere), (ii) whether
its possessors were Greeks or non-Greeks, (iii) whether its monuments
were constructed under Achaean domination or before the centres of
civilisation fell into Achaean hands. The first of these questions can
only be settled by a thorough examination of the various sites, such
as is now being conducted[656]. All that can be said as yet is that
the buildings in several cases show work belonging to more than one
period. It is now believed that the earlier parts of the fortresses
at Tiryns and Mycenae go back at least to the beginning of 'Late
Minoan' times, i.e. probably to the sixteenth century. On the second
question something has been said above. But until further evidence is
forthcoming a dogmatic expression of opinion would be out of place.
With regard to the third it appears to me that such evidence as we
have favours Prof. Ridgeway's view, viz. that the Achaeans came into
contact with this civilisation only at its fall. In that case moreover
the Greek Heroic Age will fall into line with all the other Heroic Ages
which we have discussed above.

Lastly, it seems to me of essential importance that the relationship
of the Achaeans to the 'sea-peoples,' more especially the Shardina,
should not be overlooked. We cannot with certainty determine whether
or not the Achaeans were actually descended from the Shardina. But the
resemblance between the two in regard to armature scarcely leaves room
for doubt that the one had at least come greatly under the influence
of the other. Consequently, whatever may be thought as to the proposed
identification of the Akaiuasha (cf. p. 188 f.), it is highly probable
that the ancestors of the Achaeans had once been associated with the
'sea-peoples[657].'

We have seen that among the Teutonic peoples, as also among the Gauls
and elsewhere, mercenary service was a factor of supreme importance
in the development of those features which give to the Heroic Age
its distinctive character. Now it is as mercenary soldiers that the
'sea-peoples' come before our notice from the time when they are first
mentioned down to their disappearance. We know from the Tell-el-Amarna
tablets that Shardina had entered the Egyptian service in the reign
of Amenhotep IV or his predecessor, i.e. in the first half of the
fourteenth century. Later we find them fighting under both Rameses
II and Rameses III. The references therefore extend over a period of
nearly two centuries. Nor was it only to the Egyptians that they lent
their services. The army of the Hittites encountered by Rameses II at
Kadesh is said to have contained Shardina, and warriors of the same
stock were present in the Libyan army defeated by Merenptah.

With the Shardina we usually find a number of other peoples
associated[658]; and there is no reason for doubting that these were
employed in the same way. Reference may be made to the description
of the allies of the Hittites in the Poem of Pentaur, where this is
expressed quite clearly[659]. The Pulesatha also represented on the
monuments of Rameses III are evidently well-disciplined professional
soldiers.

There can be no question then that professional military service, very
frequently in the employment of foreign nations, was the vocation of
those bands of warriors whom we have to regard as the predecessors
of the Achaeans of the Heroic Age. But we can scarcely suppose that
this mercenary service first began in regions so distant as Egypt. It
has been mentioned above that the earliest reference to Shardina in
the Egyptian service goes back to a time when the Cretan palaces were
probably still standing (cf. p. 184). If so and if, as is commonly
believed, the absence of fortifications in Crete was due to the
possession of a thalassocracy by its rulers, we must conclude that
these rulers permitted the early expeditions of the 'sea-peoples.'
That can scarcely mean anything else than that the Shardina and their
confederates were first employed as mercenaries by the Cretans
themselves[660]. In that case the relations of these peoples with the
civilised states of the Aegean were in all probability very similar to
those of the Teutonic peoples with Rome before and after the fall of
the Western Empire.

The ultimate origin of the Shardina and their confederates is
a question which as yet can hardly be regarded as ripe for
discussion[661]. Later discoveries may show that they were the
inhabitants of the western or northern parts of Greece; or on the other
hand they may confirm the view that these peoples had come in part from
the western Mediterranean. All that can be said at present is that some
of these peoples--the Pulesatha type--appear to have long been settled
in the Aegean area[662] and that the resemblances and differences
between these and the Shardina are of such a kind as to suggest that
the two were peoples racially distinct[663], yet living in adjacent
regions and following a similar mode of life, at least so far as the
military element is concerned. On the whole the balance of probability
seems at present to be in favour of the following propositions: (1)
that the Shardina element was intrusive; (2) that its true home is
to be looked for rather in the north than in the west[664]; (3) that
its presence or influence in the Greek world is not unconnected with
that series of national movements which introduced Thraco-Phrygian
populations into Asia Minor[665].

It is by no means impossible that the Shardina were the direct
ancestors of the Achaeans. On the other hand they may have belonged
to an earlier wave of Greek invasion. Or again they may have been
a non-Greek (perhaps Thraco-Phrygian) people whose relations with
the Achaeans were rather in the nature of influence, however deeply
this may have penetrated. That the Achaeans also were an essentially
military people is shown by the tone of Homeric poetry throughout and
by the story of the Iliad as a whole, as well as by many incidental
passages in the Odyssey. We have good reason too for believing that
their occupation was in the nature of a military rather than a tribal
settlement. That is shown not only by the social and political
conditions reflected in the Homeric poems[666] but also by the
fact that, except in two comparatively unimportant districts, they
disappeared after the Heroic Age as completely as the Ostrogoths.

* * * * *

The course of our investigations has led us to conclude that there is
no reason for regarding the Greek Heroic Age as an exception to the
general rule applying to such phenomena. Neither here nor in any other
case are we justified in believing that the Heroic Age was a native
outgrowth from an ancient and highly developed civilisation. It does
not appear that a Heroic Age can arise from such conditions, any more
than from conditions which may properly be called primitive. In four of
the six cases which we have considered--and we need scarcely hesitate
to reckon the Greek case as a fifth--the Heroic Age can be traced
back to a similar series of causes. Firstly, we find a long period
of 'education,' in which a semi-civilised people has been profoundly
affected from without by the influence of a civilised people. Then a
time has come in which the semi-civilised people has attained to a
dominant position and possessed itself, at least to some extent, of
its neighbour's property. The phenomena which we have recognised as
characteristic of the Heroic Age appear to be the effects produced upon
the semi-civilised people by these conditions.

For the exceptional case--that of the Mohammedan Servians--a special
explanation has been suggested. Whether this explanation be correct
or not, I do not mean to assert that the Heroic Age is universally
due to the same conditions. They can scarcely hold good for the Irish
Heroic Age; and outside Europe also there are cases, e.g. among the
Bantu peoples, of societies which may be called 'heroic' and yet would
probably require a different explanation. All such cases doubtless
postulate conditions so far advanced as to permit the existence of
a class of persons who have the opportunity and the ambition to
assert their individuality among and above their compatriots. To deal
adequately with these cases however would require a greater amount of
ethnological knowledge than I possess. I have ventured above to suggest
that 'Mars and the Muses' are necessary for the formation of a Heroic
Age. But beyond this I will not attempt to formulate a definition of
the elements which constitute a Heroic Age in general. My object has
been to call attention to certain common characteristics exhibited by a
limited number of epochs in European history.

The various Heroic Ages of Europe are usually connected with
considerable movements of population. There is some reason for
suspecting that this may be true even of the Irish Heroic Age. But such
movements do not necessarily produce a Heroic Age. We have no evidence
for the existence of a Heroic Age resulting from the great movement
of the Slavs into eastern Germany during the fifth and following
centuries[667]. Presumably the antecedent conditions were wanting.
So also with the Dorians. It was only the wreckage of the old Aegean
civilisation with which they were brought into contact. The days of
mercenary service too, with all its civilising and at the same time
denationalising influence, had apparently passed away long before they
came to the front.

The general direction taken by these movements--though here the Irish
case is an exception--was towards the culture lands of the south--i.e.
the direction taken by movements of population was the opposite of
that taken by movements of culture. The effect of the movements which
took place in the Teutonic Heroic Age was to produce a series of
inclined or tilted strata of population over a large part of Europe.
Thus the Franks formed a ruling aristocracy in Gaul; but the subjects
(_coloni_, _lati_) of the Old Saxons were in all probability largely of
Frankish blood. Again, the Vandals in Africa were the wealthiest and
most luxurious community known to Procopius[668]. Yet in Genseric's
time (cf. p. 369) there still remained a Vandal population in the old
home of the nation, of which all traces had disappeared within the
next century. Presumably they had been overwhelmed by the surrounding
peoples. Similar phenomena are to be found among the Goths and other
Teutonic peoples, and in earlier times among the Gauls and Greeks. In
the latter case we may cite as an instance the Cynurioi (on the east
coast of the Peloponnesos), who were believed to be Ionians, though
they had been absorbed by the Dorians of Argos. The fact therefore that
we hear of no people called Achaeans in Epeiros cannot be held to prove
that the Achaeans had never inhabited that region.

We hear sometimes from legends of national migrations caused by
insufficiency of food. Historical records seem to show that such
movements were more frequently due to pressure from neighbouring
peoples. But it is greatly to be doubted whether these movements
usually involved a total displacement of population. Cases like that
of the Vandals indeed indicate that frequently the more enterprising
part of the community were the first to move and that the chief impulse
came from the attractions offered by the chance of living upon the
fruits of others' labour, whether in the form of plunder or tribute.
So far as our records go back, we find among the Teutonic peoples, as
among the Gauls and the early Greeks, a numerous class who prefer the
military life to the labour involved in agriculture. Indeed one of the
most remarkable features of the Teutonic Heroic Age--and probably of
the Gaulish also[669]--is the ease with which immense hosts of warriors
could be gathered for an enterprise of plunder or conquest. It is
certain that these hosts were frequently drawn from far and wide. If
the national kings would not embark on such enterprises their subjects
were ready to embrace the service of neighbouring princes, or even that
of distant or alien nations, such as the Romans. It is the existence of
this military element which in various epochs of European history and
under similar cultural conditions has produced the phenomena comprised
under the term 'Heroic Age.' For the special characteristics however to
which we have called attention above--emancipation from primitive ideas
and absence of national feeling--the explanation is to be found in
contact with civilised communities, especially in the form of mercenary
service. The military life further had the effect of making the kings
regard themselves primarily as commanders of armies. It was for their
warriors that consideration was required rather than for the tillers of
the soil, who were largely of alien nationality.

When this is realised it becomes easy to understand the instability of
heroic society. The military followers of a peace-loving king, unless
he was very wealthy and generous, were liable to drift away, while the
bulk of the population counted for nothing. In the absence of any truly
national organisation or national feeling all depended on the personal
qualities of the leaders. Under Theodric the Ostrogoths were the chief
power in Europe; but within thirty years of his death they disappear
and are not heard of again. Under Dušan the Servians seemed destined
to absorb all that was left of the Greek empire; after his death they
failed to offer any effective resistance to the Turks. The kingdoms
of the Greek Heroic Age seem to have succumbed to much less formidable
antagonists. So numerous indeed are cases of this kind that one is
perhaps justified in regarding national disaster as the normal ending
of such epochs.

* * * * *

The Heroic Age, both Greek and Teutonic, presents us with the picture
of a society largely free from restraint of any kind. In the higher
ranks tribal law has ceased to maintain its force; and its decay leaves
the individual free from obligations both to the kindred and to the
community. He may disregard the bonds of kinship even to the extent of
taking a kinsman's life; and he recognises no authority beyond that of
the lord whose service he has entered. The same freedom is exhibited in
his attitude to the deities.

It is of course in princes that we find these features most strongly
developed. That which they prize above all else is the ability to
indulge their desires to the full--in feasting and every form of
enjoyment for themselves, in unlimited generosity to their friends, in
ferocious vindictiveness towards their foes. The hero of the Odyssey,
when his opportunity arrives, sets no limit to the vengeance which he
exacts, from prince, goatherd and maidservant. Achilles, the chief hero
of the Iliad, is transformed into a savage when he gets possession of
the dead body of his enemy. His story furnishes a fitting parallel
to that of Alboin, whose brutal conduct brought upon him so swift a
retribution. And it is to be remembered that this Alboin's generosity
was a theme of poetry from Italy to England.

The best side of heroic kingship may be seen in such a character as
Hrothgar. His conception of the duties of a national ruler may have
been of a somewhat elementary character. But it is rather as the
head of a large household that we have to regard him; and as such
he commands our esteem. Even in the Merovingian family--we may cite
Gregory's description (III 25) of Theodberht--there were princes who
won the respect of Roman ecclesiastics. In the courts of such princes
the conditions of life were probably as good as at any time for many
centuries later. We have no reason for supposing that the case was
otherwise in the Heroic Age of Greece.

But above all we have to remember the heroic poems. It is not
reasonable to regard the Anglo-Saxon poems, much less the Homeric
poems, as products of barbarism. The courts which gave birth to such
poetry must have appropriated to a considerable extent the culture,
as well as the wealth and luxury, of earlier civilisations. It is to
be remarked however that the hold which these poems have exercised
on subsequent ages, in very different stages of culture, is due not
only to their artistic qualities but also to the absorbing interest
of the situations which they depict. This interest arises very
largely from the extraordinary freedom from restraint enjoyed by the
characters in the gratification of their feelings and desires and
from the tremendous and sudden vicissitudes of fortune to which they
are exposed. The pictures presented to us are those of persons by no
means ignorant of the pleasures and even the refinements of civilised
life, yet dominated by the pride and passions which spring from an
entirely reckless individualism and untrained by experience to exercise
moderation. According to the view put forward above the explanation of
such features is to be found not so much in any peculiarly fertile gift
of imagination by which the conventional court poetry of these periods
was inspired, but rather in the circumstances of the times and in the
character of the courts which produced that poetry.

FOOTNOTES:

[637] Cremation may have a common origin in the two cases; but this
practice appears to have been introduced into the North at least
fifteen centuries before the Heroic Age. It has been suggested that the
origin of the practice may be found in the late neolithic settlements
in the district of the Dniestr and Dniepr--dating probably from the
latter part of the third millennium (cf. Meyer, _Geschichte des
Altertums_², I § 537). Evidence however is now accumulating to the
effect that cremation was practised in Crete in Early Minoan times.

[638] _The Early Age of Greece_, Vol. I, Ch. IV and passim, together
with a number of articles which have appeared in various publications.

[639] I mention this point only because Prof. Ridgeway lays stress upon
it. I do not myself regard the use of iron weapons as an essential
characteristic of the Heroic Age. The evidence seems to me to indicate
that such weapons came into use only towards the close of the period
(cf. p. 199 ff.).

[640] By this term I mean 'belonging to communities which spoke Celtic
languages.' It is only fair to add that Prof. Ridgeway appears to have
racial (physical), rather than linguistic, characteristics in view. But
I am not clear whether he means to include among his 'Celts' peoples
who used other than Celtic languages.

[641] What I mean by the term 'Homeric civilisation' will probably be
clear from Chapters X and XI. I cannot admit that a satisfactory case
has been made out for believing the civilisation of the Heroic Age to
have differed widely from that of the poets' own times. The excavations
at Cnossos have brought to light the existence (in 'Late Minoan' times)
of a highly organised bureaucratic system, for which analogies enough
are to be found in Egyptian records of the same period. But the poems
themselves do not give the slightest hint of acquaintance with such a
system. The absence of striking inconsistencies which has been remarked
above (p. 241) is unintelligible unless the civilisation with which
the poets themselves were acquainted--presumably in Aeolis--was a more
or less direct continuation of that of the Heroic Age. Such changes as
had taken place were in general probably of a retrograde character,
in spite of the growing use of iron and possibly also of riding. But
there is no ground, so far as I can see, for supposing that the Homeric
poems are records of the people and events of a highly civilised age
preserved by the traditions of a semi-barbaric society.

[642] Both in Ionia and Cyprus there were of course cities which,
according to tradition, had been founded by Achaean colonists. But the
Greek population as a whole made no such claim in either case. For
Cyprus cf. Herodotus VII 90.

[643] Aristotle (_Meteorolog._ I 14. 21 f.) applies the term Ἑλλὰς ἡ
ἀρχαία to the country round Dodona and the Acheloos; but it is commonly
held that in this he was following a late Molossian story relating to
Dodona, rather than a genuine tradition. Yet the part played by the
Acheron in Greek religion and poetry (cf. p. 422) suggests that this
region was at one time traditionally regarded by a portion of the Greek
race as its homeland.

[644] A different view is taken by Prof. Meyer (_Gesch. d. Alt._², I §
473, note) who accepts the statement of the Lydian historian Xanthos
(quoted by Strabo, XIV 5. 29; cf. XII 8. 3) that the Phrygian invasion
took place μετὰ τὰ Τρωικά. He holds that this statement is confirmed
by a passage in Proclus' epitome of the Telegony (cf. Kinkel, _Epic.
Gr. Fragm._, p. 57), where the Thesprotoi are represented as being at
war with the Brygoi. But the latter are clearly the Brygoi of Albania;
and there is nothing in the context to suggest that the Phrygians (of
Asia) were believed to be still with their kinsfolk in the west. It
seems to me that the statement of a fifth century writer, who is known
only from fragments, requires stronger confirmation than this before
it can be accepted as evidence for the chronological relationship
of events which took place some seven centuries before his time.
Especially is this the case when such a statement is directly opposed
to several passages in the Iliad, which clearly recognise the presence
of the Phrygians in Asia. In view of the fact that the queen (Hecabe)
is said to be a Phrygian it is scarcely safe to assume that these
elements are unessential or late additions to the story. But, more than
this, Xanthos' account itself does not appear to be free from Homeric
influence. The names Βερεκύντων and Ἀσκανίας may possibly be derived
from Phrygian tradition--perhaps ultimately from the same source as
Il. II 862 f.--but the leader's name (Σκαμάνδριος) is not only Homeric
but obviously a derivative of Σκαμάνδρος, the name of a river in the
Troad. It may be observed that a hero of the same name (Hector's son)
figures in a somewhat similar story recorded by Strabo elsewhere (XIII
1. 52); and for my part I see no reason for attaching more importance
to Xanthos' account than to this. The expression ἐκ ... τῶν ἀριστερῶν
τοῦ Πόντου clearly suggests that he had confused the tradition of the
Phrygian invasion with certain much later movements (of the Bithynians,
Thynoi, etc.), some of which do seem to have proceeded from the
quarter indicated. On the other hand all the evidence which we have
(cf. Herodotus, VII 73 and VIII 138, and the position of the Brygoi in
historical times) points to the western part of the Balkan peninsula as
the original home of the Phrygians.

As to the nationality of the Trojans themselves--the Homeric
Trojans--Prof. Meyer does not appear to have expressed an opinion.
The question will doubtless be discussed in the next volume of his
work. His theory however would seem to involve that any historical
events which may underlie the story of the Iliad must be referred at
least to the thirteenth century; for the date which he gives for the
Phrygian invasion is about, or shortly after, 1200. Here again however
I cannot help thinking that the evidence is far from conclusive. There
may very well be a connection between the fall of the Hittite kingdom,
which apparently did take place about this time, and the invasion
encountered by Rameses III (cf. p. 188). But I am by no means clear
why it is necessary to conclude that the Phrygian invasion immediately
preceded these events. If the Masa and Dardenui of the Poem of Pentaur
are rightly identified with the Mysians and Dardanoi we shall probably
have to date the earliest settlements at least a century before this
time. As for the Dardanoi--who apparently were regarded as the parent
stock of the Homeric Trojans (cf. Il. XX 215 ff.)--I see no reason for
doubting their European origin any more than that of the Phrygians
(Brygoi) and the Mysians (Moisoi), whose neighbours they were both in
Asia and in the Balkans. But at the same time there seems to me to be
equally little reason for referring the events on which the Iliad is
based to times anterior to the eleventh century.

[645] Under such conditions the nearest approach to the heroic spirit
is afforded by athletic contests. Such contests have at times produced
what we may call 'heroic' poetry of Stage I (cf. p. 94). But the motive
for further elaboration of the stories is wanting.

[646] In the folk-tale--at least in some forms of it--the hero's
arrival in the cave is involuntary.

[647] In this chapter I am using the word 'Roman' in a very wide sense,
viz. for the civilisation of the Empire as a whole. Both the material
objects and the influence of which I am speaking came doubtless rather
from the provinces than from Italy itself. In many cases it would
probably be more correct to use the term 'Romanised Celtic'; cf. _The
Origin of the English Nation_, p. 189 ff., though I think now that
I was mistaken here in doubting the importance of (strictly) Roman
influence upon the Angli--especially in military matters.

[648] It appears from the Notitia Dignitatum that troops of Attacotti
were largely employed by the Romans on the Continent at the beginning
of the fifth century. According to St Jerome (_Adv. Iouinianum_, II 7)
the Attacotti were a British people; and they are mentioned by Ammianus
Marcellinus (XXVI 4. 5; XXVII 8. 5) as ravaging the province of
Britain, together with the Picts and Scots, in the reign of Valentinian
I. It is commonly held that they belonged to the south of Scotland,
though opinions differ as to whether they were Britons (properly
speaking) or Picts of Galloway.

[649] This appears to be the view taken by Prof. Meyer (_Gesch. d.
Alt._², I pp. 701, 719 f.). The problem will no doubt be discussed more
fully in his next volume. Here I need only mention that the recent
discoveries of wall-paintings at Tiryns and elsewhere seem to me to
weigh rather heavily against the view that the inhabitants of these
buildings were of a totally different nationality from the 'Minoan'
Cretans. It is gradually becoming clear also that--contrary to what
had been supposed at first--the use of writing was not unknown on the
mainland; cf. Evans, _Scripta Minoa_, I p. 56 ff.

[650] Cf. especially Dörpfeld, _Ath. Mitteilungen_, XXXII 600 ff.

[651] Cf. Dörpfeld, _Ath. Mitt._, XXXII vi ff. Dr Dörpfeld however
holds (_ib._, p. 595 ff.) that 'Late Minoan II' and 'Late Minoan
III' were contemporaneous and assigns both styles to a period (B.C.
1400-1100) considerably later than English archaeologists will allow
for the former.

[652] One of the chief arguments for this view is that the tombs show
traces of cremation. But account must be taken of the possibility that
they may have belonged to an earlier (Arcadian?) stratum of Greek
population.

[653] Cf. Dawkins, _Journ. Hell. St._, XXVII 296, where it is suggested
that the tomb first explored may have belonged possibly to the
ancestors of Nestor.

[654] The great majority of the sherds found in the ruins of the
citadel were of that monochrome type which has been met with elsewhere
on the west coast of Greece (Leucas, Olympia, etc.) and which Dr
Dörpfeld regards as the native pottery of the Achaeans; cf. _Ath.
Mitt._, XXXII xv f. Some sherds of the same type were found in the
tombs together with the remains of Mycenean vases. Only six fragments
of Mycenean pottery were found in the citadel.

[655] This explanation is rejected by Dr Dörpfeld (_Ath. Mitt._, XXXIII
316); but there does not appear to be any definite evidence that the
citadel was destroyed soon after the construction of the tombs.

[656] The general effect of recent discoveries has been to bring out
a closer resemblance between the Cretan and mainland deposits than
had hitherto been suspected (cf. Evans, _Scripta Minoa_, I p. 55 f.).
The affinities too are by no means confined to portable objects. In
particular note should be taken of the wall-paintings at Thebes and
elsewhere--more especially those recently discovered at Tiryns, which
belong to two distinct periods (cf. Rodenwaldt, _Ath. Mitt._, XXXVI
198 ff.). The resemblance of these to similar paintings from Crete is
very marked, yet perhaps scarcely sufficient as yet to prove that the
possessors of Tiryns were of Cretan origin.

[657] For the Aegean connections of the sea-peoples see p. 190 f.
Account is also to be taken of the deposits found in the foreign
settlements at Gurob and elsewhere in the Fayum, to which belonged the
tomb of An-Tursha ('Pillar of the Tursha or Thuirsha'). These deposits
cover a period of about two centuries, from the reign of Amenhotep
III to that of Sety II or slightly later--a period corresponding
practically to that in which we find historical references to the
sea-peoples. They contained many stirrup-vases and other objects of
Aegean origin. A peculiar custom which prevailed here was that of
burning a man's personal effects--presumably at death--in a hole cut in
the floor of the house. No human remains were found in these holes, the
bodies being buried in cemeteries according to Egyptian fashion; but
it has been suggested that the practice may have been due to a former
custom of cremation (cf. Petrie, _Illahun, Kahun and Gurob_, p. 16 ff.).

[658] When Shardina alone are mentioned account must of course be
taken of the possibility that this name is representative of a class.
The Egyptian mercenaries, like those of the Hittites and Libyans,
may really have been drawn from a number of similar peoples who were
collectively known under the name which had first become familiar in
Egypt.

[659] Cf. the quotation given above, p. 247, note 6.

[660] I am not aware that representations of Shardina have yet been
found in Crete. Note must be taken however of the porcelain fragment
found in the third shaft-grave at Mycenae (cf. p. 191, note 4). The
date of these shaft-graves can scarcely be much later than that of
the destruction of the palace at Cnossos. Indeed it appears to be the
prevalent view at present that they date from 'Late Minoan I,' i.e.
before the palace-period; cf. Forsdyke, _Journ. Hell. St._, XXXI 116,
Hall, _ib._, 119. If this is correct the porcelain fragment must of
course be much older than the earliest Egyptian references to the
Shardina.

[661] The use of the word _ḳrn·t_ in the great Karnak inscription of
Merenptah has given rise to much disagreement among Egyptologists.
Prof. Breasted (_Ancient Records, Egypt_, III p. 247 note) understands
from it that the Shardina and their confederates were circumcised. But
the allusion is clearly to something which differentiated these peoples
from the Libyans. The Libyans themselves however are believed to have
practised circumcision (cf. Meyer, _Gesch. d. Alt._², I § 167).

[662] Cf. pp. 190 (note 2), 247. For further references see Hall,
_Journ. Hell. St._, XXXI 119 ff. In particular note should be taken
of the fact that the feather head-dress is worn by Ionian or Carian
mercenaries on a monument of Sennacherib (_ib._, p. 122 f.). Sir A.
J. Evans (_op. cit._, pp. 24 ff., 285 ff.) attributes the Phaistos
disk--on which this type of head-dress first occurs--to the south-west
of Asia Minor. In this connection however it is perhaps worth calling
to mind that according to Thucydides (I 4, 8; cf. Herodotus, I 171)
the Cyclades also were originally inhabited by Carians. The reference
is perhaps properly to the Leleges, a people who may have been nearly
related to the Lycians.

[663] The Pulesatha are represented as beardless, whereas many of
the Shardina wear beards. More important however is the difference
in physiognomy between the two types. It has been observed that the
Pulesatha approximate very closely to the Greek type of classical times.

[664] Attempts have been made to find traces of the Shardina in the
'nuraghi' of Sardinia and the burial-places adjacent to them; but, so
far as I am aware, no definite evidence in favour of this connection
has yet been obtained beyond the fact that a number of statuettes
with horned helmets have been found in the island. The chief argument
against the western origin of the Shardina is the absence of evidence,
either in history or tradition, for movements of population or even
for cultural influence from this quarter--at least until Roman
times--whereas evidence is abundant not only for cultural influence in
the reverse direction but also for settlements both of 'Illyrians' and
Greeks in Italy. On the other hand it is perhaps worth noting that a
helmet somewhat similar to that of the Shardina survived in historical
times among the Thracians (cf. Herodotus VII 76). Further, from Il.
XIII 576 f. we may probably infer that the Thracian peoples had early
become famous for the manufacture of weapons. Influence from this
quarter may have made its way into Greece by more than one channel.
But it should be observed that Homeric poetry shows some acquaintance
with the districts to the north of Epeiros and Thessaly. In particular
note should be taken of certain personal names derived from names of
peoples in this region, e.g. Πελάγων, Ὀρέστης, Θυέστης. It is perhaps
not without significance that the two latter of these occur in the most
important of the Achaean families, while the antiquity of the last is
guaranteed by the aspirate (as against Δυέσται).

[665] The extent of these movements may be estimated by the number
of names which occur both in the Balkan peninsula and on the east
side of the Aegean, e.g. _Brygoi_ (_Phryges_), _Dardanoi_, _Moisoi_
(_Mysoi_), _Mygdones_, _Sintoi_ (_Sinties_), _Pelasgoi_; and it is not
to be overlooked that on the European side most of these names occur
in the basins of the Axios and Strymon or the region between them.
Attention should be paid also to the common element in place-names,
more especially to those (e.g. Πέργαμος) which occur in the islands
(Crete, etc.) as well as in the two areas under discussion; for they
seem to indicate that the movements from the Balkan peninsula were not
confined to the Asiatic mainland. Even in Asia Minor itself however
the Thraco-Phrygian movements may at first have affected a much larger
area than that in which languages of this type survived in historical
times. Herodotus (I 171) states that on the ground of common ancestry
the Carians allowed Lydians and Mysians to use the temple at Mylasa--a
privilege which they did not concede to other peoples, even to those
who spoke the same language as themselves. This passage is usually
interpreted as pointing to a traditional religious federation of the
indigenous peoples. But it is a serious objection to this view that
the Mysians were clearly of European origin. If the Lydian and Carian
languages were non-Indo-European, as is commonly believed, they may
have been taken over from indigenous peoples such as the Caunioi,
whose language was similar to that of the Carians and who seem to
have been among the peoples excluded from the temple at Mylasa. The
possibility that the Carian language belonged originally to the Caunioi
is suggested by Herodotus himself.

[666] In particular note may be taken of the absence of national names
for the populations of several of the most important kingdoms; cf. p.
389, note.

[667] It may be observed also that some seven centuries elapsed between
the settlement of the Servians on the lower Danube and the beginning of
their (first) Heroic Age. This latter period was of course accompanied
by an extension of the area occupied by the Servians, though the newly
won territories were subsequently lost through the Turkish conquest.

[668] _Vand._ II 6: ἐθνῶν γὰρ ἁπάντων ὧν ἴσμεν ἡμεῖς ἁβρότατον μὲν τὸ
τῶν Βανδίλων.... βαλανείοις τε οἱ ξύμπαντες ἐπεχρῶντο ἐς ἡμέραν ἑκάστην
καὶ τραπέζῃ ἅπασιν εὐθηνούσῃ, ὅσα δὴ γῆ τε καὶ θάλασσα ἥδιστά τε καὶ
ἄριστα φέρει. ἐχρυσοφόρουν δὲ ὡς ἐπὶ πλεῖστον, καὶ Μηδικὴν ἐσθῆτα, ἣν
νῦν Σηρικὴν καλοῦσιν, ἀμπεχόμενοι.... καὶ ᾤκηντο μὲν αὐτῶν οἱ πολλοὶ
ἐν παραδείσοις, ὑδάτων καὶ δένδρων εὖ ἔχουσι, κ.τ.λ.

[669] We may compare the force led by Agamemnon against Troy and the
great mixed host encountered by Rameses III (cf. p. 188).

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

Page 19 ff. For further information the reader may be referred to Miss
Clarke's _Sidelights on Teutonic History during the Migration Period_
(Cambridge, 1911), which contains a very clear and interesting account
of the various characters mentioned in the heroic poems.

* * * * *

Page 43, ll. 5-7. This suggestion can hardly be maintained. The true
name of Theodberht's son was probably Theodwald.

* * * * *

Page 46, l. 3 ff. The consideration of this difficult question has
recently been somewhat facilitated by Richter's _Chronologische Studien
zur ags. Literatur_ (Halle, 1910). The general effect of Dr Richter's
investigations is to confirm the view put forward by Prof. Sarazzin
(_Engl. Stud._, XVIII 170 ff.) as to the antiquity of Genesis A.
Unfortunately I fear that the statistics are not complete and, further,
that the evidence is not always treated with strict impartiality.
Thus in Beowulf such half-verses as _to widan feore_ are regarded as
proofs of shortening (through loss of _h_) and reckoned in the final
statistics (pp. 9, 85); but in Genesis A the metrically equivalent _on
fyore lifde_ is not so reckoned (pp. 24, 89). The half-verse _geseon
meahton_ is cited in Beowulf without qualification (p. 15), but in
Exodus as doubtful (p. 18). In Beowulf _-wundor seon_ is taken to be
-×- (pp. 13, 15), but in Daniel A it is treated as doubtful (p. 32).
Dr Richter's conclusion that Genesis A is an earlier poem than Beowulf
is certainly not substantiated by the treatment of _feore_ or of
postconsonantal _r_, _l_, _m_, _n_[670], or again by that of _frea_,
_don_, _gan_, _sie_[670]; while compounds such as _þreanyd_ obviously
do not stand on the same footing as case-forms like _þrea_. It is only
in the treatment of intervocalic _h_ that Genesis A apparently shows
a more archaic character than Beowulf. In the former poem Dr Richter
cites only one case of contraction (p. 28), and even this is doubtful;
but the same remark applies to at least 18 of the 24 (genuine) cases
which he cites for Beowulf (p. 15). Out of the five or six probable
cases of contraction in this poem three occur in practically the same
phrase--_in_ (_on_, _to_) _sele þam hean_--while two of the others
occur in consecutive verses (910 f.). The conclusion to which the
evidence seems to me to point is that both Genesis A and Beowulf (even
in its Christianised form) date from the seventh century, but that the
former has been somewhat better preserved than the latter. As Genesis A
is doubtless of monastic origin, we may reasonably expect that it was
committed to writing at an earlier date. In the intervening period the
text of Beowulf may have suffered many changes (such as the insertion
of the article) at the hands of minstrels.

The further question raised by Prof. Sarazzin (_op. cit._, p. 192 ff.)
as to the relationship of Genesis A to Caedmon cannot be discussed
here. But in view of the evidence brought forward I do think it
would be worth while to examine and compare the characteristics of
the various 'Caedmonic' poems from all points of view. Apart from
the extremely improbable dating of certain sound-changes proposed by
Prof. Morsbach (cf. p. 66 ff. above) and accepted both by Sarazzin
and Richter, I see no reason for supposing that Caedmon's poems have
entirely perished.

* * * * *

Page 61, l. 4 ff. Throughout this book I have followed the view
generally held by scholars in the past that the expression _geongum
cempan_ in Beow. 2044 refers to Ingeld. In recent years several
scholars have adopted a different interpretation, viz. that it means
not the prince himself but a nameless member of his retinue. This
interpretation is due primarily to v. 2061 f., where it has been
assumed, somewhat hastily in my opinion, (1) that _se oðer_ must
denote the slayer and (2) that Ingeld's own country is the scene
of the tragedy. On the basis of this interpretation Prof. Olrik
(_Danmarks Heltedigtning_, II p. 30 ff., especially p. 37 ff.) has
now put forward a theory that the episode in Beowulf has little more
than the names in common with Saxo's story of Ingellus' revenge, and
that the latter is in its main features the creation of a Danish poet
of Harold Bluetooth's time. His explanation is certainly interesting
and ingenious; but at the same time it appears to me to be open to
serious objections. Thus he has to admit (p. 39) that in the only
other reference to the bridal tragedy ('bryllupskampen') contained
in the poem (v. 82 ff.) the scene is laid in the Danish king's hall.
His explanation is that here we have a variant form of the story (cf.
Widsith, v. 45 ff), emanating from a different poet. But surely one
cannot place much confidence in an interpretation which involves the
assumption of such an inconsistency as this[671]. Still more important
is the reference to Ingeld (_Hinieldus_) in Alcuin's letter to Hygebald
(cf. p. 41), which Prof. Olrik seems to have entirely ignored. From
this passage it would seem that Ingeld's fame was as great in England
in the eighth century as it ever became in Denmark; and such fame
is scarcely compatible with the passive rôle assigned to him by the
theory under discussion. But, more than this, have we any ground for
supposing that Alcuin did not exercise his judgment in taking Ingeld
as his example of a _perditus rex_? If the story of Ingeld known to
him was substantially identical with that recorded by Saxo, as I
myself believe, he could hardly have found a case in which Christian
and heathen obligations presented a more glaring contrast. To the
heathen this hero appealed as the pious son who exacts vengeance for
his father's death; but to the Christian he was doubly abhorrent, not
merely as a heathen but also as a murderer and a truce-breaker.

Like other heroic stories recorded by Saxo and Icelandic authors the
story of Ingellus has without doubt a long poetic history behind it.
Prof. Olrik's investigations have rendered it probable that an element
in this poetry dates from the tenth century. It may be that the poem
used by Saxo was actually composed--or recast--at that time. But I must
confess to some scepticism as to the possibility of determining with
certainty what proportion of the material is to be assigned to the
various periods intermediate between the sixth and twelfth centuries;
and I am disposed to think that in general Prof. Olrik has underrated
the significance of the earlier elements.

* * * * *

Page 64, l. 6. It should have been mentioned that the expression "to
persons born after 800" applies only to the period extending down to
975. I have not examined the evidence available for later times. About
this time a new factor is introduced by the revival of interest in
heroic poetry.

I would also call attention to the fact that the statistics are
confined to historical documents and do not include names (of moneyers)
found only on coins. My impression from a perusal of the material
collected in Mr Searle's _Onomasticon Anglo-Saxonicum_ is that this
element will not appreciably affect the statistics.

* * * * *

Page 75, l. 26 ff. Reference should have been given to the Exeter
Gnomic Verses, 89 ff.

* * * * *

Page 110. On the subject discussed at the beginning of this chapter the
reader is referred to Heusler, _S.-B. d. Akad. zu Berlin_, 1909, p. 937
ff., and Van Gennep, _La Formation des Légendes_. The definitions given
above may not be entirely satisfactory--mention should perhaps have
been made of the 'Ortssage'--but they will probably be found sufficient
for the purpose of this book.

* * * * *

Page 116 ff. On this subject reference should be made to Panzer,
_Studien zur germ. Sagengeschichte_, I _Beowulf_, which contains
a careful and detailed examination of the Märchen in question.
Unfortunately I have not been able to use this work, as it did not
come into my hands until the first eight chapters of my book were in
print. In regard to those points on which I have chiefly laid stress,
viz. that Beowulf is to be identified with Biarki and that he appears
to be a historical character, Prof. Panzer's views (pp. 368 ff., 390
ff.) are practically identical with those expressed above. On the
other hand he holds that the story of Biarki--the portion dealing with
his origin, as well as the adventure at Leire--comes from the same
folk-tale as the story of Beowulf and Grendel. His theory as a whole
gives rise to important questions regarding the origin and distribution
of folk-tales, which cannot be discussed here. Thus I should like to
know how far the same folk-tale can arise independently in different
regions. Again, the Märchen with which he deals seem to me to be highly
composite structures, which I should be inclined to regard rather
as aggregations of folk-tales. This is true more especially of the
elements common to the stories of Beowulf, Grettir and Ormr, the close
affinities of which have been brought into a much clearer light by
Prof. Panzer's researches. It may be that the elaborate story which
underlies all three was treated in poetry at an early date; but I see
no more reason now than before for believing that the two Icelandic
stories have been affected by any poem dealing with Beowulf himself.

* * * * *

Page 117 f. It is perhaps worth noting that Ormr Stórolfsson was
related to Grettir, both being descended from Hængr, the great-grandson
of that Ketill Hængr of Hrafnista whose story is largely taken up with
adventures with trolls and iötnar.

* * * * *

Page 124. For the death of Frotho III the reader may be referred to
Olrik, _Danmarks Heltedigtning_, II p. 239 ff.; and for the connection
between this character and the _Beaw_ of the genealogies to (_ib._)
p. 249 ff. As stated above (p. 126, note) I should prefer the form
_Beowa_, for earlier _Biowi_ (as _Aella_ for earlier _Aelli_; cf. p.
64). The latter form may be connected with _Byggvir_.

* * * * *

Page 139 ff. On the Nibelungenlied reference may be made to Prof.
Röthe's article _Nibelungias und Waltharius_ (_S.-B. d. Akad. zu
Berlin_, 1909, p. 649).

* * * * *

Page 161, l. 1 f. The references to Sarus (accidentally omitted here)
are Olympiodoros, p. 449 (ed. Niebuhr), Jordanes, _Romana_, § 321
(_Mon. Germ., Auct. Ant._ V 41).

* * * * *

Page 180, l. 20 ff. It has rightly been pointed out to me by Mr C.
A. Scutt that, if the statement attributed by Herodotus (VI 3) to
Demaratos is to be trusted, the average length of a generation in
the Spartan royal families may reasonably be expected to be somewhat
longer than elsewhere. Yet in point of fact this is not borne out by
the evidence available for the historical period (from the fifth to the
third centuries), nor yet by that of the genealogies for the period
between Theopompos and Cleomenes, if the commonly accepted date for the
first Messenian war is correct.

* * * * *

Page 185, l. 20 ff. Recent discoveries have rendered it probable that
cremation was practised in Crete in very early times. Up to now however
all the evidence apparently comes from the Early Minoan period, so
that the point upon which Dr Mackenzie lays stress remains practically
unaffected.

* * * * *

Page 190, l. 2 ff. I regret that when this was written I had not
observed that Prof. Meyer accepts the statement of Xanthos with regard
to the Phrygian invasion. On this question see p. 437, note 2.

* * * * *

Page 198, l. 27 ff. On this subject reference may be made to Shewan,
_The Lay of Dolon_, which appeared too late for me to be able to make
use of it.

* * * * *

Page 244, note 2. A different view is taken by Allen, _Jour. Hell. St._
XXX 312 ff., where a full discussion of the Trojan Catalogue--as also
of the Achaean Catalogue (_ib._, p. 292 ff.)--will be found. Mr Allen's
conclusions differ greatly from the views expressed above.

* * * * *

Page 265, note 3. In the poem Hyndlulióð (cf. p. 12) the genealogy
of Óttarr the son of Innsteinn is traced back to a certain Svanr
hinn rauði. The same genealogy occurs in the document _Hversu Noregr
bygðist_ (published in the Fornaldar Sögur Norðrlanda, II p. 6 in Dr
Valdimar Asmundarson's edition); and here Svanr hinn rauði is said
to be the son of Finnálfr by Svanhildr the daughter of Day (_Dagr
Dellingsson_) and the Sun (_Sól, dóttir Mundilfara_). This document
however belongs to a very late period--the close of the fourteenth
century--and I know of no earlier authority for the first part of the
genealogy.

* * * * *

Page 285, note 1, l. 4. For "I p. 687" read "I ii p. 687," and
similarly in all subsequent references to the second edition of Prof.
Meyer's _Geschichte des Altertums_.

* * * * *

Page 313, note 1. For "Pasić" read "Pavić" (and so also in the notes on
the following pages).

FOOTNOTES:

[670] As shown by Dr Richter's lists (pp. 9 ff., 24 ff. and 13 ff., 27
f.).

[671] So far as I can see the only argument for this inconsistency
which Prof. Olrik brings forward is the statement (Vol. I, p. 16;
cf. Vol. II, p. 38, note 1, and p. 39, note 1) that the fight at the
marriage precedes Beowulf's visit to the king's hall. This however
seems to mean that the present tense, which is used throughout the
episode (nearly a score of examples), must be taken as a historic
present--a construction which is rarely or never found elsewhere in
Anglo-Saxon heroic poetry. In Beowulf only one instance (v. 1879) is
cited by Nader (_Anglia_, X 547), and this is clearly erroneous. A
possible case does occur in v. 1923 (_wunað_); but most recent editors
either emend (to _wunade_) or regard the passage as a speech.

INDEX

Achaia 174, 282, 289.

Achaioi (Achaeans) 176 f., etc., (in Crete) 177 f., 186 f.

Achilles 175, 222, 250, 263 f., 269, 275 ff., 288 f., 295 f., 462.

Aðils (cf. Eadgils) 17, 20, 31, 153 f.

Aelfwine (see Alboin).

Aeolic element in Homeric poems 208, 215, 273, 290 f.

Aeolic peoples, etc. 209, 272 ff., 295 f.

Aeolis 210 f., 227, 231 ff., 240.

Aeschylus 171, 237 ff.

Agamemnon (i) of Cyme 227, 231.

Agamemnon (ii) of Mycenae 174, 222, 237 ff., 274 ff., 288 f.,
302, 382 ff.

Aias (i), son of Oileus 175, 302.

Aias (ii), son of Telamon 175, 202, 204, 302 f.

Aithiopis 170, 197, 236, 244.

Alboin 26, 28, 462.

Alcinoos 384.

Alcman 215, 222, 266.

Alcuin 41, 73, 79 f., 465.

Aldhelm 80.

Áli (cf. Onela) 20, 153 f.

alliances 373 f., 387 ff.

Amalaswintha 371 f.

Ammianus Marcellinus 23, 366.

Amyclai 240, 302.

Angli 31 f., 51, 61, 97 f., 376, 405.

Ansgar 255 f.

Aphrodite 416 ff.

Apollo 250 f., 416 ff.

Arcadian 284 f., 287, 436 f., 453.

Archilochos 194, 216, 226 f.

Ares 416 ff.

Argo 196, 245, 261.

Argos 274 ff.

Artemis 416.

Ásgarðr 400.

Asia Minor (ethnography of) 178, 245 ff.

assembly 368 f., 382 f.

Athene 250 f., 416 ff.

Athens 171, 216 ff., 381, 421.

Atli (cf. Attila) 13 f., 22, 146 f.

Attila 22, 37 f., 84 f., 156.

Audoin 371.

Balder 112, 400 f., 405.

Bavarian characters 31, 33.

Bede 71, 73, 79, 350, 414 f.

Bellerophon 212, 356 f., 380.

Beowulf 1 f., 47 ff., etc.

Bernlef 80, 87, 222, 243.

Biarkamál 17, 60, 121, 402.

Biarki 119 ff., 466.

birds (speaking) 98, 128.

Bithynians 245 f.

boasting 326 f.

Boeotia 214, 283 f.

Bosnian poetry 101 ff., 216, 429.

Bragi 15, 58.

Bravalla (Brávík) 25, 251.

bronze and iron 195, 199 f.

Brunanburh (poem) 3, 34, 332.

Brynhildr 7, 13 f., 140 ff., 163 ff.

Burgundians 7, 22, 31, 351, 366.

Cadmos 267.

Caedmon 45 f., 79, 230, 465.

Caesar 413, 427 ff.

Callinos 171, 226 f.

Caria, Carians 179, 245 ff.

Cassiodorus 26, 85, 374.

Catalogue (Hesiodic) 194, 197 f., 227, 242.

Catalogue of Ships 174, 279, 289, 379, 387 f., 468.

Chalon-sur-Saône 162.

chariot 203 f.

Charles Martel 127 f.

Chios 176, 209.

Christian influence in Anglo-Saxon poems 47 ff., 241.

Cilices 246 ff.

Cinaithon 170.

Circe 258 f., 419.

class gradations 351 f., 364 f.

Cleisthenes 193.

Clovis 31, 85, 347.

Clytaimnestra 229, 237 f.

Cnossos 178, 311.

comitatus 328 f., 348, 350, 361 ff., 376 f., 443.

council 369 ff., 383 ff.

cremation 53 ff., 397 f., 410 f., 422 f., 467.

Crete 177 f., 184 ff., 311 ff., 435, 450 ff., 467.

Cumbrian history 108 f., 430, 446 f.

Cyme 214.

Cynewulf (i), poet 45.

Cynewulf (ii), king of Wessex 349, 351.

Cynurioi 460.

Cypria 170, 197, 234 ff., 244, 248.

Cyzicos 196.

Danes 1 f., 15, 17, 20 f., 24 f., 29, 31, etc.

Danish heroes 1 f., 17, 20, 31, etc.

Demodocos 221, 234.

Deor 3, 56, 81, 92.

Dietrich von Bern (cf. Theodric) 5, 7 ff., 23, 154 f., 311 f.,
333, 452.

Diomedeia 250 f.

Diomedes 175, 278, 379 f., 419.

divine parentage 264, 357.

divinity of kings 367, 381 f.

Dodona 417, 437.

Doloneia 198 f., 298.

Dorians 174, 178 f., 184, 186 f., 459.

dragons 122 ff.

Dušan 430, 448, 461.

Eadgils (i) 2, 27, 32, 56, 81.

Eadgils (ii) (cf. Aðils) 2, 20, 153.

Eastgota (see Ostrogotha).

Edda (Older) 10 ff., 99 f., 232.

Edda (Prose) 15.

Edda theology 394, 400, 404, 406 f.

Edwin 334, 349, 369.

Egill Skallagrímsson 16, 226.

Egypt 184 f., 187 ff., 266, 455.

Einhard 5, 62, 243.

Eireksmál 15, 257.

Ekkehard 6, 57, 162.

Eormenric (Ermenrich) 2 f., 8 ff., 23, 37, 157, 347.

Epeiros 437, 460.

Epigonoi 171.

eponymous heroes 131 f., 267 ff., 301.

Eratosthenes 179.

Eric the Victorious 252 f.

Etruscans 449 f.

Etzel (cf. Atli) 7 f., 22, etc.

Exodus (Anglo-Saxon) 45, 464.

Eyvindr Skaldaspillir 15 f., 91, 254.

family pride 327 f.

festivals 369, 383.

fictitious names 44, 159 ff., 299.

Finn 2, 20, 26, 42, 333.

folk-tales 110 ff., 258 ff., 264 ff., 466 f.

Franks 31, 39, 337, 343, 345 f., 352, 368, 460.

Frey 11, 15, 125, 253, 367, 394 f., 399 ff., 404.

Freyia 11 f., 400, 402.

Fria (cf. Frigg) 115, 408.

Frigg 394, 403, 405.

Frisians 2, 31, 80, 89 f., 370.

Fróði 15, 27, 123 ff., 467.

Gaulish heroic poetry 427 f.

Gaulish history 427 ff., 449 f.

Gautreks Saga 239, 385, 403.

Geatas (Götar) 1 f., 31 f., 35, 119 f., etc.

Gelimer 86, 94.

genealogies, Anglo-Saxon 42, 408 f.

genealogies, Greek 179 ff., 267.

Genesis (Anglo-Saxon) 211, 464.

Genseric 369 f., 460.

Geruthus 258 f.

Glaucos 341.

glory, love of 87 f., 325 f., 329.

glossaries, Anglo-Saxon 68, 70.

Glúmr 253.

Göndul 254, 263.

Gormo 258 ff.

Gothic heroic poetry 10, 62 f., 86 f.

Goths 23, 26, 31 ff., etc.

Grendel 116 f., 121 f., 466.

Grettis Saga 116 f., 467.

Guðrún 13 f., 37, 146 f., 152 f., 156, 163 ff.

Gundobad 22, 338 f.

Gunnarr (see Guthhere)

Gunnlaugs Saga 91 f.

Guntharius, Gunther (see Guthhere).

Guthhere (Gunnarr, Gunther) 6 f., 14, 21 f., 138 f., 141 ff.,
146 f., 163, 165.

Gylfaginning 229.

Haakon, earl of Lade 16, 91, 252 ff., 401 f.

Haakon I, king of Norway 15, 91, 254, 263.

Hades 422 f.

Hadingus 125 f., 260.

Haethcyn 337, 346.

Hagbarðr 17, 27, 333.

Hagena (Högni) (i), 6 f., 14, 137 f., 140 ff., 161 f.

Hagena (Högni) (ii), see Heðinn and Högni.

Hákonarmál 15, 97, 254 f.

Hamðir and Sörli 14, 37, 156 f., 160 f., 333 (cf. Sarus and Ammius).

Haraldr Hilditönn 17, 24 f., 251.

Harold the Fair-haired 15, 91, 296.

Hávamál 11, 229, 397.

heathen elements in Beowulf 52 f.

Hector 269 ff.

Heðinn and Högni 16, 21, 27 f., 112, 135 ff. 333 (cf. Hetel and
Hagen).

Helen 249, 265 ff., 337.

Helios (cattle of) 259.

Hellenic peoples 285 ff.

Hephaistos 416 f.

Hera 416 ff.

Heracleidai, Return of the 174, 180, 331.

Heremod 20, 60, 366.

Herhor 312.

Hermanaricus 10, 19, etc. (cf. Eormenric).

Hermes 416.

Heruli 346, 372 f., 407, 411, 445.

Hesiod 171 f., 194, 210, 214 f., 223, 228 ff., 242.

Hetel and Hagen (cf. Heðinn and Högni) 8 f., 21, etc.

Hildr (Hilde) 8 f., 16, 136 f.

Hildebrandslied 5, 62, 94 f.

Hiörungavágr 252.

Hittites 178, 188 ff., 204 f., 246 f.

Holmryge (cf. Rugii) 21, 28.

Homer's birthplace 179, 208 f.

Homeric armature 185 f., 191, 201 ff.

Homeric civilisation 186 f., 199 ff., 434 ff.

Hornklofi 15, 91.

Hrólfr Kraki 17, 20, 349.

Hrólfs Saga Kraka 120 ff.

Hrothgar 1 f., 20, 83, 119, 354, 368, 462.

Hygd, 372.

Hygelac 1 f., 24, 341, 371 f.

Hyndlulióð 12, 229, 402, 468.

Iason 196.

Iceland 10, 91 ff., 394 f., 398 ff.

Idomeneus 175, 278, 306.

Iliad 169, 174 f., 193 ff., etc.

images 205.

Ingeld (Ingellus, Ingialdr) 17, 36, 41 f., 61, 333, 465 f.

inscriptions, Anglo-Saxon 69, 71, 214.

inscriptions, Greek 209, 217, 280 f.

international interest of heroic poetry 34 ff., 335 f.

international relations 373 ff., 386 ff.

invulnerability 129, 264.

Ionian Isles 175, 274.

Ionic cities 176, 236, 245 f.

Ionic dialects 208 f., 215 ff., 283.

Ionic language of Homeric poems 208, 215 ff., 273.

Iörmunrekr 14, 19, etc. (cf. Eormenric).

Iphigeneia 238 f.

Istros 269 f.

Ithaca 356, 378.

Jómsvíkingar 251.

Jordanes 10, 26, 62, 86 f., 157.

kindred 344 ff., 353 ff., 442 f.

kingship 227 f., 337, 366 ff., 378 ff.

kinsman (slaying of) 346 ff., 359 f.

Kossovo 313, 316 f., 429, 441.

Kraljević Marko 441.

Kriemhild (cf. Guðrún) 7 f., 19, 145 ff., 163 ff.

Kûdrûn 8 f., 16, 19, 34, 135 f.

Langobardi 9, 26, 62, 89, 115, 371 ff.

Langobardic poetry 9 f., 115, 251, 413.

Langres 31, 162.

Lazar 313 ff.

Leire 377, 403.

Leleges 246, 248.

Lesbos 176.

Little Iliad 170, 197, 236.

Ljubović (Beg) 103, 441.

Locrians 269 f., 278, 357.

Loðbrók (Ragnarr) 17, 24, 295 f.

Lokasenna 11, 83, 403.

Loki 11, 403.

Ludwigslied 5, 21, 34.

Lycians 178 f., 212, 356 f.

Lycurgos 334 f.

Maldon (poem) 3, 97.

manes-worship 398 f., 410, 421.

Marcellinus Comes 37.

marriage-customs 98, 205, 358 f.

Menelaos 175, 277, 356, 362.

Merenptah 187, 455.

mercenary service 445 ff., 455 f., 461.

Merovingians 345 f., 367.

Merseburg charms 405, 408 f., 412.

Midas 227.

Miletos 176, 231, 246.

Miloš Obilić 314 f., 317 f.

Mimnermos 332.

Minoan civilisation 184 ff., 451 ff.

Minos 310 ff.

minstrelsy 79 ff., 221 ff.

Murad I 313 ff.

Mycenae 185, 240, 274, 308 f., 435, 450 ff.

Mycenean civilisation 185 ff., 190 ff., 200 ff., 218, 233, 435
ff., 451 f.

Nekyia 197, 229, 257, 260 f.

Nestor 175, 272, 277, 342.

Nibelungenlied 7, 139 ff., 164 f., 224, 233, 393, 467.

Niflungar (Nibelunge) 140 ff.

Niörðr 399 f., 405.

nobility 352, 364.

north-west Greek 281 ff.

Norway 10, 15, 30, 32 f., 59, 91 f., 100, 118 ff., 375, 395,
401, 404, 406 f.

Nostoi 170, 197, 234 ff.

Odoacer 23, 376 f.

Odysseus 175, 258, 273 f., 288 f., 297 ff., 358, 363 f., 419.

Odyssey 169, 175, 193 ff., etc.

Offa (i), king of Angel 4, 17, 26 f., 126, 333, 376.

Offa (ii), king of Mercia 126, 334 f.

officials 352.

Ohthere (Óttarr) 20, 153.

Old Saxons 88 f., 370, 407, 410.

Olympos 232, 416 f.

Onela (cf. Áli) 2, 20, 153 f., 347.

Ongentheo 2, 153, 340.

Orestes 237.

Orms Tháttr Storolfssonar 117 f., 467.

Ostrogotha 10, 21, 26.

Othin 11, 13, 114, 251, 253 ff., 394 ff. (cf. Woden).

Óttarr (i), son of Innsteinn 12, 402, 468.

Óttarr (ii), father of Aðils (see Ohthere).

Paphlagonia 245.

Paris 222, 229, 269 ff.

Patroclos 328 f., 361 f.

patronymics 355.

Paulus Diaconus 25 f., 372 f.

Peisistratos 216, 256.

Pelasgic Argos 274, 278 ff.

Pelasgoi 177, 186, 248, 285 ff.

Penelope 358 f.

Pentaur (Poem of) 247, 455.

Periandros 261, 422.

personal allegiance 348 ff., 361 ff.

personal names (heroic) 42 ff., 64 ff., 231.

Phaeacians 297, 299 f., 384 f.

Phaistos 268, 311.

Phemios 221, 234.

Philistines (see Pulesatha).

Phocis 283.

Phoinix 279, 360 f., 363.

Phthia 279, 286.

Phthiotis 176, 280, 282, 286 f.

place-names (heroic) 43 f.

Poseidon 416 ff.

Polyphemos 258.

Praisos 178, 213.

priests 367, 380.

Priscus 37, 62, 84.

Procopius 86, 97 ff., 128 ff., etc.

Proitos 212, 452.

Pulesatha 188 ff., 455 f.

Pylos 277, 451.

Quedlinburg Annals 6, 9, 23, 37, 80.

Rabenschlacht 8, 23.

Radiger 98, 370 f.

Rameses II 188, 247, 455.

Rameses III 185, 188 f., 455.

Ravenna 23, 452.

Reginsmál, Fáfnismál, Sigrdrífumál 13, 145, 235.

riding 204.

Roman influence 444 ff.

royal marriages 373 f., 386 f.

Rugii 28, 31, 134 (cf. Holmryge).

Russian heroic poetry 104 f.

Salamis 193, 302 f.

sanctuaries 205 f., 400 f., 406 f.

Sarpedon 305, 357.

Sarus (i) 160 f., 377, 467.

Sarus (ii) and Ammius 10, 14, etc. (cf. Hamðir and Sörli).

Saxo Grammaticus 17, 20, 25, etc.

Scheria 379, 384.

Scyld 75, 131 f., 373.

Servian (Christian) heroic poetry 103 f., 313 ff., 429 f.

Servian history 313 ff., 430, 447 ff.

Sety I 204.

Seyfridslied 7, 122, 140 f., 144 f.

Shardina 188 ff., 201, 451, 454 ff.

shield 201 f.

Shield of Heracles 169, 175.

Sidonius Apollinaris 85.

Siegfried 7, 19, 31, 33, 139 ff., 164 (cf. Sigurðr).

Sigarr 17, 21.

Sigmundr (Sigemund) 2, 16, 59 f., 114, 122 ff., 142, 251, 297.

Sigurðr 12 ff., 59, 114, 139 ff., 163 ff., 263 f., 333 (cf.
Siegfried).

Sigurðr Hringr 17, 24 f., 251.

single combats 339 f.

Smyrna 208 ff., 332.

Sparta 179 ff., 184, 331.

Spercheios 206, 279 ff., 287, 417, 419.

spoils 340 f.

stages in history of heroic poetry 94 ff.

Starkaðr 77, 36, 92 f.

Stesichoros 171, 239 f., 266, 310.

Strassburg, battle of 340, 349.

succession 356.

suitors of Penelope 300 f., 363.

Sunilda 10, 160 f. (cf. Svanhildr).

supernatural beings 114 ff., 250 ff.

supernatural properties 128 f., 262.

Svanhildr 14, 16, 37, 157 (cf. Sunilda).

Swedes (Sweon, Svíar) 2, 15, 20, 31, 153 f., 367 ff., 399.

Tacitus 78, 349, 368 f., 413.

Tchakaray (Zakar) 188 f.

Telemachos 242 f.

Tell-el-Amarna 188, 192, 455.

Thebais 171.

Theodberht 23 f., 462.

Theodric 3, 19, 23, 25, 29 ff, 154 f., 373, 461 (cf. Dietrich
von Bern).

Thersites 228.

Theseus 266.

Thessaly 232, 269 ff.

Thetis 264, 418 f.

Thiðreks Saga af Bern 9, 57, 134, 138 f., 145 f.

Thióðolfr 15, 91.

Thor 11, 253, 394 ff., 404.

Thórgerðr Hölgabrúðr 252, 401 f.

Thorkillus 258 f.

Thraco-Phrygian peoples 178 f., 190, 457 f.

Thucydides 286, 293, 308 ff.

Tiryns 452, 454.

tragic poets 171 f.

tribal heroes 267 ff.

Troy (Hissarlik) 200, 294 f., 309.

Tyrtaios 226, 331.

Uffo 17, 61.

Unferth 159, 347.

Upsala 154, 206, 368, 377, 399 f., 407.

Valhalla (Valhöll) 254, 396 ff., 410 ff.

Valkyries 254, 397, 411 f.

Vandals 31, 86, 115, 369, 371, 445, 460.

Vellekla 16, 254.

Venantius Fortunatus 85.

vengeance 344 f., 353.

Vidigoia 27, 62 (cf. Widia).

Viking Age 25, 90 ff., 100, 251 ff., 342, 404, 406 f.

Virgil 74 ff.

Völsunga Saga 16, 145 ff., 164, 251.

Völundarkviða 12, 132, 134 f.

Völuspá 11, 229.

Waldhere (Waltharius) 2, 6, 38 f., 57 f., 137 ff., 151 f., 161
f., 333, 341, 376 f.

Waltharius (see Waldhere).

Wanderer (poem) 3, 92, 350.

Warni 97 f.

Warrior Vase 185, 191, 451 f.

Weland 3, 9, 12, 132 ff.

Welsh heroic poetry 105 ff.

Weoxtan 20, 159, 329 f., 340, 347, 350.

wergelds 345, 352, 354, 365.

Widia 27, 132, 135 (cf. Vidigoia, Witege, Wudga).

Widsith 2, 20 f., 26, 56, 81, 87 f.

Widsith (name) 43 f.

Wiglaf 159, 328 f., 349.

Willebrord 259.

Witege 8 f., 19, 27, 31, 132, 135 (cf. Widia).

Woden (Wodan) 115, 405, 408 ff. (cf. Othin).

Wolfdietrich 8, 23, 155.

women in the Heroic Age 337 f., 372.

Worms 6 f., 146.

writing 211 ff.

Wudga 19 f., 27, 331 (cf. Widia).

Xanten 7, 31.

Xanthos 437 f., 467.

Ynglinga Saga 16, 367, 397, 399.

Yngvi 367, 405.

Zakar (see Tchakaray).

Zeus 416 ff.

Zeus Agamemnon 381.

Transcriber's Notes:

Simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors were
silently corrected.

Anachronistic and non-standard spellings retained as printed.

Italics markup is enclosed in _underscores_.

Bold markup is enclosed in =equals=.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Heroic Age" ***

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